Date-22/04/2021.

Chapter -3

-: CURRENT ELECTRICITY:-
Electric Current:-
The time rate of flow of charge through any cross-section is called current.
So if through a cross-section, Q charge passes in time t, then average and instantaneous current are,
Q Q dQ
Iav = and Iinst. = lim =
t t 0 t dt
Q
If charge flow is uniform then, I= .
T
 Current is a scalar quantity because it doesn’t obey the law of vector addition.
 Its S.I. unit is ampere (A) or C/sec.
 The direction of current: The conventional direction of current is taken to be the direction of flow of
positive charge, i.e. along field and is opposite to the direction of flow of negative charge as shown
below.(outside the cell from higher to lower potential and inside the cell from lower to higher potential).

 Current is a scalar quantity, because though conventionally a direction is associated with current
(Opposite to the motion of electron), it is not a vector, the current can be added algebraically. Only scalar
quantities can be added algebraically not the vector quantities.
 Charge on a current carrying conductor: In conductor the current is caused by electron(free
electron). The no. of electron (negative charge) and proton (positive charge) in a conductor is
same.Hence the net charge in a current carrying conductor is zero.
 Current through a conductor of non-uniform cross-section: For a given conductorcurrent does not
change with change in cross-sectional area. In the following figure i1 = i2 = i3.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 1

  Current carriers: The charged particles whose flow in a definite direction constitutes theelectric current
are called current carriers. In different situation current carriers are different.
(i) Solids: In solid conductors like metals current carriers are free electrons.
(ii) Liquids: In liquids current carriers are positive and negative ions.
(iii) Gases: In gases current carriers are ions and free electrons.
(iv) Semiconductor: In semiconductors current carriers are holes and free electrons.
 Current density (J):-. Current density is defined as current per unit area, it is a vector quantity its
I
direction is along the direction of current. J=
A
 
I   J . dA
 Unit and dimension: S.I. unit of Current density J is A/m 2.
 Dimension of J = [L-2A].
 Thermal velocity: in case of absence of an external electric field the free electrons inside a metal moves
randomly with velocity about105 m/s ,so the average initial velocity of free electrons is zero.
i.e. u1+u2+----------------+un =0.
 Mean Free path: The fast moving electrons keep striking other atoms/ions in the conductor. They are
reflected and move in other direction. They keep moving till they strike another ion/atom. The path
between two consecutive collisions is called free path. The average length of these free paths is called
“Mean Free Path”.
 Relaxation Time: The time to travel mean free path is called Relaxation Period or Relaxation Time,
denoted by Greek letter Tau “τ”. If t1, t2, … and tn are the time periods for n collisions then Relaxation
1
Time τ = (t1+t2+ . . .tn).
n

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Drift Velocity:- (Vd )
The average velocity which the free electrons get drifted inside a conductor opposite to the applied
external electric field is called drift velocity.

 
The force acting on each electron F  e E .
 
F eE

The acceleration of each electron is a   .
m m
 -ve sign indicates the direction is opposite to the electric field.
If n electrons are having initial speeds u1, u2,…un and their time to travel free path is t1, t2, …tn then final
velocities are
v1  u1  at1 ,
v2  u2  at2 ,
And vn  un  at n ,

Drift velocity is average of these velocities of charged particles.

(v1  v2      vn )
 vd  .
n
 (u  at1 )  (u 2  at 2 )      (u n  at n ) 
 1 
 n 
 (u  u 2    u n )  a(t1  t 2    t n ) 
 1 
 n 
 u  u      u n   t1  t 2    t n 
 1 2   a 
 n   n 
 0  a

  e E  eV V
vd  a  v d   . [ E  ]
m ml l
Mobility: Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron i.e.
vd e
  
E m
It’s S.I unit is m2/volt –sec.

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Relation between current and drift velocity:-
If suppose for a conductor
n = Number of free electron per unit volume of the conductor
A = Area of cross-section
V = potential difference across the conductor
E = electric field inside the conductor.
i= current, J = current density, = specific resistance, = conductivity =1/

Total no of free electrons present within the conductor N  nAl.

Total charge of these electrons is Q  nAel.
Time taken by the free electrons to cross the length l is
l
t
vd .
Q Qv d neAlv d
We know the current I     neAvd .
t l l
I
  J  nevd .
A
 
Or J  ne v d .

Q. The number density of free electrons in a copper conductor is 8.5 × 1028 m–3. How long does an
electron take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long to its other end? The area of cross -
section of the wire is 2.0 × 10–6 m2 and it is carrying a current of 3.0 A.

Ohm’s Law.-

According to ohm’s law the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference
across it’s two ends provided the physical conditions like temperature, pressure, mechanical strain etc. remains constant
VαI
Or V = IR,

V
Or R= .
I
Here R is a constant called resistance of the conductor.

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  Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substance which obeys ohm’s law are known as Ohmic substance
for such Ohmic substances graph between V and I is a straight line as shown. At different temperatures
V-I curves are different.
Ex. – metals.
 The device or substances which doesn’t obey ohm’s law e.g. gases, crystal rectifiers, thermo-ionic valve,
transistors etc. are known as non-Ohmic or non-linear conductors. For these V-I curve is not linear as
shown.

Prove of ohm’s law:-

I  neAvd
neAeV eV
We know I [ vd  ].
ml ml
ne AV
2
 .
ml
V l
Or = (m/ne2τ) .
I A
V l
Or = = R. Here,  m/ne2τ.
I A
Vector form of ohm’s law:-
l
V =IR = I =El.
A
Or E = J
E
  Or = J.

Or J =  σρ
 
In vector form J   E.

Resistance: For a conductor if l = length of a conductor A = Area of cross-section of conductor, n = No. of free
electrons per unit volume in conductor,
= relaxation time then,

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 Resistance of conductor
l m l
R  2 .
A ne  A
Where = resistivity of the material of conductor
 Unit and dimension: S.I. unit of resistance is Volt/Amp. Or Ohm ().
Dimension of R = ML T A . 2 3 2

 Resistance of a conductor depends upon nature of the material, temp. and dimension ( length and area
of cross-section)
Conductance (G): Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance G = 1/R
It’s unit is -1 or “Siemen”.
Dependence of resistance : Resistance of a conductor depends on the following factors.

(i) Length of the conductor: Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to it’s length
i.e. R l, when A and ρ are constant.
e.g. a conducting wire having resistance R is cut in n equal parts. So resistance of each part will be R/n
.
(ii) Area of cross-section of the conductor: Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area
of cross-section
i.e. R when l and ρ are constant.
(iii). Temperature: -If R0 = resistance of conductor at 0oC
Rt= resistance of conductor at toC and , = temperature co-efficient of resistance (unit per o C),
then
Rt  R0 (1  t  t 2 ) for t  300 0 C and Rt  R0 (1  t ) for t  300 0 C.
Rt  R0
Or   .
R0t
R1 1  t1
 If R1 and R2 are the resistance at t10C and t20C respectively then,  .
R2 1   t 2
 The value of α is different at different temperature. Temperature co-efficient of resistance average over
the temperature range t10C and t20C is given by:
R  R1
 2 .
R1 (t 2  t1 )
 R2  R1[1   (t2  t1 )], This formula gives an approximate value.
Question -The resistance of the platinum wire of a platinum resistance thermometer at the ice point is 5 Ω,
and at steam point is 5.23 Ω. When the thermometer is inserted in a hot bath, the resistance of the
platinum wire is 5.795 Ω. Calculate the temperature of the bath.
Answer:
Here , R0  5, R100  5.23 and Rt  5.795.
Rt  R0
Now, t   100, Rt  R0 (1  t )
R100  R0
5.795  5 0.795
  100   345.650 C.
5.23  5 0.23

Q. At room temperature (27.0 °C) the resistance of a heating element is 100 Ω. What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance is found to be 117 Ω, given that the temperature
coefficient of the material of the resistor is 1.70 × 10 –4 °C–1.
Answer: 10270C.

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Q. A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 Ω at 27.5 °C, and a resistance of 2.7 Ω at 100 °C. Determine the
temperature coefficient of resistivity of silver.

Stretching of Wire. If a conducting wire stretches, it’s length increases, area of cross-section decreases so
resistance increases but volume remain constant. Suppose for a conducting wire before stretching it’s length = l,
area of cross-section = A, radius = r,
Diameter = d, and resistance,
2
l l .l l
R= = =
A A.l vol
or R α l2.
Similarly R α 1/A2, when  and volume remain constant.
Question: A wire of length ‘l’ having resistance ‘R’ stretched to increase its length by 10% .calculate
the % increase in its resistance. Answer: 21%.
Resistivity or Specific Resistance ():-
l
From; R  .If l = 1m, A = 1 m 2then R ρ
A
i.e. Resistivity of a substance may be defined as the resistance offered by unit cube of the
substance.
 Resistivity depends on nature of the substance and temp. it don’t depends on dimension of the
substance.
 The S.I unit of resistivity is Ω-m.
 Temperature: Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals t = 0 (1 + t) 

i.e. resistivity increases with temperature.

 Variation of resistivity with temp. (a)metal (b)Nichrome (c) semiconductor (d) superconductor. 





 ρ (insulator) >ρ(alloy) >ρ(semi-conductor) >ρ(conductor).
 Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity ( ) i.e 1/ρ.
The S.I unit of conductivity is Ω-1m-1.

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 Q. A negligibly small current is passed through a wire of length 15 m and uniform cross-section
6.0 × 10–7 m2, and its resistance is measured to be 5.0 Ω. What is the resistivity of the
material at the temperature of the experiment?

Limitations of ohm’s law:-

1. When current flows througha conductor for long time then the
conductor get heated up and its resistance increases so the V
verses I graph become nonlinear.

2. On changing the polarity of a battery the magnitude

of current changes.
Ex:- semiconductor diode.

3. For two different values of V the current remain

same.
Ex:- GaAs

Colour Coding of Resistance:-

 The resistance, having high values is used in different electrical and electronic circuits. They are
generally made up of carbon, like 1 k, 2 k, 5ketc. To know the value of resistance colour code is
used.
 These code are printed in form of set of rings or strips. By
reading the values of colour bands, we can estimate the
value of resistance.
 The carbon resistance has normally four coloured rings A,
B, C and Das shown.
 Colour band A and B indicate the first two significant figures of resistance in ohm, while the C band
gives the decimal multiplier i.e. the number of zeros that follows the two significant figures A and B.
 Last band (D band) indicates the tolerance in percent about the indicated value or in other ward it
represents the percentage accuracy of the indicated value.
 The tolerance in the case of gold is 5% and in silver is 10%. If only three bands are marked on carbon
resistance, then it indicate a tolerance of 20%.

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Combination of resistors:-
 Series combination:-

In series combination current is constant but p.d. divides

V = V1+ V2 + V3 (V = IR)

IRS = IR1 + IR2+ IR3.

OR RS =R1+ R2+ R3.
Powers consumed are in the ratio of their resistance PR P1 :P2:P3 R1: R2: R3.
Equivalent resistance is greater than the maximum value of resistance in the combination.
 When two resistors are connected in series with a battery then,

 R1   R2 
V1    .V and V2    V .
 1
R  R2   1
R  R2 

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 Q. Three resistors 1 Ω, 2 Ω, and 3 Ωare combined in series.
(a) What is the total resistance of the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 12 V and negligible internal resistance, obtain the
potential drop across each resistor.
Q. Two resistors of 2Ω and 3Ω are connected to battery. If the potential difference across 2Ω resistor is 1v,
what is the p.d. of battery?
Parallel combination:-

In parallel combination p.d. remain same for all whereas current divides.
V
I = I1 + I2 +I3. (I = )
R
V V V V
 = + + .
R P R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
 = + + .
RP R1 R2 R3

Same potential difference appeared across each resistance but current distributes in the reverse ratio
1
Of their resistance i.e. I
R
1 1 1
Power consumed are in the reverse ratio of resistance i.e. P1 :P2 : P3 = : : .
R1 R2 R3
When two resistors are connected in parallel then

When two resistors are connected in parallel then the current through individual resistors are :-

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 Q. (a) Three resistors 2 Ω, 4 Ωand 5 Ωare combined in parallel. What is the total resistance of the
combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a battery of emf 20 V and negligible internal resistance,
determine the current through.

Q. Explains the variation of resistivity with temperature in case of (i) conductor (ii)
semiconductor (iii) ionic conductor and (iv) electrolyte.
m
Answer. We know = .
ne 2
(i) Conductor: - In case of conductor on increasing temp. Relaxation time τ
decreases and all other terms remain constant, hence resistivity and resistance
increases or conductivity decreases.
(ii) Semiconductor: - In case of semiconductor on increasing temperature free
electron density increases and all other terms remain same hence resistivity
decreases and conductivity increases.
(iii) Ionic conductor: - in case of ionic conductor on increasing temperature the
inter-ionic force of attraction decreases hence conductivity increases and
resistivity decreases.
(iv) Electrolyte: - in case of electrolyte on increasing temperature the inter-ionic
force of attraction decreases hence conductivity increases and resistivity
decreases.
Cell. -
The device which converts chemical energy into electrical energy is known as electric cell.
 A cell neither creates nor destroys charge but maintains the flow of charge present at various parts of
the circuit by supplying energy needed for their organised motion.
 Cell is a source of constant emf but not constant current.
 Mainly cells are of two types :
(i) Primary cell: Cannot be recharged
(ii) Secondary cell: Can be recharged
 The direction of flow of current inside the cell is from negative to positive electrode while outside the
cell is form positive to negative electrode.
 A cell is said to be ideal, if it has zero internal resistance.

E.m.f of cell. (E): The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in the whole circuit
(Including the cell) is called it’s electromotive force (emf)
W
i.e. emf of cell E  ,
q
It’s unit is volt or J/C.
Or:-The potential difference across the terminals of a cell when it is not given any current is
called it’s emf.

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Potential difference (V) :-

The energy given by the cell in the flow of unit charge in a specific part of electrical circuit (external part) is
called potential difference.

It’s unit is also volt or J/C.

Or. The voltage across the terminals of a cell when it is supplying current to external resistance is called
potential difference or terminal voltage.
i.e. V = iR.

Internal resistance (r) :-

In case of a cell the opposition of electrolyte to the flow of current through it is called internal
resistance of the cell.
The internal resistance of a cell depends on
1. The distance between electrodes (r d).
2. Area of electrodes [r (1/A)] and nature.
3. Concentration of electrolyte (r C).
4. Temperature of electrolyte [r (1/temp.)].
Internal resistance is different for different types of cells and even for a given type of cell it varies from to cell.

Relation between E, V and r:-

When current flows away from +ve terminal and enters through -ve terminal of a cell then the cell is said to be
discharging. so
E
I .
R  r.
 I (R  r)  E
 IR  Ir  E.
 V  Ir  E.
 V  E  Ir . [V  E ]
Internal resistance of the cell (r):-
Ir  E  V .
Vr
  E V .
R
(E  V )R  E 
r    1 R.
V V 
Q. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal resistance 0.5 Ωis being charged by a 120 V dc supply
using a series resistor of 15.5 Ω. What is the terminal voltage of the battery during charging? What is
the purpose of having a series resistor in the charging circuit?
Q. Draw the graphs how V varies with I and R, in case of a cell discharging through R
and having internal resistance r. E
(i) V

(ii).

O R 

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 When current enters through the –ve terminal and current leaves through the +ve terminal then the battery
is said to be charging. In this condition, V = E + Ir, and V > E.
 When no current drawn from the battery or internal resistance of the cell is zero then V = E.

Combination of cells:-

(i) Series combination:-

VAB = VA –VB = E1 – Ir1.

Similarly VBC = VB –VC =E2 – Ir2.

Hence, the potential difference between the terminals A and C of the combination is,
VAC = VA –VC = (VA –VB) + (VB –VC)
= (E1 +E2) – I (r1 +r2).
If we wish to replace the combination by a single cell between A and C of emf Eeq and internal resistance req, we
would have,
Veq  Eeq  req .

Where Eeq  E1  E2   E and req  r1  r2   r

 When out of ‘ m’ number of identical cells of internal resistance’ r’ and emf E,’ n’ no. of cells are
connected in opposite polarity then,
Eeq  m  2n E.

(ii) Parallel combinations of cells:-

Consider two cells of emf E1 and E2 are connected in parallel as shown,

V = VA – VC = E1 – Ir1.
E1  V
Or I1 = --------------- (1)
r1
Or V = VA – VC = E2 – Ir2.

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 E2  V
Or I2 = --------------- (2)
r2
E V E V E E 1 1
I= I1 +I2 = 1 + 2 =( 1 + 2 ) – V( + ).
r1 r2 r1 r2 r1 r2
E r  E 2 r1 r r
=( 1 2 ) –V ( 1 2 ).
r1r2 r1r2
r r E r  E 2 r1
Or V( 1 2 )=( 1 2 )–I
r1r2 r1r2
E r  E 2 r1 rr
=> V=( 1 2 ) - I ( 1 2 ).
r1  r2 r1  r2
.
Or Veq  Eeq  req .

E1r2  E2 r1 r1r2
Where Eeq  and req  .
r1  r2 r1  r2

Eeq E1r2  E2 r1 rr E E
 ( )/ ( 1 2 )  1  2 .
req r1  r2 r1  r2 r1 r2
E E E 
 Eeq   1  2      n   req .
 r1 r2 rn 
Q. The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12 V. If the internal resistance of the battery is
0.4 Ω, what is the maximum current that can be drawn from the battery?
Q. A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance 3 Ωis connected to a resistor. If the current
in the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage
of the battery when the circuit is closed?
KIRCHHOFF’S RULES:-
(1) Kirchhoff’s first law: This law is also known as junction rule or current law (KCL).
According to it the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is zero
i.e. I  0 
In a circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction must equal the sum of the currents
leaving the junction.
 I1  I 3  I 2  I 4

 This law is simply a statement of “conservation of charge” as if current reaching a junction is not equal
to the current leaving the junction, charge will not be conserved.
(2) Kirchhoff’s second law: This law is also known as loop rule or voltage law (KVL) and according to it “the
algebraic sum of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh (closed loop) is zero”, i.e.
V  0 
e.g. In the following closed loop.
(i) This law represents “conservation of energy” as if the sum of potential changes around a closed loop is not
zero, unlimited energy could be gained by repeatedly carrying a charge around a loop.
Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 14
(ii) If there are n meshes in a circuit, the number of independent equations in accordance with loop rule will be
(n – 1).

Sign convention:-for application of Kirchhoff’s law following sign convention are to be

considered.
1) The change in potential in traversing a resistor in the direction of current is –iR while in
the opposite direction +iR.

2) The change in potential in traversing a cell from –ve to +ve terminal is +E and from +ve to
–ve terminal is –E.

q
3) The change in potential in traversing a capacitor from –ve to +ve plate is + and from
C
q
+ve to –ve plate is – .
C

LdI
4) The change in potential in traversing a inductor in the direction of current is –
dt
LdI
while in the opposite direction + .
dt

Question: in the circuit shown in figure, find the current

through the branch BD.

Answer: the current in the circuit are assumed as shown in fig.

Appling KVL along the loop ABDA we get
 6i1  3i2  15  0  2i1  i2  5    (i)
Appling KVL along the loop BCDB we get
 3(i1  i2 )  30  3i2  0  i1  2i2  10    (ii )
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we get i2  5 A.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 15

Method:-2
Let potential at B is V and at D is 0
I1  I 2  I 3 .

O  15  V 0  30  V V  0
Or + = .
6 3 3

Or 15-V + 60- 2V = 2V, or V = 15.

.

15  V 30  V V
Or I1 = =0, I2 = = 5A and I3 = = 5A
6 3 3

Question: - Calculate the current through different

resistors.

Answer:

Applying KVL to the loop (1) and (2)

1
we get 28i1  6  8  i1   A.
2
1
and 54i2  6  12  i2   A.
3
5
Hence i3  i1  i2   A.
6

Question: Calculate the current through 2 Ω resistor when the switch is closed in
fig.

Answer: - Let V is the potential of the junction as

shown in fig.
Applying junction rule we have,
i1  i2  i3
20  V 5  V V  0
  .
2 4 2
 40  2V  5  V  2V .
 5V  45 Or V  9V .
V 9
 i3   4.5 A.
2 2

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 16

ELECTRICAL ENERGY, POWER:-

 Consider a conductor with end points A and B, in which a current I is flowing from A to B. The
electric potential at A and B are denoted by V(A) and V(B) respectively.
 Since current is flowing from A to B, V(A)>V(B) and the potential difference across AB is
V = V(A) – V(B)> 0.
 Let In a time interval t, an amount of charge Q = I t travels from A to B. The potential energy
of the charge at A, by definition, was Q V(A) and similarly at B, it is Q V(B). Thus, change in its
potential energy U is
U = Final potential energy – Initial potential energy
= Q [(V (B) – V (A)] = –Q V
= –I Vt < 0.
 If charges moved without collisions through the conductor, their kinetic energy would also change
so that the total energy is unchanged. Conservation of total energy would then imply that,
K = –U.

That is K = I Vt > 0.

 Thus, in case charges were moving freely through the conductor under the action of electric field,
their kinetic energy would increase as they move.
 We have, however, seen earlier that on the average, charge carriers do not move with acceleration
but with a steady drift velocity. This is because of the collisions with ions and atoms during transit.
 During collisions, the energy gained by the charges thus is shared with the atoms. The atoms
vibrate more vigorously, i.e., the conductor heats up. Thus, in an actual conductor, an amount of
energy dissipated as heat in the conductor during the time interval t is,
W = I Vt
 The energy dissipated per unit time is the power dissipated
P = W/t and we have,
P=I V
Using Ohm’s law V = IR, we get
V2
P =I2R = .
R
 The unit used to measure electrical energy is BOTU (board of tread unit) or unit.
1U = 1000WHr =1 KWHr.
= 1000 3600watt-sec = 3.6 106 J.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 17

Power in series and parallel combination of electric elements:-
(i) Series combination:-
Consider three electric elements (let electric bulbs) of rating (p 1,v),(p2,v )and (p3,v)are connected
in series,
V2 V2 V2
So R1 = , R2 = and R3 = .
P1 P2 P3
V2 V2 V2 V2
We know Rs = R1 + R2 + R3, or = + + .
PS P1 P2 P3
1 1 1 1
Or = + +
p s p1 p 2 p3
(ii) Parallel combination:-
Consider three electric elements (let electric bulbs) of rating (p 1,v),(p2,v )and (p3,v)are connected
in parallel,
V2 V2 V2
So R1 = , R2 = and R3 =
P1 P2 P3
1 1 1 1 PP P P P
We know    Or 2
 12  22  32 .
RP R1 R2 R3 V V V V
Or PP  P1  P2  P3 .

Wheatstone bridge:
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances which can be used to measure one of them in
terms of rest. Here arms AB and BC are called ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate
arms
(i) Balanced bridge :
The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is zero i.e. no current
p
flows through the galvanometer or in other words VB = VD. In the balanced condition 
Q

R
S

On mutually changing the position of cell and galvanometer this condition will not
change.
(ii). Unbalanced bridge: If the bridge is not balanced current will flow from D to B if
VD >VB or vice versa.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 18

 Balanced condition:-

appling K.V.L to the left loop

-I1R1+ 0 +I2R2 = 0 -----------------(I) (Ig =0)
I1R1 =I2R2
R1 I 2
= ------------------(II)
R2 I 1
similarly appling K.V.L to the right loop
-I3R3 +I4R4 + 0 = 0-----------------(III)
I3R3= I4R4.
R3 I 4
= ----------------------------(IV)
R4 I 3
From the fig. it is clear that I1 = I3 and I2 = I4.
R1 R3
So = .This is the balanced condition of Wheatstone bridge.
R2 R4
Application of Wheatstone bridge:- (Meter bridge)

Meter bridge is a device using which we can determine the unknown resistance.
Principle: - Meter Bridge works on the principle of wheatstone bridge.
Let the resistance per unit length
of the wire is ‘r’ .
In balanced condition ,
R lr
= .
S (100  l )r

R l
Or = .
S 100  l
100  l
Or S=( ) R.
l

The resistivity of the material can be determine as ,

D 2 S
S = ρl/A , so ρ =SA /l = .
4l
Question- In a metre bridge the null point is found at a distance of 33.7 cm from A. If now a resistance of 12Ω is
connected in parallel with S, the null point occurs at 51.9 cm. Determine the values of R and S.

Answer. - From the 1st balance point we get,

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 19

 R 33.7
 .    (i )
S 66.3
After S is connected in parallel with a resistor of 12Ω, the resistance across the gap changes from S to S eq
where,
12 S
S eq       (ii )
S  12.
And hence the new balance condition now gives,
51.9 R R( S  12)
         (iii )
48.1 S eq 12S
Substituting the values of R/S from equation (i) we get,

51.9 S  12 33.7
  
48.1 12 67.7
Which gives S=13.5Ω .using the value of R/S above, we get R=6.86Ω.

Q. (a) in a meter bridge, the balance point is found to be at 39.5 cm from the end A, when the resistor Y
is of 12.5 Ω. Determine the resistance of X. Why are the connections between resistors in a
Wheatstone or meter bridge made of thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the bridge above if X and Y are interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and cell are interchanged at the balance point of the bridge?
Would the galvanometer show any current ?

POTENTIOMETER:-
Potentiometer is a device mainly used to measure emf of a given cell and to compare emf
of cells. It is also used to measure internal resistance of a given cell.

(1) Superiority of potentiometer over voltmeter: An ordinary voltmeter cannot measure the emf accurately
because it does draw some current to show the deflection. As per definition of emf, it is the potential
difference when a cell is in open circuit or no current through the cell. Therefore voltmeter can only measure
terminal voltage of a give n cell.
Potentiometer is based on no deflection method. When the potentiometer gives zero deflection, it
does not draw any current from the cell or the circuit i.e. potentiometer is effectively an ideal instrument of
infinite resistance for measuring the potential difference.

(2) Circuit diagram:-

J = Jockey
K = Key
R = Resistance of potentiometer wire,
= Specific resistance of potentiometer
wire.
Rh = Variable resistance which controls the current
through the wire AB.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 20

Principle: - potentiometer is based on the principle that the p.d across any cross-section of the wire directly
depends on the length provided the area of cross-section and current flowing through the wire is
constant.
Working:-
Let the current flowing through the wire is I.
The p.d. across AJ is V = IRAJ. = I l/A = (I/A) l = K l.
I
Where K  is a constant called potential gradient,
A
So V α l.
Where ‘l’ is the length of the wire from A to J.

 Potential gradient may be defined as the p.d per unit length of the wire .the S.I unit of K is V/m

Points to be remember:-

(i) The specific resistance (ρ) of potentiometer wire must be high but its temperature coefficient of
resistance (α) must be low.
(ii) All higher potential points (terminals) of primary and secondary circuits must be connected
together at point A and all lower potential points must be connected to point B or jockey.
(iii) The value of known potential difference must be greater than the value of unknown potential
difference to be measured.
(iv) The potential gradient must remain constant. For this the current in the primary circuit must
remain constant and the jockey must not be slided in contact with the wire.
(v) The diameter of potentiometer wire must be uniform everywhere.

Application of potentiometer:-
(i) Comparison of emf’s of two cell:-

Case:-1
When the switch(c) will be connected with a then current will flow due to the source cell of emf (E) and
secondary the cell of emf E 1 ,
Let the balancing length for E1 is l1,
Hence E1 = k l
Case -2:-
When the switch (c) will be connected with (b) then current will flow due to the source cell (E)
and cell having emf E2
Let the balancing length for E2 is l2,

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 21

 Hence E2 = kl2-------- (ii)
E1 l1
Dividing eqn (i) by eqn ii, = ---------- (iii)
E2 l 2
 In this case the galvanometer will show one side deflection if ,

(i) The emf of the source cell is less than the emf of the cells to be compared.
(ii) And the +ve terminal of all source cell and the cells whose emf to be compare are not
connected to same point.

(ii) Determination of the internal resistance of a primary

cell:-

Case -1 :
1st the balancing length for the emf of the primary cell to be obtained by keeping the key K 2 open, let
the balancing length for E is l1,
Hence E = k l1--------------------- (I)
Case -2:
Now the balancing length for the p.d of the primary cell to be obtained by closing the key K2 let the
balancing length for V is isl2.
Hence V = Kl2 --------------------- (II)
E l1
Dividing eqn-1 / eqn- 2 = .
V l2
E 
We know r    1 R .
V 
l 
r   1  1 R      (iii )
 l2 
Q. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf 1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length of the wire. If
the cell is replaced by another cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm, what is the emf of the second
cell?

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 22

Unbalanced bridge:-

Calculate the equivalent resistance between A and B.

Answer:-

Let the potential at A is 10V, hence the potential at B will be 0V.

Now applying KCL to the junction ‘X’ we have,
I1 = I3+ (I1-I3).
10  X X  Y X  0
   .
2 4 4
 20  2 X  X  Y  X
 4 X  Y  20        (i )

Applying KCL to the junction ‘Y’ we have,

10  Y X  Y Y  0
Similarly   .
4 4 6
 30  3Y  3 X  3Y  2Y  0
 8Y  3 X  30          (ii )
Solving equation (i) and (ii) we have,
X  6.55 V and Y  6.2 V .
Putting these values I1  1.725 A and I 2  0.95 A.

We know I  I1  I 2  1.725  0.95  2.675 A.

V 10
From the equivalent circuit IReq  V  10V  Req    3.74
I 2.675

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 23

Star delta method:

2 4 2 4 4 4
Where R1  . R2   and R3  .
244 244 244

Assignment:-

1. A wire of resistance R is out into n equal parts. These parts are then connected in parallel. The equivalent
resistance of the combination will be:
(a) nR (b) R/n (c) n/R (d) R/n2

2. A cell of emf E is connected across a resistance r. The potential difference between the terminals of the
cell is found to be V. The internal resistance of the cell must be:
(a) 2(E-V)V / r (b) 2(E-V)r / E (c) (E-V)r / V (d) (E-V)r

3. A wire of resistance R is stretched till its radius is half of the original value. Then the resistance of the
stretched wire is:
(a) 2R (b) 4R (c) 8R (d) 16R

4. A wire of resistance R is stretched till its length is double of the original wire. Then the resistanc e of the
stretched wire is:
(a) 2R (b) 4R (c) 8R (d) 16R

5. If a copper wire is stretched to make it 0.1% longer, then the percentage change in resistance is
approximately:
(a) 0.1% (b) 0.2% (c) 0.4% (d) 0.8%

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 24

6. There is a current of 1.344 amp in a copper wire whose area of cross-section normal to the length of the
wire is 1 mm2. If the number of free electrons per cm3 is 8.4x1022, then the drift velocity would be:
(a) 1.0 mm per sec (b) 1.0 metre per sec (c) 0.1 mm per sec (d) 0.01 mm per sec

7. When a resistance of 2 ohm is connected across the terminals of a cell, the current is 0.5 A. When the
resistance is increased to 5 ohm, the current is 0.25 A. The e.m.f. of the cell is:
(a) 1.0 volt (b) 2.0 volt (c) 1.5 volt (d) 2.5 volt

8. The temperature coefficient of resistance of wire is 0.00125 0 C-1. At 300 K, its resistance is 1 Ω. At what
temperature the resistance of the wire will be 2 Ω?
(a) 800 K (b) 1100 K (c) 600 K (d) none of these.

9. The internal resistance of a cell of emf 2 V is 0.1 Ω. It is connected to a resistance of 3.9 . The voltage
across the cell will be:
(a) 0.5 V (b) 1.9 V (c) 1.95 V (d) 2 V

10. The current in a conductor varies with time t as I=2t+3t 2 where I is in ampere and t in seconds. Electric
charge flowing through a section of conductor during t=2 sec to t=3 sec is:
(a) 10 C (b) 24 C (c) 33C (d) 44 C.

11. In a meter bridge with standard resistance of 5 Ω in the left gap, the ratio of balancing of meter bridge
wire is 2:3. The unknown resistance is:
(a) 1 Ω (b) 15 Ω (c) 10 Ω (d) 7.5 Ω

12. The resistance of the series combination of two resistances is S. When they are joined in parallel the total
resistance is P. If S=nP, then the minimum possible value of n is
(a) 4 (b) 3 (c) 2 (d) 1

13. In a potentiometer experiment the balancing with a cell is at a length of 240 cm. On shunting the cell with
a resistance of 2 Ω the balancing length becomes 120 cm. The internal resistance of the cell is:
(a) 4 Ω (b) 2 Ω (c) 1 Ω (d) 0.5 Ω

14. Twelve equal resistors, each of resistance are connected to from a skeleton cube. Then the equivalent
resistance taken between two diagonally opposite corners is:

(a) R (b) 12 R (c) 5R/6 (d) 7R/12.

15 a wire has resistance 12 ohm . it is bent in the form of a circle. The effective resistance between two points
on any diameter of the circle is:

(a) 12Ω (b)24Ω (c)6Ω (d)3Ω.

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer: 1.d 2.c 3.d 4.b 5.b 6.c 7.c 8.b 9.c 10.b

11.d 12.a 13.b 14.c 15.d

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 25

 : Long questions:
1. Define drift velocity, obtain an expression for it.
2. Derive a relation between current and drift velocity.
Or

Derive a relation between current density and drift velocity.

3. State Ohm’s law; write any two limitation of it. With suitable example define Ohmic and non- Ohmic conductor.
4. Obtain a relation for resistivity in terms of relaxation time.
5. Explain the variation of resistivity withy temperature in case of conductor, semiconductor ionic conductor and
electrolyte.
6. Draw graphically how resistivity varies with temperature in case of conductor (metal), semiconductor (silicon or
germanium),alloy( nichrome) and super conductor.
7. Derive an expression for equivalent resistance in (i) series and (ii) parallel combination of resistors.
8. Define emf (E) , potential difference(V) and internal resistance(r) of a cell. Hence derive a relation between them.
Draw a graph how p.d of a discharging cell varies with current and external resistance.
9. Obtain a relation for equivalent emf and internal resistance of two cells connected in
(i) Series and (ii) parallel.
10. What is Wheatstone bridge? Obtain the balanced condition of a Wheatstone bridge.
11. With proper circuit diagram explain how resistance and resistivity of an unknown resistor can be determined using
meter bridge.
12. What is potentiometer, write its principle and hence explain why it is preferable than a voltmeter to measure the emf
of a cell.
13. With circuit diagram explain how the potentiometer can be used to compare the emf of two cells.
14. With circuit diagram explain how the potentiometer can be used to determine the internal resistance of a cell.
15. Derive an expression for equivalent power in (i) series and (II) parallel combination of electric appliances.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 26