CLASS XII

Detailed Notes As Per BOARD Examination

PHYSICS

CHAPTER-10
WAVE OPTICS

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 WAVE OPTICS

WAVE OPTICS
Wave Fronts:
Consider a wave spreading out on the surface of water after a stone is thrown in. Every point on the surface
oscillates. At any time, a photograph of the surface would show circular rings on which the disturbance is
maximum. Clearly, all points on such a circle are oscillating in phase because they are at the same distance
from the source. Such a locus of points which oscillate in phase is an example of a wavefront.
A WAVEFRONT is defined as a surface of constant phase. The speed with which the wavefront moves
outwards from the source is called the phase speed. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wavefront.

Plane WF
Spherical WF
Cylindrical WF

Light ray Light rays

Point source
Line source

Huygens Principle:
According to Huygens principle
(i) Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating from
these point spread out in all direction with the speed of the wave.
(ii) These wavelets emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary wavelets and if we
draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later
time.
(iii) Thus, Huygens‟s principle is essentially a geometrical construction, which give the shape of the
wavefront at any time allows us to determine the shape of the wavefront at a later time.
Thus, if we wish to determine the shape of the wavefront at t =  , we draw spheres of radius v from each
point of wavefront and the common Tangent to all there sphere will give position of new wavefront

t=0
v
t =

(a) (b) New wavefront

Refraction and Reflection of Planes Waves using Huygens Principle:

(i) Refraction of a Plane Wave:
Let c1 and c2 represent the speed of light in medium 1 and medium 2, respectively. We assume a plane
wavefront AB propagating in the direction A'A incident on the interface at an angle i as shown in the figure.
Let  be time taken by the wavefront to travel the distance BC. Thus BC = c 1

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Incident wavefront
A‟ B
c1 c1 

Medium 1 C
P A r P‟
c2 
Medium 2 r

c1 > c2 E Refracted
wavefront

In order to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius c 2  from the point A

in the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is c 2). Let CE represent a tangent plane
drawn from the point C on the sphere. Then, AE = c 2  and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If

we now consider the triangles ABC and AEC, we readily obtain

BC c1 AE c 2 
sin
i  and sin
 r 
AC AC AC AC
where i and r are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively.
Thus we obtain
sin i c1
 ...(i)
sin r c 2

c c
n1  & n2 ....(ii)
c1 c2
where c is the speed of light in vacuum
n1 is the refractive index of medium 1
n2 is the refractive index of medium 2
From (i) and (ii)  n1 sini = n2 sin r
This is the Snell‟s law of refraction. If the distance BC is equal to 1 then AE will  2 (because if the crest

from B has reached C in time  , then the crest from A should also have reached E in time  )
1 BC c1 c1 c 2
  or 
2 AE c 2 1 2
When a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (c1 > c2), the wavelength and the speed of propagation
decrease but the frequency remains the same.

(ii) Refraction at a Rarer Medium:

Incident wavefront

Medium 1
B
c 1
c1

A r C
Medium 2 r c 2

c2 > c1 E Refracted
wavefront

We now consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium, i.e., c2 > c1. Proceeding in an exactly similar
manner we can construct a refracted wavefront as shown in figure. The angle of refraction will now be

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greater than angle of incidence ; however, we will still have n1 sin i = n2 sin r.
n2
We define an angle ic by the following equation sin ic 
n1
Thus, if i = ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90º. Obviously, for i > ic, there cannot be any refracted wave. The angle i c
is
known as the critical angle and for all angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, we will not have any
refracted wave and the wave will undergo what is known as total internal reflection.

(iii) Reflection of a Plane Wave by a Plane Surface:

Incident
wavefront

Reflected
E B wavefront

A r C
M N
We next consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on reflecting surface MN. If c represents the
speed of the wave in the medium and if  represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance from the
point B to C then the distance BC = c
In order to construct the reflected wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius c from the point A as shown in
figure. Let CE represent the tangent plane dawn from the point C to this sphere. So, AE = BC = c
If we now consider the triangles EAC and BCA we will find that they are congruent and therefore, the angle
i and r (as shown in the figure) would be equal. This is the law of reflection.

Behaviour of a Prism, Convex Lens and Concave Mirror to a Plane Wavefront:

Concave mirror
or radius R

Incident Incident Incident

Planewave Planewave Planewave
F F

Spherical wavefront
of radius f Spherical wavefrom
of Radius R/2
(a) (b) (c)

Refraction of plane wave by (a) a thin prism, (b) a convex lens. (c) Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror
In general increase in the thickness of the glass, more the delay observed in that part of wavefront because
speed in glass is lens than speed in air.

The Doppler Effect:

Definition: When there is a relative motion between the source of light and observer, the apparent frequency
received by the observer increase or decrease. This is known as Doppler effect.

Red Shift: When the source and observer move away from each other, the apparent frequency decreases
and hence, wavelength increases. This is called red shift. (because a wavelength in middle of the spectrum
moves towards the red end (  increases ).

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Blue Shift: When source and observer move towards each other, the apparent frequency increases and
hence, wavelength decreases. This is called blue shift. (Similarly since  decreases (moves towards Blue
end))
Thus, the Doppler shift can be expressed as:
 v v radial
   where vradial = VS – V0 S +Ve O
 v c
This formula is valid only when the speed of the source is small compared to that of light.
Principle of Superposition:
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through a point, the disturbance of the point is given by the
sum of the disturbances each wave would produce in absence of the other wave(s). In case of wave on
string disturbance means displacement, in case of sound wave it means pressure change, in case of
E.M.W. it is electric field or magnetic field. Superposition of two light traveling in almost same direction
results in modification in the distribution of intensity of light in the region of superposition. This phenomenon
is called interference.

Superposition of Two Sinusoidal Waves:

Consider superposition of two sinusoidal waves (having same frequency), at a particular point.
Let, x1(t) = a1 sin t

and, x2(t) = a2 sin (t + )

represent the displacement produced by each of the disturbances. Here we are assuming the displacements
to be in the same direction. Now according to superposition principle, the resultant displacement will be given
by,
x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = a1 sin t + a2 sin (t + ) = A sin (t + 0)

where A2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1 . a2 cos  ....... (1)

a2 sin 
and tan 0 = ........(2)
a1  a2 cos 

Interference:
(a) Coherent Sources:
 Source emitting waves of the same frequency or wavelength having either a zero or constant phase
difference.
 Two independent light sources cannot emit light at the same phase.
 Two independent sources cannot be coherent. Coherent sources are always derived from one source.

(b) Interference of Light:

 The phenomenon of redistribution of light energy when two or more waves superpose over each other
is called Interference.

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Remember:
(i) There is a non-uniform distribution of energy.
(ii) Bright and dark regions are formed in the case of monochromatic coherent waves.

(c) Young’s double slit Experiment:

In 1802 Thomas Young devised a method to produce a stationary interference pattern. This was based upon
division of a single wavefront into two; these two wavefronts acted as if they emanated from two sources
having a fixed phase relationship. Hence when they were allowed to interfere, stationary interference pattern
was observed.
Figure: Young’s Arrangement to produce stationary interference pattern by division of wave front S 0 into S1
and S2


S1 A x
d/2

d Q
O d/2


Source
S2  = dsin  B

D
Screen

Description: Start by drawing a neat and labelled diagram. Source S, slits - S1 and S2 at distance d apart,
screen at a large distance D from the slits.

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Remember: Light from S1 and S2 reach the point P with a path difference.
2 2 2
In S2BP , by Pythagoras theorem we have (S2P) = (S2B) + (PB)
2
 d
 S2P
2
 D2   x  
 2

 1  d 
2

 S2P 
2
D2 1  2  x   
 D  2 
1/2
 1  d 
2

S2P D 1  2  x   
 D  2 
Expanding binomially and neglecting higher order terms
 1  d 
2

S2P 
D 1  2 
x  
 2D  2 
2
1  d
S2P 
D x  
2D  2
2 2 2
Similarly, in S1PA we have (S1P) = (S1A) + (PA)
2
d
 S1P  D2   x  
2

 2
1/2
 1  d 
2

S1P D 1  2  x   
 D  2 
Expanding binomially and neglecting higher order terms
 1  d 
2

S1P 
D 1  2  x   
 2D  2 
2
1  d
S1P 
D x  
2D  2
Path diff = S2P  S1P

 1  d  
2
1  d 
2

D 
  x     D  x   
 2D  2   2D  2 

1
   2xd xd
2D D
For constructive interference (maxima), path diff = n
xd
 n
D
nD
Position of nth brigh fringe is xn 
d
D 2D
For n = 1 ; x1  For n = 1 ; x 2 
d d
D
 x 2  x
1 (  : fringe width)
d

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 1
For Destructive interference (minima), path diff =  n   
 2
xd  1  1  D
  n     x  n  
D  2  2 d
D
Position of nth dark fringe is xn = (2n – 1)
2d
1 D 3 D
For n = 1 ; x1 = For n = 1 ; x2 =
2 d 2 d

Fringe Width:
It is the distance between two maxima of successive order on one side of the central maxima. This is also
equal to distance between two successive minima.
D
fringe width   x 2  x
1 ... (1)
d
 Notice that it is directly proportional to wavelength and inversely proportional to the distance
between the two slits.

Parameters Maxima Minima

Path differnce (S2P – S1P) = n where, n = 0, ±1, ±2,.... 
  2n  1 where, n = 0, ±1, ±2,...
2
Phase difference  2n   2n  1 


Position from the central point Dn (2n  1)D

x x
d 2d
where, n = 0, ±1, ±2,.... where, n = 0, ±1, ±2,....
Intensity Im ax   a1  a2 
2
Imin   a1  a2 
2

Angular Position n (2n  1)

 
d 2d

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Intensity:
Suppose the electric field components of the light waves arriving at point P (in the Figure) from the two slits
S1 and S2 vary with time as

E1 = E0 sin t

and E2 = E0 sin (t + )

2
Here  = kx = x

and we have assumed that intensity of the two slits S 1 and S2 are same (say 0); hence waves have same
amplitude E0. Then the resultant electric field at point P is given by,

E = E1 + E2 = E0 sin t + E0 sin (t + ) = E0´ sin (t +´)

where E0´2 = E02 + E02 + 2E0 . E0 cos  = 4 E02 cos2 /2

Hence the resultant intensity at point P,


 = 40 cos2 .......(2)
2

max = 40 when = n , n = 0, ±1, ±2,.......,
2
  1
min = 0 when = n    n  0,  1,  2 ..........
2  2 

2
Here    = kx = x

2
If D >> d,   = d sin 

2 y
If D >> d & y << D,  = d
 D
However if the two slits were of different intensities 1 and 2,

say E1 = E01, sin t

and E2 = E02, sin (t + )

then resultant field at point P,

I
E = E1 + E2 = E0 sin (t + )
Imax
where E02 = E012 + EO22 + 2E01 E02 cos 

Hence resultant intensity at point P,

 = 1 + 2 + 2 1 2 cos  ............ (3)

3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Variation of intensity with distance from the central point Path difference

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Shape of Interference Fringes in YDSE:

We discuss the shape of fringes when two pinholes are used instead of the two slits in YDSE.

Fringes are locus of points which move in such a way that its path difference from the two slits remains
constant.

S2P – S1P =  = constant ....(1)


If  = ± , the fringe represents 1st minima.
2

3
If  = ± it represents 2nd minima
2

If  = 0 it represents central maxima,

= 3
S1
= 2
=
=0 X
= -
= -2
S2

If  = ± , it represents 1st maxima etc.

Equation (1) represents a hyperbola with its two foci at S1 and S2

The interference pattern which we get on screen is the section of hyperboloid of revolution when we revolve
the hyperbola about the axis S1S2.

A. If the screen is perpendicular to the X axis, i.e. in the YZ plane, as is generally the case, fringes are
hyperbolic with a straight central section.
Z

B. If the screen is in the XY plane, again fringes are hyperbolic.

Y

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C. If screen is perpendicular to Y axis (along S1S2), ie in the XZ plane, fringes are concentric circles with


center on the axis S1S2; the central fringe is bright if S1S2 = n and dark if S1S2 = (2n – 1) .
2
Y

YDSE with White Light:

The central maxima will be white because all wavelengths will constructively interference here. However
slightly below (or above) the position of central maxima fringes will be coloured. or example if P is a point on
the screen such that
 violet
S2P – S1P = = 190 nm,
2
completely destructive interference will occur for violet light. Hence we will have a line devoid of violet colour
that will appear reddish. And if
red
S2P–S1P = = 350 nm,
2
completely destructive interference for red light results and the line at this position will be violet. The coloured
fringes disappear at points far away from the central white fringe; for these points there are so many
wavelengths which interfere constructively, that we obtain a uniform white illumination. for example if
S2P – S1 P = 3000 nm,

3000
then constructive interference will occur for wavelengths  = nm. In the visible region these
n
wavelength are 750 nm (red), 600 nm (yellow), 500 nm (greenish–yellow), 430 nm (violet). Clearly such a
light will appear white to the unaided eye.
Thus with white light we get a white central fringe at the point of zero path difference, followed by a few
coloured fringes on its both sides, the color soon fading off to a uniform white.
In the usual interference pattern with a monochromatic source, a large number of identical interference
fringes are obtained and it is usually not possible to determine the position of central maxima. Interference
with white light is used to determine the position of central maxima in such cases.

Geometrical Path & Optical Path:

Actual distance travelled by light in a medium is called geometrical path (x). Consider a light wave given by
the equation
E = E0 sin (t – kx + )

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
If the light travels by x, its phase changes by kx = x, where , the frequency of light does not depend
v
c
on the medium, but v, the speed of light depends on the medium as v = .



Consequently, change in phase  = kx = (x)
c
It is clear that a wave travelling a distance x in a medium of refractive index  suffers the same phase
change as when it travels a distance x in vacuum. i.e. a path length of x in medium of refractive index 
is equivalent to a path length of x in vacuum.
The quantity x is called the optical path length of light, xopt . And in terms of optical path length, phase

difference would be given by,

 2
 = xopt = xopt .... (1)
c 0

where 0 = wavelength of light in vacuum.

However in terms of the geometrical path length x,

 2
 = (x) = x .....(2)
c 
0
where  = wavelength of light in the medium ( = ).

Helps to Conclude: That for a small area near the central point, the bright bands are equally bright.
 In order to determine the shape of the interference pattern on the screen, we note that a particular
fringe would correspond to the locus of points with a constant value of S2P – S1P
 The locus of the point P lying in the x-y plane such that S2P – S1P is a constant, is a hyperbola.
 Thus, the fringe pattern will strictly be a hyperbola; however, if the distance D is very large compared
to the fringe width, the fringes will be very nearly straight lines.

Diffraction:
Meaning: It is the spreading of waves round the corners of an obstacle, of the order of wave length.
Definition of Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the sharp edges of opaque obstacles or aperture and
their encroachment in the geometrical shadow of obstacle or aperture is defined as diffraction of light.
Necessary conditions of Diffraction of Waves
The size of the obstacle (a) must be of the order of the wavelength of the waves ().

a
1


Note: Greater the wave length of wave higher will be its degree of diffraction. This is the reason that
diffraction of sound & radio waves is easily observed but for diffraction of light, additional arrangement have
to be arrange.
sound > light

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Wave length of sound is nearly equal to size of obstacle. If size of obstacle is a & wavelength of light is 
then,
S.No. a V/S  Diffraction

(1) a <<  Not possible

(2) a >>  Not possible
(3) a~ Possible

Interpretation of Diffraction
As a result of diffraction, maxima & minima of light intensities are found which has unequal intensities.
Diffraction is the result of superposing of waves from infinite number of coherent sources on the same
wavefront after the wavefront has been distorted by the obstacle.

Example of Diffraction

 When an intense source of light is viewes with the partially opened eye, colours are observed in the
light.
 Sound produced in one room can be heard in the nearby room.
 Appearance of a shining circle around the section of sun just before sun rise.

 Coloured spectrum is observed if a light source at far distance is seen through a thin cloth.
Helps by Conclude that:
(i) Wavelength of light should be greater than (or comparable with) the size of the object or aperture.
(ii) To answer questions like why sound bends over a wall and light does not.

Slit width  a
Screen distance  D
To P
L L 
M1 M1 
From S M To C a M
M2 M2
N We are treating different part of the
N wavefront at the slit as secondary
a sin 
so u r ce s. B e si d e , si n ce i n co mi n g
wavefront is | | to the plane of slit these
sources are in phase

The geometry of path differences If two points M 1 and M 2 are separated by distance y,
for diffraction by a single slit the path difference M 2P – M 1P = y 

Central Maxima:
Secondary waves from points equidistant from the centre of slit lying in portion LM and MN of the wavefront
travel the same distance in reaching the point C.
 Path difference between them is zero.
Resulting in the maximum intensity at point C.
Now consider a secondary wave traveling in a direction making an angle  . Let these waves reach at point
P on the screen. Thus, intensity at point P will depend upon the path difference.

Secondary Minima:
Let path difference be  . Then, the whole wavefront can be divided into two equal halves LM and MN such
that the path difference between the secondary waves from L and M reaching pt. P will be  / 2 . So, for

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every point in the upper half, there is a corresponding point in the lower half such that phase difference
between them is  .
So, destructive interference takes place and we get minima.
Similarly, for the path difference 2  , 3  ………, we will get minima.
Path diff = n  (Here path diff:  between the end point of the slit i.e. L and N)

n n
a sin   n  sin     n  0 
d d minima

Secondary Maxima:
3
If the path difference = , then wavefront can be divided into 3 equal parts, so that path diff between the
2
waves reaching point. P from first two parts will be  / 2 which give rise to destructive interference.
However, secondary waves from the third part remain unused.
 It results in certain intensity at point P and we get a maxima.
5 7 
Similarly, for path diff = , ,...
2 2

We will get maxima on screen Path diff = (2n + 1)
2

 
  2n  1  
a sin   2n  1 n  0 
2 2a max ima

(b)
Incoming (a) viewing screen
wave

Intensity distribution and photograph of fringes due to diffraction at angle slit.

Condition for Secondary Maxima:


asin n  2n  1
2

Condition for Secondary Minima:

a sin n  n

Width of Central Maximum:

2D  Angular width  2  Size of central maxima increase
    :
d  of central maxima D a  when the slit width a decrease

D 
Also, Width of Maxima = Width of Minima = (Linear width) and (Angular width)
(Not Central) a a

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Helps to Conclude that:

(i) The intensity of subsidiary maxima decreases with distance from the central maximum. (as distance
from central max increases ; smaller part of slit contributes in maxima )
(ii) If the width of the slit is decreased, the subsidiary maxima shift away from the central maximum.
(iii) Width the decrease in wavelength, the diffraction bands become narrow and crowded.

Intensity-Distribution Curve

Intensity

–3 –2 –  2 3 Angle

a 0 a a
a a a

Note
 Sometimes we place a converging lens after the slits And Place the Screet at Focus. Note that the lens
doesn't introduce any extra path differnces in a parallel Beam. In this case, D = F(focal length). s.t.
Linear width of:
2D 2F
Central maxima = 
a a
D F
(Other) max/min. = 
a a

Differences between Interference and Diffraction of Light:

Interference
Two coherent sources are necessary
All fringes has same width
Width of bright fringes is equal to other
fringes
All bright fringes has equal intensity
For bright fringe:
[a] Path difference D = n
[b] Phase difference  = 2n
For dark fringes:
[a] Path difference D = (2n – 1)/2
[b] Phase difference  = (2n – 1)
Diffraction
One coherent source is necessary
Fringes has unequal width
Width of first bright fringes is just
doubled to second bright fringe
As order of bright fringes increases,
intensity goes down
For bright fringe:
[a] Path difference D = (2n – 1)/2
[b] Phase difference = (2n – 1) 
For dark fringes:
[a] Path difference D = 2n/2
[b] Phase difference  = 2n

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Double Slit Interference & Diffraction:

Ia 1 I0
S1

S2 Ia 2

O 

In YDSE, if S1 and S2 are not negligibly small but of size a, then on the screen super position of single slit
diffraction from each slit & double-slit interference pattern is seen. In the broader central bright fringe of the
diffraction, there appears several fringes of smaller width due to double slit interference. The number of
interference frings occuring in the broad diffraction peak depends on the ratio d/a.
If a reduces, d/a increases, increasing the width of central max and number of fringes in it.
d
 If a  0    No. of fringes  
a
Thus the pattern is same as in YDSE.

Note
 What will happen if we close one of the slit of YDSE?
Now, a single slit diffraction pattern is observed on screen. The centre of the central Bright fringe
appears at a point which lies on a straight line. SS1 or SS2 as the case may be.

The validity of Ray optics (Fresnel distance):

ZF is the distance after which the spreading of a | | beam by an aperture (slit/hole) due to diffraction becomes
comparable to size “a” of aperture i.e. it‟s a distance beyond which divergence of the beam of width 'a'
become significant.
It is the min distance at which the screen is to be placed so that the width of the central maxima is more than
the size of aperture.
D a2
a  D
a 

a2
The Fresnel distance ZF is thus given by ZF  (a = size of aperture)

 For distances much smaller than ZF, the spreading due to diffraction is smaller compared to the size of
the beam. It becomes comparable when the distance is approx Z F. For distances much greater than
ZF, the spreading due to diffraction dominates over that due to ray optics.

Circular diffraction:
(i) In a convex lens; because of diffraction a || beam instead of getting focused at point ; gets focused to
a spot of finite area.
(ii) The pattern on the focal plane would consist of a central bright region surrounded by concentric dark &
bright rings where radius of the central bright region is:
1.22 D 1.22 f 
r0 
d 2a

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Where D = distance of screen from Lens (= f) ; d = aperture of the lens ( = 2a).

2a 0.61 f
a

f
A Parallel beam of light is incident on a convex lens.
Because of diffraction effects, the beam gets focused to a spot of radius = 0.61
f/a.

Resolving Power:

1. General Facts on Resolving Power:

(i) Due to diffraction effects, the images of two distinct points may seem to converge when viewed from a
lens. The two images are said to be just resolvable, if the central maxima of one is found to exactly
coincide with the first minima of the other. This criteria for resolution is called the Rayleigh‟s criterion.
(ii) We say that 2 objects are just resolved by a telescope/microscope if the distance between the centre
of the images of the 2 objects is at least r0 (central maxima‟s should not exactly coincide).
(iii) The angular resolution of the telescope/microscope is determined by the objective lens. The primary
purpose of the eye piece is to provide magnification of the image produced by the objective.

2. Resolving Power of Telescope:

For the 2 stars to be just resolved d



1.22 D 1.22  2 stars
D  min  D
d d
1 d Objective
Resolving Power = 
min 1.22  Screen
D
Where d = 2a if a = radius of lens.
 Grater the Resolving power, 2 stars subtending lesser  can be resolved.
 On increasing „d‟, we can increasing the resolving power.

3. Resolving Power of Microscope:

Object 1  

dmin
Object 2 D

F
V
Here object are placed at F or very close to F u = F ; v = Image Distance
 For the 2 objects to be just resolved.

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1.22 V
V 
D
dmin dmin 1.22 1.22 F
Also:
     dmin
F F D D
D/2
Here  tan  [ 2 is the angle subtended by diameter of objective lens at focus of microscope.)
F
1.22 F 1.22 F
D 2F tan   2F sin  for small   dmin
 
D 2F sin 
If a medium of refractive index „n‟ is placed in between object and objective lens.
   1.22 
 F  nF;   , n  refractive index of medium   dmin 
 n  2n sin 

1 2nsin 
Resolving Power = 
d min 1.22 
 Resolving Power can be increased by choosing a medium of higher refractive index.
 Usually an oil having refractive index close to that of the objective glass is used. Such an arrangement
is called “oil immersion objective”
 Also, Since its not possible to makes sin greater than unity. Resolving power of Microscope is

determined by wavelength of light used.

Polarisation: As known, EM Waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The direction of the
electric field vector and the magnetic field vector are mutually perpendicular as well as perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. The direction of propagation and the direction of the electric field vector fix the
direction of the magnetic field vector.

Unpolarised EM Wave:
In ordinary light (light from sun, bulb etc.) the electric field vectors are distributed in all directions in a light
is called unpolarised light. The oscillation of propagation of light wave resolved into horizontal and
vertical component.

Linearly/Plane Polarised Light:

The phenomenon of limiting the vibrating of electric field vector in one direction in a plane perpendicular to
the direction of propagation of light wave is called polarization of light
(i) The plane in which oscillation occurs in the polarised light is called plane of oscillation.
(ii) The plane perpendicular to the plane of oscillation is called plane of polarisation.
(iii) Light can be polarised by transmitting through certain crystals such as tourmaline or
polaroids.

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Partially Polarized Light: When light is seen through a rotating analyzer, one sees maximum and minimum
of intensity but not complete darkness, and type of light is called partially polarized light.

Polaroids: A polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors
(associated with the propagating light wave) along the direction of the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus,
if an unpolarised light wave is incident on such a polaroid then the light wave will get linearly polarised with
the electric vector oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules; this direction is known
as the pass-axis of the polaroid.
It is observed that when unpolarised light from a sodium lamp, is made to pass through a randomly oriented
polaroid, then the intensity of light coming out of the polaroid is half of that was incident onto the polaroid,
whatever be the orientation of the polaroid. However, when another polaroid is introduced after the first one,
2
then the intensity of the light coming out of the second Polaroid is given by I = I 0cos  [∵E cos  component
nd
will pass through the pass axis of 2 Polaroid] where I is the intensity of the light coming out from the
Polaroid 1 and  is the angle between the pass axis of the two polaroids.

Malus law: This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser varies as
the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyser and the plane of the
polariser.

(i)  = 0 cos2 and A2 = A20 cos2  A = A0 cos 

If  = 0º,  = 0 , A = A0 . If  = 90º ,  = 0 , A = 0

(ii) If 1 = intensity of unpolarised light.

1
So 0 = i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light (say by passing it
2
1
though a Polariod or a Nicolprism, its intensity becomes half. and I = cos2.
2

This is known as the Malus’ law:

Uses of Polaroids: Used in sunglasses, windowpanes, photographic cameras, 3D movie cameras.

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Polarisation by Scattering:
Incident Sunlight
(Unpolarised)

Scattered Light
(Polarised)

To Observer

Oscillating electric field of an unpolarised light can be thought to consist of two independent and
perpendicular electric fields as shown by dot and arrow in the figure shown. {There is no phase relation
between these two unpolarised light]
Under the influence of the electric field of the incident wave, the electrons in the molecules acquire
components of motion in both these directions. When an observer looks at 90° to the direction of the sun,
charges accelerating parallel to the double arrows do not radiate energy towards this observer since their
acceleration has no transverse component, and only the electrons oscillating parallel to the dots radiate
energy towards the observer. It is polarized perpendicular to the plane of the figure. This explains the
polarisation of scattered light from the sky.

Polarisation by Reflection:

Note
 When unpolarised light is incident on the boundary between two transparent media, the reflected
light is polarized with its electric vector  r to the plane of incidence when the refracted and reflected
rays make a right angle with each other. [The oscillating electrons on water produce reflected wave]
The angle of incidence in this case is called Brewster‟s angle and is denoted by i B.

iB  r    2

From Snell’s Law

siniB siniB sin iB
  
   tan iB (   refractive index of denser medium)
sinr sin   / 2  iB  cos iB

This is known as Brewster‟s Law

Note: Whenever unpolarized beam of light is incident at the Brewster‟s angle on an interface of two media,
only part of light with electric field vector  to the plane of incidence will be reflected. Now By using a good

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polarizer, if we remove all the light with its Electric field vector  to plane of incidence and let this light be
incident on prism surface at Brewster angle, there will be No reflection & total transmission of light.

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