CHAPTER 10

WAVE OPTICS
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① CORPUSCULAR THEORY OF LIGHT – ISAAC NEWTON (1675)
Light consists of tiny particles called corpuscles. Using
this theory, the phenomena of reflection , refraction
and rectilinear propagation of light was explained.
Reflection was explained on the basis of repulsion of
corpuscles from the surface. Refraction was explained
on the basis of the attraction of the corpuscles by the
surface.
②WAVE THEORY – CHRISTIAN HUYGENS (1678)
He suggested that light travels in the form of waves.
According to him, light waves propagate in a hypothetical
medium called ether which is assumed to be massless,
colourless and invisible with high elasticity & practically
no density. But later, it was found that no material medium
is required for light’s propagation. Using this theory,
reflection, refraction as well as interference, diffraction
and polarisation of light waves was explained.
③ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY– J.CMAXWELL
Light propagates as time varying electric & magnetic
field oscillations which are mutually perpendicular
and also perpendicular to direction of propagation of
light. It requires no medium for propagation.
④QUANTUM THEORY – MAX PLANCK
Light travels in the form of small packets of energy called
photons. Using this theory, Albert Einstein explained
photoelectric effect. Also Compton effect and Raman
effect was explained.
⑤DUAL NATURE THEORY – de Broglie (1924)
Light is having dual nature i.e, both particle and wave
nature. This is the present view about the nature of light
which successfully explains all the phenomena connected
with light. The wave nature of light dominates when light
interacts with light and the particle nature dominates
when light interacts with matter.
 WAVE FRONT
Consider a physical example
Where a stone is thrown on the
Surface of still water. Circular patterns of crests and
troughs begin to spread out from the point of impact.
All particles lying on the crest are in the position of
maximum upward displacement and hence in the same
phase. Similarly all particles in the trough are in the
position of maximum downward displacement and in
the same phase. The locus of all such points is called a
wave front. Thus every crest or trough is a wave front .
WAVE FRONT is defined as the continuous locus of all such
particles of the medium which are vibrating in the same
phase at any instant . OR WAVEFRONT is a surface of
constant phase.
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WAVE FRONT
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The geometrical shape of a wave front depends on the

source of disturbance.
1)Spherical wavefront: If the source is a point source,
then the wave fronts are spherical in shape.
2)Cylindrical wavefront: They are wavefronts from linear
sources like narrow rectangular slits illuminated by light.
3)Plane wavefront: As a spherical or a cylindrical
wavefront advances, its curvature decreases
progressively. So a small portion of such a wavefront at a
large distance from the source will be a plane wavefront.
4) Converging wavefront: They are wavefronts
corresponding to a converging beam of light.
5)Diverging wavefront: They are wavefronts corresponding
to a diverging beam of light.
 HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE
It is a method of geometrical construction to find the position and shape
of a given wave front(primary wave front ) at a later instant(secondary
wave front ).
• The postulates of the principle are :

*Every point on the given wave front act

as a source of new disturbance emitting
spherical secondary wavelets which
travel in all directions with velocity of
light in the medium.

*The new wave front at a later time

is the forward envelope of
secondary wavelets at that time.
HUYGEN’S CONSTRUCTION
Various steps involved are
o A spherical or plane wavefront moving towards right is
considered(AB).
o Each point on AB acts as a source of secondary disturbance
. To find the new wavefront after time t , draw spheres of
radii ‘ct’ from each point on AB.
o The forward envelope CD of the secondary wavelets gives
the new wave front after time t.
 Why are no backward wave
fronts possible???
• There cannot be backward flow of energy
during the propagation of a wave .Also it is
shown mathematically that amplitude of the
secondary wavelets is proportional to
(1+cos𝞱).where 𝞱 is the angle between ray at the
point of consideration and the direction of
secondary wavelets. So for a backward wavefront
𝞱=180˚.Therefore (1+cos𝞱)=0 or
resultant amplitude is zero.
 Consider a plane wave
front AB incident on a
plane surface XY separating
two media 1&2 .Let 𝒗𝟏 &𝒗𝟐
be the velocities of light in
the two media 𝒗𝟐< 𝒗𝟏 .
By Huygen’s
principle,from each point
on primary wave front,
secondary wavelets
Starts growing.Let the disturbance take time t to travel from B to C,then
BC = 𝒗𝟏 t. During the time the disturbance from B reaches point C , the
secondary wavelets from pointA must have spreadover a hemisphere o
Radius AD=𝒗𝟐 t in the second medium.The tangent plane CD drawn from
point C over this hemisphere of radius 𝒗𝟐 t will be the new refracted WF.
Let the angles of incidence and refraction be i and r
respectively

𝒏𝟐𝟏

This proves Snell’s law of refraction.n21 is called refractive index of

The second medium with respect to first medium.
Since the incident ray SA , the normal AN and the
refracted ray AD are respectively perpendicular to the
incident wavefront AB , the surface of separation XY
and the refracted wavefront CD, they
all lie in the same plane. This proves the second law of
refraction.
LAWS OF REFLECTION
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WAVE THEORY
Figure shows a plane
wavefront AB incident on
a reflecting surface XY at
an angle of incidence i.
Let v be the velocity of
light in the medium.
After a time interval t , the wave travels a distance
vt i.e, BC=vt. Then, the tangential plane CD
represents the reflected wavefront.
The right angled triangles BAC and CDB are
congruent since CD=AB=vt , BC is the common side
and ⦟BAC=⦟CDB.
Therefore i=r . This proves the law of reflection.
RAY : An arrow drawn perpendicular to a
wavefront in the direction of propagation of a
wave is called a ray. Time taken for light to travel
from one wavefront to another is the same along
the ray. Energy of a wave travels in a direction
along the ray i.e perpendicular to the wavefront.
Concave mirror
The central portion of the
wave front has to travel
Maximum distance to
incident on the mirror
and get reflected. Thus it is
delayed the most resulting in a converging, reflected
wavefront.
CONVEX MIRROR
The central portion has to
travel less distance compared
to the peripheral parts of the
Wavefront and gets reflected.
The peripheral part is delayed
and the central portion travels a
greater distance after reflection resulting in a diverging
wavefront.
CONVEX LENS
The central portion of the
Incident wavefront which
travels through the thickest
portion of the lens is delayed the
most since velocity is decreased inside the glass.
 Consider a plane wave
front AB incident on a
plane surface XY separating
two media 1&2 .Let 𝒗𝟏 &𝒗𝟐
be the velocities of light in
the two media 𝒗𝟐< 𝒗𝟏 .
By Huygen’s
principle,from each point
on primary wave front,
secondary wavelets
Starts growing.Let the disturbance take time t to travel from B to C,then
BC = 𝒗𝟏 t. During the time the disturbance from B reaches point C , the
secondary wavelets from pointA must have spreadover a hemisphere of
Radius AD=𝒗𝟐 t in the second medium.The tangent plane CD drawn from
point C over this hemisphere of radius 𝒗𝟐 t will be the new refracted WF.
Let the angles of incidence and refraction be i and r
respectively

𝒏𝟐𝟏

This proves Snell’s law of refraction.n21 is called refractive index of

The second medium with respect to first medium.
Since the incident ray SA , the normal AN and the
refracted ray AD are respectively perpendicular to the
incident wavefront AB , the surface of separation XY
and the refracted wavefront CD,they
all lie in the same plane.This proves the second law of
refraction.
LAWS OF REFLECTION ON THE BASIS OF
WAVE THEORY
Figure shows a plane
wavefront AB incident on
D a reflecting surface XY at
an angle of incidence i.
Let v be the velocity of
light in the medium.
After a time interval t , the wave travels a
distance vt i.e, BC=vt. Then, the tangential plane
CD represents the reflected wavefront.
The right angled triangles ADC and CBA
are congruent since AD=BC=vt , AC is the
common side and ⦟ADC=⦟CBA. Therefore i=r
.This proves the first law of reflection.
Since the incident ray,normal
and reflected ray are respectively perpendicular
to incident wavefront AB,the reflecting surface
XY and reflected wavefront CD,therefore they all
lie in the same plane of the paper.
This proves the second law of reflection.
RAY : An arrow drawn perpendicular to a wave
front in the direction of propagation of a wave is
called a ray. Time taken for light to travel from
one wave front to another is the same along the
ray. Energy of a wave travels in a direction along
the ray i.e perpendicular to the wave front.
Concave mirror
The central portion of the
wave front has to travel
Maximum distance to
incident on the mirror
and get reflected. Thus it is
delayed the most resulting in a converging,reflected
wavefront.
CONVEX MIRROR
The central portion has to
travel less distance compared
to the peripheral parts of the
Wavefront and gets reflected.
The peripheral part is delayed
and the central portion travels a
greater distance after reflection resulting in a diverging
wavefront.
CONVEX LENS
The central portion of the
Incident wavefront which
travels through the thickest
portion of the lens is delayed the
most since velocity is decreased inside the glass.
Thus emerging wavefront has a depression at the centre and
converges to the focus.
CONCAVE LENS
The peripheral parts of the
wavefront has to travel
through the thicker portion
of the lens and hence is
delayed the most while the central portion has to travel
less distance.Therefore it forms a diverging
Refracted wavefront.
PRISM
Since speed of light is lesser in
glass, the lower portion of the
incoming wavefront, which travels
through greatest distance through
glass is delayed the most resulting in an emerging WF as in
fig.
 PRINCIPLE OF
SUPERPOSITION OF
WAVES
 PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF WAVES
When a number of waves travelling through a medium superpose on each other, the
resultant displacement at any point at a given instant is equal to the vector sum of the
displacement due to the individual waves at that point.

a
I a

a
II a

2a
Resultant (a – a = 0)
Wave
Waves are out of phase with each other
Waves are in phase
INTERFERENCE
OF LIGHT
Interference is the non-uniform distribution of energy due to the
superposition of light waves from two sources.

Coherent Sources
• Two sources of light which continuously emit light waves of same
frequency ( or wavelength) with a zero or constant phase difference
between them, are called Coherent sources.
• Two independent sources cannot be coherent because they cannot
maintain a stable initial phase difference. So coherent sources are
derived from a common source
SUSTAINED OR PERMANENT INTERFERENCE
PATTERN
It is the interference pattern in which the
positions of maxima and minima of intensity
on the observation screen do not change with
time

CONDITIONS FOR SUSTAINED INTERFERENCE

i. The two sources must be coherent.
ii. The two sources must be narrow, parallel
and close to each other.
CONDITIONS FOR CONSTRUCTIVE AND DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE
Figure
φ
NOTES
NOTES
INTERFERENCE OF WAVES
AND
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT
EXPERIMENT
YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
Experimental Arrangement
S – A slit illuminated by a
monochromatic light of wavelength λ.
𝑺𝟏 & 𝑺𝟐 - Two narrow slits at equal
distance from S.
𝑺𝟏 & 𝑺𝟐 act as two coherent sources
d – Separation between 𝑆1 & 𝑆2
D – Distance between screen (where
y
Interference fringes are obtained) and
S
the sources 𝑆1 & 𝑆2 .
 EXPRESSION FOR FRINGE WIDTH
Let P be a point at a distance y from O. The
nature of the interference at point P depends on
the Path difference.
Path difference at P between the waves from A
y

𝑺𝟏 & 𝑺𝟐 is S

P = 𝑺𝟐 P - 𝑺𝟏 P B
From right angled Δ𝑺𝟐 BP and 𝑺𝟏 𝐀P
𝑺𝟐 P𝟐 - 𝑺𝟏 P𝟐 = (𝑺𝟐 B𝟐 + PB𝟐 ) – (𝑺𝟏 A𝟐 + PA𝟐 )

𝒅 𝟐 𝒅 𝟐
= 𝑫𝟐 + 𝒚+ - 𝑫𝟐 + 𝒚−
𝟐 𝟐
 y
y

𝒙𝒅
y
Or P =
𝑫
Positions of Bright fringes. For constructive Interference
y

𝒏𝑫𝝀
For n = n, 𝒚𝒏 = nth bright fringe
𝒅
Positions of Dark fringes. For destructive Interference
y

𝑫𝝀
For n = n, 𝒚′𝒏 = (𝟐𝒏 − 𝟏) 𝒅
nth dark fringe
FRINGE WIDTH

It is the separation between two successive bright or dark fringes

y (1)

(2)
 From (1) and (2), both dark and bright fringes has the same width.

𝐷λ
∴ 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝛽 =
𝑑

• 𝜷 is independent of n (the order of fringe), therefore all

the fringes are of equal width.
• In the case of light, λ is extremely small, D should be
much larger than d, so that the fringe width 𝜷 may be
appreciable and hence observable.
ANGULAR FRINGE WIDTH ( α )

Angular fringe width α, it is the angle subtended by a fringe at the

centre of the double slits.

Since α is very small, tan α ≈ α

𝜷
α= 𝜷
𝑫 𝑺𝟏
α
λ𝑫Τ𝒅
α= 𝑺𝟐
𝑫

𝝀
Angular fringe width, α= D
𝒅
INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION CURVE FOR INTERFERENCE
DIFFRACTION
Consider a narrow aperture AB illuminated
with light from a source S. XY is a screen
placed at large distance from AB.According
to rectilinear propagation of light , only A’B’
of the screen should be illuminated.But it is
seen that light enters the region of
geometrical shadow beyond A’B’.The
shadow is not sharp.
Similarly, When an obstacle AB is placed in the path of light, we
expect a dark shadow A’B’ on the screen. But we observe a circular bright band
at the centre surrounded by dark and bright rings alternately.
This shows that light bends around the edges i.e, light shows diffraction.
 DIFFRACTION
The phenomenon of bending of light around the
corners of small obstacles or apertures and its
consequent spreading into the regions of
geometrical shadow is called Diffraction of light.
SIZE OF APERTURE OR OBSTACLE FOR OBSERVING DIFFRACTION

Suppose plane waves are made to fall on a

screen having a small aperture. The waves emerging out of the
aperture are observed to be curved at the edges . This is
diffraction. If the size of the aperture is large compared to the
wavelength of waves, the amount of bending is small (fig. A) .
If the size of the aperture is small and is comparable to the
wavelength 𝛌 of the waves, then the diffracted waves are almost
spherical. Hence, the diffraction effect is more pronounced if the
size of the aperture or obstacle is of the order of wavelength of the
waves.
The essential condition for diffraction to be observed is that
, size of the obstacle or slit should be comparable with the
wavelength of light.
Diffraction is classified into 2 types:-
1. Fresnel Diffraction:
It is diffraction of spherical or cylindrical wavefronts.

2. Fraunhoffer diffraction:
It is the diffraction of plane wavefronts
 DIFFRACTION DUE TO A SINGLE SLIT
(FRAUNHOFFER DIFFRACTION)
A diffraction pattern consisting To P
P
of a central maximum
surrounded by alternate bright ѳ
A
and dark bands called ѳ
a C
To C
secondary maximas and N
ѳ
B
secondary minimas rpt is
obtained on a screen placed at a D
screen
large distance D from the slit.
Formation of Central Maximum
• According to Huygen’s Principle each point on the plane
wavefront reaching the slit acts as a source of Secondary
wavelets.
• These wavelets are initially in phase and they spread out in
all directions.
• The central region O on the screen is equidistant from all
points on the slit. Thus the path difference is zero.
• So wavelets from all parts of slit reach O in phase and
superpose constructively producing maximum intensity at O.
To find the path difference between two wavelets, draw
perpendicular AN from A on to the ray from B.
The path difference between the wavelets A and B will be BN.
From figure,

𝑩𝑵 𝑩𝑵
Sin ѳ = =
𝑨𝑩 𝒂

Path difference, BN = a Sin ѳ

Formation of Secondary Minimum
To P

Condition for Secondary minimum,

ѳ
Path difference , BN = λ A

ѳ
Then BN =a sin ѳ𝟏 =λ a M

ѳ N
B
 Divide the slit AB into two halves AM and BM.
 Then path difference between the wavelets from A & M
will be λ/2
 To every point in upper half AM there is appoint in the
lower half MB for which path difference λ/2.
 Hence wavelets from two halves reach the point P
always in opposite phases. ie,; phase difference is 180 0
( Since 2π corresponds to λ).
 They interfere destructively so as to produce a
minimum.
The condition for first Dark fringe,
a sin ѳ𝟏 = λ

λ
Or ѳ𝟏 = (ѳ is very small, sin ѳ ≈ ѳ)
𝒂

For second dark fringe,

a sin ѳ𝟐 = 2λ
Hence, condition for 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Dark fringe
a sin ѳ𝒏 = nλ , n = 1,2,3……

nλ
The directions of various minima, ѳ𝒏 ≈ sin ѳ𝒏 =
𝒂

ѳ𝒏 - Angular distance of secondary minima

Formation of Secondary Maxima
Suppose the point P is so located that,
𝟑𝝀
Path difference = 𝟐
𝟑𝝀
When θ = θ′𝟏 , then a sin θ′𝟏 = 𝟐

Divide the slit into 3 equal parts.

The path difference between two corresponding points of the first 2 parts

λ
will be . The wavelets from these points will interfere destructively.
𝟐

However, the wavelets from the third part of the slit will contribute to some
intensity forming a secondary maximum.
The intensity of this is much less than that of the central maximum.
The condition for first Secondary maximum,
𝟑
a sin θ′𝟏 = λ
𝟐

For second Secondary maximum ,

𝟓
a sin θ′𝟐 = λ
𝟐

Hence, condition for 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Secondary maximum

λ
a sin θ′𝒏 = (2n + 1) , n = 1,2,3……
𝟐

The directions of secondary maxima,

The intensity of secondary maxima
λ
θ′𝒏 ≈ sin θ′𝒏 =(2n + 1) decreases as n increases
𝟐𝒂
 INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION CURVE

It has a central maximum in the

direction (θ = 00 ) of incident light. On
either side of the central maximum, it
has secondary maxima of
decreasing intensity at positions.

λ
θ = ± (2n + 1) 𝟐𝒂

And minima at positions,

nλ
θ=± 𝒂
( n≠ 0)
 Widths of Central and Secondary Maxima

• Angular width of Central Maximum

It is the angular separation between the

directions of the first minima on the two sides of
θ 𝛽0
the central maximum. a
θ

nλ
∴ Angular width of central maximum = 2θ =
𝒂
D
• Linear width of Central Maximum screen

2Dλ
𝜷𝟎 = D × 2θ = 𝒂
• Linear width of Secondary Maximum
It is the angular separation between the directions of 𝒏𝒕𝒉 and (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉
minima

nλ
Direction of 𝒏 𝒕𝒉
minimum, 𝜃𝑛 = 𝒂

(n + 1)λ
Direction of (𝒏 + 𝟏)𝒕𝒉 minimum, 𝜃𝑛+1 = 𝒂

∴Angular width of 𝒏𝒕𝒉 secondary maximum = 𝜃𝑛+1 - 𝜃𝑛

(n + 1)λ nλ λ
= 𝒂
- 𝒂
= 𝒂
Hence the linear width of 𝒏𝒕𝒉 secondary maximum = Angular width × D

Dλ
𝜷= 𝒂

𝜷𝟎 =2 𝜷
Thus central maximum of a diffraction pattern is twice as wide as any
secondary maximum.

• Linear width of 𝒏𝒕𝒉 Secondary minimum,

nDλ
𝒚𝒏 = 𝜽𝒏 × D =
𝒂
Resolving Power
 Resolving power

• The resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability to

resolve or separate the images of 2 nearby point objects so that
they can be distinctly seen.
• It is measured as the reciprocal of limit of resolution of the
optical instrument.
• ie, resolving power = 1/ limit of resolution
 Limit of resolution

The smallest linear or angular separation between two point

objects at which they can be just separately seen or resolved
by an optical instrument.
The smaller the limit of resolution of an optical
instrument, greater is its resolving power.
 Rayleigh’s
criterion for
resolution
According to it, the images of 2 point objects are just
resolved when the central maximum of the diffraction
pattern 1 falls over the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern of the other. ie, the separation between the central
maximas must be equal to the distance between the central
maxima and the first secondary minima.
If the separation is more than the above value, then points
are well resolved and if it is less,then the points are
unresolved.
Resolving power of telescope
• In the case of a telescope, 2 point objects A and B
is said to be just resolved if the angular separation
d0 =1.22 /D where d0 is the angular limit of
resolution.
• R.P of the telescope is the reciprocal of angular
limit of resolution.
• R.P = 1/d0 = D/ 1.22 where D ,diameter of
the objective lens of the telescope.

• So larger the aperture, smaller the wavelength,

greater will be the resolving power.
Resolving power of Microscope
 In the case of a Microscope, the object is placed just
beyond the focus so that a real image is formed at a
distance V.
• The resolving power of a microscope is defined as
the reciprocal of the smallest distance between two
point objects at which they can be just resolved,
when seen through the microscope ( limit of
resolution).
 The limit of resolution is given by
d=1.22 /2nsin

• where is half the angle of cone of light from

each point of the object
• n – the refractive index of the medium between
the object and the objective
• R.P = 1/d = 2n sin / 1.22 , (1)
 where nsin is the numerical aperture (NA)

• From equ.(1) the following conclusions can be drawn:

[Factors affecting R.P]
• 1. R.P increases with increase in refractive index ‘n’
Usually oil having refractive index close to the objective
glass is used between the object and the objective. Such
an arrangement is called Oil Immersion Objective
 2. R.P increases with decrease in
Ultramicroscope which employs uv light has high R.P

• Still higher R.P is obtained in electron microscope

which employs de- Broglie waves associated with
electrons.
• 3. R.P increases with sin sin = D/2f
• To have high values of sin focal length of the
objective should be small. (D is kept small to avoid
abberation)
POLARISATION
 ■ Both these types
undergo reflection,
Waves are of ,interference
two types- ,refraction and
Transverse diffraction . The
and difference is that
only transverse
Longitudinal. waves can be
polarised.
• Light is an em wave consisting of varying
electric and magnetic fields which are
perpendicular to each other and
perpendicular to the direction of
propogation.

■ Properties of light are due to electric field

vector.
Unpolarised light
■ A transverse wave in which vibrations are
present in all possible directions , in a plane
perpendicular to the direction of propogation
is said to be unpolarised.
■ eg: sunlight, candle light, light from sodium
lamp etc.
■ Fig. 1 is the pictorial representation of
unpolarised light propogating out of the
plane of paper. It shows vibrations in all
directions in the transverse plane.

■ Fig 2 also is a representation of an

unpolarised light. Double arrows represent
the vibrations in the plane of paper and
small dots represent vibrations
perpendicular to the plane of paper.
 Click to add text

LINEARLY POLARISED LIGHT OR

PLANE POLARISED LIGHT
■ If the electric field vector of a light wave
vibrates just in one direction perpendicular to
the direction of wave propogation ,then the
wave is said to be linearly polarized.
■ Since in a linearly polarized light, the
vibrations at all points lie in the same plane ,
so it is also called a plane polarized wave.
Figure represents a wave plane polarised in
the xy plane because the plane of vibration
is confined to the xy plane. Also it shows the
regular variation of electric field vector of a
linearly polarised light along Y axis.
 POLARISERS
■ A device that plane polarises the unpolarised
light passed through it is called polariser.
■ Eg: Tourmaline crystal
■ Nicol prism
■ Polaroids
EXPERIMENT TO
DEMONSTRATE THE
POLARISATION OF
LIGHT
■When unpolarised light is passed through Tourmaline crystal
( polariser) its intensity is cut down to half. Rotating this crystal
(polariser)about the incident ray ,there will be no effect on the
transmitted intensity.

■ If a similar crystal (analyser) is placed with its axis parallel to

that of polariser, then all light transmitted by the polariser will
pass through the analyser producing maximum intensity.
■ When the analyser is rotated ,the intensity of light transmitted
by it go on decreasing until it becomes zero, when the axis of
two crystals are perpendicular to each other. Then the two
crystals are said to be in the crossed position.
■ This experiment proves that light propagates as transverse
waves.
 MALUS LAW
■ When a beam of plane polarised light is passed
through analyser, the intensity I’ of transmitted light
varies directly as square of cosine of angle 0
between the transmission direction of pass axis of
polariser and analyser.This is known as
Malus law.
ie, I’ cos² 0
I’ = I cos² 0 where I is the maximum intensity
that can be transmitted by the analyser.
I is also equal to the intensity of light transmitted
by the polariser
I = I /2
■ EXPLANATION
■ Suppose the plane of
polariser and analyser are
inclined to each other at an
angle 0. Let I be the
intensity of light
transmitted by the
polariser. The amplitude ‘a’
has two rectangular
components .
1. a cos 0 , parallel to the pass axis of the polariser
2. a sin 0 perpendicular to a cos 0.
■ Only the component acos 0 is transmitted by the
analyser.
■ Intensity of transmitted light I’ (a cos 0)²
■ I’ = Ka² cos² 0
■ I’ = I cos² 0
where I = Ka², the maximum intensity transmitted by
analyser.
When 0= 0° or 180° , I’ = I
When 0 = 90° I’ = 0
GRAPH
BETWEEN I
AND 0 –
INTENSITY
CURVE
POLARISATION
BY
SCATTERING
 ■ 1) in the plane
When
■ 2) perpendicular to the plane
unpolarised The electrons vibrating parallel to the
light falls on double arrows cannot send energy
towards an observer looking at
the scatterer , 90° to the direction of the sun
the electrons in because their acceleration has no
transverse component. So the light is
the molecule polarised perpendicular to the plane
begins to and has only dots.
vibrate in 2 r

directions.
POLARISATION BY REFLECTION
 POLARISING/BREWSTER’S ANGLE
■ The angle of incidence at which a beam of
unpolarised light falling on a transparent surface is
reflected as a beam of completely plane polarised
light is called POLARISING or BREWSTER’S Angle.
■ At the POLARISING angle reflected and refracted
rays are perpendicular to each other.
■ Ie, ip+ rp = 90°
■ rp = 90 – ip
■ By Snell’s law, refractive index of the transparent
medium , n= sin ip/ sin rp
 n = sin ip/ sin (90- ip)
n = sin ip/ cos ip
n = tan ip

■ Ie, the tangent of the POLARISING angle of

transparent medium is equal to its refractive
index. This is known as BREWSTER ‘S LAW
 When unpolarised light falls on a
transparent medium, the electrons
oscillating in the transparent medium
produce the reflected wave. The
molecules vibrate in both directions along
EXPLANATION the plane(double arrows) and
OF perpendicular to the plane( dots).
BREWSTER’S The electrons vibrating parallel to the
double arrows are parallel to the direction
LAW of reflected wave and so cannot send
energies along this direction,. So the
reflected light consists of vibrations
perpendicular to the plane (dots) or it is
plane polarised .
 POLAROIDS
■ Polaroids are thin commercial sheets which make
use of the property of selective absorption to
produce an intense beam of unpolarised light. It
consists of long chains of molecules aligned in a
particular direction. When an unpolarised beam of
light is incident, the electric vectors along the
direction of molecules get absorbed. This
phenomenon is known as Dichroism. Thus the
emerging light will be linearly polarised with electric
vectors oscillating along a direction perpendicular to
the aligned molecules. This direction is known as
pass axis of polaroid.