Seismic Data Acquisition

Techniques

Part 1: Refraction

Table of Contents
Types of Seismic Waves .................................................................... 1
Seismic Waves’ Behavior .................................................................. 2
Seismic Waves’ Refraction ................................................................ 2
The Critical Angle ............................................................................. 4
Seismic Refracted Waves’ Utilization ................................................ 8
Exercise 1 ......................................................................................... 9
Exercise 2 ......................................................................................... 9
Dipping Interface Boundary ............................................................ 10
Shallow Short Refraction Applications ............................................ 10
Deep Refraction Applications ......................................................... 10
Low Velocity Layer “LVL” ............................................................... 11

Types of Seismic Waves

We are concerned here with the main types of Seismic Waves.
Body Waves: P-Waves, Primary Waves or Compressional Waves. The
material particles oscillate in the same propagation direction in
compressional and rarefaction actions. This is the fastest kind of seismic
waves. It can propagate through solid rock and fluids, like water and oil or
the liquid layers of the earth. We use it in our subsurface investigations.

Particles Particles Particles Motion

Compression Rarefaction

Travel Direction

Body Waves:
S-Waves, transversal waves or Shear Waves. The material particles
oscillate perpendicularly to its propagation direction. They are slower than
P-waves and they travel only through solid rock, not through any fluid
medium. It is used for civil engineering studying for soil properties
determination.

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 There are also Surface Waves that include: Raleigh Waves and Love
Waves. They are the main noise source during the seismic exploration jobs.
Seismic Waves’ Behavior
Whenever a seismic wave energy strikes the boundary separating two
earth’s material media, that energy is split into mainly two portions: a
reflected portion and a refracted portion. Meanwhile, if the energy was of P-
Wave type, it generates two types of reflected energy as P-Wave and S-
Wave simultaneously. The P-Wave is reflected according to the optics low,
while the S-Wave has a different behavior.
The refracted portion is also composed of the two types, each portion has
its norm of behavior.

Seismic Reflection’s Coefficient

The seismic energy waves propagate within the different media with a
velocity characterized by that media. We have to consider the “Acoustic
Impedance” principle, it equals to the product of multiplying the bulk
density of the material  by the compressional velocity V of the seismic
energy wave in that medium.
We simply obtain the Reflection Coefficient by this formula:
𝛒𝟐 𝐕𝟐 − 𝛒𝟏 𝐕𝟏
𝐑=
𝛒𝟐 𝐕𝟐 + 𝛒𝟏 𝐕𝟏

Obviously, we will find that this coefficient value is always a fraction less
than one. This makes the reflected energy is just a small fraction of the
incident energy. In consequence, the refracted energy is the remaining
great portion that produces “Head Waves” during its progress below the
boundary while it is refracted at 90° as we are going to discus shortly.
Seismic Waves’ Refraction
We will discuss here the behavior of the Primary Seismic P-waves when
they incident into a horizontal boundary separating two media, to cross to
the next one. At the interface boundary, several events occur in the same

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time. One part of the incident P-waves energy will be reflected back
following the Reflection Coefficient and the optical reflections’ law where
the angle of incidence equals to the angle of reflection, measured from the
perpendicular line at the incidence point. Meanwhile, the remaining greater
portion of the energy will penetrate downwards, but with a different angle
of refraction according to Snell’s law.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 ∝𝟏 𝑽𝟏
Snell’s law:
𝒔𝒊𝒏∝𝟐
=𝑽
𝟐
Where α1 is the angle of incidence and α2 is the angle of refraction,
While V1 and V2 are the propagation velocities of the seismic energy in the
upper medium and the lower medium respectively.
Obviously, if the velocity of propagation in the lower medium is greater
than that of the upper medium -which is normal-, the angle of refraction will
be greater than the angle of incidence; the opposite is true, but it is un
common.
It is too important to state here that all the incident rays, the reflected rays
and the refracted rays, all are included in a plane perpendicular to the
interface boundary.

As a pure philosophic point of view, if both angles of incidence and

refractions are equal, actually this means that either the energy has a zero
incident angle, or the energy is travelling within a single medium without an
existing interface.
As already concluded that the ratios between the sin values of the angles
of incidence and refraction to that ratio of the two media seismic wave
velocities, obviously and normally, this implies that the sin value of the
refracted angle will be greater than that of the incidence angle. As the angle
of incidence increases, the angle of refraction increases consequently, and
so on until it reaches 90°.

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 The Critical Angle
Automatically, following the established rule of the increase in the angle
of refraction following the increase in the angle of incidence, in sequence,
the angle of refraction will reach the value of 90°. This means that the
refracted ray will propagate along the boundary separating the two media.
At this situation, the incidence angle at the upper medium that
corresponds to a refraction angle of 90° in the lower medium is called the
"Critical Angle".

Here we have a special form of Snell’s law: the sin value of the critical
angle equals to the ratio between the low propagation velocity at the upper
medium to that high velocity of the lower one.
𝑽𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑪 = ⁄𝑽
𝟐
By the favor of Almighty ALLAH, and without any of our influence as
human beings, there are three different actions those take place at the same
time. The incident seismic energy by the Critical Angle C splits into a
reflected portion according to the reflection coefficient, which is reflected
back upwards with the same value of the Critical Angle. And the remaining
part penetrates downwards and is refracted by 90°, that propagates
underneath the boundary interface by the great velocity of the lower
medium V2. Meanwhile, it emits continuously upwards ”Head Waves” of
energy with the critical angle that propagates in the upper medium by its
characterized lower velocity V1 until it reaches the ground surface. This is
a favor of Almighty ALLAH.

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 It is quite remarkable and well recognized the considerable big emitted
amount of energy of the Head Waves that are produced by the refracted
energy of 90°.
The reason is with the Reflection Coefficient value that is always a fraction
less than one. This makes the reflected energy is just a small portion of the
incident energy. In consequence, the refracted energy is the remaining
great portion that produces the Head Waves during its progress below the
interface boundary when it was refracted by 90°.
It too important to mention here that there is no possibility at all for any
more energy to penetrate downwards beneath the interface boundary. All
the incident energy with incident angles greater than the critical angle will
be totally reflected backwards following the reflection’s principle.

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 If we planted geophones (represented by triangles) along a straight line on
the ground surface, they will receive all kinds of the emitted energies from
the source point (inverted triangle). The following graphs represent the
relations between the interval distances between the receiver points
planted on the ground surface, measured from the energy source point, is
represented by the horizontal axis “x”; and the energy arriving times,
measured from the instant of the energy release, represented by the vertical
axis for “t”.
Each graph depends on the received energy:
1- Surface energy waves that propagate along the ground surface with a
constant velocity of the upper medium. It is represented as a straight line.
The inverse of its slope equals the seismic velocity of the surface layer.
2- The reflected part of the energy at the boundary surface. It reaches the
ground surface with a variable velocity. It is represented by the inverse
slope for a hyperbolic curve tangent.
3- Refracted energy resulting from the 90° refracted waves that
propagates underneath the interface boundary with the higher velocity for
the lower medium represented by the inverse slope of a straight line in the
graph. It emits upwards energy “Head Waves” that travels by the velocity
of the upper medium.
The Head Waves propagating below the boundary are subjected to
damping like any kind of energy going away from its source.
4- Other reflected energy resulting from incidence angles that are greater
than the critical angle. Its arrival time indicates a variable energy velocity. It
is represented in the graph by the variable inversed slope value for the
tangent of the same hyperbolic curve.

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 We knew that the refracted energy by the critical angle “Head Waves” has
much higher energy than that of the reflected one, and it propagates with
the greater velocity. At a determined distance on the ground surface XIR,
away from the source point, both Reflected waves and Refracted waves
arrive simultaneously, then by increasing the distance, the Refracted
energy arrives earlier than the Reflected ones. Practically, the Refracted
energy overrides the Reflected one and masks it, resulting in damaged
useless reflected data.
Moreover, while the refracted energy is progressing with its greater
velocity, it arrives earlier than the direct arrival energy at a distance XC
measured from the source energy point.
The override distance of the Refracted energy is: 𝒙𝑰𝑹 = 𝟐𝒁 ∗ 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜶𝑪

𝟐𝒁
While the arrival time is: 𝒕𝑰𝑹 = 𝑽∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜶
𝑪

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 Seismic Refracted Waves’ Utilization
When we layout planted geophones on the ground surface at equal
intervals along a straight line, and we use a suitable energy source like a
sledge hammer and a metal plate, we can receive refracted energy from the
ground subsurface boundaries. Plotting the recorded energy arrival times
versus their distances from the source energy point, could be used to
calculate the depth of those boundaries, hence determine the strata
thicknesses.

Depth calculation knowing XC! and XC2

𝒙𝒄𝟏 𝑽𝟐 − 𝑽𝟏
𝒉𝟏 = ( ) √
𝟐 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟏

𝒉𝟏 × 𝑽𝟏 𝒙𝒄𝟐 𝑽𝟑 − 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝟐 = {( )×( )×√ } − 𝒉𝟏
𝑽𝟐 𝟐 𝑽𝟑 + 𝑽𝟐

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 Depth calculation knowing tC! and tC2
𝒕𝒄𝟏 × 𝑽𝟏
𝒉𝟏 = ( )
𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝𝟏𝟐
𝒉𝟏 𝑽𝟐
𝒉𝟐 = { 𝒕𝒄𝟏𝟐 − ( × 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝𝟏𝟑 )} ×
𝑽𝟏 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝𝟐𝟑
𝑽 𝑽
Where 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟐 = 𝟏⁄𝑽 , 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟏𝟑 = 𝟏⁄𝑽
𝟐 𝟑
𝑽𝟐
& 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝟑 = ⁄𝑽
𝟑

Exercise 1
Ten geophone detectors were placed on a straight line at 2m intervals. The
energy source point was also at 2m from the first geophone. It was found
that the fourth geophone detector has received simultaneously both of the
direct arrival energy signals and the refracted signals after 17.8ms. The last
geophone detector has received the refracted energy at 27.8ms.
Find the depth of the refractor’s surface.

Solution:
The fourth detector is at 8m from the source point i.e. XC! =8m, then,
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟖⁄𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟖 = 𝟒𝟓𝟎𝒎/𝒔
(𝟐𝟎−𝟖)
𝑽𝟐 = (𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟖−𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟕𝟖) = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟎𝐦/𝐬 ; then 𝒉 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟗𝟕𝒎

Exercise 2
We placed 20 geophone detectors on a straight line by 1m intervals. The
energy source point was also at 1m from the first geophone detector. It was
found that the direct arrivals and the refracted signals were received
simultaneously by the tenth geophone detector at 28.6ms. The last
geophone detector has received the refracted energy at 35.4ms. The
extrapolation intersects the time axis at 21.6ms. Determine the refractor’s
depth by two methods.

Solution:
𝑽𝟏 = 𝟏𝟎 ⁄𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟔 = 𝟑𝟓𝟎𝒎/𝒔
(𝟐𝟎−𝟏𝟎)
𝑽𝟐 = (𝟎.𝟎𝟑𝟓𝟒−𝟎.𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟔) = 𝟏𝟒𝟓𝟎𝐦/𝐬
Since 𝑿𝑪 = 𝟏𝟎𝒎; then 𝒉 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝒎;
And since 𝒕𝒊 = 𝟐𝟏. 𝟔𝒎𝒔; then 𝒉 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝒎

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 Dipping Interface Boundary
Precaution: The interface boundaries could be dipping and not in a
horizontal position. Here we ought to apply forward and reverse shooting
from two opposite directions “a” and “b” at the ground surface; that is to
obtain accurate results.

Angle of Dip calculation:

𝑽𝟏𝒂 𝑽𝟏𝒃
𝝋 = 𝟏⁄𝟐 {(𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( )) − (𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 ( ))}
𝑽𝟐𝒂 𝑽𝟐𝒃
Interface Depths calculation:
𝒕𝟏 × 𝑽𝟏 𝟏
𝒉𝟏 = ( )×
𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝𝟏𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
𝒉𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝟏
𝒉𝟐 = { 𝒕𝟏𝟐 − ( × 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝𝟏𝟑 )} × ×
𝑽𝟏 𝟐𝒄𝒐𝒔 ∝𝟐𝟑 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝝋
Shallow Short Refraction Applications
All the shallow subsurface investigations necessary for civil
constructions, highways, railways, airport runways, tunnels, bridges, soil
investigations, archeologic zones, underground water and mainly burred
objects. It is specifically applied to estimate the necessary static correction
for Oil & Gas seismic exploration.
We must mention here that the used geophones to receive the refracted
energy are designed to respond to 8Hz frequency, while those for the
reflected have their frequency respond starts from 10 Hz.
Deep Refraction Applications
This requires long offset distance and a big energy sources to study
Regional subsurface rocks depths for Continental shields, Basement rocks,
regional faults and basement intrusions.

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 The earthquake wave energies are studded to provide information, that
enabled us to understand the earth’s interior structured layers as
lithosphere, mantle and core.
Low Velocity Layer “LVL”
When there is a layer with less seismic velocity than that above it, ( 𝑽𝟐 <
𝑽𝟏 ) , the 90° refraction associated with the critical angle will not exist at all.
The refracted energy ray approaches to the perpendicular line to the
boundary in an angle of refraction less than the angle of incidence, all the
energy will penetrate and pass downwards the boundary.
Snell’s law shows a smaller angle of refraction 2 corresponding to the
smaller velocity V2 in the lower medium.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟏 𝑽𝟏
=
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝑽𝟐

Obviously, the ray inside the LVL is refracted closer to the perpendicular line
to the boundary, i.e. with an angle of refraction less than the angle of incidence
in contrary to the normal conditions.
When the ray penetrates to the third layer in this example that is the High
velocity layer, it is refracted away from the perpendicular line, i.e. with greater
refraction angle.
Now it is possible whenever the incidence angle 2 to reach the value that
produces the 90° refraction energy that passes along the interface producing
the “Head Waves”.

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