U U N IT

1
Understanding Stress—The
Foundation of Managing
Self and the Client in the
Helping Relationship

Unit Overview

In this Unit, you will gain an understanding of stress. It is helpful to have a good grasp
of the concept of stress, before learning how to manage it both personally and within
the helping profession. It should be noted that the Social Work profession is one of the
professions that fall under the category of the helping profession; the client-counselor
relationship that is maintained within it is known as the helping relationship. This
Unit, combined with Unit 2, is designed to achieve this goal. Together, they shall
provide you with an overview of stress. In Session 1, you will explore various ways
of thinking about and defining stress. You will also learn about the different types of
stress which exist; stress symptoms; and common misconceptions regarding the stress
experience. Additionally, you will learn about the positive aspects of stress. In Session
2, you will learn about the processes and responses involved in the experience of
stress, and you will be exposed to the work of two key personnel in the field of stress
research. Finally, in Session 3, you will learn about the influence of perception on the
stress experience.

© 2016 University of the West Indies Open Campus  1

 Unit Objectives
By the end of the Unit, you will be able to:

1. Explain how stress has been conceptualized.

2. Differentiate the different types of stress, and the different categories of stress.

3. Explain the importance of the knowledge of stress indicators in determining

whether an individual is experiencing stress.

4. Refute common misconceptions of stress.

5. Explain the stress response and models of stress.

6. Evaluate the biological, psychological and social components in the experience of

stress.

7. Assess the effect of social support, locus of control, personality and resiliency on
stress.

The following three sessions comprise this unit:

Session 1.1: Defining/Conceptualizing Stress

Session 1.2: The Stress Process

Session 1.3: Modifying the Impact of Stress

2  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 READINGS REQUIRED
Arnberg, F. K., Hultman, C. M., Michel, P., & Lundin, T. (2012). Social
Support Moderates Posttraumatic Stress and General Distress After
Disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(6), 721-727. doi:10.1002/
jts.21758. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com.library.open.
uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=83927946&site=eho
st-live

Mackay, C., & Pakenham, K. I. (2011). Identification of stress and coping

risk and protective factors associated with changes in adjustment to
caring for an adult with mental illness. Journal of Clinical Psychology,
67(10), 1064-1079. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com.library.
open.uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=65277971&sit
e=ehost-live

Pengilly, J.W., & Dowd, T.E. (2000). Hardiness and Social Support as
Moderators of Stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 813-820.
Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4548696&site=ehost-live

Roddenberry, A., & Renk, K. (2010). Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy:

Potential Mediators of Stress, Illness, and Utilization of Health
Services in College Students. Child Psychiatry & Human Development,
41(4),353-370. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com.library.
open.uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=50034668&sit
e=ehost-live

Additional Material
American Psychological Association, “Stress: The different kinds of
stress”: Available at: http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-kinds.aspx

Razvi S., (2013) Stress, Trauma and the Body. Available at: http://www.
youtube.com/watch?v=q6M1FumqeyM
Schmidtke J., I., (2013) Stress, Depression, Anxiety & PTSD - Part 1
Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36ELSaN2fdA
Fosbender, L., (2013) Psychology 101: The General Adaptation
Syndrome. Available at: http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=nNxiF7VqcCk
Scott, A., (2012) Lazarus & Folkman Transactional model of stress &
coping - VCE U4 Psychology Available at: http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=a8FEMHCRowM

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  3

 SSession 1.1

Stress Basics

Defining and Conceptualizing Stress

A single mother of 3 is
struggling to pay her bills
and buy groceries due to
financial difficulties….
A student is having
difficulty adjusting to
College life and keeping up
with the semester work
load…….

A middle-aged professional
is experiencing conflict with his
supervisor at work……

A student is having
difficulty adjusting to
College life and keeping up
with the semester work
load…….

Figure 1.1:

What do these scenarios have in common? Have you thought about it? The answer is
that each scenario involves an element of stress in an individual’s life; even though the
circumstances may be different for each person. Many of us may be able to relate to the
individuals in the scenarios above, since stress is something we have all experienced
at some point in our lives. It is also something we may have experienced without
giving much thought to it. Stress is complex and multi-dimensional, and can be
defined in several ways. The way we define something is closely related to how we
think about it. This can be seen with the term “stress”. Over time, the concept has been
defined in a variety of ways, with each definition expressing a way of thinking about
or conceptualizing the term. Let us look at three general ways in which stress has been
defined and conceptualized as:

4  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 1) A response
2) A stimulus
3) A transactional process

Stress as a Response
This approach focuses on one’s psychological and physiological reaction to stress. It
purports the idea that an individual’s reaction to a stressful event is the key component
in one’s experience of stress. One’s reaction includes a combination of an individual’s
behavior, thoughts and emotions, in addition to the person’s bodily arousal such as
heart rate, perspiration, etc. (Sarafino, 1994).

Stress as a Stimulus
This approach emphasizes environmental stimulus, such as an event or circumstance
which the individual believes to be threatening. This speaks to major life events such as
job loss, death, birth of a child, marriage, or experiencing disasters such as hurricanes,
earthquakes, etc. From this perspective, the environmental stimulus itself is the key
component in the experience of stress, in contrast to one’s reaction to the stimulus
(Sarafino, 1994).

Stress as a Transactional Process

The emphasis with this approach is on one’s interactions or “transactions” with the
environment (Sarafino, 1994). Stress is defined in terms of a transactional process, and
it is this process that is purported to be the key factor in one’s experience of stress. The
transactional or interactional process occurs between the individual and the environment,
and it is reciprocal in nature, with the person and the environment influencing each
other (Sarafino, 1994).

From the three approaches examined above, it is clear that defining and conceptualizing
stress is not as straightforward as one might think; there are a range of stress definitions
which exist from which an individual may choose. For the purposes of this course,
however, we shall use the definition of stress as stated below that takes more of a
transactional process perspective and acknowledges: an individual’s interactions with
the environment; his or her perception or appraisal of the environmental stimulus;
and an individual’s biological, psychological and social resources. This definition is
helpful, and offers a somewhat comprehensive way of looking at stress, as it takes into
account a range of processes which may be involved in the stress experience. You will
see this definition again, as you progress through the Unit, so please keep it in mind.

Stress may be defined as…

“The condition that results when person-environment transactions lead the

individual to perceive a discrepancy—whether real or imagined—between the
demands of the situation and the resources of the person’s biological, psychological
or social systems” (Sarafino 1994, p. 70).

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  5

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1
What do you think of Sarafino (1994) definition of stress? Can you
come up with your own definition of stress? Do an internet search and
locate two other definitions. Post all answers and internet findings to the
discussion board. Additionally, look at the responses of your peers and
comment on at least one post.

Brief Overview of the Sources of Stress and the Importance

of Self-Care
Before we look at the different types of stress, it is wise to understand the sources
of stress and the importance of self-care. In this Unit, we will briefly mention the
sources of stress as a means of further understanding self-care. Sources of stress will
be addressed in greater detail later on in this course.

It is important for the helper (social worker, counselor, psychologist, etc.) to understand
both for the benefit of the client and for themselves, that stress can be derived from
four general areas. As such, sources of stress can be:

• Environmental

• Psychosocial

• Personal

• Toxic (Post traumatic stress disorder)

Given the nature of the sources of stress, both helper and client are susceptible to
stressful encounters on a daily basis. It is therefore of particular importance for the
helper to promote and to engage in self-care practices.

Self-care may be defined as

“Activities initiated or performed by an individual to regain, maintain, or

improve his or her health” (Coons, Mc Ghan, Bootman & Larson 1989 p 121).

It is therefore the responsibility of the social worker to both promote self-care

behaviors with their client, as well as engage their own personal and professional
self-care initiatives. The nature of the helping profession in itself is altruistic and more
often than not, a social worker can get bogged down in work and experience burn
out. It is important for social workers to recognize, therefore, that they must engage

6  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 in activities to support wellness, because a stressed out social worker is an ineffectual
social worker. This type of self-care does not connect to one’s occupational role of
accountability and transparency, but is rather aimed at seeking to restore one’s self,
called “personal self-care.” (Corcoran and Roberts 2015)

Promoting self-care practices in clients serves to support the helping process in more
than one way. It helps clients understand that they are responsible for their own
wellness. When a client takes responsibility to engage in behaviors to support their
own wellness, bit by bit, the burden on the social worker to assist them is removed
until they are independent and can regulate themselves. Thus, the social worker uses
“self-care” within the profession as a means of supporting intervention with a client.
This type of self-care that seeks to enhance self-awareness in the social worker and
monitors the use of self in one’s role as a social worker is known as “professional self-
care” (Corcoran and Roberts 2015).

Types of Stress
Stress may be classified according to its frequency of occurrence and/or its duration,
which may result in three general types of stress:

Acute Stress: This is the type of stress you experience when you encounter an
immediate stressor; examples of this would be taking an exam or
walking in your backyard and coming across a snake (well, for those
who are afraid of snakes!). It is the most common type of stress
experienced, and it tends to be short-lived.

Episodic Stress: This is when you experience periods of acute stress, which comes and
go. This stress can occur among individuals who live a busy and/or
chaotic life. These individuals worry, or seem to be in a rush, take on
many projects, etc. which creates periods of stress that are short-lived.

Chronic Stress: This type of stress is more long-term and continuous, and you may not
even notice it, since you may be used to it. This type of stress wears
you down and you may feel helpless and hopeless. Examples of this
type of stress would be those who live with the stress of poverty, or
those who struggle with health problems.

READING
Click on the following link to read the American Psychological
Association’s article on the different types of stress: Available at: http://
www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-kinds.aspx

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  7

 Stress: Eustress and Distress
In the previous section, you learned that there are three types of stress. In this section
you will see that stress can also be divided into two categories: “good” stress and
“bad” stress. Let us look at this further.

You may think that stress is something to be avoided, and that it is always negative,
but this not true. Stress isn’t always bad; there is an optimal level of stress we need, in
order to help us be productive and to motivate us. This type of stress is “good stress”
and it is called “Eustress”. It is also the type of stress you experience when you are
excited, or happy about something that you perceive to be positive, such as going on
a first date or riding a roller coaster.

When stress levels go beyond one’s optimal level, it stops being “good” and starts to
become negative or “bad”, and we refer to this as “distress”.

You can think of eustress as having some of the following characteristics:

• It tends to motivate us;
• It can feel good, exciting, pleasurable;
• It can enhance performance;
• It is associated with events that are perceived to be positive.

Distress, on the other hand, may have the following characteristics:

• It can hinder rather than help us;
• It does not feel good or pleasurable;
• It can impair or reduce functioning and/or performance;
• It is associated with events that are perceived to be negative.

Stress Myths
In this section, you will become familiar with some common misconceptions
individuals have with regards to stress.

8  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2
Test your knowledge on stress, by answering the questions below. When
you are done, browse through the six common myths on stress that are
listed on the American Psychological Association’s website.

1) Stress is the same for everyone. True or False

2) Stress is always bad for you. True or False
3) Stress is a part of life. You can’t do anything about it.True or
False
4) When reducing stress, the most popular techniques are the best
to use.True or False
5) When an individual is experiencing stress, he or she always
shows symptoms. True or False
6) You should pay attention to major stress symptoms; minor ones
can be ignored. True or False

American Psychological Association, “Six myths about stress”:

Available at: http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-myths.aspx

Recognizing Stress

…. Jen lives in chronic poverty. She experiences episodes of anxiety,

feelings of being overwhelmed, agitation, and trouble concentrating.
Sometimes, she experiences aches in various parts of her body, and
headaches. At nights, she is unable to sleep as she has anxious and
worrying thoughts. She feels unhappy most of the times, and often
indulges in alcohol to soothe herself….

The woman in the scenario above is experiencing symptoms related to stress. It is

essential for us to be able to recognize when we are experiencing stress, and to become
aware of our own personal indicators of stress. Your awareness of the symptoms you
exhibit, when under stress, helps to alert you to the need for greater stress management
efforts and self-care.

The table in Figure 1.1 presents stress indicators you can use to determine whether
you are, or a client is experiencing stress. Please note that the table is intended as a
guide; it is possible that an individual can manifest stress in a way that is not listed, or
he or she may show no symptoms at all.

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  9

 Stress Indicators
Cognitive symptoms: Emotional Symptoms:

• Memory problems • Feeling irritable and/or

• Problems with concentration frustrated

• Becoming easily confused • Irritability or short temper

• Problems with decision making • Restlessness/Agitation, feeling

tense/difficulty relaxing
• Negative/anxious or racing
thoughts • Feeling overwhelmed
• Feeling anxious/depressed/
upset
Physical Symptoms: Behavioral Symptoms:

• Muscle tension/Various body • Appetite increases or decreases

aches • Difficulty sleeping or sleeping
• Headaches too much
• Stomach issues e.g. Diarrhea or • Indulging in alcohol or drugs
constipation to soothe oneself
• Nausea, dizziness • Nervous behaviors e.g.
• Chest pain Fidgeting, pacing, biting nails,
pulling hair
• Rapid heartbeat
• Crying
• Compromised immune system
e.g. getting colds frequently • Aggressive behaviors e.g.
yelling/arguing, throwing
things, destruction of objects,
becoming physical with others

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.3

What are some of the ways you manifest stress? Use the table above
to help you identify your symptoms, and also note any symptoms you
experience that were not mentioned in the table. Post your response
to the discussion forum. Browse through the responses of your peers
to get an idea of how other people may also manifest stress.

10  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 Session 1.1 Summary

In this Session, we discussed the various ways stress has been defined and
conceptualized. You learned that there are different types of stress (Acute, Episodic
Acute, and Chronic), and each has its own characteristics. You also learned that stress
isn’t always negative; it can be helpful when kept at an optimal level. Additionally, we
examined some common stress myths, and emphasized the importance of recognizing
stress symptoms. We shall continue to explore the various dimensions of stress in the
next session.

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  11

 SSession 1.2

The Stress Process

Stress Response
In this Session, you will gain a general understanding of the biological processes which
occur when we are under stress. Let us examine our body’s natural reaction to stress.

Fight or Flight/Freeze Response

The fight, flight or freeze response is an instinctive reaction to a perceived threat,
which involves hormonal and physiological changes in our bodies. This survival
mechanism is present in all humans and animals, and has evolutionary adaptive value,
by allowing us to either fight, run away or freeze when threatened. It is a primitive
and automatic response. The fight or flight response is adaptive when we are able to
do something while in the situation; we can fight or run away. However, if we think
that we are unable to do something in the situation or we are unable to escape, our
brain may cause us to freeze; this is also adaptive since it is similar to when an animal
“plays dead” when it is being attacked.

So what happens when we encounter a threat?

When we come across stimuli, we take in sensory information (what we see or hear),
and this information is sent to the amygdala, a part of the brain that is involved in the
processing of emotions. The amygdala makes sense of the information. If the stimulus,
based on the information received, is judged to be a threat, it sends a distress signal
to the hypothalamus, which in turn, sends signals to the Autonomic Nervous System
(ANS). The ANS controls the involuntary functions of the body, such as breathing,
blood pressure and heart rate.

The ANS has two divisions: The Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS), which keeps
the body aroused, and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS), which calms the
body. When the hypothalamus receives the signal from the amygdala that there is a
threat, it activates the sympathetic branch of the ANS. This activation is done via signals
that are sent to the adrenal glands, which then begin to release adrenaline into the
bloodstream. This causes your heart rate and blood pressure to increase, as blood is
being pumped quickly to your muscles; breathing becomes faster; your senses become
sharper; and you become alert. In addition to this, stored blood sugar is released to
give you more energy. Together these changes prepare the body to fight or flee. If
an individual is unable to fight or flee, the freeze response may occur, where the
parasympathetic branch of the ANS becomes activated, and the individual experiences
tonic immobility.

12  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 The fight or flight response outlined here uses what is called the Sympathomedullary
Pathway (SAM system), since it entails the activation of the sympathetic branch of the
nervous system, and a part of the adrenal gland, called the adrenal medulla. Please
see figure 1.2 below, for a visual summary of the fight or flight response via the SAM
Pathway.

Figure 1.2: Fight or Flight Response (SAM Pathway)

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  13

 When the initial effects of adrenaline subside, a second stress response system called the
Hypothalamic Pituitary Adrenal (HPA) axis is activated. The HPA pathway involves
the activation of the pituitary gland and the adrenal glands. If the brain continues
to perceive a threat, the hypothalamus will keep the sympathetic branch of the ANS
activated, via hormonal signals. At this time, the hypothalamus will stimulate the
pituitary gland, causing it to release adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH). This
hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex, which causes the release of a stress hormone
called cortisol. This in turn provides the body with energy, and the body stays on
alert. When the threat is no longer present, the parasympathetic branch of the ANS
stops the stress response, and the body begins to relax. If the stress is chronic, the HPA
axis will continue to remain activated, which can result in negative effects on health.
Please see figure 1.3 below, for a visual summary of a continued, or chronic stress
response via the HPA pathway.

Figure 1.3: Continued Stress (HPA Pathway)

14  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 videos
Please watch the first 14 minutes of the following video:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36ELSaN2fdA
The following video provides an overview of how the Autonomic
Nervous System reacts during times of stress and trauma:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6M1FumqeyM

In this section, we shall look at the models of stress that were put forward by Hans
Seyle, and Lazaraus & Folkman.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Hans Seyle, through his research on stress, purported that an individual goes through
different stages of physiological reactions in response to stress, which he called the
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS). The GAS, described by Syele, consists of three
stages (Banyard, 1996; Sarafino, 1994):

Stage 1- Alarm reaction

This stage is like the fight-or-flight response we discussed previously; it serves to
mobilize the body’s resources for action. At the beginning of the stage, arousal drops
below normal, and then rapidly rises above normal. The increase in arousal results in
the physiological changes seen in the fight-or-flight response (for e.g., the release of
adrenaline and cortisol into the blood stream to prepare the body for action).

Stage 2- Resistance
In this stage, the body adapts to the stressor if the stressor continues. Physiological
arousal declines but remains above normal. A person may show little outward signs
of stress, but his or her ability to resist new stressors becomes impaired, making the
individual vulnerable to health problems such as ulcers, high blood pressure and an
impaired immune system (Banyard, 1996).

Stage 3- Exhaustion
The body’s energy reserves become depleted, and the individual experiences a decline
in the ability to resist stress (Banyard, 1996). If the stress continues it can cause disease,
damage to internal organs and/or death.

video
Click on the link to watch a video on the GAS:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nNxiF7VqcCk

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  15

 This video outlines the theoretical view of the General Adaptation Syndrome which
was developed by Hans Seyle to explain how we adapt generally to stress. While
Hans Seyle has offered us a framework for understanding stress, and how our bodies
react to stressful stimuli, researchers have however argued that the theory is flawed.
The theory fails to take into account the psychosocial processes involved in the stress
response (Sarafino, 1994). Additionally, Hans Seyle had asserted that the physiological
responses individuals experience in response to stress, is the same, regardless of the
stimulus encountered; there has been little empirical support for this claim (Cited in
Lyon, 2012).

Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

In contrast to the GAS model of stress, Richard Lazarus and his co-workers developed
a model of stress that focused on an individual’s interaction with the environment,
in addition to one’s cognitive appraisal; little emphasis was placed on a person’s
physiological response.

Lazarus & Folkman (1984) purported that stress results from the individual’s
cognitive appraisal, or one’s assessment of the interactions between the individual
and his or her environment. The interactions which occur between the individual and
the environment are called “Transactions”. It is argued that the transactional process
between an individual and the environment involves two types of appraisal:

1) Primary Appraisal
This involves an evaluation as to whether the stimulus is good, negative or neutral.
For example, if you become sick, you can judge this to be good (because you get
to leave school early); negative (If you leave you will miss important notes for an
upcoming exam); or irrelevant/neutral (It’s not a big deal, you can get the notes from
your friend, and you usually do well, anyway).

If we judge a stimulus to be negative, we will make additional appraisals relating to

harm, threat, and challenge. Harm involves assessing how much damage has already
occurred from the stimulus; threat involves the person’s expectation of future harm
or damage; and challenge involves whether the stimulus presents you with the
opportunity to achieve personal growth and mastery.

2) Secondary Appraisal
This appraisal speaks to our assessment of our coping abilities, and the resources
we have to meet the demands of the stimulus. It is important to note that secondary
appraisal can occur before primary appraisal, and that secondary appraisal can affect
primary appraisal. Sometimes, we may assess our abilities or resources before we
appraise a situation as negative or positive, and based on our assessment of whether
we have the ability or resources to cope, we can in turn, appraise a stimulus as negative
or positive.

Stress results when we appraise a stimulus as threatening, and when we think we

do not have the coping abilities or resources to meet the demands of the stimulus.

16  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 There are also many situational factors which can affect the appraisal of a situation as
stressful, which include the following: complexity or novelty of the situation, timing,
ambiguity, desirability of the situation, the amount of control one believes he or she
has, availability of resources, social support, personal values, and self-esteem (Lyon,
2012).

In their transactional model, Lazarus and Folkman (1984) also provided a framework
for coping with stress, which will be examined in Unit 3.

video
Click on the link to watch a video on the Transactional Model of
Stress and Coping:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8FEMHCRowM

READING
Mackay, C., & Pakenham, K. I. (2011). Identification of stress and
coping risk and protective factors associated with changes in
adjustment to caring for an adult with mental illness. Journal
of Clinical Psychology, 67(10), 1064-1079. Available at: http://
search.ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=tru
e&db=ehh&AN=65277971&site=ehost-live

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.4

Answer the following questions and post your response to the discussion
forum.

Explain the fight or flight response. What is the purpose of this response?

Summarize the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) model of stress

and the Transactional Model of Stress. Explain two differences between
the models. How are the models useful in providing a framework for our
understanding of stress? Identify at least one limitation of each model.

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  17

 Session 1.2 Summary

In this session, we looked at the fight-or-flight response to stress, as well as stress

models that were put forward by Hans Seyle and Lazarus & Folkman. You learned that
the process of stress has a physiological basis, in addition to psychosocial processes.
You also learned about the role of the autonomic nervous system, and some of the key
structures and hormones which are involved in the stress reaction. These include the
hypothalamus, the amygdala, the adrenal glands, pituitary gland, adrenaline, cortisol
and ACTH. In the next session you will learn about factors which can impact how we
experience stress.

18  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 SSession 1.3

Modifying the Stress Experience

The Stress Experience

Perception is a key element in the experience of stress; what is viewed as stressful to
one individual, may not be viewed as stressful to another. Furthermore, perception
itself may be affected by a variety of factors ranging from how we think, to our prior
experiences with the stimulus we are dealing with.

Now, let us look below at some of the factors that can impact the way we experience
stress.

Social Support
Social support is beneficial, and can reduce the impact of stress on an individual
(Sarafino 1994; Banyard 1996). For example, studies have shown that low social support
was linked to heightened stress activity, as evidenced by increases in physiological
and neuroendocrine activities within the body (Ozbay, 2007). Furthermore, it has been
suggested that social support may enhance resiliency to stress by reducing the activity
of the HPA axis (Ozbay, 2007). Baqutayan (2011) also found that social support was
beneficial in helping students cope with academic stress. It is clear from the research
that social support can be useful to us, and it can affect how we experience stress.

How does social support work?

(A) The buffering hypothesis suggests that social support acts as a buffer against the
negative effects of stress when a person encounters a strong stressor; it protects the
individual against stress by (Sarafino, 1994):
1) Affecting an individual’s cognitive appraisal of a stimulus, so that they are less
likely to appraise the stimulus as stressful, because they are aware that social support
is available to help them cope and meet the demands of the stimulus;

2) Affecting how an individual responds to a stressor after they have judged the
stimulus to be stressful; for example, people with high social support may be able
to use their social network as a resource for problem solving or emotional support,
which may influence how they react in response to the perceived stressor.

The buffering effects occur only during times of high stress, and do not occur under
low intensity stress conditions.

(B) The direct effects hypothesis suggests that social support directly enhances an
individual’s wellbeing, regardless of whether he or she is experiencing high or low

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  19

 stress conditions. For example, those with high levels of social support may feel a
sense of belongingness or feel encouraged, even if they are not experiencing stress.

Types of Social Support

There are five different types of social support; they are, as follows (Sarafino, 1994;
Banyard 1996):

1) Emotional Support. This relates to providing a person with a sense of comfort and
belongingness during stressful times by being caring, and showing
concern for the individual.

2) Esteem Support. This occurs when a person is made to feel valued through positive
regard and encouragement. It involves bolstering an individual’s
sense of self-worth.

3) Tangible/Instrumental Support. This speaks to material support, and provision of

direct assistance, such as money or helping out with activities (for
example, chores, errands, plans).

4) Informational Support. This involves providing a person with information,

suggestions or feedback.

5) Network Support/Social Companionship. This occurs when time is spent with

others, and individuals feel like they belong to a group (for example,
family and friends).

Points to note:
• If someone offers support, and it is not perceived it as being supportive, then social
support will be ineffective in reducing the impact of stress (Sarafino, 1994).

• It is important that the type of support given should match the circumstances. For
example, if money is needed to pay off a loan, instrumental support will be more
helpful than esteem support (Sarafino, 1994).

• Social support may not be helpful in circumstances where a negative relationship

with social ties exists (Sarafino, 1994).

READING
Please see the following reading about social support:

Arnberg, F. K., Hultman, C. M., Michel, P., & Lundin, T. (2012).

Social Support Moderates Posttraumatic Stress and General
Distress After Disaster. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 25(6), 721-
727. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.
edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=83927946&site=eho
st-live

20  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 Personal Control
In the context of stress, individuals who believe that they can affect the outcome of
a situation are likely to experience less stress than those who perceive themselves
to have little control. There are four types of control which can reduce the impact of
stress (Sarafino, 1994):

1) Behavioral. This speaks to taking action to reduce the impact of the stressor. For
example, if your stressor is pain, you may take medication to reduce it.

2) Cognitive. This involves using your thoughts to reduce the impact of the stressor,
for e.g., thinking more positively.

3) Decisional. This speaks to having control over decisions that need to be made
regarding the stressor, such as having the opportunity to choose between
alternative courses of action.

4) Informational. This involves having information about the stressor, such as what
will happen or why it happened.

Although each type of control stated can be effective in reducing stress, cognitive
control appears to be the most effective (Sarafino, 1994).

Internal versus External Locus of Control

Locus of control is the belief someone has about whether events which occur in his or
her life are due to the individual’s efforts, or due to forces beyond his or her control,
such as luck or fate (Neil, 2006).

Those who believe that they can influence events around them are said to have an
internal locus of control, whereas those who believe that forces outside of their control
is responsible, are said to have an external locus of control.

Those who have an internal locus of control may perceive less stress, and engage in
active coping efforts, since they believe that they have control over events (Lu, Wu &
Cooper, 1999).

READING
Please see the following reading about locus of control:

Roddenberry, A., & Renk, K. (2010). Locus of Control and Self-

Efficacy: Potential Mediators of Stress, Illness, and Utilization
of Health Services in College Students. Child Psychiatry &
Human Development, 41(4),353-370. Available at: http://search.
ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=
ehh&AN=50034668&site=ehost-live

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  21

 Personality: Type A vs. Type B
Individuals who possess a Type A personality are more likely to experience stress
than those with a Type B personality. Those with Type A traits tend to be competitive,
have a sense of urgency and time, may be hostile, aggressive, and may have difficulty
relaxing; those with Type B traits are less competitive, less hostile, less aggressive,
more easy going, and they have less sense of urgency and time.

Furthermore, those with Type A personalities tend to live a high stress lifestyle, and
can find themselves in high stress situations, such as taking on greater work load,
working longer hours, etc. (Sarafino, 1994). They also tend to react more quickly and
strongly to stressors, than those who have Type B personalities (Sarafino, 1994).

Hardiness/Resiliency
Some individuals are more hardy/resilient than others. When we say someone has a
hardy/resilient personality, it means that in the face of stress, they are able to remain
strong and tolerate it better, than those who are less hardy/resilient (Mills & Dombeck,
2005). They are also able to bounce back quicker in the face of adversity. According to
Jan Crook (2009), hardy individuals tend to possess the following traits:

• They have an internal locus of control

• They have a social support network

• They have a sense of purpose

• They take care of themselves

• They are involved in pro-social behaviors

• They think positively

• They react to distress adaptively

READING
Pengilly, J.W., & Dowd, T.E. (2000). Hardiness and Social Support
as Moderators of Stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(6),
813-820. Available at: http://search.ebscohost.com.library.open.
uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4548696&site=eh
ost-live

22  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.5
Assess the role of social support, personal control, personality type
and hardiness/resiliency in the experience of stress. How do these
factors impact our experience of stress?
Post your response to the discussion forum.

Session 1.3 Summary

In this Session, we looked at the stress experience, and explored factors which
can impact how we experience stress. You learned that perception is an important
component in the experience of stress. You also learned that having social support can
be beneficial in reducing the impact of stress, either through buffering its effects, or
directly enhancing well-being. Additionally, you learned that there are some conditions
which may affect whether social support is effective. Other factors discussed in the
session that can impact the experience of stress include: having a Type A personality,
having personal control and being stress hardy/resilient. Based on what you have
learned thus far, it is clear that stress is multi-dimensional. In the next Unit, you will
continue to explore other dimensions of stress.

Unit 1 Summary

In this Unit, we defined and conceptualized stress; learnt about the stress process and
how to modify the impact of stress. Stress is defined in three ways: as a response, a
stimulus and a transactional process. We looked at the concept of self-care both as
a tool in the helping relationship, as well as for personal wellbeing. We learnt the
differences between Acute stress, Episodic stress and Chronic stress, as well as the
importance of the concept of Eustress and Distress. Furthermore, we considered
some stress indicators along with the stress response. We also considered the stress
experience and the importance of personal control. In the following Unit we will
explore the sources, impact and measurement of stress. We will therefore take a more
in depth look at the sources of stress, the impact of stress on the brain and the body,
and health issues related to stress.

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  23

 References
Arnberg, F. K., Hultman, C. M., Michel, P., & Lundin, T. (2012). Social Support
Moderates Posttraumatic Stress and General Distress After Disaster. Journal of
Traumatic Stress, 25(6), 721-727. doi:10.1002/jts.21758 Available at: http://search.
ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=83927
946&site=ehost-live

American Institute for Preventive Medicine. (2001). Systematic Stress Management.

Type B behaviors. Retrieved from: http://aipm.wellnesscheckpoint.com/library/
banner_main.asp?P=2C894CASMC5&zsection=Are%20You%20a%20Type%20
b?&lang=E&title=N

American Institute for Preventive Medicine. (2001). Systematic Stress Management.

Are you a type A? Retrieved from: http://aipm.wellnesscheckpoint.com/library/
banner_main.asp?P=2A8938ASM83&zsection=Are%20You%20a%20Type%20
A?&lang=E&title=N

American Psychological Association. (ned). Six myths about stress. Retrieved from:
http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-myths.aspx

American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Stress: The different kinds of stress.

Retrieved from: http://www.apa.org/helpcenter/stress-kinds.aspx

Banyard, P. (1996). Applying Psychology to Health. London: Hodder & Stoughton.

Baqutayan, S. (Jan-Jun2011). Stress and Social Support. Indian Journal of Psychological

Medicine, 33 (1), 29-34. [PMC free article] [PubMed] Retrieved from: http://www.
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3195151/

Corcoran K. and Roberts A. (2015) Social Worker’s Desk Reference. New York: Oxford
University Press

Crook, J. (2009). Stress Hardy People [PDF]. Retrieved from: https://www.ucalgary.

ca/wellnesscentre/files/wellnesscentre/Stress%20Hardy%20People.pdf

Eustress vs Distress. (n.d.). Retrieved from: http://www.brocku.ca/health-services/

health-education/stress/eustress-distress

Fosbender, L. (March 7, 2013). Psychology 101: The General Adaptation Syndrome.

[YouTube]. Retrieved from: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nNxiF7VqcCk

Harvard Health Publications. (March 2011). Understanding the Stress Response.

Retrieved from: http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/Harvard_Mental_
Health_Letter/2011/March/understanding-the-stress-response

Lu, L., Wu, H. & Cooper, C. L. (1999). Perceived Work Stress and Locus of Control:
A Combined Quantitative and Qualitative Approach, Research and Practice in
Human Resource Management, 7(1), 1-15. Retrieved from http://rphrm.curtin.edu.
au/1999/issue1/stress.html

24  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1

 Lyon, B. L. (2012). Stress, Coping and Health. A Conceptual Overview. [Chapter 1].
In Rice V.H. (Ed.), Handbook of Stress, Coping and Health: Implications for Nursing
Research, Theory and Practice, (pp. 2-20). Wayne State University, Detroit: Sage
Publications, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.sagepub.com/upm-data/44174_1.
pdf

Mackay, C., & Pakenham, K. I. (2011). Identification of stress and coping risk and
protective factors associated with changes in adjustment to caring for an adult
with mental illness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 67(10), 1064-1079. doi:10.1002/
jclp.20829 Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/
login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=65277971&site=ehost-live

Mills, H., Reiss, N., Dombeck, M. (n.d.). Types of Stressors (Eustress vs.
Distress). Retrieved from: http://sevencounties.org/poc/view_doc.
php?type=doc&id=15644&cn=117

Mills, H. & Dombeck, M. (June 2005). Resilience: Hardiness. Retrieved from http://
www.mentalhelp.net/poc/view_doc.php?type=doc&id=5791&cn=298

Neill, J. (Dec 2006). What is Locus of Control? Retrieved from http://www.wilderdom.

com/psychology/loc/LocusOfControlWhatIs.html

Ozbay F, Johnson DC, Dimoulas E, et al. (2007). Social support and resilience to stress:
from neurobiology to clinical practice. Psychiatry (Edgmont), 4 (5), 35–40. [PMC free
article] [PubMed] Retrieved from http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/
PMC2921311/

Pengilly, J. W., & Dowd, T. E. (2000). Hardiness and Social Support as Moderators of
Stress. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 56(6), 813-820. Retrieved from http://search.
ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=45486
96&site=ehost-live

Roddenberry, A., & Renk, K. (2010). Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy: Potential
Mediators of Stress, Illness, and Utilization of Health Services in College Students.
Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 41(4), 353-370. doi:10.1007/s10578-010-
0173-6 Retrieved from http://search.ebscohost.com.library.open.uwi.edu/login.
aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=50034668&site=ehost-live

Razvi, S. (Jan 22, 2013). Stress, Trauma and the Body. [YouTube]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q6M1FumqeyM

Sarafino, E. P. (1994). Health Psychology: Biopsychosocial Interactions (3rd. ed.). The

College of New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, INC.

Schimdt, N.B., Richey, J.A., Zvolensky, M.J. & Maner, J.K. (Sep 2008). Exploring Human
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Psychiatry, 39(3), 292-304.[PMC free article] [PubMed] Retrieved from http://
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2489204/

SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1  25

 Schimdtke, J. I. (Oct 28, 2013). Stress, Depression, Anxiety & PTSD- Part 1. [YouTube].
Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=36ELSaN2fdA

Scott, A. (Sep 2, 2012). Lazarus& Folkman Transactional Model of Stress and Coping-
VCE-U4 Psychology. [YouTube]. Retrieved from http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=a8FEMHCRowM

Self-Inventory of type A behaviors. Retrieved from http://aipm.wellnesscheckpoint.

com/library/banner_main.asp?P=2B8942ASM24&zsection=Self-Inventory%20
of%20Type%20A%20Behaviors&lang=E&title=N

Smith, M., Segal, R. & Segal, J. (July 2014). Stress Symptoms, Signs, & Causes. Retrieved
from http://www.helpguide.org/mental/stress_signs.htm

26  SOWK3040 Stress Management Theory and Practice – UNIT 1