CLASS XII

Detailed Notes As Per BOARD Examination

PHYSICS

CHAPTER-12
ATOMS

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ATOMS
Important Atomic Models
Thomson's model
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of atom. According to this model.
(i) An atom is a solid sphere in which entire and positive charge and it's mass is uniformly distributed and
in which negative charge (i.e. electron) are embedded like seeds in watermelon.
Positively charged
– sphere
– –
–
– Electron
–

Success and failure

Explained successfully the phenomenon of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and ionization.

The model fail to explain the scattering of - particles and it cannot explain the origin of spectral lines
observed in the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms.
Rutherford's model

Rutherford's -particle scattering experiment

Rutherford performed experiments on the scattering of alpha particles by extremely thin gold foils and made
the following observations

 Number of scattered particles :

N
1
r0 b N 4
sin ( / 2)
Nucleus N(180°)

-particle
(energy E )

(i) Most of the -particles pass through the foil straight away undeflected.
(ii) Some of them are deflected through small angles.
o
(iii) A few -particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through the angle more than 90 .
o
(iv) A few  -particles (very few) returned back i.e. deflected by 180 .
(v) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension)
The minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the -particle approach, is called the distance of
1 Ze2 1
closest approach (r0). From figure r0  . ; E  mv 2 K.E. of -particle
40 E 2

(vi) Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector ( v ) of the -particle from the

centre of the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as impact parameter. It is given as
Ze2 cot( / 2)
b  b  cot( / 2)
1 2
40  mv 
2 

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 If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -particles scattered in a particular direction (
N N t
= constant), it was observed that  constant  1  1 .
t N2 t 2

After Rutherford's scattering of -particles experiment, following conclusions were made as regard as
atomic structure :
(a) Most of the mass and all of the charge of an atom concentrated in a very small region is called atomic
nucleus.
–15
(b) Nucleus is positively charged and it's size is of the order of 10 m  1 Fermi.
(c) In an atom there is maximum empty space and the electrons revolve around the nucleus in the same
way as the planets revolve around the sun.

Atom

Nucleus
+

10–15 m

10–10 m
Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10–15 m
Size of the atom 1 Å = 10–10 m

Draw backs
(i) Stability of atom : It could not explain stability of atom because according to classical electrodynamic
theory an accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate energy. Thus an electron moving in
an circular path around the nucleus should also radiate energy and thus
move into smaller and smaller orbits of gradually decreasing radius and it
e–
should ultimately fall into nucleus.
(ii) According to this model the spectrum of atom must be continuous where as
practically it is a line spectrum.
(iii) It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside the nucleus. Instability of atom

Bohr's model
Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also applicable for some lighter atoms in which a
single electron revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze (called hydrogen like atom)
Bohr's model is based on the following postulates.
(i) The electron can revolve only in certain discrete non-radiating orbits, called stationary orbits, for which
h
total angular momentum of the revolving electrons is an integral multiple of ( )
2

 h 
i.e. L n
  2  mvr; where n = 1, 2, 3, ……..= Principal quantum number
 

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(ii) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
When electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E1) to lower energy orbit (E2) then difference of
energies of these orbits i.e. E1 – E2 emits in the form of photon. But if electron goes from E 2 to E1 it
absorbs the same amount of energy.

E1 E1

E1 – E2 = h E1 – E2 = h
 E2 E2
Emission Absorption


h
 According to Bohr theory the momentum of an e  revolving in second orbit of H2 atom will be

th
 For an electron in the n orbit of hydrogen atom in Bohr model, circumference of orbit  n  ; where  =
de-Broglie wavelength.

Bohr's Orbits (For Hydrogen and H2-Like Atoms)

(1) Radius of orbit

For an electron around a stationary nucleus the electrostatics force of attraction provides the
necessary centripetal force

1 (Ze)e mv 2 nh
i.e.  ……. (i) also mvr  …….(ii)
40 r 2 r 2
th
From equation (i) and (ii) radius of n orbit
r
n2h2 n2 h2  0 n2  1 
rn   0.53 Å  wherek  
2
4 kZme 2
mZe 2
Z  4  0 

2 n
 

 The radius of the innermost orbit (n = 1) hydrogen atom (z = 1) is called Bohr's radius a 0 i.e.
a0  0.53Å .

(2) Speed of electron

th
From the above relations, speed of electron in n orbit can be calculated as v

2kZe2 Ze2  c  Z Z
v   . 2.2  106 m / sec
20nh  137  n
n
nh n
8 n
where (c = speed of light 3  10 m/s)

 The ratio of speed of an electron in ground state in Bohr's first orbit of hydrogen atom to velocity of
e2 1
light in air is equal to  (where c = speed of light in air)
20 ch 137

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(3) Some other quantities

th
For the revolution of electron in n orbit, some other quantities are given in the following table

Quantity Formula Dependency on n and Z

(1) Angular speed v n mz2 e4 Z2

n  n 
rn 202n3h3 n3

(2) Frequency n mz2 e4 Z2

n  n 
2 402n3h3 n3

(3) Time period 1 402n3h3 n3

T
n  Tn 
n mz2 e4 Z2

(4) Angular momentum  h  Ln  n

Ln mv
  nrn n 
 2 

(5) Corresponding current mz2 e5 Z2

in  en  in 
402n3h3 n3

(6) Magnetic moment M

n 
 in  rn2
in A  Mn  n

eh
(where 
0  Bohr magneton)
4m

(7) Magnetic field 0in m2 z3 e7 0 Z3

B
  B
2rn 830n5h5 n5

(4) Energy
(i) Potential energy : An electron possesses some potential energy because it is found in the field of

th (Ze)( e) kZe2

nucleus potential energy of electron in n orbit of radius rn is given by U  k.  
rn rn

(ii) Kinetic energy : Electron posses kinetic energy because of it's motion. Closer orbits have greater
kinetic energy than outer ones.

mv 2 k.(Ze)(e) kZe2 | U |
As we know   Kinetic energy
 K 
rn rn2 2rn 2

(iii) Total energy : Total energy (E) is the sum of potential energy and kinetic energy i.e. E = K + U

kZe2 n2 h2  0  me 4  z2  me 4  z2
 E  also rn  . Hence E   2 2 . 2    2 3  ch 2
2rn mze2  8 0 h  n  80 ch  n

Z2 Z2
Rch 2 
 13.6 2 eV
n n

me4 7
where R  = Rydberg's constant = 1.09  10 per metre
802ch3

 

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 Each Bohr orbit has a definite energy

13.6
 For hydrogen atom (Z = 1)  En   eV
n2
 The state with n = 1 has the lowest (most negative) energy. For hydrogen atom it is E1 = – 13.6 eV.
 Rch = Rydberg's energy –2.17  1018 J– 31.6eV .

U
 E K  .
2
(iv) Ionisation energy and potential : The energy required to ionise an atom is called ionisation energy.
It is the energy required to make the electron jump from the present orbit to the infinite orbit.

 Z2  13.6Z 2
Hence Eionisation  E  En  0   13.6 2    eV
 n  n2

13.6(1)2
For H2-atom in the ground state
Eionisation  13.6 eV
n2
Ionisation energy of He+ Ion = 54.4 eV
Ionisation energy of Li++ Ion = 122.4 eV
The potential through which an electron need to be accelerated so that it acquires energy equal to the
Eionisation
ionisation energy is called ionisation potential. Vionisation 
e
I.P of H atom = 13.6 V

I.P. of He+ Ion = 54.4 V

(v) Excitation energy and potential : When the electron is given energy from external source, it jumps to
higher energy level. This phenomenon is called excitation.
The minimum energy required to excite an atom is called excitation energy of the particular excited
state and corresponding potential is called exciting potential.

Eexcitation
EExcitation
 EFinal  EInitial and VExcitation 
e

Energy in ground state of H atom = –13.6 eV

Energy in first excited state of H-atom = –3.4 eV

st excitation energy = 10.2 eV.

(vi) Binding energy (B.E.) : Binding energy of a system is defined as the energy released when it's
constituents are brought from infinity to form the system. It may also be defined as the energy needed
to separate it's constituents to large distances. If an electron and a proton are initially at rest and
brought from large distances to form a hydrogen atom, 13.6 eV energy will be released. The binding
energy of a hydrogen atom is therefore 13.6 eV.

13.6
 For hydrogen atom principle quantum number n  .
(B.E.)

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Energy level diagram

The diagrammatic description of the energy of the electron in different orbits around the nucleus is called
energy level diagram.
Lymen Pfund
series Brackett series
series
n =7 –0.28eV
n =6 –0.38eV
n =5 –0.54eV
n =4 –0.85eV
n =3 –1.51eV
Paschen
series
n =2 –3.40eV
Balmer
series

n =1 –13.6eV

Energy level diagram of hydrogen/hydrogen like atom

n= Infinite Infinite E = 0 eV 0 eV 0 eV

2
n=4 Fourth Third E4 = – 0.85 eV – 0.85 Z + 0.85 eV
2
n=3 Third Second E3 = – 1.51 eV – 1.51 Z + 1.51 eV
2
n=2 Second First E2 = – 3.4 eV – 3.4 Z + 3.4 eV
2
n=1 First Ground E1 = – 13.6 eV – 13.6 Z + 13.6 eV

Principle Orbit Excited Energy for H2 Energy for H2 Ionisation energy

quantum state – atom – like atom from this level (for
number H2 – atom)

 In hydrogen atom excitation energy to excite electron from ground state to first excited state will be
3.4  ( 13.6) 10.2 eV .

and from ground state to second excited state it is [ 1.51  ( 13.6) 12.09 eV ].

 In an H2 atom when e  makes a transition from an excited state to the ground state it’s kinetic energy

increases while potential and total energy decreases.

Series limit : Line of any group having maximum energy of photon and minimum wavelength of that group is
called series limit.

Transition of electron
When an electron makes transition from higher energy level having energy E2(n2) to a lower energy level
having energy E1 (n1) then a photon of frequency  is emitted

(i) Energy of emitted radiation

E2 n2

Rc h Z 2  Rch Z 2  2 1 1 E,,

E  E
2  E1 2
  2  13.6Z  2  2 
n2  n1   n1 n2  E1 n1
Emission

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(ii) Frequency of emitted radiation

E E2  E1  1 1
E  h  
   Rc Z2  2  2 
h h  n1 n2 

(iii) Wave number/wavelength

1 
Wave number is the number of waves in unit length  
 c

1  1 1  13.6Z 2  1 1
 RZ 2  2 
 2   2  2
 n
 1 n 2  hc n
 1 n 2 

(iv) Number of spectral lines : If an electron jumps from higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit it emits
raidations with various spectral lines.

If electron falls from orbit n2 to n1 then the number of spectral lines emitted is given by

(n2  n1  1)(n2  n1 )
NE 
2
th
If electron falls from n orbit to ground state (i.e. n2 = n and n1 = 1) then number of spectral lines
n(n  1)
emitted NE 
2

 Absorption spectrum is obtained only for the transition from lowest energy level to higher energy
levels. Hence the number of absorption spectral lines will be (n – 1).

(v) Recoiling of an atom : Due to the transition of electron, photon is emitted and the atom is recoiled

h  1 1
Recoil momentum of atom = momentum of photon  hRZ 2  2  2 
 n
 1 n 2 

p2 h2
Also recoil energy of atom   (where m = mass of recoil atom)
2m 2m  2

Draw backs of Bohr's atomic model

+ +2 +1
(i) It is valid only for one electron atoms, e.g. : H, He , Li , Na etc.

(ii) Orbits were taken as circular but according to Sommerfield these are elliptical.

(iii) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained.

(iv) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on its own axis.

(v) It could not be explained the minute structure in spectrum line.

(vi) This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up of spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark
effect (splitting up in electric field)

(vii) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of some of the atoms like sodium (5890Å & 5896Å)

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Hydrogen Spectrum and Spectral Series

When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal unexcited (or ground state) state by emitting the
energy it had absorbed earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in the form of radiations of different
wavelengths as the electron jumps down from a higher to a lower orbit. Transition from different orbits cause
different wavelengths, these constitute spectral series which are characteristic of the atom emitting them.
When observed through a spectroscope, these radiations are imaged as sharp and straight vertical lines of a
single colour.

Photon of wavelength 
Spectrum

+ + +

Emission spectra

Spectral series
The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron forms a spectra series.
(i) Mainly there are five series and each series is named after it's discover as Lymen series, Balmer
series, Paschen series, Bracket series and Pfund series.
(ii) According to the Bohr's theory the wavelength of the radiations emitted from hydrogen atom is given
by

1 1 1 
 R 2  2 
  n1 n 2 
where n2 = outer orbit (electron jumps from this orbit), n1 = inner orbit (electron falls in this orbit)

(iii) First line of the series is called first member, for this line wavelength is maximum (max)

(iv) Last line of the series (n2 = ) is called series limit, for this line wavelength is minimum (min)

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n12n22 n12

Wavelength (
) 
(n22  n12 )R  n12 
1  2  R
 n2 
Spectral max (n  1)2
Maximum wavelength Minimum 
Transition min (2n  1) Region
series
n1 n n2 n  1 wavelength

n2 (n  1)2
n2  n
,n1 
max  n2
(2n  1)R min 
R
1. Lymen n2 = 2, 3, 4 … (1)2 (1  1)2 4 n1 = n = 1 4 Ultraviolet

max 
series n1 = 1 (2  1  1)R 3R 1 3 region
min 
R
2.Balmer n2 = 3, 4, 5 … n1 = n = 2, n2 = 2 + 1 = 3 4 9 Visible
min 
series n1 = 2 36 R 5 region
max 
5R
3. Paschen n2 = 4, 5, 6 … n1 = n = 3, n2 = 3 + 1 = 4 n1 = n = 3 16 Infrared
series n1 = 3 144 9 7 region
max  min 
7R R
4. Bracket n2 = 5, 6, 7 … n1 = n = 4, n2 = 4 + 1 = 5 n1 = n = 4 25 Infrared
series  400 16 9 region
max  min 
n1 = 4 9R R
5. Pfund n2 = 6, 7, 8 … n1 =  = 5, n2 = 5 + 1 = 6 25 36 Infrared
min 
series  900 R 11 region
max 
n1 = 5 11R

The hydrogen spectrum (some selected lines)

Name of Number of Quantum Number

series Line ni (Lower State nf (Upper State) Wavelength (nm) Energy
I 1 2 121.6 10.2 eV
II 1 3 102.6 12.09 eV
Lymen
III 1 4 97 12.78 eV
series limit 1  (series limit) 91.2 13.6 eV
I 2 3 656.3 1.89 eV
II 2 4 486.1 2.55 eV
Balmer
III 2 5 434.1 2.86 eV
series limit 2  (series limit) 364.6 3.41 eV
I 3 4 1875.1 0.66 eV
II 3 5 1281.8 0.97 eV
Paschen
III 3 6 1093.8 1.13 eV
series limit 3  (series limit) 822 1.51 eV

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