Wave motion and its applications

Wave motion, propagation of disturbance

That is deviations from a state of rest or equilibrium Wave motion is a form of disturbance
produced in the medium by the repeated periodic motion of the particles of the medium.

Transverse Waves:

Displacement of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave.

Wave length

A wavelength is a measure of distance between two identical crests (high points ) or between
two identical troughs ( low points ) in a wave. Wavelengths represent a repeating pattern of
traveling energy, such as light or sound.

Time Period

A time period is the time needed for one complete cycle of vibration to pass in a given point.

Frequency

As the frequency of a wave increases, the time period of the wave decreases. The unit
for time period is hertz

OR

Frequency is the number of occurrences of a repeating event per unit of time the number of
waves that pass a fixed point in a given amount of time ( unit time )The SI unit for wave
frequency is the hertz (Hz)

Amplitude

Amplitude the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body or

wave measured from its equilibrium position.
Relation between velocity, wave length, frequency

Time Period (T) It is defined as the time taken to complete

oscillation

f = 1 / T--------- (i)

The wave speed (v) is defined as the distance traveled by a wave per unit time. If considered
that the wave travels a distance of one wavelength in one period,

ν=λ/T ----------- (ii)

As we know that T = 1/f ----------- (iii)

hence we can express the above equation as,

V=fλ

The wave speed is equal to the product of its frequency and wavelength, and this implies the
relationship between frequency and wavelength.

SHM

Simple harmonic motion is a special type of periodic motion OR oscillation motion where
the restoring force is directly proportional to the displacement and acts in the direction
opposite to that of displacement.

Cantilever

Cantilever a long projecting beam or girder fixed at only one end, used in bridge
construction.

Types of vibration

1. free vibration

2. forced vibration

3. damped vibration

1 . free vibration

Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set in motion with an initial input and
allowed to vibrate freely.

Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and letting it go, or
hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring..
2. Force vibration

Forced vibration is when a time-varying disturbance (load, displacement or velocity) is

applied to a mechanical system.

3. Damped vibration

The disturbance can be a periodic and steady-state input

Examples include a washing machine shaking due to an imbalance, vibration of a building

during an earthquake. Damped vibration: When the energy of a vibrating system is gradually
dissipated by friction and other resistances, the vibrations are said to be damped.

Echo

Echo is a reflection of sound that arrives at the listener with a delay after the direct sound.
The delay is directly proportional to the distance of the reflecting surface from the source and
the listener.

Noise

Noise is unwanted sound judged to be unpleasant, loud or disruptive to hearing

Co-efficient of absorption

The absorption coefficient is a representative term for determining how far incident light of a
certain wave length penetrates a material before being absorbed.

Ultra sonic wave

Ultrasound is sound waves with frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of human
hearing. humans cannot hear it. This limit varies from person to person and is approximately
20 kilohertz in healthy young adults.
SONAR, RADAR

Sonar (originally an acronym for sound navigation ranging) is a technique that uses sound
propagation (usually underwater, as in submarine navigation) to navigate, communicate with
or detect objects on or under the surface of the water, such as other vessels.

 Sonograms (i.e. baby pictures)

 Non-destructive examination (checking for internal cracks or voids)
 Sonar (underwater detection of obstacles)
 Welding (plastics or metals)
 Cleaning (often jewelry)
 Cutting / Slicing (fabrics, plastic films)
 De-gating, staking, swaging, inserting (random plastic manufacturing processes)
 Surgery (to make incisions)
 Machining
 Additive Manufacturing
 Wire / tube drawing
 Rock breaking Proposed, possible, but not quite totally proven:
 Keeping windshield clean
 Repelling pests
 Cleaning algae from ponds
 Optics
Reflection:-

Reflection is the change in direction of a wave front at an interface between two different
media so that the wave front returns into the medium from which it originated. Common

Examples

Include the reflection of light, sound and water waves.

Refraction:-

In physics refraction is the change in direction of a wave passing from one medium toanother
or from a gradual change in the medium. Refraction of light is the most commonly observed
phenomenon, but other waves such as sound waves and water waves also experience

refraction.
Law of refrection:-

Snell's law is a formula used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and
refraction, when referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary between two
different isotropic media, such as water, glass, or air. Law of reflection:- The law of
reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the surface of the
mirror all lie in the same plane. Furthermore, the angle of reflection is equal to the angle of
incidence . ... This type of reflection is called diffuse reflection, and is what

Law of reflection:-

The law of reflection states that the incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal to the
surface of the mirror all lie in the same plane. Furthermore, the angle of reflection is equal to
the angle of incidence . ... This type of reflection is called diffuse reflection, and is what
enables us to see non-shiny objects.
Power of lens:-

The diopter is the unit of measure for the refractive power of a lens. The power of a lens is
defined as the reciprocal of its focal length in meters, or D = 1/f, where D is the power in
dypoters and f is the focal length in meters. Lens surface power can be found with the index
of refraction and radius of curvature.

Lens formula:-

The lens formula is applicable both in convex lenses and concave lenses. The lens formula is
applicable both in convex lenses and concave lenses. ... The focal length of a lens in air can
be calculated from the lens maker's equation: The focal length f is positive for converging
lenses and negative for diverging lenses.

Total internal reflection:-

The complete reflection of a light ray reaching an interface with a less dense medium when
the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle.
Microscope and its use:-

A microscope is an instrument used to see objects that are too small to beseen . One of the
latest discoveries made abo+ ut using an electron microscope is the ability to identify a virus
...

Uses: Small sample observation

Related items: Optical microscope Electron microscope

Telescope and its use:-

An optical telescope which uses lenses is known as are refracting telescope or a refractor;
one which uses a mirror is known as a reflecting telescope or reflector. Besides optical
telescopes, astronomers also use telescopes that focus radio waves, X-rays, and other forms
of electromagnetic radiation.
 Electrostatics

Unit charge:-

Charge is one electrostatic unit, esu, or statcoulomb. In the metre–kilogram–second and the
SI systems, the unit of force (newton),the unit of charge (coulomb), and the unit of distance
(metre ) are all defined independently of Coulombs so the proportionality factor k is
constrained to take a value consist.

Unit of charge:-

Coulomb is the standard unit of charge. One Coulomb of charge is equal to electrons or
protons.

Coulomb Law

Coulomb's law states that: The magnitude of the electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion
between two point charges is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Electric field:-

A region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be exerted on other
charged particles or objects.

Electric flow density:-

In electromagnetism, current density is the electric current per unit area of cross section. The
current density vector is defined as a vector whose magnitude is thee electric current per
cross-sectional area at a given point in space, its direction being that of the motion of the
charges at this point.

Electric field density:-

. They are operationally defined differently: The electric field intensity is defined as the force
on a unit test charge and given by the units V/m. The
displacement field (electric flux density) is defined by charge density built up on a test
capacitor and given in units of Coulombs per square meter.
  Current Electricity
Electric current

Electric current is defined as the rate of flow of negative charges of the conductor. In other
words, the continuous flow of electrons in an electric circuit is called an electric current

Direct and alternative current

Alternating Current (AC) is a type of electrical current, in which the direction of the flow of
electrons switches back and forth at regular intervals or cycles. Direct current (DC) is the
unidirectional flow of electric charge. A battery is a good example of a DC power supply.

Resistance, Specific Resistance and conductor

Specific resistance of a conductor is the resistance of a conductor of unit length and unit area
of cross section. ... Specific resistance or resistivity is the resistance per unit length and area
of cross section of a conductor .It is a property of a material.

Series and parallel combination of resistance

Series.

The current is the same through each resistor. The total resistance of the circuit is found by
simply adding up the resistance values of the individual resistors: equivalent resistance of
resistors in series: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + ... A series circuit is shown in the diagram above.
Parallel,

Voltage is the same across each component of the parallel circuit. The sum of the currents
through each path is equal to the total current that flows from the source. You can find
total resistance in a Parallel circuit with the following formula: 1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
+...

Ohm’s law.

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directlyproportional to the voltage across the two points. ... More specifically, Ohm's law .

V =IR

I =V/R

R =V/I

Electric power

Electric power is the rate, per unit time, at which electrical energy is transferred by
an electric circuit. The SI unit of power is the watt, one joule per second. Electric power is
usually produced by electric generators, but can also be supplied by sources such as
electric batteries.
Krichoff’s Law with Example
 Electromagnetism
Magnetic field

The magnetic field is defined from the Lorentz Force Law, and specifically from the
magnetic force on a moving charge:

The magnitude of the force is F = qvsinθ where θ is the angle < 180 degrees
between the velocity and the magnetic field. This implies that the magnetic force on a
stationary charge or a charge moving parallel to the magnetic field is zero.

Magnetic flux

In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the magnetic flux (often denoted Φ or ΦB) through
a surface is the surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field passing
through that surface. The SI unit of magnetic flux is the weber (WB).

Faraday’s Law

States that the absolute value or magnitude of the circulation of the electric field E around a
closed loop is equal to the rate of change of the magnetic flux through the area enclosed by
the loop. The equation below expresses Faraday's law in mathematical form.

Electro magnetic Induction

Electromagnetic induction is the production of voltage or electromotive force due to a change

in the magnetic field. Electromagnetic induction was discovered by Michael Faraday in the
1830s.Many electrical components and types of equipment work based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.

Type of magnetic substance

Three types of magnetic substance

1. Diamagnetism
2. Paramagnetic
 3. ferromagnetism

 Diamagnetism
A diamagnetic substance is one whose atoms have no permanent magnetic dipole
moment. When an external magnetic field is applied to a diamagnetic substance such
as bismuth or silver a weak magnetic dipole moment is induced in the direction
opposite the applied field. All materials are actually diamagnetic, in that a weak
repulsive force is generated by in a magnetic field by the current of the orbiting .
 Paramagnetic-:
Para magnetism is a form of magnetism where by certain materials
are weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form
internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field. In
contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields
and form induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied
magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include most chemical element sand
some compounds; they have a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater
than (i.e., a small positive magnetic susceptibility) and hence are attracted to
magnetic fields. The magnetic moment induced by the applied field is linear in
the field strength and rather weak. It typically requires a sensitive analytical
balance to detect the effect and modern measurements on paramagnetic
materials are often conducted with a SQUID magnetometer.

 Ferromagnetism
Ferromagnetism is the basic mechanism by which certain materials (such
as iron) form permanent magnets, or are attracted to magnets. In physics,
several different types of magnetism are distinguished. Ferromagnetism (along
with the similar effect ferromagnetism) is the strongest type and is responsible for
the common phenomena of magnetism in magnets encountered in everyday
life. Substances respond weakly to magnetic fields with three other types of
magnetism, para magnetism, diamagnetism, and anti ferromagnetism, but the
forces are usually so weak that they can only be detected by sensitive
instruments in a laboratory. An everyday example of ferromagnetism is
a refrigerator magnet used to hold notes on a refrigerator door. The attraction
between a magnet and ferromagnetic material is "the quality of magnetism first
apparent to the ancient world, and to us today".
 Semiconductor physics
Doping :-

Doping is the process of adding impurities to intrinsic semiconductors to alter their

properties. Normally Trivalent and Pentavalent elements are used to dope Silicon and
Germanium. When an intrinsic semiconductor is doped with Trivalent impurity it becomes a
P-Type semiconductor.

Diagram of PN-junction:-

Rectifier:-A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current, which

periodically reverses direction, to direct current, which flows in only one direction. The
process is known as rectification, since it "straightens" the direction
NPN transistor symbol:-

PNP transister symbol:-

Difference between extensive and intensive

Extensive properties, such as mass and volume, depend on the amount of matter being
measured. Intensive properties, such as density and color, do not depend on the amount of the
substance present. Physical properties can be measured without changing a substance's
chemical identity.

Difference between p type and n type semi conductor:-

n-type Semi-Conductor

It is an extrinsic semi-conductor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of Vth

group of the periodic table to the pure Ge and Si semi-conductor. The impurity atoms added,
provide extra electrons in the structure and are called donor atoms. The electrons are majority
carriers and holes are minority carriers. The electrons density (ne) is much greater than the
hole density (nh) i.e.>> nh. The donor energy level is close to the conduction band and for
away from the valence band. The Fermi-energy level lies in between the donor energy level
and conduction band.
 P-type Semi-Conductor

It is an extrinsic semi-conductor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of III group
of the periodic table to the pure Ge and Si semi-conductor. The impurity atoms added, create
vaccines of electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and are called acceptor atoms. The holes are
majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. The holes density (nh) is much greater
than the electrons density (ne) i.e.>> ne. The acceptor energy level is close to the Valence
band and for away from the Conduction band. The Fermi-energy level lies in between the
acceptor energy level and valence band. These are the differences between n type and p type
semiconductors. If you know more, then please discuss.

PN junction diode and its VI characteristics

-There are three possible biasing conditions and two operating regions for the typical PN-
Junction Diode, they are: zero bias, forward bias and reverse bias.

The VI characteristics of PN junction diode in forward bias are non linear, that is, not a
straight line. ... When forward bias is applied to the diodethen it causes a low impedance path
and permits to conduct a large amount of current which is known as infinite

Half wave rectifier-

Half Wave Rectification. A rectifier is a circuit which converts the Alternating Current (AC)
input power into a Direct Current (DC) output power. The input power supply may be either
a single-phase or a multi-phase supply with the simplest of all the rectifier circuits being that
of the Half Wave Rectifier.

Full wave rectifier

A Full Wave Rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage
using both half cycles of the applied ac voltage. It uses two diodes of which one conducts
during one half cycle while the other conducts during the other half cycle of the applied ac
voltage.
Types of substance conductor, insulator and semi conductor

The glass, wood, mica, diamond are the examples of an insulator. A metal
having conductivity which is between conductor and an insulator is called semiconductor.
The silicon and germanium are the examples of a semiconductor.
 Modern physics
LASER:-

The term "laser" originated as an acronym for "light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation".

Defination of Laser:-

A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the
stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The term "laser" originated as an acronym
for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation".

Optical fibre:-

A long thin thread of glass through which information, sound, data, etc. can be sent in the
form of light.

Ionization energy of hydrogen atom:-

For a hydrogen atom, composed of an orbiting electron bound to a nucleus of one proton, an
ionization energy of2.18 × 10−18 joule (13.6 electron volts) is required to force the electron
from its lowest energy level entirely out of the atom.

Fibre works on principle:-

Optical Fibre : Principle and Working.

The optical fibre is a device which works on the principle of “total internal reflection” by
which light signals can be transmitted from one place to another with a negligible loss of
energy.
Nanometerial:-

Nanomaterials describe, in principle,materials of which a single unit is sized (in at least one
dimension) between 1 to 1000 nanometres (10−9meter) but usually is 1 to 100 nm (the
usual definition of nanoscale). ...Materials with structure at the nanoscale often have unique
optical, electronic, or mechanical properties.

Example of nanomaterials are carbon nanotube, nanoparticle, metal rubber, quantum dots,
nanopores and many more. Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of the
controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale.

Characterstics of LASER:.

Laser radiation has the following important characteristics over ordinary light source. They
are: i) mono chromaticity, ii) directionality, iii) coherence and iv) brightness. (i) Mono
chromaticity: A laser beam is more or less in single wavelength. ... So, laser radiation is said
to be highly monochromatic.

On the other hand, in laser, all the emitted photons have the same energy, frequency, or
wavelength. Hence, the light waves of laser have single wavelength or color. Therefore, laser
light covers a very narrow range of frequencies or wavelengths.

Application of LASER:-Applications in Medical applications, welding and Cutting,

surveying, garment industry, laser nuclear fusion, communication, laser printing, CDs and
optical discs, spectroscopy, heat treatment, barcode scanners, laser cooling.

Application of fibre:-

Applications. Optical fiber is used by many telecommunications companies to transmit

telephone signals, Internet communication and cable television signals. Due to much lower
attenuation and interference, optical has large advantages over existing copper wire in long-
distance, high-demand applications.

Application of nanotechnology
Medicine

Researchers are developing customized no particles the size of molecules that can deliver
drugs directly to diseased cells in your body. When it's perfected, this method should greatly
reduce the damage treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells.
Electronic
Nanotechnology holds some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of
electronics devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption.
Food
Nanotechnology is having an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is
grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a
difference not only in the taste of food, but also in food safety, and the health benefits that
food delivers.
Fuel cells
Nanotechnology is being used to reduce the cost of catalysts used in fuel cells to produce
hydrogen ions from fuel such as methanol and to improve the efficiency of membranes used
in fuel cells to separate hydrogen ions from other gases such as oxygen.
Solar cell
Companies have developed nanotech solar cells that can be manufactured at significantly
lower cost than conventional solar cells.

Batteries

Companies are currently developing batteries using nanomaterials. One such battery will be a
good as new after sitting on the shelf for decades. Another battery can be recharged
significantly faster than conventional batteries.

Cleaner water

Nanotechnology is being used to develop solutions to three very different problems in water
quality. One challenge is the removal of industrial wastes, such as a cleaning solvent called
TCE, from groundwater. particles can be used to convert the contaminating chemical through
a chemical reaction to make it harmless.
Ionization potential:-

In physics and chemistry, ionization energy or ionisation energy, denoted Eᵢ, is the minimum
amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron, the valence electron,
of an isolated neutral gaseous atom or molecule.

Excitation

This is the energy required in ev to excite a ground state atom to its excited state. When
electrons jumps from ground state level(n=1) to another another energy level(n=2) the
corresponding energy is called 1stexcitation potential energy and corresponding potential is
called 1stexcitation potential.

Stimulated absorption:-

Stimulated absorption occurs when a photon strikes an atom with just exactly the proper
energy to induce an electronic transition between two energy states.

Spontaneous emission:-

spontaneous emission is the process in which a quantum mechanical system transitions from
an excited energy state to a lower energy state and emits a quantised amount of energy in the
form of a photon.
Stimulated emission:-Stimulated emission is the process by which an incoming photon of a
specific frequency can interact with an excited atomic electron, causing it to drop to a lower
energy level.