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PHYSICS
CHAPTER-10
WAVE OPTICS
WAVE OPTICS
Wave Fronts:
Consider a wave spreading out on the surface of water after a stone is thrown in. Every point on the surface
oscillates. At any time, a photograph of the surface would show circular rings on which the disturbance is
maximum. Clearly, all points on such a circle are oscillating in phase because they are at the same distance
from the source. Such a locus of points which oscillate in phase is an example of a wavefront.
A WAVEFRONT is defined as a surface of constant phase. The speed with which the wavefront moves
outwards from the source is called the phase speed. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wavefront.
Plane WF
Spherical WF
Cylindrical WF
Point source
Line source
Huygens Principle:
According to Huygens principle
(i) Each point of the wavefront is the source of a secondary disturbance and the wavelets emanating from
these point spread out in all direction with the speed of the wave.
(ii) These wavelets emanating from the wavefront are usually referred to as secondary wavelets and if we
draw a common tangent to all these spheres, we obtain the new position of the wavefront at a later
time.
(iii) Thus, Huygens‟s principle is essentially a geometrical construction, which give the shape of the
wavefront at any time allows us to determine the shape of the wavefront at a later time.
Thus, if we wish to determine the shape of the wavefront at t = , we draw spheres of radius v from each
point of wavefront and the common Tangent to all there sphere will give position of new wavefront
t=0
v
t =
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Incident wavefront
A‟ B
c1 c1
Medium 1 C
P A r P‟
c2
Medium 2 r
c1 > c2 E Refracted
wavefront
In order to determine the shape of the refracted wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius c 2 from the point A
in the second medium (the speed of the wave in the second medium is c 2). Let CE represent a tangent plane
drawn from the point C on the sphere. Then, AE = c 2 and CE would represent the refracted wavefront. If
c c
n1 & n2 ....(ii)
c1 c2
where c is the speed of light in vacuum
n1 is the refractive index of medium 1
n2 is the refractive index of medium 2
From (i) and (ii) n1 sini = n2 sin r
This is the Snell‟s law of refraction. If the distance BC is equal to 1 then AE will 2 (because if the crest
from B has reached C in time , then the crest from A should also have reached E in time )
1 BC c1 c1 c 2
or
2 AE c 2 1 2
When a wave gets refracted into a denser medium (c1 > c2), the wavelength and the speed of propagation
decrease but the frequency remains the same.
Medium 1
B
c 1
c1
A r C
Medium 2 r c 2
c2 > c1 E Refracted
wavefront
We now consider refraction of a plane wave at a rarer medium, i.e., c2 > c1. Proceeding in an exactly similar
manner we can construct a refracted wavefront as shown in figure. The angle of refraction will now be
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WAVE OPTICS
greater than angle of incidence ; however, we will still have n1 sin i = n2 sin r.
n2
We define an angle ic by the following equation sin ic
n1
Thus, if i = ic then sin r = 1 and r = 90º. Obviously, for i > ic, there cannot be any refracted wave. The angle i c
is
known as the critical angle and for all angles of incidence greater than the critical angle, we will not have any
refracted wave and the wave will undergo what is known as total internal reflection.
Reflected
E B wavefront
A r C
M N
We next consider a plane wave AB incident at an angle i on reflecting surface MN. If c represents the
speed of the wave in the medium and if represents the time taken by the wavefront to advance from the
point B to C then the distance BC = c
In order to construct the reflected wavefront, we draw a sphere of radius c from the point A as shown in
figure. Let CE represent the tangent plane dawn from the point C to this sphere. So, AE = BC = c
If we now consider the triangles EAC and BCA we will find that they are congruent and therefore, the angle
i and r (as shown in the figure) would be equal. This is the law of reflection.
Spherical wavefront
of radius f Spherical wavefrom
of Radius R/2
(a) (b) (c)
Refraction of plane wave by (a) a thin prism, (b) a convex lens. (c) Reflection of a plane wave by a concave mirror
In general increase in the thickness of the glass, more the delay observed in that part of wavefront because
speed in glass is lens than speed in air.
Red Shift: When the source and observer move away from each other, the apparent frequency decreases
and hence, wavelength increases. This is called red shift. (because a wavelength in middle of the spectrum
moves towards the red end ( increases ).
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Blue Shift: When source and observer move towards each other, the apparent frequency increases and
hence, wavelength decreases. This is called blue shift. (Similarly since decreases (moves towards Blue
end))
Thus, the Doppler shift can be expressed as:
v v radial
where vradial = VS – V0 S +Ve O
v c
This formula is valid only when the speed of the source is small compared to that of light.
Principle of Superposition:
When two or more waves simultaneously pass through a point, the disturbance of the point is given by the
sum of the disturbances each wave would produce in absence of the other wave(s). In case of wave on
string disturbance means displacement, in case of sound wave it means pressure change, in case of
E.M.W. it is electric field or magnetic field. Superposition of two light traveling in almost same direction
results in modification in the distribution of intensity of light in the region of superposition. This phenomenon
is called interference.
represent the displacement produced by each of the disturbances. Here we are assuming the displacements
to be in the same direction. Now according to superposition principle, the resultant displacement will be given
by,
x(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = a1 sin t + a2 sin (t + ) = A sin (t + 0)
a2 sin
and tan 0 = ........(2)
a1 a2 cos
Interference:
(a) Coherent Sources:
Source emitting waves of the same frequency or wavelength having either a zero or constant phase
difference.
Two independent light sources cannot emit light at the same phase.
Two independent sources cannot be coherent. Coherent sources are always derived from one source.
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Remember:
(i) There is a non-uniform distribution of energy.
(ii) Bright and dark regions are formed in the case of monochromatic coherent waves.
S1 A x
d/2
d Q
O d/2
Source
S2 = dsin B
D
Screen
Description: Start by drawing a neat and labelled diagram. Source S, slits - S1 and S2 at distance d apart,
screen at a large distance D from the slits.
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Remember: Light from S1 and S2 reach the point P with a path difference.
2 2 2
In S2BP , by Pythagoras theorem we have (S2P) = (S2B) + (PB)
2
d
S2P
2
D2 x
2
1 d
2
S2P
2
D2 1 2 x
D 2
1/2
1 d
2
S2P D 1 2 x
D 2
Expanding binomially and neglecting higher order terms
1 d
2
S2P
D 1 2
x
2D 2
2
1 d
S2P
D x
2D 2
2 2 2
Similarly, in S1PA we have (S1P) = (S1A) + (PA)
2
d
S1P D2 x
2
2
1/2
1 d
2
S1P D 1 2 x
D 2
Expanding binomially and neglecting higher order terms
1 d
2
S1P
D 1 2 x
2D 2
2
1 d
S1P
D x
2D 2
Path diff = S2P S1P
1 d
2
1 d
2
D
x D x
2D 2 2D 2
1
2xd xd
2D D
For constructive interference (maxima), path diff = n
xd
n
D
nD
Position of nth brigh fringe is xn
d
D 2D
For n = 1 ; x1 For n = 1 ; x 2
d d
D
x 2 x
1 ( : fringe width)
d
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1
For Destructive interference (minima), path diff = n
2
xd 1 1 D
n x n
D 2 2 d
D
Position of nth dark fringe is xn = (2n – 1)
2d
1 D 3 D
For n = 1 ; x1 = For n = 1 ; x2 =
2 d 2 d
Fringe Width:
It is the distance between two maxima of successive order on one side of the central maxima. This is also
equal to distance between two successive minima.
D
fringe width x 2 x
1 ... (1)
d
Notice that it is directly proportional to wavelength and inversely proportional to the distance
between the two slits.
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Intensity:
Suppose the electric field components of the light waves arriving at point P (in the Figure) from the two slits
S1 and S2 vary with time as
E1 = E0 sin t
2
Here = kx = x
and we have assumed that intensity of the two slits S 1 and S2 are same (say 0); hence waves have same
amplitude E0. Then the resultant electric field at point P is given by,
2
Here = kx = x
2
If D >> d, = d sin
2 y
If D >> d & y << D, = d
D
However if the two slits were of different intensities 1 and 2,
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We discuss the shape of fringes when two pinholes are used instead of the two slits in YDSE.
Fringes are locus of points which move in such a way that its path difference from the two slits remains
constant.
If = ± , the fringe represents 1st minima.
2
3
If = ± it represents 2nd minima
2
= 3
S1
= 2
=
=0 X
= -
= -2
S2
The interference pattern which we get on screen is the section of hyperboloid of revolution when we revolve
the hyperbola about the axis S1S2.
A. If the screen is perpendicular to the X axis, i.e. in the YZ plane, as is generally the case, fringes are
hyperbolic with a straight central section.
Z
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C. If screen is perpendicular to Y axis (along S1S2), ie in the XZ plane, fringes are concentric circles with
center on the axis S1S2; the central fringe is bright if S1S2 = n and dark if S1S2 = (2n – 1) .
2
Y
3000
then constructive interference will occur for wavelengths = nm. In the visible region these
n
wavelength are 750 nm (red), 600 nm (yellow), 500 nm (greenish–yellow), 430 nm (violet). Clearly such a
light will appear white to the unaided eye.
Thus with white light we get a white central fringe at the point of zero path difference, followed by a few
coloured fringes on its both sides, the color soon fading off to a uniform white.
In the usual interference pattern with a monochromatic source, a large number of identical interference
fringes are obtained and it is usually not possible to determine the position of central maxima. Interference
with white light is used to determine the position of central maxima in such cases.
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If the light travels by x, its phase changes by kx = x, where , the frequency of light does not depend
v
c
on the medium, but v, the speed of light depends on the medium as v = .
Consequently, change in phase = kx = (x)
c
It is clear that a wave travelling a distance x in a medium of refractive index suffers the same phase
change as when it travels a distance x in vacuum. i.e. a path length of x in medium of refractive index
is equivalent to a path length of x in vacuum.
The quantity x is called the optical path length of light, xopt . And in terms of optical path length, phase
Diffraction:
Meaning: It is the spreading of waves round the corners of an obstacle, of the order of wave length.
Definition of Diffraction
The phenomenon of bending of light waves around the sharp edges of opaque obstacles or aperture and
their encroachment in the geometrical shadow of obstacle or aperture is defined as diffraction of light.
Necessary conditions of Diffraction of Waves
The size of the obstacle (a) must be of the order of the wavelength of the waves ().
a
1
Note: Greater the wave length of wave higher will be its degree of diffraction. This is the reason that
diffraction of sound & radio waves is easily observed but for diffraction of light, additional arrangement have
to be arrange.
sound > light
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Wave length of sound is nearly equal to size of obstacle. If size of obstacle is a & wavelength of light is
then,
S.No. a V/S Diffraction
Interpretation of Diffraction
As a result of diffraction, maxima & minima of light intensities are found which has unequal intensities.
Diffraction is the result of superposing of waves from infinite number of coherent sources on the same
wavefront after the wavefront has been distorted by the obstacle.
Example of Diffraction
When an intense source of light is viewes with the partially opened eye, colours are observed in the
light.
Sound produced in one room can be heard in the nearby room.
Appearance of a shining circle around the section of sun just before sun rise.
Coloured spectrum is observed if a light source at far distance is seen through a thin cloth.
Helps by Conclude that:
(i) Wavelength of light should be greater than (or comparable with) the size of the object or aperture.
(ii) To answer questions like why sound bends over a wall and light does not.
Slit width a
Screen distance D
To P
L L
M1 M1
From S M To C a M
M2 M2
N We are treating different part of the
N wavefront at the slit as secondary
a sin
so u r ce s. B e si d e , si n ce i n co mi n g
wavefront is | | to the plane of slit these
sources are in phase
The geometry of path differences If two points M 1 and M 2 are separated by distance y,
for diffraction by a single slit the path difference M 2P – M 1P = y
Central Maxima:
Secondary waves from points equidistant from the centre of slit lying in portion LM and MN of the wavefront
travel the same distance in reaching the point C.
Path difference between them is zero.
Resulting in the maximum intensity at point C.
Now consider a secondary wave traveling in a direction making an angle . Let these waves reach at point
P on the screen. Thus, intensity at point P will depend upon the path difference.
Secondary Minima:
Let path difference be . Then, the whole wavefront can be divided into two equal halves LM and MN such
that the path difference between the secondary waves from L and M reaching pt. P will be / 2 . So, for
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every point in the upper half, there is a corresponding point in the lower half such that phase difference
between them is .
So, destructive interference takes place and we get minima.
Similarly, for the path difference 2 , 3 ………, we will get minima.
Path diff = n (Here path diff: between the end point of the slit i.e. L and N)
n n
a sin n sin n 0
d d minima
Secondary Maxima:
3
If the path difference = , then wavefront can be divided into 3 equal parts, so that path diff between the
2
waves reaching point. P from first two parts will be / 2 which give rise to destructive interference.
However, secondary waves from the third part remain unused.
It results in certain intensity at point P and we get a maxima.
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Similarly, for path diff = , ,...
2 2
We will get maxima on screen Path diff = (2n + 1)
2
2n 1
a sin 2n 1 n 0
2 2a max ima
(b)
Incoming (a) viewing screen
wave
D
Also, Width of Maxima = Width of Minima = (Linear width) and (Angular width)
(Not Central) a a
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Intensity-Distribution Curve
Intensity
Note
Sometimes we place a converging lens after the slits And Place the Screet at Focus. Note that the lens
doesn't introduce any extra path differnces in a parallel Beam. In this case, D = F(focal length). s.t.
Linear width of:
2D 2F
Central maxima =
a a
D F
(Other) max/min. =
a a
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Ia 1 I0
S1
S2 Ia 2
O
In YDSE, if S1 and S2 are not negligibly small but of size a, then on the screen super position of single slit
diffraction from each slit & double-slit interference pattern is seen. In the broader central bright fringe of the
diffraction, there appears several fringes of smaller width due to double slit interference. The number of
interference frings occuring in the broad diffraction peak depends on the ratio d/a.
If a reduces, d/a increases, increasing the width of central max and number of fringes in it.
d
If a 0 No. of fringes
a
Thus the pattern is same as in YDSE.
Note
What will happen if we close one of the slit of YDSE?
Now, a single slit diffraction pattern is observed on screen. The centre of the central Bright fringe
appears at a point which lies on a straight line. SS1 or SS2 as the case may be.
a2
The Fresnel distance ZF is thus given by ZF (a = size of aperture)
For distances much smaller than ZF, the spreading due to diffraction is smaller compared to the size of
the beam. It becomes comparable when the distance is approx Z F. For distances much greater than
ZF, the spreading due to diffraction dominates over that due to ray optics.
Circular diffraction:
(i) In a convex lens; because of diffraction a || beam instead of getting focused at point ; gets focused to
a spot of finite area.
(ii) The pattern on the focal plane would consist of a central bright region surrounded by concentric dark &
bright rings where radius of the central bright region is:
1.22 D 1.22 f
r0
d 2a
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2a 0.61 f
a
f
A Parallel beam of light is incident on a convex lens.
Because of diffraction effects, the beam gets focused to a spot of radius = 0.61
f/a.
Resolving Power:
Object 1
dmin
Object 2 D
F
V
Here object are placed at F or very close to F u = F ; v = Image Distance
For the 2 objects to be just resolved.
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1.22 V
V
D
dmin dmin 1.22 1.22 F
Also:
dmin
F F D D
D/2
Here tan [ 2 is the angle subtended by diameter of objective lens at focus of microscope.)
F
1.22 F 1.22 F
D 2F tan 2F sin for small dmin
D 2F sin
If a medium of refractive index „n‟ is placed in between object and objective lens.
1.22
F nF; , n refractive index of medium dmin
n 2n sin
1 2nsin
Resolving Power =
d min 1.22
Resolving Power can be increased by choosing a medium of higher refractive index.
Usually an oil having refractive index close to that of the objective glass is used. Such an arrangement
is called “oil immersion objective”
Also, Since its not possible to makes sin greater than unity. Resolving power of Microscope is
Polarisation: As known, EM Waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The direction of the
electric field vector and the magnetic field vector are mutually perpendicular as well as perpendicular to the
direction of wave propagation. The direction of propagation and the direction of the electric field vector fix the
direction of the magnetic field vector.
Unpolarised EM Wave:
In ordinary light (light from sun, bulb etc.) the electric field vectors are distributed in all directions in a light
is called unpolarised light. The oscillation of propagation of light wave resolved into horizontal and
vertical component.
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Partially Polarized Light: When light is seen through a rotating analyzer, one sees maximum and minimum
of intensity but not complete darkness, and type of light is called partially polarized light.
Polaroids: A polaroid consists of long chain molecules aligned in a particular direction. The electric vectors
(associated with the propagating light wave) along the direction of the aligned molecules get absorbed. Thus,
if an unpolarised light wave is incident on such a polaroid then the light wave will get linearly polarised with
the electric vector oscillating along a direction perpendicular to the aligned molecules; this direction is known
as the pass-axis of the polaroid.
It is observed that when unpolarised light from a sodium lamp, is made to pass through a randomly oriented
polaroid, then the intensity of light coming out of the polaroid is half of that was incident onto the polaroid,
whatever be the orientation of the polaroid. However, when another polaroid is introduced after the first one,
2
then the intensity of the light coming out of the second Polaroid is given by I = I 0cos [∵E cos component
nd
will pass through the pass axis of 2 Polaroid] where I is the intensity of the light coming out from the
Polaroid 1 and is the angle between the pass axis of the two polaroids.
Malus law: This law states that the intensity of the polarised light transmitted through the analyser varies as
the square of the cosine of the angle between the plane of transmission of the analyser and the plane of the
polariser.
If = 0º, = 0 , A = A0 . If = 90º , = 0 , A = 0
1
So 0 = i.e. if an unpolarised light is converted into plane polarised light (say by passing it
2
1
though a Polariod or a Nicolprism, its intensity becomes half. and I = cos2.
2
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Polarisation by Scattering:
Incident Sunlight
(Unpolarised)
Scattered Light
(Polarised)
To Observer
Oscillating electric field of an unpolarised light can be thought to consist of two independent and
perpendicular electric fields as shown by dot and arrow in the figure shown. {There is no phase relation
between these two unpolarised light]
Under the influence of the electric field of the incident wave, the electrons in the molecules acquire
components of motion in both these directions. When an observer looks at 90° to the direction of the sun,
charges accelerating parallel to the double arrows do not radiate energy towards this observer since their
acceleration has no transverse component, and only the electrons oscillating parallel to the dots radiate
energy towards the observer. It is polarized perpendicular to the plane of the figure. This explains the
polarisation of scattered light from the sky.
Polarisation by Reflection:
Note
When unpolarised light is incident on the boundary between two transparent media, the reflected
light is polarized with its electric vector r to the plane of incidence when the refracted and reflected
rays make a right angle with each other. [The oscillating electrons on water produce reflected wave]
The angle of incidence in this case is called Brewster‟s angle and is denoted by i B.
iB r 2
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polarizer, if we remove all the light with its Electric field vector to plane of incidence and let this light be
incident on prism surface at Brewster angle, there will be No reflection & total transmission of light.
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