 Diffraction grating

Definition:
A diffraction grating is an optical device, consisting of a large number of
narrow slits placed side by side that are separated by opaque space or obstacle.

Types of diffraction grating:

There are two types of diffraction grating.
(i) Plane transmission grating
(ii) Plane or Concave reflection grating

Transmission grating: When a wave front of light is incident on a grating

surface, light is transmitted through narrow slits and obstructed by the opaque
portion. Such a grating is called transmission grating.

Reflection grating: When a wave front of light is incident on a grating surface,

light is reflected from the position of mirror in between lines. Such a grating is
called reflection grating.

Line
Fabrication of grating:
Gratings are fabricated by ruling equidistant
parallel lines on a transparent material (Fig.10), like
glass, quartz, with the help of a fine diamond point.
The space in between any two lines is transparent Slit
to light and ruled lines are opaque to light. Fig.10
This type of grating acts as transmission grating.
On the other hand, if the lines are drawn on a silvered surface (Plane or
Concave) of a mirror, then light is reflected from the positions of the mirror in
between any two lines. Such a grating acts like a plane or concave reflection
grating.
Number of lines and their spacing:
Usually, study for visible region 104 lines/cm or 106 lines/m are drawn in a
grating. The spacing of a grating is from µm to wavelength of light. When the
line width is 4000-8000Å, deviation of light is produced.

 Intensity distribution due to Diffraction grating

X M

L
θ
P´

d
a P

b
θ
B dz

Y N

Fig.11

Figure 11 shows an arrangement of a grating (AB) where plane wave fronts of

light are incident and the diffracted rays are viewed on XY-screen. Let a= width
of each line, b= width of each slit. Here, d=(a+b) is called grating element or
grating constant and is denoted by 1/N´. So, N´=1/(a+b)= number of lines per
unit length.
By Huygens’s principle of secondary wavelets, each of the infinite points in the
plane of the slit sends out secondary wavelets in all direction. The secondary
waves travelling in the same direction (θ=0) are focused by a convex lens L at a
point P on XY. At P, we get central maximum. To know the intensity pattern at
other points on XY, we consider waves whose travelled direction makes θ with
the incident beam, reaching at a point P´. We will get dark and bright bands at
two sides of P.

sin t  kx  kz sin  )

cdz
For a single slit, dy 
x
If we let,  ( z )  sin t  kx  kz sin  ) , then for N slits:
b b b
 d 2d 
2 2 2
c
y   dy  [   ( z )dz    ( z)dz    ( z)dz  ....................
x b b b
 d 2d 
2 2 2

b
( N 1) d 
2
   ( z)dz ............................................................(1)
b
( N 1) d 
2

On simplification,
cb sin 
y [sin(t  kx)  sin(t  kx  kd sin  ) 
x 
sin(t  kx  2kd sin  )  ........ sin{t  kx  ( N 1)kd sin  }]
-------------------------(2)

kb sin  kd sin 
where   . If y  t  kx , n=N‒1 and
   , then
2 2
cb sin 
y [sin y  sin( y  2 )  sin( y  2.2 )  ...  sin( y  n.2 )]
x 
------------------------------(3)
 cb sin  p n

x 
 sin( y  pm) ----------------------------------(4)
p 0

where γ=m/2.
nm n 1
p n sin( y  ) sin( )m
But,  sin( y  pm) 
p 0
2
m
2
--------------------(5)
sin
2
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Formula verification: Taking left side,
p 1
m m
 sin( y  pm)  sin y  sin( y  m)  2 sin( y  2 ) cos 2
p 0

m m m
2 sin( y  ) cos sin
 2 2 2
m
sin
2
m
sin( y  ) sin m
 2
m
sin
2
Taking right side,
nm (n  1)m
sin( y  ) sin
 2 2
m
sin
2
m
sin( y  ) sin m
 2 for n  1
m
sin
2
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
From equations (5) and (6):
nm n 1
sin( y  ) sin( )m
cb sin  2 2
y
x  sin
m
2
N 1 Nm
sin{ y  ( )m} sin
cb sin  2 2
  n  N 1
x  sin
m
2
cb sin  sin N m
 sin{t  kx  ( N  1) }  
x  sin  2
cb sin  sin N
Here, amplitude, A 
x  sin 
cb 2 sin 2  sin 2 N
Intensity, I  ( )
x  2 sin 2 
cb 2
If γ→0 and β→0, then, I  ( )  Io
x
sin 2  sin 2 N
I  Io
So,
 2 sin 2  --------------------------------------(6)
sin 2 
Here,
2 is diffraction terms due to a single slit and

sin 2 N
sin 2  is interference terms due to coherent waves from N slits

Principal maxima:
If sin   0, then   n , where n=0, 1, 2, ......
Again, N=1, 2, 3, ....., then sin N  0,
 sin N
Hence,  indeterminate
sin 
sin N
The value of  when   n can be obtained by differentiating
sin 
numerator and denominator using L. Hospital’s rule:
d
sin N
sin N d N cos N
Lt  n  Lt  n  Lt  n  N
sin  d
sin  cos 
d

sin 2 
I  Io N2
Hence,
 2

sin 2 
I  N Io2

 2 ------------------------------------------(7)

This equation shows principal maxima when

  n
kd sin 
or,   n
2
2 (a  b) sin 
or,   n
 2
or, (a  b) sin   n ---------------------------(8)

n=0 corresponds to zero order (central) maximum. We obtain 1st, 2nd,

3rd,............. order principal maxima for n=1, 2, 3, ........... Positive and negative
signs are used to show same order maximum on both sides
 1st Central 1st

n=-1 n=0 n=1

Fig.12

Minima:
If sin N  0 but sin   0 , then I=0. Therefore, for minima,

sin N  0
or N   p
kd sin 
or, N   p
2
2 (a  b) sin 
or, N   p
 2
or, N (a  b) sin    p ------------------------------((9)
Where p has all integral values except 0, N, 2N, ....nN, because for these values
we get similar conditions of equation (8), which show maxima instead of
minima. This is contradictory. So, p=1, 2, 3, ...(N‒1). Since for these values of p
we get minima, then there must have maxima in between these minima. These
maxima are called secondary maxima.

Secondary maxima:
Since (N‒1) minima occur between two adjacent principal maxima, so there
must be (N‒2) other maxima between two principal maxima [Let N‒1=4, so
there will be (N‒1)‒1=3 other maxima, as can be obvious from figure 14].
These maxima can be obtained from the condition as follows:
 sin 2  sin 2 N
We know, I  I o
 2 sin 2 

dI max sin 2  sin 2  .2. sin N . cos N .N  sin 2 N .2 sin  . cos 

 0  Io .[ ]
d  2
sin 
4

dI max sin 2  N cos N sin   sin N cos 

 0  Io .2. sin N . sin  [ ]
d 2 sin 4 

N cos N sin   sin N cos 

0
or, sin 4 

or N cos N sin   sin N cos   0

or N cos N sin   sin N cos 
or N tan   tan N --------------------------------(10)
The positions of secondary maxima are obtained from the roots of equation
(10), other than those for which   n (that correspond to the principal

sin 2 N
N tan   tan N , we can
maxima). To evaluate the value of
sin 2  from
use the right-angled triangle (Fig.13).
This gives: N 2  cot 2 
N
sin N 
N 2  cot2  N

sin 2 N N2 Nγ

or
sin 2  ( N 2  cot2  ).sin 2 
cotγ

Fig.13
 N2
 2 2
N sin   cos2 

N2

1  ( N 2  1) sin 2 
So, Intensity of secondary maxima:

sin 2  N2
I  Io
2 1  ( N 2  1) sin 2 
I (seconadry max) 1

I (principal max) 1  ( N 2  1) sin 2  --------------------(11)
The ratio decreases as N increases and zero when N→∞. Graph of secondary
maxima is shown in Fig.14
sin 2 
2

sin 2 N
sin 2 

Fig.14
Numbers of maximum orders available with a grating:

The maximum orders can be obtained from:

(a  b) sin   n
( a  b) sin 
n -----------------------------(12)


So, λ will decide the maximum orders of diffraction for a given (a+b). For n max,
θmax=90°.

( a  b)
So, nmax 

If (a+b)<3λ, then nmax<3.

Absent spectra with a diffraction grating:

Sometimes 1st order is clearly visible, 2nd order not visible and 3rd order is again
visible and so on. This occurs for a given θ if the path difference between two
extreme ends is equal to nλ.

The principal maxima are given by: (a  b) sin   n

The minima for a single slit are: b sin   p
(a  b) n
So, 
b p
This is the condition for absent spectra. To suppress the 2nd order n=2=2p, i.e.
( a  b)
p=1. So, 2
b
ab
The width of ruling is equal to width of the sheet.
Effect of increase in the width of a ruled surface:
For a transmission grating, the principal maximum of wavelength λ in the
direction θ is given by:
(a  b) sin   n --------------------------------------(1)
If N is the total number of slits in the grating, then equ (1) becomes:
N (a  b) sin   nN --------------------------------------(2)
Now, for the first minimum adjacent to the
nth maximum in the increasing direction of
θ, let its direction be along θ+dθ (Fig.15). Here,
θ
dθ is the angular width of the nth maximum. dθ

Fig.15
Now, the directions of minima are given by:
N (a  b) sin   p --------------------------------------(3)
Where p can take any value except, 0, N, 2N, .....nN. As a result, if nth principal
maximum occurs at nN, then 1st minimum after nth maximum will occur at
nN+1. So,
N (a  b) sin(  d )  (nN  1) --------------------(3)
or, N (a  b)[sin cos d  cos sin d ]  (nN  1) -------------(3)
Since dθ is very small, cosdθ≈1 and sindθ≈dθ. So,
N (a  b)[sin  cosd ]  (nN  1) -------------(3)
or, N (a  b) sin   N (a  b) cosd  (nN  1) -------------(3)
Using equation (2):
nN  N (a  b) cos d  (nN  1) -------------(3)
or, N (a  b) cos d  

d 
or,
N (a  b) cos
 1 1  1 1
d  
or, 2 2 N n cos 2 nN cot
sin 
So, larger the width (a+b) of ruled surface, smaller is the angular half width and
sharper is the maxima. Half width is inversely proportional to N and cotθ. This
means, if N and cotθ are larger, sharper is the diffraction maxima.

Dispersive power of a grating:

Definition: Dispersive power of a grating is defined as the ratio of the difference

in the angle of diffraction of any two neighboring spectral lines to the difference
d
in wavelength between two spectral lines. It is defined as .
d
d
= difference in angle of diffraction per unit change in wavelength. For a
d

given λ, the diffraction condition of nth principal maxima is:

(a  b) sin   n ----------------------------------(1)
or, (a  b) cosd  nd
d n

d (a  b) cos
nN 

cos
d
where, N´=Number of lines per unit length. So, is proportional to n,
d
d
proportional to N´ and inversely proportional to cosθ. If θ increases,
d

increases, It is minimum at θ=0. If θ is small, dθ is proportional dλ. This is

called normal dispersion.
Resolving power of an instrument:

A fortune teller observes our palm by a magnifying glass to see lines on palm
very clearly and distinctly. We use best quality binocular to see a cricket match
in a stadium. An appropriate telescope is necessary to see very nearby stars at a
large distance. A camera lens of superior quality is required to have good
photograph. So, optical instruments like microscope, telescope, lens, prism and
gratings that aid our vision depend on physical phenomenon, known as
diffraction of two nearby points. The condition to obtain a best quality images,
also known as resolution, was given by Rayleigh.
We know magnification or magnifying power of a microscope or a telescope
depends on focal length of the lenses used in the instrument. Image size can be
increased by changing focal length of a lens or a proper choice of a lens. But
there is a certain limit of magnification of an optical instrument. This is due to
the fact that for a wave surface, the laws of geometrical optics do not hold good.
From the knowledge of diffraction of light, it is clear that the image of a point
source is basically diffraction instead of a point. When a light is kept in front of
a circular aperture, the diffraction pattern of the point source of light consists of
a central bright disc surrounded by alternately dark and bright diffraction rings.
When aperture diameter (of a lens or holes) is larger, the diffraction effect of a
point source is small. If we keep two point sources very close to each other, then
the diffraction disc of one may be overlapped by the other and hence image of
two point sources cannot be seen clearly. Consequently, optical instruments are
used to resolve the image of two point sources when their diffraction patterns
are well separated. For example, consider two points very close to each other.
Our eyes cannot separate them, because the diffraction of the two points occurs
by the aperture of eye lens overlap each other, whereas a magnifying glass can
separate them.
Definition of a resolving power:
The ability of an optical instrument, expressed in numerical measure, to resolve
the images of two closely spaced points is termed as its resolving power.

Criterion of Lord Rayleigh:

Rayleigh’s criterion states that “two nearby images are said to be resolved if the
position of the principal maximum in the diffraction pattern of one coincides
with the first minimum of the diffraction pattern of the other and vice versa.

A B
Explanation of Rayleigh’s criterion:
A B
principal
maxima
Consider Fig.16 consisting of two principal
maxima A and B having wavelength λ1
and λ2, respectively. In this case, the
λ1 Fig.16 λ2 θ
diffraction is large enough and two images
A B
are thus separate. This means θ1 corresponding
C
to principal maximum B is greater than θ2 principal
maxima
corresponding to1st minimum to the right of A. A B increased

So, spectral lines are well resolved

In Fig.17, the central maxima have
wavelengths λ and λ+dλ. The angle of diffraction λ λ+dλ θ
Fig.17
for 1st minimum A is greater than that for
A B
principal maxima of B. The two maxima Dip in the
A B middle
overlap and the images cannot be separated. principal C principal
maxima maxima
The maximum intensity is C. If we go from
A to B, we find an increase in intensity at C.
λ λ+dλ θ
In Fig.18, the position of the principal maximum
Fig.18
of A (of λ) coincides with the position of the first
minimum of B (of λ+dλ). Similarly, the position of the principal
maximum of B coincides with the position of the first minimum of A. The
resultant intensity shows a dip at C (in the middle), where the intensity is about
20% less than that at A or B. Thus, we can say that A and B are distinguishable.
In another words of Rayleigh's criteria, "Two images are said to be just resolved
if the radius of the central disc of either patterns is equal to the distance between
the centers of the two patterns."

Resolving power of a grating:

The important property of a diffraction grating is its ability to resolve two or
more spectral lines which have nearly the same wavelength.
"The resolving power of a diffraction grating is defined as the capacity to form
separate diffraction maxima of two wavelengths which are very closed to each

other". This is measured by the ratio , where d λ is the smallest difference in
d

two wavelengths which are just resolved by grating and is the wavelength of
either of them, or the mean wavelength λ.

Expression for resolving power:

Consider the surface of a A X
plane transmission grating AB.
N is the number of slits; λ+dλ P2
nth
a+b is the grating element. dθn λ P1 order
A beam of light consisting θn central
of wavelength λ and λ+dλ image
is incident on the grating.
XY is the field of view of
a telescope. B Y

P1 is nth primary maximum

of a spectral line for λ, diffracted at θn.
P2 is nth primary maximum of a spectral line for λ+dλ, diffracted at θn+dθn.
To see clearly the two wavelengths, the Rayleigh's criterion (Two lines will be
resolved if the principal maximum of λ+dλ (in nth order) in a direction θ n+dθn
falls over the first minimum of λ in the same direction θn+dθn. We shall consider
the 1st minimum of λ in a direction θn+dθn as follows:
The principal maximum of λ in the direction of θn is given by:
(a  b) sin  n  n ----------------------------------(1)

or, N (a  b) sin  n  nN

The equation of minima is:
N (a  b) sin  n  p ----------------------------------(2)
where p has all integral values except 0, N, 2N,...........nN, because for these
values of p, the condition for maxima is satisfied and we get diffraction maxim.
Thus the 1st minimum adjacent to nth principal maximum in the direction
θn+dθn can be obtained by substituting the value of p as nN+1. Therefore, the
1st minimum in the direction θn+dθn is:
N (a  b) sin( n  d n )  (nN  1) --------------------------(3)
Now, the principal maximum of wavelength λ+dλ in the direction θn+dθn is:
(a  b) sin( n  d n )  n(  d ) --------------------------(4)

or, N (a  b) sin( n  d n )  nN (  d ) -----------------------(5)

From equ (3) and (5), we get:
(nN  1)  nN (  d )
or, nN    nN  nNd 
or,   nNd 

So,  nN --------------------------------------(6)
d
This is the equation of resolving power of a grating of N slits for diffraction
order n.
Conclusions:

(i) n
d

(ii) N
d
( a  b) sin  n
Again from equation (1): n

 N (a  b) sin  n
So,  ---------------------------(7)
d 
d 
Distinction between (dispersive power) and
d d (resolving power) of a
grating:

1.
d indicates the limit of resolution of two close objects to be just
resolved.
d
d indicates an idea of angular separation between two spectral lines.

2.
d is measured by nN.
d n
d is measured by (a  b) sin  n

3.
d increases with N
d
d remains unchanged with N
 
4.
d remains unchanged with grating element (a+b)
d
d increases with (a+b)