1967 – Hertz was designated for use in lieu of the term “cycles per second” in honor of Heinrich Hertz

Two types of wave motion:

Longitudinal – travels through compression and rarefaction of the particles of the medium
Transverse – oscillation is perpendicular to the direction of propagation

Characteristics of wave motion: (NOTE* ALL WAVES REACT IN A SIMILAR MANNER)

Wavelength – distance that a disturbance travels during one period of vibration

Frequency – number of cycles per second
Period – time in which one complete vibratory cycle of events occurs
Wave Velocity – speed at which a wave train passes a fixed point
Reflection – when a wave bounces off from the medium
Refraction – changing of direction as the wave enters another medium with a different velocity of
propagation
Diffraction – bending of wave path when the waves meet an obstruction
Doppler Effect – apparent change in frequency between the source of a wave and the receiver of the
wave is because of relative motion between the source and the receiver

When a wave passes through a medium through another medium with different characteristics,
(eg. Air -> Water), three things can occur to a wave:
1. energy can be reflected back to the initial medium (REFLECTION)
2. energy can be transmitted to the other medium at a different velocity (VELOCITY)
3. energy can be absorbed by the medium (ABSORPTION)

Reflection of Waves:

Angle of Incidence = Angle of Reflection, if the reflecting surface is smooth and polished. (LAW OF
REFLECTION)

The amount of incident wave energy reflected is dependent on the nature of the surface and angle of
incidence.

𝜃 ∝ 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒

Refraction of Waves:

As the wave passes through the medium the wave is either bent towards or away from the normal.

If the wave passes from a less dense to a denser medium – it is bent towards the normal; the angle of
refraction (r) is less than the angle of incidence (i).

If the wave passes from a denser to a less dense medium – it is bent away from the normal; the angle of
refraction (r) is greater than the angle of incidence (i).

Diffraction of Waves:

Amount of diffraction depends on the wavelength of the wave.

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ∝ 1/𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦

Therefore, since light belongs to the higher frequencies it is rare to see light being diffracted.

Doppler Effect: (Christian Doppler)

Is the apparent change in frequency as the source moves towards or away from the listener or vice-
versa.
 Sound Waves
Depth finding equipment – Fathometer (uses echoes/sound reflections)
Underwater detection equipment – sonar

Sound – a range of compression-wave frequencies to which the human ear is sensitive

INFRASONICS – sounds below 15 Hz are infrasonic

SONICS – heard by the human ear typically 20 – 20kHz (navy sets lower limit at 15 Hz and 10 kHz for the
upper limit)
ULTRASONIC – above 10 kHz

Density of a medium – determines the ease, distance, and speed of sound transmission. (Although the
elasticity of the object also determines the transmission characteristics)

Characteristics of sounds:

Pitch – depends on the frequency

Intensity – depends on the amplitude of the waves (not the same as loudness but proportional)
Quality – depends on the form of the waves

Elasticity and Density and Velocity of Transmission

Varying the frequency and intensity of the sound waves does not affect the speed of propagation.

Elasticity and Density of a medium determines the velocity of sound passing through it.

Elasticity – ability of a strained body to recover its shape after deformation

Density – Mass per unit volume of a substance or medium

Velocity of sound in an elastic medium:

Sound travels faster in harder materials, slower in liquids, and slowest in gases.

At 273K – velocity of sound through air is 1087 ft/s

 Light Waves
Source of light – luminous
Reflects light – illuminated body

Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.

Electromagnetic Theory of light

Important names: James Clerk Maxwell (19th century)

Light is made up of small packets of electromagnetic energy – Photons

Large volume of light – Beam

Narrow Beam – pencil

To measure wavelengths more conveniently Angstrom (𝑨̇) was devised (1 Angstrom = 1 x 10^-10)
Another common unit used is the millimicron (mµ), which is one millionth of a millimeter.

White light is the product of the mixing of the Primary colors which are red, green, and blue
Complementary or Secondary Colors are the product of mixing any two primary colors
Example: Magenta (Blue and Red), Yellow (Red and Green), Cyan (Blue and Green)

Substances that transmit almost all the light are called TRANSPARENT.
Substances that diffuse light are called TRANSLUCENT.
Substances that absorb almost all the light are called OPAQUE.

Speed of Light – 3 x 10^8 m/s was discovered by Ole Roemer in 1675.

 Radio Wave propagation
Electromagnetic Fields:

The 2 basic fields associated with an antenna are the induction and radiation field.

Induction Field –plays no part in the transmission of electromagnetic energy. It represents only the
stored energy in the antenna and is responsible for the resonant effects that the antenna reflects to the
generator

Radiation Field – responsible for the electromagnetic radiation from the antenna

Radio Waves:

Energy generated by a transmitter – Radio Wave also called Electromagnetic Radiation

Components of Radio Waves:

Basic shape of the wave transmitted is a sine wave.

Radio Frequencies – 3kHz to 300 GHz (usable rf range is roughly 10kHz to 100GHz)

The basic frequency itself is called the first harmonic.

Any frequency that is a whole number multiple of a smaller basic frequency is called a Harmonic of that
frequency.

Polarization:

For maximum absorption of energy from EM fields, the receiving antenna must be in the plane of
polarization.

The conductor of the antenna must be placed 90 at right angles to the magnetic lines of force for
maximum induction.
When the E field component of the radiated signal travels in a plane perpendicular to the surface of the
Earth then the radiation is said to be Vertically Polarized.

When the radiation is said to be Horizontally Polarized, the E field component of the radiated signal
travels parallel to the surface of the Earth.

The radiated energy from an antenna is in the form of an expanding sphere. Any section of this sphere is
perpendicular to the direction the energy travels is called a WAVEFRONT.

Atmospheric propagation:

Reflection – occurs when radio waves strike a reflecting surface (metal with smooth surfaces that are
good electrical conductors are efficient reflectors)

When radio waves get reflected from flat surfaces, a phase shift in the alternations of the wave occurs

The amount of phase shift that occurs is not constant; it depends on the polarization of the wave and
the angle at which the wave strikes the reflecting surface

Radio waves that keep their phase relationships after the reflection normally produces a stronger signal
at the receiving site, otherwise it produces a weak or fading signal

The shifting in phase reflection of reflected radio waves is one the major reasons for fading

Refraction – is the bending of the waves as they move from one medium into another in which the
velocity of propagation is different; the bending is always toward the medium that has the lower
velocity of propagation

Diffraction – a radio wave that meets and obstacle has a natural tendency to bend around the obstacle

The Effect of Earth’s Atmosphere on Radio Waves

3 separate regions of the Earth’s Atmosphere – TROPOSPHERE, STRATOSPHERE, and IONOSPHERE

Troposphere:

The portion of the Earth’s atmosphere that extends from the surface of the Earth to a height of 6km at
the NORTH POLE and 18km at the SOUTH POLE.

All weather phenomena take place in the troposphere.

 Stratosphere:

Located between the troposphere and the ionosphere, the temperature in this region is considered to
be almost constant, and has relatively little effect on radio waves.
Ionosphere:

The ionosphere extends upward from about 50km miles to a height of about 402 km. It contains four
cloud-like layers of electrically charged ions. It is the most important region of the atmosphere for long
distance point-to-point communications.

Radio Wave Transmission:

Two principal ways in which electromagnetic (radio) energy travels from a transmitting to a receiving
antenna: GROUND WAVES (travel near the surface of the Earth) and SKY WAVES (get reflected back to
Earth by the ionosphere)

Ground waves – composed of two separate component waves (SURFACE WAVES and SPACE WAVES)
 SURFACE WAVES – travels along the surface of the Earth (caused by diffraction) and uses
vertical polarization
 Impractical for long distance communications at frequencies above 2 MHz
 Most practical for VLF (very low frequency)
 SPACE WAVES – travels over the surface of the Earth
 2 distinct paths (direct or reflection from the ground to the receiving antenna)
 Primary path is direct (from transmitter to receiver)
 Susceptible to fading

Sky waves – often called the ionospheric wave, is radiated in an upward direction and returned to Earth
at some distant location because of refraction from the ionosphere
 Usually the HF (high frequency) band is used for this propagation

Structure of the Ionosphere:

It is called the ionosphere due to it having several layers of electrically charged gas atoms called ions.

Ionization:

Ionization occurs when high energy UV light waves enter the ionospheric region of the atmosphere.

The atmosphere is bombarded by UV light waves of different frequencies, thus forming several ionized
layers at different altitudes. High frequency UV waves penetrate deeper thus being responsible for the
ionized layer at a lower altitude. Conversely, Lower frequency UV light waves are responsible for the
ionized layer at higher altitudes.

The height and thickness of the ionized layers vary, depending on the time of the day, and even the
season of the year.

Recombination:

Recombination – reverse process of ionization wherein free electrons collide with positive ions wherein
the positive ions return to their neutral atom state.
The rate of Recombination depends on the time of the day. Rate of ionization exceeds rate of
combination from early morning to late afternoon.

Four distinct layers of the Ionosphere:

The ionosphere is composed of 3 Layers, D, E, and F; where F is divided into two layers (F1 and F2).

D layer – ranges from about 30 to 55 miles; reflects LF and passes then attenuates HF signals; disappears
after sunset.

E layer – ranges from about 55 – 90 miles; known as the Kennelly-Heaviside layer; refracts frequencies
up to 20 MHz; valuable for communications in ranges up to 1.5 miles; almost gone by midnight

F layer – ranges from about 90 miles to 240 miles; during daylight it separates into two layers F1 and F2;
a fairly constant ionized layer is always present; responsible for HF and long distance transmission

Refraction in the ionosphere:

Depends on 3 main factors: density of the ionization layer, frequency of radio wave, angle at which the
wave enters the layer (angle of incidence)

Density of Layer – as the radio wave enters a region of INCREASING IONIZATION, the wave is bent back
toward the Earth

Frequency – each ionospheric layer has a maximum frequency at which radio waves can be transmitted
vertically and refracted back to Earth (known as the Critical Frequency)

Angle of Incidence – the rate at which a wave of a given frequency is refracted by an ionized layer
depends on the angle of incidence. Any wave that leaves the antenna greater than the critical angle will
penetrate the ionospheric layer and will be lost in space

As the frequency of the radio wave increases the critical angle must be reduced for refraction to occur.

Absorption in the Ionosphere – absorption results in the loss of energy of a radio wave

Sky waves suffer most of their absorption losses because of conditions in the ionosphere. Most of the
absorption occurs in the lower regions of the ionosphere where ionization density is greatest. The highly
dense D and E layers contribute to the greatest absorption of radio waves.

Frequencies above 10 MHz suffer from the presence of water and water vapors at lower atmospheric
levels.

Fading – causes a problem in the receiving radio due to the signal varying in signal strength

Usually, fading on ionospheric circuits is mainly a result of multipath propagation.

Multipath Fading – fading due to the signal taking up different paths causing the signal to be out of
phase when received
Multipath fading may be minimized by practices called Space and Frequency Diversity.

Selective Fading – causes all frequencies of the transmitted signal to lose their original phases and
relative amplitudes

Transmission losses:

Other types of losses that affect ionospheric propagation of waves: ground reflection loss, and free
space loss.

Absorption, ground reflection loss, and free space loss account for most of the energy losses of radio
transmissions propagated by the ionosphere.

Ground Reflection loss – the loss of the radio waves energy after reflecting from the surface of the earth
(amount of energy lost depends on the frequency, angle of incidence, ground irregularities, and
electrical conductivity of the point of reflection)

Free Space loss – major loss of energy is because of the spreading out of the wavefront as it travels away
from the transmitter

Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):

This interference causes problems to operating conditions.

EMI can be from man-made or natural causes.

EMI can be reduced by cutting transmitting antennas to the correct frequency, limiting bandwidth, and
using electronic filtering networks and metallic shielding.

Frequency Selection Considerations:

For successful communication between any two specified locations at any given time of the day, there is
a maximum frequency, lowest frequency, and an optimum frequency.

Maximum Usable Frequency – for a given angle of incidence and time of day, there is a maximum usable
frequency; MUF is highest at around noon when UV light waves from the sun are the most intense

Lowest Usable Frequency – a wave frequency that is too low is absorbed to such an extent that it is too
weak for reception

Optimum Working Frequency – 0.85 of the Maximum Usable Frequency; frequence optimum de travail
 Principles of Transmission Lines

All transmission lines have two ends.

Five types of transmission mediums – parallel line, twisted pair, shielded pair, coaxial, waveguides

Losses in transmission lines - copper, dielectric, radiation or induction losses

Copper losses – I^2R loss ( heat loss or POWER LOSS), copper braid has higher resistance than solid
tubing thus power loss is higher; another copper loss is due to SKIN EFFECT
- These losses can be minimized and conductivity increased in an rf line by plating the line with
silver
Dielectric losses – is a result from the heating effect on the dielectric material between the conductors

Radiation and Induction Losses – induction losses occur when the emag field about a conductor cuts
through any nearby metallic object and current is induced in the object
- Radiation losses occur because some magnetic lines of force about a conductor do not return to
the conductor when the cycle alternates; power is supplied by the source but not available to
the load

Length of a transmission line:

A transmission line is considered to be electrically short when its physical length is short
compared to a quarter-wavelength (1/4*lambda) of the energy it is to carry.

A transmission line is electrically long when its physical length is long compare to a quarter
wavelength of the energy it is to carry.

Inductance of a transmission line expressed in microhenrys per unit length

Capacitance of a transmission line expressed in picofarads per unit length

Resistance of a transmission line is expressed in ohms per unit length

Conductance in transmission lines is expressed in micromhos per unit length

Electromagnetic fields about a transmission line: