Prepared by: Arzu Islam

MSc Aeronautical Engg.

PTL and Physics Teacher iSTEM
Visiting Lecturer SIMT (Aeronautical)
O&A-level Physics Teacher (BACHA English
Medium School)
Wave motion

 A wave transmits energy from one place to another. In physics, a wave is a

disturbance that transfers energy through matter or space, with little or no
associated mass transport.
 For example, energy can be carried by a water wave generated by a boat
out at sea to the shore, or by a sound wave from the loudspeaker to an
audience’s ears.

 The most common waves found in daily life are water waves, sound
waves and electromagnetic waves.
 There are two types of waves:
Transverse wave
Longitudinal wave

1. Transverse wave:
 A transvers wave is a wave in which the vibrations of the particles are
perpendicular to the direction of travel of the wave.
 Transverse wave can illustrate by vibrating ropes and springs as shows
below.
 In order to produce transverse wave by using rope, one end of the rope
should be attached and from the other end the rope must move up and
down as shown below.
 So the vibration of the rope is perpendicular to the direction of wave
travels.

 Examples of transverse wave: water wave and all the electromagnetic

waves.
(radio waves, microwaves, infra-red, visible light, ultra-violet, X-rays
and gamma-rays).
Longitudinal wave

 A longitudinal wave is a wave in which the vibrations of the particles are

parallel to the direction of travel of the wave.
 Longitudinal wave can illustrate by vibrating springs as shows below.
 To produce longitudinal wave by using spring, one student can hold
spring while another student can move spring forward and backward as
shown below. So the vibration of the spring is parallel to the direction of
wave travels.
 Example of longitudinal wave: Sound waves.
Amplitude
 The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the wave from
its rest position.

Wavelength (λ)
 The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two successive crests
or troughs. Or the distance of one complete wave.
Compression
 Compression is the region where the particles are close together and has
high pressure.

Rarefaction
 Rarefaction is the region where the particles are further apart and has low
pressure.
Frequency
 The frequency of a wave is the number of complete waves produce in
one second. It is measured in Hertz (Hz).
𝟏
 Frequency can be calculated by using the formula: 𝐅 =
𝐓
Speed of the wave
 The speed of a wave is the distance travelled by any point on the wave in
one second.
 The speed of the wave can be calculated by using the wave equation:
 Speed = frequency × wavelength, V = f λ
 Diagram below shows how the displacement of water wave varies with
time. The wavelength of the wave is 8.0 cm

a) State the amplitude of the wave.

Ans: 2 mm

(b) Calculate the frequency of the wave.

𝟏 𝟏
Ans: 𝐅 = 𝐅 = = 2Hz
𝐓 𝟎.𝟓𝟎

(c) Calculate the speed of the wave.

Ans: V = f λ = 2 × 8 = 16 cm/s
 Reflection of wave
 When a wave strikes a barrier and changes its direction or bounce back
from the surface is known as reflection. In reflection the angle of
incident and angle of reflection become equal.

Refraction:
 The change in direction of a wave passing from one medium to another
caused by its change in speed is known as refraction of waves.
REFRACTION OF LIGHT
 The bending of a ray of light on passing from one medium to
another is called refraction of light.

Angle of incident
Incident ray
normal

Glass block
refracted ray

Angle of
refraction

emergent ray
Refractive index
 The property of material that determines that extent to which it
causes ray of light to be refracted.
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊
Refractive index (n) = (Ray from air to materials)
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒓

1 sin i
 (Ray from materials to air)
n sin r

 The ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum

to its velocity in a specified medium is called
refractive index.
Snell’s Law :
 When the light is travelling from optically less dense medium to
denser medium the light ray bend towards the normal, because
the speed of the light decreases.

 When the light travelling from optically dense medium to less

dense medium the light ray bend away from the normal, because
the speed of the light increases.
TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION

 When the light is travelling from optically dense medium to low

dense medium the refracted ray bend away from the normal and
also some ray of light reflected in the dense medium as shown
below.

 If the angle of incident is increased, more light is reflected inside

the block. The refracted bends even further away from the normal
 Eventually at one particular angle, the refracted ray emerges
along and parallel to the surface of the block and perpendicular to
the normal as shown below.

 When the refracted ray is perpendicular to the normal, the angle

between incident ray and normal in the dense medium is called
critical angle.
Or the largest angle that refraction occur.

Critical angle (c)

 If the light ray incident on the block is greater than the critical
angle, the light is entirely reflected inside the glass block. This
phenomenon is known as total internal reflection .

Angle of incidence is greater

than critical angle (c)

n
 The relation between refractive
index and critical angle is given
1
by, sin c
Optical fibre:

 Optical fibres are thin and flexible. When light enters it is

totally reflected many times until it comes from the other end.
 Telephone or computer messages can be transmitted by light
along optical fibres.
 There are some advantages of using optical fibre rather than
copper wire:
 Each of these fibres is capable of carrying thousands of
telephone calls simultaneously.
The speed of signal is also faster.
Diffraction of waves:
 Diffraction occurs with all waves , including sound waves , water waves
and electromagnetic waves such as visible light , X-ray and radio waves.

 Spreading of waves when it pass through a narrow gap or edge of an

obstacle is known as diffraction of waves.
DISPERSION OF LIGHT
 The splitting of white light into its seven components of colors (ROY
GBIV) is known as dispersion of light.
 The colors of spectrum are Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo
and Violet.
 So what happens in a prism to produce a spectrum? As the white light
enters the prism, it slows down. We say that it is refracted and,
direction changes as shown above.
 Dispersion occurs because each colour is refracted by different
amount.
 Violet light slows down the most, so it is refracted the most and has
Shortest wavelength and highest frequency.
 Red light is least affected and has longest wavelength and lowest
frequency.
 Laser light is not dispersed by a prism. It is refracted so that it changes
the direction, but it is not split up into a spectrum. This is because it is
light of single colour and is described monochromatic.
Rainbow:
 Rainbow is naturally occurring spectrum.
 White light from the sun is dispersed as it enters and leaves droplets of
water in the air. It is also reflected back to the viewer by total internal
reflection, which is why you must have the sun behind you to absorb a
rainbow.
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

 The full range of electromagnetic waves is called electromagnetic

spectrum as shown below.

Increasing frequency

106Hz 109H 1012 1015 1018 1021H

z Hz Hz Hz z

103 1m 10−3 10−6 10−9 10−12

m m m m m

Increasing wavelength
Properties of electromagnetic waves

 All the electromagnetic waves are transverse wave.

 They all travels at the same speed, that is speed of light (3𝑥108 m/s).

 They all can travel through the vacuum.

Describing Waves – Phase difference

 Phase is used to describe the relative position of the crests or troughs of

two waves of the same frequency. When the crests and troughs of the two
waves are aligned, the waves are said to be in phase. When a crest is
aligned with a trough, the waves are out of phase.

 When used as a quantitative measure the phase has a unit of angle

degree or radians. Thus when waves are out of phase, one wave is half a
cycle behind the other. Since one cycle is equal to 360 degree so half
cycle means phase difference is 180 degree.
Phase Difference Calculation:
Intensity and amplitude

The intensity of a wave generally decreases as it travels

along. There are two reasons for this:
 The wave may ‘spread out’
 The wave may be absorbed or scattered (as when light
passes through the Earth’s atmosphere).
POLARISATION

 Polarization is a property applying to transverse waves that specifies the

geometrical orientation of the oscillations.
Polarization is a phenomenon associated with transverse waves
 Process by which a wave’s oscillations are made to occur in one
plane only.
 Associated with transverse waves only.
 Light wave is an electromagnetic wave that travels through the vacuum
of outer space.
 Electromagnetic wave is a transverse wave that has both an electric
and a magnetic component.
 A light wave that is vibrating in more than one plane is referred to as
unpolarized light.
 Light emitted by the sun, by a lamp in the classroom or by a candle
flame are examples of unpolarized light.
 Such light waves are created by electric charges and vibrate in a
variety of directions.
Interference and Superposition of
Waves
 When two waves meet they
will interfere and superpose.
After they have passed they
return to their original forms.
This is true if they are coherent
or not.

 At the point they meet, the two waves will

combine to give a resultant wave whose
amplitude (or intensity) may be greater or
less than the original two waves.
 The resultant displacement can be found
by adding the two displacements
together. This phenomenon leads to the
Principle of Superposition.

The principle of Superposition:

 The Principle of Superposition states that when two or more waves
meet at a point, the resultant displacement at that point is equal to
the sum of the displacements of the individual waves at that point.
Constructive Interference
 Refer the figure on right with two
waves arriving at a point at the same
time in opposite directions.
 If they arrive in Phase – that is,
if their crests arrive at exactly the
same time – they will interfere constructively.

 A resultant wave will be produced which has crests much higher than
either of the two individual waves and troughs which are much deeper.
 If the 2 incoming waves have the same frequency and equal amplitude A,
the resultant wave produced by constructive interference has an
amplitude of 2A.
 The frequency of the resultant is the same as that of incoming waves.
Destructive Interference
 Refer the figure on right with two
waves arriving at a point at the same
time.
 If they arrive out of Phase – that is,
if the crests of one wave arrive at
same time as the troughs from the other – they will interfere destructively.

 A resultant wave will have a smaller amplitude. (based on case to case)

 In the case shown in figure where the incoming waves have equal
amplitude, the resultant wave has zero amplitude.
Interference:
 Interference is the superposing of two or more waves to give a resultant
wave whose displacement is given by the Principle of Superposition.

 At regions of maxima,
constructive
interference occurs (i.e.
the waves arrive at
these points in phase),
resulting in maxima
amplitude, hence high
intensity.
 At regions of minima,
destructive interference
occurs (i.e. the waves
arrive at these points in
anti-phase), resulting in
minima or zero
amplitude, hence low or
zero intensity.
Conditions required for two-source interference
fringes to be observed
Few Important Formulas:

Diffraction grating
 A diffraction grating is a plate on which there is a very large number of
identical, parallel, very closely spaced slits.
 If a monochromatic light is incident on this plate, a pattern of narrow bright
fringes is produced.
 A diffraction grating can be used to
make a spectrometer and a
spectrometer is a device that
measures the wavelength of light.
Stationary Wave

 A stationary wave is set up by the superposition of two progressive waves

of the same type, amplitude and frequency travelling in opposite
directions.

 A stationary (or standing) wave is one in which some points are

permanently at rest (nodes), others between these nodes are vibrating
with varying amplitude, and those points with the maximum amplitude
(antinodes) are midway between the nodes.
2nd

3rd
Huygens’ principle:
 In optics, a statement that all points of a wave front of light in a vacuum or
transparent medium may be regarded as new sources of wavelets that
expand in every direction at a rate depending on their velocities.

Light as Wave and Particle:

 Quantum mechanics tells us that light can behave simultaneously as a
particle or a wave. However, there has never been an experiment able to
capture both natures of light at the same time;
Photon and Photon Energy:
 Photons are the packets of electromagnetic energy
 Photon energy is the energy carried by a single photon. The amount of energy is
directly proportional to the photon's electromagnetic frequency and thus,
equivalently, is inversely proportional to the wavelength. The higher the photon's
frequency, the higher its energy
The stopping voltage
 The stopping voltage (or stopping potential) refers to the voltage
difference required to stop electrons from moving between plates and
creating a current in the photoelectric experiment.
 Recall that in the photoelectric experiment, light is directed onto a metal
plate and if the frequency of light is high enough, electrons are ejected
from the surface. These electrons then travel to a second metal plate found
directly across.
 The minimum amount of energy that is required to eject an electron from
the metal surface is known as the work function. The maximum kinetic
energy that the ejected electron has is given by subtracting the work
function from the energy found in one photon of light.
 The stopping voltage is readily used to determine the kinetic energy that
the electrons have as they are ejected from the metal plate. The product of
the charge on an electron and the stopping voltage gives us the maximum
kinetic energy of that ejected electron.
Electron diffraction:
 It is the phenomenon resulting from the interaction between electrons and
crystalline materials, producing a pattern of rings or spots that characterize
the sample

 Electron diffraction refers to the wave nature of electrons. However, from a

technical or practical point of view, it may be regarded as a technique used
to study matter by firing electrons at a sample and observing the
resulting interference pattern.
 This phenomenon is commonly known as wave–particle duality, which
states that a particle of matter (in this case the incident electron) can be
described as a wave. For this reason, an electron can be regarded as a
wave much like sound or water waves. This technique is similar to X-
ray and neutron diffraction.
De Broglie Equation:
 Electron Energy Level

 The energy of an electron in an isolated atom is quantised. The electron is

allowed to exist in specific energy states known as energy levels

 Ionization energy is the minimum amount of energy required to remove the most
loosely bound electron of an isolated neutral atom.

 In physics, the unit is the amount of energy required to remove a single electron
from a single atom or molecule, expressed as electronvolts.
 Line Spectra:
 A spectral line is a dark or bright line in an otherwise uniform and continuous
spectrum, resulting from emission or absorption of light in a narrow frequency
range, compared with the nearby frequencies. Spectral lines are often used to
identify atoms and molecules.

 The line spectra in which the composition

of light emitted by hot gases, are called
emission line spectra.

 There is another kind of spectra, called

absorption line spectra, which are
observed when white light is passed
through cool gases.
Electric Charge
All the materials made up of tiny particles called ATOM.

 The charge on an
electron is -1.6 x 10⁻¹⁹ C.
An atom contains electrons, protons and neutrons
Electrons orbit the nucleus
Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons
Neutrons have no charge, electrons are negatively charged and protons are
positively charged.
Since an atom is neutral the number of protons is equal to the number of
electrons.
 So there are two types of charges
That are positive (+)(proton) and negative (−)(electron) charges.
Charges are measured in units called COULOMBS (C).
Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
Electric field:
• Electric field is a region in which an electric charge experiences a
force.
We can show electric fields by lines with arrows (called ELECTRIC
FIELD LINES).
Electric field lines due to single charge

Electric field
lines between
like charges

Electric field lines

between unlike
charges

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

 Uniform electric field

 A uniform electric field is a field in which the value of the field strength
remains the same at all points. In a uniform electric field, as
the field strength does not change and the field lines tend to be parallel and
equidistant to each other. They are equally spaced

 The lines of force starts on a

positive charge and end on a
negative charge.
 The lines of force never
touch or cross.
 The strength of the electric
field is indicated by the
closeness of the lines;
means the closer they are,
the stronger the field. Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Current
 The flow of charges in a circuit is called current.Current (I) is
measured in Amperes (A) and milli ampere (mA).Conventional
current direction is from positive to negative. Electrons flow from
negative to positive

The more the charges passing through the wire in one second, the bigger
the current is. Then we can say that current (I) is the rate of charge flowing.
The unit of charge is coulomb. ‘C’
Q = I × t
 Matter can be classified into 3 types according to their electrical properties:

 Conductors – Materials which have mobile charge carriers, mainly electrons

and ions which will drift to constitute an electric current under the effect of
an applied electric field. Hence they can conduct electricity. Examples
include metals and electrolyte solutions.
 Insulators – Materials which have no mobile charge carriers that can drift
under the effect of an applied electric field. Hence they cannot conduct
electricity. Examples include rubber, wood and plastic.
 Semiconductors – Materials which have intermediate electrical conductivity
which vary substantially with temperature. Examples include Germanium,
Silicon.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

 A semiconductor is a material which conducts electric current, but only
very slightly, it is similar to an insulator. Its valence band is full and its
conduction band is empty. However, the gap between the two is very small.
At room temperature, a few electrons have enough energy to jump across
the gap into the conduction band. These electrons are ‘free’ and can form
a current.

 If a piece of semiconductor is heated, more electrons will gain the energy

needed to jump up into the conduction band and the material will conduct
better – its resistance decreases because of the increased number density
of electrons in the conduction band.
 This is the opposite of a metal, whose resistance increases when it is heated.
There is no increase in the number density of free electrons when a metal is
heated. Instead, its atoms vibrate more, and the electrons collide more
frequently with the vibrating atoms.

 In an insulator, there is a large energy gap between the top of the valence
band and the bottom of the conduction band. The voltage of a cell is
insufficient to lift even the most energetic electrons across the gap and into
the conduction band. This means that electrons are not free to move through
the material – it is an insulator.
 Current-Carrying Conductors

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
Electromotive force (e.m.f)
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is measured by the energy dissipated by
a source (battery) in driving a unit charge around a complete
circuit.
Or
The electromotive force (e.m.f.) of a cell can be defined as the
chemical energy converted to electrical energy for per coulomb of
charge.
𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 𝒔𝒖𝒑𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒅 𝒃𝒚 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍
e.m.f =
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍
𝑬
In symbol ε=
𝑸
 The unit of e.m.f is J/C or Volt (V)

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Cells in series
When cells are connected in series the combined e.m.f. is the sum
of all the individual e.m.f.’s.
e.g.

Combined e.m.f. = 1.5V + 1.5V + 1.5V = 4.5V

Cells in parallels
 When cells are connected in parallel, the combined e.m.f. is the
e.m.f. of one individual cell.
e.g.

Combined e.m.f. is 1.5 V

The advantages of connecting cells in parallel

 The cell will last longer before they need to be

replaced.
Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
Potential difference (p.d) or Voltage

Energy carried by charges is consumed in components like

resistance, lamp, or heater of the circuit. When the charges flow
through the lamps in a circuit, their energy is converted other
forms such as heat and light.
The energy converted per unit charge passing through a
component is called potential difference (p.d), across the
component.
The p.d. across a component in a circuit is given by the work
done in the component/charge passed through th e component.
The p.d across a component in a circuit is defined as electrical
energy converted to other form for per coulomb of charge
passing through the component.
𝑾
p.d=
𝑸
The unit of potential difference is volt (V)

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Resistance (R)
How much current can a cell push through a resistor? This
depends on the resistance of the resistor.
The greater its resistance, the smaller the current that will flow
through it.
The resistance of a component is measured in Ohm (Ω) and is
defined by this equation:
𝑽
𝑷𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 R=
r𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 = 𝑰
𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕
The resistance is the property of material that oppose the flow of
charge through the material.

Figure below shows some resistors symbol

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Measuring resistance:
Connect a electrical component or a conducting wire series to the
battery and ammeter. Then connect the voltmeter parallel to the
electrical component or wire as shown below.
Measure the voltmeter and ammeter reading in the circuit.
Resistance of the wire or electrical component can be calculated
by using the formula

R=
𝑽  The graph shows that when the voltage
𝑰 increases the current also increases
within constant temperature. And the
gradient of the graph is a constant
value.
Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
Factors affecting resistance
Length of wire
For a wire of uniform cross sectional area, the resistance is
proportional to the length of wire. The longer the wire, the further
electrons have to travel, the more likely they are to collide with metal
ions and so the greater the resistance. So if the length of wire
increases resistance also increases.
Cross-sectional area
For a wire fixed length, its resistance is inversely proportional to the
cross sectional area. The greater the cross sectional area of the wire,
the more electrons there are available to carry charge along the wire
length and so the lower resistance. So if cross-sectional area of a wire
increases resistance of the wire decreases.
Temperature (Thermistor)
For metallic wires,(PTC) as temperature increases, the resistance of it
also increases. But for some materials like silicon and germanium
(semiconductors),(NTC) as temperature increases resistance
decreases. The resistance of the most of the conductors becomes
higher if the temperature of the conductor increases. As the
temperature rises, the metals ions vibrate more and provide greater
resistance to flow the electrons. Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
Material
Resistance depends on the kind of substance.
Copper is a good conductor and is used for connecting wires. But
Nichrome has more resistance and is used in the heating elements of
electric heater.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Rheostat
A variable resistor or rheostat is used to vary the current in a circuit.
A sliding contact moves, it varies the length of the wire in the circuit
and hence the resistance will be changed.

Ohm’s Law:
For a conductive wire of constant resistance voltage is directly proportional to the
current. This is called Ohm’s law.
𝑽
R= 𝑰

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Metallic Conductor at
varying temperature. Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
Light dependent resistor (LDR)
A light dependent resistor (LDR) is a type of variable resistor
whose resistance depends on the amount of light falling on it . An
LDR is made of material that does not normally conduct well
(semiconductor Cadmium Sulphide).
In the dark, an LDR has a high resistance, often over 1MΩ.
However, light can provide the energy needed to allow a current to
flow. Shine light on an LDR and its resistance decreases. In bright
light its resistance may fall to 400Ω).
LDRs are used in circuits to detect the level of light, for example in
security lights that switch on automatically at night.

symbol

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM

BD)
Resistivity, what is it?
Resistivity is the opposite of conductivity, it’s a measure of how
effectively a material slows down the flow of electricity.

Insulators have a high resistivity rating. Materials such as metals

and other conductors have a low resistivity rating.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

 For a wire of length l and cross-sectional area A the resistance R:
Is proportional to l
And inversely proportional to A
The constant ρ (rho)
 ρ is known as the resistivity.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Electrical Circuit Symbol

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Resistors in series
The total resistance R of the resistors connected in series circuit
is equals to the sum of the separate resistance.
R = R1 + R2 +R3
Example

R = R1 + R2 +R3 = 2 + 8 = 10Ω

Resistors in parallel
The effective resistance R of the resistors connected in parallel can be
calculate by using the formula:
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝑹𝟏 × 𝑹𝟐
1/R = + + 𝒐𝒓 R =
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Example
𝑹𝟏 × 𝑹𝟐
R=
𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝟓 ×𝟐
R = =1.43Ω
𝟓+ 𝟐
Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)
D.C. Circuits
Series circuit

When resistors or other components are connected in series:

 the current at every point in a circuit is the same.
Total resistance = R1 + R2 = 10Ω
V = IR
I = V / R = 16 / 10 = 1.6A

So the ammeter reading shown in

the circuit is 1.6A and the current in
each resistor is also 1.6A.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

 The sum of the potential differences in a series circuit is equal to the
potential difference across the whole circuit

P.d across 6Ω resistor P.d across 4Ω resistor

V = IR = 1.6 x 6 = 9.6V V = IR = 1.6 x 4 = 6.4V

P.d across the circuit = 9.6 + 6.4 = 16 V

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Parallel circuits

When resistors or other components are connected in parallel:

 the P.d at every point in a circuit is the same.

 P.d across each resistor is 18V

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

 The current from the source is the sum of the currents in the
separate branches of a parallel circuit.

Current across 8Ω resistor

V = IR
I = V / R = 18 / 8 = 2.25A

Current across 2Ω resistor

V = IR
I = V / R = 18 / 2 = 9A

 So sum of the currents in the separate branches is (2.25 +9 = 11.25A ) and is equals
to current from the source as shown in the ammeter reading in the diagram above.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Advantage of Parallel Circuit:

There are some advantages of connecting lamps and other

electrical components in parallel rather than connecting in series.
These include:

 The voltage through each lamp is same so each lamp has same
brightness.
 If the one lamp is melt the other lamps will work but in series if
one lamp melts others will not work.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

A Parallel circuit has certain characteristics and basic rules:
 A parallel circuit has two or more paths for current to
flow through.
 Voltage is the same across each component of the
parallel circuit.
 The sum of the currents through each path is equal to
the total current that flows from the source.
 You can find total resistance in a Parallel circuit with
the following formula:

1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 +...

 If one of the parallel paths is broken, current will continue to

flow in all the other paths.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

 A series circuit is one with all the loads in a row.
 There is only ONE path for the electricity to flow. If this circuit was
a string of light bulbs, and one blew out, the remaining bulbs would
turn off.

Characteristics of Series Circuit:

 The same current flows through each part of a series circuit.

 The total resistance of a series circuit is equal to the sum of individual

resistances.

 Voltage applied to a series circuit is equal to the sum of the individual

voltage drops.

 The voltage drop across a resistor in a series circuit is directly

proportional to the size of the resistor.

 If the circuit is broken at any point, no current will flow.

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Electrical power and energy
The e.m.f (voltage) of a supply tell us about how much energy is
transfer to charges flowing around the circuit.
The greater the current flowing around the circuit, the faster that
energy is transferred.
Hence the rate at which the energy transferred in the circuit ( the
power P) depends on both e.m.f V of the supply and the current I
that it pushes round the circuit. The following equation shows
how to calculate power.
 Power (w) = current (A) x p.d. (V)
 In symbol P = V x I

Since energy transferred = power x time,

We can modify the equation P = VI to give an equation for energy
transformed E:
Energy transformed (J) = current (I) x p.d. (V) x time (t)
In symbol E = VIt

Md. Arzu Islam (iSTEM BD)

Internal Resistance:

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Kirchhoff’s Law

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Potential Dividers:

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Potentiometer:

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