Date-04/09/2021.

Chapter –10 Unit-6

: WAVE-OPTICS:
Newton’s corpuscular theory:

➢ Based on Rectilinear propagation of light.

➢ Light propagates in the form of tiny particles called Corpuscles.
➢ Colour of light is due to different size of corpuscles.

Huygens’s wave theory:

➢ Light travels in hypothetical ether medium (high elasticity very low density) as waves.
➢ He proposed that light waves are of longitudinal nature. Later on it was found that
they are transverse.

Maxwell’s EM wave theory:

1
➢ Light travels in the form of EM waves with speed in free space, C = .
 0 0
➢ An EM wave consists of electric and magnetic field oscillation and they do not
require material medium to travel.

Einstein’s quantum theory:

➢ Light is produced, absorbed and propagated as packets of energy called photons.

hc
➢ Energy associated with each photon: E = hf = .

h = planks constant= 6.6 x 10 - 34 Js. f= frequency, = wavelength.

Dual theory of light:

➢ According to de-Broglie, Light propagates both as particles as well as waves.

➢ Wave nature of light dominates when light interacts with light. The particle nature of
light dominates when the light interacts with matter (microscopic particles).

Wave front:

➢ The locus of all particles in a medium, vibrating in the same phase is called Wave
Front.
➢ Suggested by Huygens.
➢ The direction of propagation of light (ray of light) is perpendicular to the WF.

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 1

 Types of wave front:

➢ Spherical wave front: in case of a waves travelling in all directions from a point
source, the wave fronts are spherical in shape as shown.
➢ Cylindrical wave front: when the source of light is linear in shape, the wave front will
be cylindrical as shown.
➢ Plane wave front: in case of point source or line source at infinite distance the shape
of the wave front will be plane as shown

Huygen’s principle:

➢ Every point on the given wave front acts as a source of new disturbance called
secondary wavelets.
➢ The secondary wavelet travels in all directions with the velocity of light in the medium.
➢ A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at
any instant gives the new wave front at that instant. This is called secondary wave front.

❖ Huygen’s geometrical construction for propagation of wave front in a medium:

Note:

➢ No backward wave front is possible: There cannot be backward flow of energy during the
propagation of wave.
➢ Light rays are always normal to the wave front.
➢ The phase difference between various particles on the wave front is zero.

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 Laws of refraction:
(On the basis of Huygen’s wave theory)
Case-1 (When light travels from rarer to denser medium)
➢ We will now use Huygens principle to derive the laws of refraction. Let PP′ represent the
surface separating medium 1 and medium 2, as shown in Fig.
➢ Let v1 and v2 represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively.
➢ We assume a plane wave-front AB propagating in the direction incident on the interface
at an angle i as shown in the figure.
➢ According to Huygen’s principle each and every point on AC acts as the source of
secondary source from which secondary wavelets spreads.
➢ Let τ be the time taken by the wave front to travel the distance BC. Thus, BC = v1

➢ Then, AE = v2 τ and CE would

represent the refracted wave
front. If we now consider the
triangles ABC and AEC, we readily
obtain
BC v1
sin i = = − − − − − − − (i )
AC AC

AE v2
sin r = = − − − − − − − (ii )
AC AC

sin i BC v1 v1 n2
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii): = = = = = n21.
sin r AE v2 v2 n1
This is Snell’s law of refraction.
❖ Again the incident ray refracted ray and normal to the interface lies on same plane hence
laws of refraction proved.
❖ When a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (v1 > v2) the wavelength and the speed
of propagation decrease but the frequency ν (= v/λ) remains the same.
Case-2: (When light travels from denser to rarer medium):

➢ We will now use Huygens principle to derive

the laws of refraction. Let PP′ represent the
surface separating medium 1 and medium
2, as shown in Fig.
➢ Let v1 and v2 represent the speed of light in
medium 1 and medium 2, respectively.
➢ We assume a plane wave-front AB
propagating in the direction incident on the
interface at an angle i as shown in the
figure.

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 ➢ According to Huygen’s principle each and every point on AC acts as the source of
secondary source from which secondary wavelets spreads.
➢ Let τ be the time taken by the wave front to travel the distance BC. Thus,BC = v1 τ
➢ Then, AE = v2 τ and CE would represent the refracted wave front. If we now consider
the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain
BC v1
sin i = = − − − − − − − (i )
AC AC

AE v2
sin r = = − − − − − − − (ii )
AC AC
sin i BC v1 v1 n2
Dividing equation (i) by equation (ii), = = = = = n21.
sin r AE v2 v2 n1
This is Snell’s law of refraction.
❖ Again the incident ray refracted ray and normal to the interface lies on same plane hence
laws of refraction proved.
Laws of reflection:
(On the basis of Huygen’s wave theory)
➢ Consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on a reflecting surface MN.
➢ If v represents the speed of the wave in the medium and if τ represents the
time taken by the wave front to advance from the point B to C then the distance
BC = vτ.
➢ According to Huygen’s principle each and every point on AC acts as the source
of secondary source from which secondary wavelets spreads.
➢ In order to construct the reflected wave front we draw a sphere of radius vτ
from the point A as shown in Fig.
➢ Let CE represent the tangent plane drawn from the point C to this sphere.
Obviously AE = BC = vτ.

In triangle ∆ABC and ∆ACE, <ABC = <AEC, [900]

AC=AC [common].
AE=BC=vτ.
Hence, ABC  ACE , So <BAC = <ACE
i.e. The angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection, <i =<r.

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 ❖ The incident ray, reflected ray and normal lie on same plane, hence laws of reflection
proved.
Refraction of a plane wave by:

(a) A thin prism:

(b) A convex lens.

(c) Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror.

Principle of Super Position:

When two or more than two waves superimpose over each other at a common particle
of the medium then the resultant displacement (y) of the particle is equal to the vector
sum of the displacements (y1 and y2) produced by individual waves:
→ → →
i.e. Y = Y 1 + Y 2 + − − −.

(1) Graphical view:

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 (2) Phase / Phase difference / Path difference /
Time difference:

(i) Phase: The argument of sine or cosine in the expression for displacement of a wave is
defined as the phase.

For displacement y = a sint; Term,t = phase or instantaneous phase.

(ii) Phase difference: The difference between the phases of two waves at a point is
called phase difference e.

I.e. if y1 =a sint, and y2= a sin (ωt+φ) so  =phase difference.

(iii) Path difference: The difference in path lengths of two waves meeting at a point is
called path difference between the waves at that point.

Path difference =  phase difference( ) .
2

(3) Resultant amplitude and intensity:

If suppose we have two waves. If y1 =a1 sint, and y2= a2 sin (ωt+φ):

Where a1, a2 = Individual amplitudes.

= Phase difference between the waves at an instant when they are meeting a point
and I1, I2 = Intensities of individual waves.

Resultant amplitude: After superimposition of the given waves resultant amplitude (or the
amplitude of resultant wave) is given by, A = a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2 cos 

Resultant intensity: As we know intensity  (Amplitude)2

 I1 = ka12 , I 2 = ka22 and I = kA2 .

(k is a proportionality constant). Hence from the formula of resultant amplitude,

we get the following formula of resultant intensity: I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos .

➢ The term 2 I1 I 2 cos  is called interference term.

➢ For incoherent interference this term is zero so resultant intensity, I = I1 + I 2 .

(4) Coherent sources:

The sources of light which emits continuous light waves of the same wavelength, same
frequency and in same phase or having a constant phase difference are called coherent
sources. Two coherent sources are produced from a single source of light by adopting any
one of the following two methods.

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 Note:-

➢ Laser light is highly coherent and monochromatic.

➢ Two sources of light, whose frequencies are not same and phase difference between
the waves emitted by them does not remain constant w.r.t. time are called non-
coherent.
➢ The light emitted by two independent sources (candles, bulbs etc.) is non-coherent
and interference phenomenon cannot be produced by such two sources.
➢ The average time interval in which a photon or a wave packet is emitted from an
atom is defined as the time of coherence.

Interference of Light: When two waves of exactly same frequency (coming

from two coherent sources) travels in a medium, in the same direction simultaneously then
due to their superposition, at some points intensity of light is maximum while at some other
point’s intensity is minimum. This phenomenon is called Interference of light.

(1) Types: It is of following two types:

❖ Constructive interference: When the waves meet a point with same phase,
constructive interference is obtained at that point (i.e. maximum light).
❖ Destructive interference: When the wave meets a point with opposite phase,
destructive interference is obtained at that point (i.e. minimum light).

Young’s Double Slit Experiment (YDSE):

Monochromatic light from ‘S’ (single

wavelength) falls on two narrow slits S1
and S2 which are very close together acts
as two coherent sources, when waves
coming from two coherent sources ( S1 S 2
) superimposes on each other, an
interference pattern is obtained on the
screen. In YDSE alternate bright and dark
bands obtained on the screen. These
bands are called Fringes.

➢ Central fringe is always bright (Anti-node), because at central position  =00 or P.D=0.
➢ If the slit widths are unequal, the minima will not be complete dark. For very large width
uniform illumination occurs.
➢ If one slit is illuminated with red light and the other slit is illuminated with blue light, no
interference pattern is observed on the screen.

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 ➢ If the two coherent sources consist of object and it’s reflected image, the central fringe
is dark instead of bright one.

Question: describe an expression for the intensity at any point on the observation screen in
Young’s double slit experiment. Hence write the condition for constructive and
destructive interference.

Answer: Consider two light waves having displacements,

y1 =a1 sint, and y2= a2 sin (ωt+φ.)

Where  =phase difference and a1, a2 are respective amplitudes.

Hence y = y1 + y2 = a1 sin t + a2 sin( t +  ).

 y = a1 sin t + a2 sin t cos + a2 cos t sin .

 y = (a1 + a2 cos ) sin t + a2 cos t sin .

Let (a1 + a2 cos  ) = A cos − − − − − −(i )

and a2 sin  = A sin  . − − − − − − − − − (ii )

Then, y = A sin t cos + A sin  cos t = A sin( t +  ).

Thus, the resultant wave is also harmonic wave having amplitude ‘A’.

❖ Expression for resultant amplitude:

Squaring and adding equation (i) and (ii) we have,

A2 (cos 2  + sin 2  ) = a12 + a22 cos 2  + 2a1a2 cos  + a22 sin 2 .

 A2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1a2 cos .

 A = a12 + a 22 + 2a1a 2 cos  − − − − − − − − − (iii )

❖ Expression for resultant intensity:

As we know intensity  (Amplitude)2  I1 = ka12 , I 2 = ka22 and I = kA2 .

(k is a proportionality constant).

 kA2 = ka12 + ka22 + 2 k a1 k a2 cos .

The resultant intensity: I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos .

➢ The term 2 I1 I 2 cos  is called interference term.

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 ➢ For incoherent interference this term is zero so resultant intensity, I = I1 + I 2 .

Constructive interference:

The resultant intensity will be maximum when,

Cosφ=1, i.e. phase difference, φ=2nπ Or φ= 0, 2π, 4π…………

  
And the path difference is,  phase difference =  2n = n = 2n  .
2 2 2

Hence the resultant intensity will be maximum when phase difference is even multiple of ‘π’
and the path difference is even multiple of (λ/2) or integral multiple of ‘λ’.

And I max = k (a1 + a2 ) 2 = ( )2

I1 + I 2 .

Destructive interference:

The resultant intensity will be minimum when,

Cosφ=-1, i.e. phase difference, φ= (2n-1) π Or φ= π, 3π, 5π…………

  
And the path difference is,  phase difference =  (2n − 1) = (2n − 1)  .
2 2 2

Hence the resultant intensity will be minimum when phase difference is odd multiple of ‘π’
and the path difference is odd multiple of (λ/2) .

And I min = k (a1 − a2 ) 2 = ( )

I1 − I 2 .
2

I max (a1 + a 2 ) 2 ( I1 + I 2 )
2

❖ = = .
I min (a1 − a 2 ) 2 ( I1 − I 2 ) 2
Sustained interference:
when the position of maxima and minima in interference fringe pattern is constant
w.r.t. time ten the interference is called sustained interference.

Condition:

➢ The two sources of light must be coherent.

➢ The two sources must give monochromatic light.
➢ The distance between two coherent sources should be small and the distance
between the sources and screen should be large.
➢ The two sources should be narrow.

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 Fringe width in Young’s double slit experiment:

As shown in fig. suppose a narrow slit ‘S’ is illuminated by monochromatic light of wave length
‘λ’. S1 and S2 are two narrow slits at separated by ‘d’ .the distance of the slits from the screen is
‘D’ as shown.

Consider a point p on the screen at a distance ‘x’

from the center of the screen ‘o’ .the nature of
interference at the point ‘p’ depends on the path
difference,
P.D (P) =S2P-S1P.
From right angled triangles ∆ S2FP and ∆S1EP,
( S 2 P) 2 − ( S1 P) 2 = D 2 + ( x + d / 2) 2 − [ D 2 + ( x − d / 2) 2 ].
( S 2 P − S1 P)( S 2 P + S1 P) = 4 xd / 2 = 2 xd.
 P  ( S 2 P + S1 P) = 2 xd or P  2 D = 2 xd.
[ As S 2 P  S1 P  D]
xd
 P..D ( P) =
D

Position of bright fringes:

for constuctive interference ,the path difference should be even multiple of ‘λ/2’.
xd  nD
Hence, P = = 2n   x = Where n = 0,1,2,3.....
D 2 d
D 2D
I .e. Maximas will be obtained at x = 0, , ,.......
d d
Position of dark fringes:
for destuctive interference ,the path difference should be odd multiple of ‘λ/2’.
xd  (2n − 1)D
Hence, P = = (2n − 1)   x = Where n = 1,2,3.....
D 2 2d
D 3D 5D
I .e. Minimas will be obtained at x = , , .......
2d 2d 2d
❖ Since the central point ‘o’ is equidistance from S1 and S2 , the path difference P for it is
zero. Hence the intensity of light at P will be maximum. This is called central maxima.
Fringe width (β):
The separation between two successive bright or dark fringes is called fringe width.
nD (n − 1)D D
 = xn − xn−1 = − = .
d d d
D
 = .
d

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 Intensity distribution curve:

Conservation of energy in interference:

In an interference pattern the intensities at the points of maxima and minima are such that,
I max  (a1 + a 2 ) 2 I min  (a1 − a 2 ) 2 .
(a1 + a 2 ) 2 + (a1 − a 2 ) 2
I av  or I av  a12 + a 22
2

If there is no interference between the light waves from the two sources, then intensity
at every point would be same. That is,
I = I1 + I 2  a12 + a22 .
❖ Which is same as I av in the interference pattern. So there is no violation of the law of
conservation of energy in interference. Whatever energy disappears from the dark fringe
, an equal amount of energy appears in a bright fringe.
Doppler’s Effect in Light:
The phenomenon of apparent change in frequency (or wavelength) of the light due to relative
motion between the source of light and the observer is called Doppler’s effect.
If f= actual frequency, f’ = Apparent frequency, v = speed of source w.r.t stationary observer,
c = speed of light.

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 Applications of Doppler Effect:
(i) Determination of speed of moving bodies (aeroplane, submarine etc) in RADAR and
SONAR.
(ii) Determination of the velocities of stars and galaxies by spectral shift.
(iii) Determination of rotational motion of sun.
(iv) Explanation of width of spectral lines.
(v) Tracking of satellites.
(vi) In medical sciences in echo cardiogram, sonography etc.

Note:-
 
➢ The angular thickness of fringe width is defined as,  = = , which is independent of the
D d
screen distance D.
➢ Central maxima means the maxima formed with zero optical path difference. It may be
formed anywhere on the screen.
➢ All the wavelengths produce their central maxima at the same position.
➢ The wave with smaller wavelength from its maxima before the wave with longer
wavelength.
➢ The first maxima of violet colour are closest and that for the red colour is farthest.

Diffraction of Light.
It is the phenomenon of bending of light around the corners of an obstacle/aperture of
the size of the wavelength of light.

Note:
➢ Greater the wavelength of wave, higher will be its degree of diffraction->.
➢ Experimental study of diffraction was extended by Newton as well as Young. Most systematic
study carried out by Huygens on the basis of wave theory.

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 Types of diffraction: The diffraction phenomenon is divided into two types:
Fresnel diffraction Fraun-hoffer diffraction
(i) If either source or screen or both are (i) In this case both source and screen are
at finite distance from the diffracting effectively at infinite distance from the
device (obstacle or aperture), the diffracting device
diffraction is called Fresnel type. (ii) Common examples: Diffraction at single slit,
(ii) Common examples: Diffraction at a double slit and diffraction grating.
straight edge, narrow wire or small
opaque disc etc.

The single slit diffraction:

Calculation of path difference:
The path difference NP – LP between the two edges of the slit can be calculated exactly as for
Young’s experiment. From Fig.
NP – LP = NQ = a sin θ ≈ a θ (for smaller angles).
❖ We now have to sum up equal, coherent contributions from a large number of sources, each
with a different phase. This calculation was made by Fresnel using integral calculus, so we omit
it here. The main features of the diffraction pattern can be understood by simple arguments.
Central maxima:
➢ At the central point C on the screen, the angle θ is zero. All path differences are zero and
hence all the parts of the slit contribute in phase. This gives maximum intensity at C.

Position of minima:
➢ Let the point ‘p’ be so located that p.d. =λ and
Ɵ=Ɵ1. Then, a sin 1 = .
➢ If we divide the slit into two halves LM and MN,
then the path difference between the wavelets
from any two corresponding points of LM and
MN will be λ/2. These wavelets add up
destructively to produce minimum.

➢ Thus the condition for 1st dark fringe is, a sin 1 = .

➢ The general condition for minimum, a sin  n = n. Where n=1, 2, 3……..

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 Position of secondary maxima:
3 3
Suppose the point ‘p’ is so located that p.d = . when Ɵ=Ɵ1’, then a sin 1' = .
2 2
If we will divide the slit into three equal parts, the path difference between two corresponding

points of 1st two parts will be p.d =
. the wavelets from these points interfere destructively.
2
However the wavelet from third part of the slit will contribute to some intensity forming a
secondary maximum.

The general condition of secondary maximum, a sin  n' = (2n + 1) .
2
Angular width of central maximum:
The angular width of the central maximum is the angular separation between the directions of 1st
minima on the two sides of central maxima.
Half angular width of central maxima,
 
sin 1 = or 1 = sin −1
a a

Angular width of central maxima, 21 = 2 sin −1 .
a
2
When  → 0 then,21 = .
a

Linear width of central maxima:

If D is the distance of the screen from the single slit, then the linear width of central maxima will be,
x  D 2D
When → 0, then sin  = tan  =  = =  x = or 2 x = = .
D a a a

Intensity distribution curve:

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 Difference between interference & diffraction:

(i) The interference pattern has a number of equally spaced bright and dark bands. The
diffraction pattern has a central bright maximum which is twice as wide as the other
maxima. The intensity falls as we go to successive maxima away from the centre, on either
side.
(ii) We calculate the interference pattern by superposing two waves originating from the two
narrow slits. The diffraction pattern is a superposition of a continuous family of waves
originating from each point on a single slit.
(iii) For a single slit of width a, the first null of the interference pattern occurs at an angle of λ/a.
At the same angle of λ/a, we get a maximum (not a null) for two narrow slits separated by a
distance a.

Assignment:

1. A slit of width ‘a’ is illuminated by light of wavelength 6000A0.

Find the value of ‘a’ for which the :-
(i) First maximum fall at an angle of diffraction of 300?

(ii) First minimum fall at an angle of diffraction 300?

Answer:  = 6000 A = 6000 10 m, 1 = 30

−10
0 0
and n = 1.

3
(i ) For 1st max imum : a sin 1' = .
2
3
a= = 1.8 10 −6 m.
2 sin 1'

(ii ) For 1st min imum : a sin 1 = .


a= = 1.2 10 −6 m.
sin 1

2. Monochromatic light of wavelength 500 nm is incident from air on a water surface. What are
the wavelength, frequency and speed of?

(a) Reflected, and

(b) Refracted light? Refractive index of water is 4/3.

3. In Young’s double-slit experiment using monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the intensity of

light at a point on the screen where path difference is λ, is K units. What is the intensity of
light at a point where path difference is λ/3?

Umakanta Sir’s class note Page 15

 2
Phase difference =  path difference.

2 2  2
 =   = 2 and '=  =
HINTS:   3 3

We know, I = I1 + I 2 + 2 I1 I 2 cos [ I1 = I 2 = I 0 ]

Answer: The intensity of light at a point where the path difference is λ/3 is K/4 unit.

4. A beam of light consisting of two wavelengths, 650 nm and 520 nm, is used to obtain
interference fringes in a Young’s double-slit experiment.
(a) Find the distance of the third bright fringe on the screen from the central maximum for
wavelength 650 nm.
(b) What is the least distance from the central maximum where the bright fringes due to
both the wavelengths coincide?
nD
Answer ( H int s ) : (a ) x = [ n = 3]
d
n1 D (n + 1)2 D
(b) = [ 1  2 ]
d d

5. In Young's double slit experiment carried out with light of wavelength λ=5000 Ǻ, the distance
between the slits is 0.2 mm and the screen is at 200 cm from the plane of slits. The central
maximum is at x=0. The third maximum will be at x equal to:
(a) 1.67 cm. (b) 1.5 cm. (c) 0.5 cm. (d) 5.0 cm.

6. A beam of light of wavelength 600 nm from a distant source falls on a single slit 1.00 mm wide
and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 2 m away. The distance between
the first dark fringes on either side of the central bright fringe is:
(a) 1.2 cm (b) 1.2 mm (c) 2.4 cm (d) 2.4 mm

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Long questions:-
1. Define wave front, draw the shape of wave front in case of
(i) point source of light
(ii) Line source of light.
(iii) Point or line source of light at infinite distance.

2. Write Huygens’s principle, using Huygens’s principle proves laws of reflection and refraction.

3. Derive an expression for resultant intensity in Y.D.S. interference fringe pattern and hence obtain the
condition of constructive and destructive interference.
4. Obtain an expression for fringe-width in Y.D.S interference fringe pattern.
5. Draw the intensity distribution curve in interference fringe pattern.

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6. Obtain an expression for linear and angular width of central maxima in single slit diffraction fringe
pattern.
7. Write the difference between interference and diffraction fringe pattern.
8. Draw the intensity distribution curve in diffraction fringe pattern.

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