Acoustic Metamaterials A Review of Theories Structures Fabrication Approaches and Applications

Review
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Acoustic Metamaterials: A Review of Theories, Structures,

Fabrication Approaches, and Applications
Guangxin Liao, Congcong Luan,* Zhenwei Wang, Jiapeng Liu, Xinhua Yao,
and Jianzhong Fu*
electromagnetism, the concept of meta-

Acoustic metamaterials (AMs), which are materials composed of subwave- materials was first theoretically pro-
length periodic artificial structures with specific designs, have drawn signifi- posed by Veselago in 1968.[1] Since then,
cant research attention. This is because of the extraordinary abilities of AMs photonic crystals[2] composed of periodi-
cally arranged materials with different per-
to manipulate acoustic waves compared with those of traditional acoustic
mittivities, and a subwavelength periodic
materials. In this review, current advances in AM research are comprehen- medium with both negative equivalent
sively investigated and summarized. First, major theories regarding AMs, electric permittivity and magnetic perme-
including the acoustic wave equation, crystal lattice and energy band theory, ability have been successively developed,[3]
effective medium theory, and general Snell’s law, are explained in detail. resulting in metamaterial research that
Existing AM structures are then described and divided into several categories has persisted for a long time and led to
the conception of many different branches
based on their structural characteristics and responses to acoustic waves.
of metamaterials, such as electromag-
Furthermore, to bridge the gap between design and practical application, both netic metamaterials, optic metamaterials,
conventional and advanced AM manufacturing methods are summarized. mechanical metamaterials, acoustic meta-
The applications of AMs in the fields of acoustic cloaking, acoustic lensing, materials, thermal metamaterials, and
acoustic absorption, noise reduction, and supernormal sound transmis- microwave metamaterials.[4]
Acoustic metamaterials (AMs), one
sion are particularly delineated. Finally, contemporary challenges, trends,
of the most significant embranchments
and strategies relevant to AMs are discussed. This review aims to provide a of metamaterials, composed of a novel
comprehensive collection of AM-related knowledge, including information type of artificial periodic superatom with
regarding physical theories, structures, fabrication approaches, and applica- subwavelength thickness, were first rec-
tions, which will help promote the further development of AMs. ognized and presented by Liu et al.[5,6]
Their proposed structure exhibited a good
sound absorption effect resulting from
1. Introduction local resonance in the low-frequency band. Further research
demonstrated that the locally resonant structure occupied a
Metamaterials, which are ingeniously designed artificial negative mass density when acoustic waves resonated with the
structures, are characterized by supernormal physical prop- structure. Subsequently, negative effective acoustic parameters
erties that natural materials do not possess. In the field of were observed in many other structures, including periodically
arranged Helmholtz resonators,[7] membrane-type structures,[8]
and coil-up space structures. To overcome these disadvantages
G. Liao, Dr. C. Luan, Z. Wang, J. Liu, Dr. X. Yao, Prof. J. Fu and promote the development of AMs, several novel artificial
State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems structures with high refractive indices and double negative
College of Mechanical Engineering
acoustic properties have been designed to manipulate and
Zhejiang University
Hangzhou 310027, China control transmitted and reflected waves through a variety of
E-mail: lccshdg@zju.edu.cn; fjz@zju.edu.cn mechanisms such as asymmetric acoustic transmission,[9]
G. Liao, Dr. C. Luan, Z. Wang, J. Liu, Dr. X. Yao, Prof. J. Fu cylindrical to plane wave conversion,[10,11] anomalous refrac-
Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process and Equipment tion/reflection,[12–14] acoustic self-bending,[15] using nondif-
of Zhejiang Province fracting Bessel beams,[10,16] acoustic focusing,[17–22] and acoustic
College of Mechanical Engineering
Zhejiang University cloaking.[23] On the basis of theoretical research and structural
Hangzhou 310027, China design, the application of AMs in different fields has attracted
Dr. C. Luan considerable attention from researchers. However, the com-
Engineering Training Center plexities of the designed AMs present substantial challenges to
Zhejiang University fabrication methods, which otherwise would serve as a bridge
Hangzhou 310058, China between real-life applications and theoretical research and
The ORCID identification number(s) for the author(s) of this article structural design. Fortunately, progresses in advanced manu-
can be found under https://doi.org/10.1002/admt.202000787.
facturing methods have provided new opportunities for the
DOI: 10.1002/admt.202000787 rapid development of AM technology. As a result, many new
Adv. Mater. Technol. 2021, 6, 2000787 2000787 (1 of 29) © 2021 Wiley-VCH GmbH
www.advancedsciencenews.com www.advmattechnol.de
manufacturing approaches have already been used to prepare dP = c 02 dρ (3)

different kinds of AMs.
To date, several reviews on AMs with regard to specific cate- Thus, the wave equation is described as follows
gories of structures or applications have emerged,[24] but there is
hardly a comprehensive review on the theory, structure design, ∂2 P 1 ∂2 P (4)
=
applications, and especially the fabrication approaches of AMs. ∂x 2 c 02 ∂t 2
In this review, we aim to provide a comprehensive collection of
AM-related knowledge by summarizing and analyzing current where c0 is the speed of sound.
developments in AM research, including research on physical
theories, structures, fabrication approaches, and applications.
This paper is structured as follows: related acoustic theories 2.2. Crystal Lattice and Energy Band Theory
and models are summarized in Section 2, and progresses in the
research of different AM structures are detailed in Section 3. Periodic structures composed of AMs units arranged in space
Advanced fabrication approaches and materials are discussed are similar to crystal structures in solid-state physics and thus
in Section 4, and applications of AMs in a variety of fields can be studied through the crystal lattice theory.
are presented in Section 5. Finally, present challenges and pos- Because of the effect of periodic structures in phononic
sible future directions of AM research are summarized toward crystals, the energy band is defined with regard to the special
the end of the paper. dispersion relation when elastic waves propagate in a phonon
crystal.[25–27] The dispersion relation curves for a certain fre-
quency range are called band structures. Within the frequency
2. Related Theories on Acoustic Metamaterials range of the bandgap, the propagation of acoustic waves is
inhibited; by comparison, in other frequency ranges, the
As the foundation of structural designs and applications, acoustic waves can propagate without loss. Based on their for-
related theories play a significant role in the research of AMs mation mechanisms, bandgaps can be divided into two types:
and are still evolving. The last several decades have witnessed local resonance and Bragg scattering. The required unit cell
substantial efforts by many researchers to extend these AM- size for Bragg scattering is often of the same magnitude as the
related theories. In this section, major theories about AMs, wavelength, whereas that for local resonance is much smaller
including the acoustic wave equation, crystal lattice and energy than the wavelength. Liu et al.[5] prepared locally resonant AMs
band theory, effective medium theory, and general Snell’s law, for the first time with a high-density solid core coated with soft
are discussed in detail. materials and discovered the cause of bandgaps in AMs, i.e.,
local resonance. This local-resonance bandgap arises from the
interaction between scatterers and the acoustic wave in the
2.1. Acoustic Wave Equation background medium. Therefore, research on phonon crystals
and energy bands in AMs has opened new opportunities for
Acoustic waves, which are characterized by fluctuations similar low-frequency noise reduction, sound insulation, and vibration
to those of electromagnetic waves, are an important part of isolation.
our modern lives. In general, the electromagnetic properties Presently, common methods for calculating the energy bands
of materials can be described by their magnetic permeabilities of phonon crystals and AMs include the finite-difference time-
and electric permittivities. In acoustics, the bulk modulus and domain method,[28] plane wave expansion method,[29] multiple
density depict the response of a material to acoustic waves. scattering method,[30] and transfer matrix method.[31] The finite
As a macroscopic physical phenomenon, sonic vibration element method[32] can also be used to solve the energy bands
must satisfy three fundamental laws of physics that describe of AMs with compact cell arrangements.
macroscopic phenomena: Newton’s second law, the law of mass
conservation, and the law of thermodynamics. Acoustic waves
are classified as mechanical waves and are therefore character- 2.3. Effective Medium Theory
ized by three interrelated quantities: acoustic pressure P, par-
ticle velocity u, and change of density ρ. The particle motion In classical theory, the behaviors of transmitted and reflected
equation, namely Newton’s second law, describes the relation- acoustic waves in a uniform medium can be solved analyti-
ship between P and u; the continuity equation, namely the law cally using rigorous mathematical equations. On the other
of mass conservation, describes the relationship between u hand, acoustic characteristics can be difficult to analyze when
and ρ; whereas the equation of state describes the relationship the medium is nonuniform. For example, the classical theory
between P and ρ. The aforementioned three equations can be in physical acoustics can be difficult to analyze when an oth-
presented as follows erwise homogeneous medium contains a variety of structures.
The problem can be solved once the heterogeneous medium
du ∂P is treated as a homogeneous medium under certain approxi-
ρ = − (1)
dt ∂x mation conditions. In this way, an effective medium theory
can be developed. Regarding an entire material composed
∂ ∂ρ (2) of different structures and materials as a uniform material
− ( ρu ) =
∂x ∂t through the approximation method to gain the approximate
Setting ξ = ρ2c2/ρ1c1, k = ω/c1, m = ρ2/ρ1, and n = c1/c2, we

can obtain
1 
tan (nkd )  − ξ  i
ξ  (9)
R =
1 
2 − tan (nkd )  + ξ  i
ξ 
2
T =− (10)
Figure 1. Schematics of effective medium theory. I, T, and R refer to inci-  1 
cos (nkd ) 2 − tan (nkd )  + ξ  i
dent, transmitted, and reflected acoustic waves, respectively.   ξ 
value of a characteristic (such as effective sound velocity and Thus, the equivalent transmissivity n and acoustic imped-
mass density) of the studied material is considered valid when ance ξ are expressed as
the desired precision is satisfied, which is the core concept
of the theory. If the approximated value is constant, it indicates  1 
that the material has no obvious dispersion within the range of ±cos−1  1 − (R 2 − T 2 )
 2T  2π m (11)
the frequency band. However, if the approximation is related n = −
kd kd
to the frequency, the material is inferred to possess dispersion
characteristics.
(1 + R ) − T 2
2
In 2007, a method that uses transmittance and reflectivity
ξ =± (12)
to deduce material acoustic parameters was first introduced (1 − R ) − T 2
2
by Zhang and co-workers.[33] A demonstration of the equiva-

lent parameter inversion method is shown in Figure 1. For a where m refers to the branch number of cos−1.
specific structure, reflection and transmission occur when the Based on the continuity of the equivalent transmissivity n
incident wave is projected onto the structure. The energies and acoustic impedance ξ, these two equations can be rewritten
of the reflected and transmitted waves are determined by the as follows
structural properties. Therefore, equivalent parameters can be
derived through the measured reflectivity and transmissivity of 2π m − i log x
n = (13)
the acoustic energy. kd
If the thickness of an AM is represented by d, the speed of
r (14)
sound in a background medium of density ρ1 is denoted by c1, ξ =
and the equivalent speed of sound in a structure of density ρ2 is 1 − 2R + R 2 − T 2
represented by c2; then, the reflectivity and transmittance of the where
incident acoustic wave are expressed as follows[34]
r =  (R 2 − T 2 − 1)2 − 4T 2 (15)
R =
(Z12 − Z22 ) (e 2iφ − 1) (5)
(Z1 + Z2 ) − (Z1 − Z2 ) e 2iφ
2 2
1 − R2 +T 2 + r
x = (16)
2T
4Z1Z2 The equivalent density ρ2 and sound velocity c2 of the AM
T = (6)
(Z1 + Z2 ) − (Z1 − Z2 ) e iφ
2 2
structure are then calculated as follows
where Z1 = ρ1 c1 and Z2 = ρ2 c2 represent the acoustic imped- kd

c2 = c1 (17)
ances of the background medium and designed structure, 2π m − i log x
respectively; φ = 2πfd/c2 refers to the phase shift when the
acoustic wave passes through the designed structure; and f rep- rc1
ρ2 = ρ1 (18)
resents the frequency. When the incident wave is projected onto c 2 (1 − 2R + R 2 − T 2 )
the structure perpendicularly, the reflectivity and transmissivity
of acoustic energy are expressed as follows
Z22 − Z12 2.4. General Snell’s Law

R = (7)
Z + Z + 2iZ1Z2 cot φ
2
1
2
2
Traditional Snell’s law is a widely known law in the fields of
1+ R optics and acoustics, which states that when a beam of light
T =
iZ sin φ (8) or sound is projected onto the interface of two media, the
cos φ − 2
Z1 resulting angles of reflection and incidence will be identical.
The angle of refraction is related to the acoustic properties of respect to x. Based on Fermat’s principle, the differentiation of
the two media when the incident angle is fixed. However, this Ψr(x) should be equal to zero, which yields
physical law is established on the condition that the phase of
the acoustic waves increases gradually along the travel path. dΨ r ( x ) dϕ ( x ) k1 ( x − x 1 ) k1 ( x 2 − x )
= + − = 0 (20)
By contrast to natural materials, AMs can manipulate the wave dx dx ( x − x 1 ) + y1
2 2
( x 2 − x ) + y 22
2
front and phase of acoustic waves; therefore, the propagation of

acoustic waves does not abide by traditional Snell’s law. In 2011, Simplifying this equation yields
a general Snell’s law, which was quite different from traditional
Snell’s law, was first proposed by Yu et al. in the field of elec- dϕ ( x )
+ k1 (sin θ i − sin θ r ) = 0 (21)
tromagnetism.[35] Subsequently, the generalized Snell’s law was dx
extended by Li et al. to the field of acoustics.[36]
The direction of reflection or refraction can be changed by where θr and θi are the angles of reflection and incidence,
designed AMs that occupy a phase mutation covering the range respectively. Thus, the generalized Snell’s law is represented as
0–2π, and abnormal acoustic refraction or reflection and other follows
interesting phenomena may occur. Later, several different types
of metamaterials were also designed. 1 dϕ ( x )
sin θ r − sin θ i = (22)
Based on an assumption that the plane is infinite, the plane k1 dx
acoustic wave striking onto an ideal interface must abide by tra-
ditional Snell’s law. However, the generalized Snell’s law should Similarly, for refraction, the incident acoustic wave passes
be satisfied when a phase mutation occurs. through the AMs and reaches point 3 (x3, y3) in background
On the basis of an acoustic plane wave projected onto an medium 2, and thus the total phase change in this process can
AM, a phase delay is introduced to the transmission and reflec- be concluded to be
tion of sound waves from the AM, as shown in Figure 2. For the
Ψ t ( x ) = ϕ ( x ) + k1 ( x − x 1 ) + y12 + k2 ( x 3 − x ) + y32 (23)
2 2
plane y = 0, the discontinuity of the phase can be realized and
expressed as ϕ(x). According to Fermat’s principle, the travel
length of the acoustic wave from position 1 to position 2 after
where k2 = 2π/λ2 is the wave vector in background medium
being reflected or passing through the AM must be minimum.
2, and λ2 represents the wavelength in background medium
In addition, based on wave theory, the change in the propaga-
2. Therefore, the relationship demonstrates the shortest path
tion phase can be converted into the variation of the length of
principle
the path through which the acoustic wave passes. A ray of an
acoustic wave leaves position 1 (x1, y1), strikes the AMs at θi,
dΨ t ( x ) dϕ ( x )
and is then reflected to position 2 (x2, y2). Thus, the total phase = + k1 sin θ i − k2 sin θ t = 0 (24)
change in the process should be determined based on the fol- dx dx
lowing equation[37] Simplifying this equation results in the generalized Snell’s
law
Ψ r ( x ) = ϕ ( x ) + k1 ( x − x 1 ) + y12 + k1 ( x 2 − x ) + y 22 (19)
2 2
dϕ ( x )
k2 sin θ t − k1 sin θ i = (25)
where ϕ(x) refers to the mutation of the phase shift intro- dx
duced by the AMs, k1 = 2π/λ1 represents the wave vector in
background medium 1, and λ1 refers to the wavelength in back- When ϕ (x) = βx, dϕ(x)/dx is equal to a constant, and a
ground medium 1. The equation Ψr(x) was differentiated with particular angle of transmission or reflection, and abnormal
reflection and transmission, can be realized. Moreover, if there
is a nonlinear relationship between ϕ(x) and x, i.e., the angle
of reflection or refraction is a function of position, numerous
anomalous acoustic phenomena, such as acoustic focusing,
negative refraction, self-bending beam, and Airy beam, can be
introduced. This theory demonstrates the possibility of flexibly
manipulating the refracted and reflected waves through the
configuration of different partial acoustic properties at every
point via the design of a desirable nonlinear function.
In summary, starting from the acoustic wave equation, sev-
eral AM-related major theories, including crystal lattice and
energy band theory, effective medium theory, and general
Snell’s law, are discussed in detail in this section. The crystal
lattice and energy band theory is used mostly to analyze peri-
odic crystal structures. Moreover, in the effective medium
theory, a heterogeneous medium is treated as a homogeneous
Figure 2. Schematics of reflected and transmitted behaviors of acoustic medium under certain approximation conditions. Through the
waves. approximation method, approximate acoustic parameters (such
as effective sound velocity and mass density) can be obtained. to acoustic waves, these AMs are divided into the following cat-
Obviously, this is an antidromic process for obtaining acoustic egories: locally resonant structure, Helmholtz resonant struc-
parameters. Lastly, general Snell’s law, which originated from ture, membrane-type structure, coiling-up space structure,
traditional Snell’s law, was derived and explained. Through among other structures of AMs.
the design of a phase mutation covering the range 0–2π,
abnormal acoustic refraction or reflection and other interesting
phenomena can be produced. This is a positive design process. 3.1. Locally Resonant Structure
The basic structural elements of locally resonant metamate-

3. Current Progress in Research of AM Structures rials for achieving bandgaps are usually unipolar resonance
elements and dipole resonance elements. The typical math-
The propagation characteristics of acoustic waves are deter- ematical model of a dipole resonance unit is a two-degree-of-
mined by the structures and acoustic properties of the mate- freedom mass-in-mass system, the practical model of which
rial itself. AMs composed of deeply subwavelength meta-atoms includes the original design of a shot ball covered with rubber,
arranged periodically are elaborately designed to manipulate as investigated by Liu et al.[5] (as shown in Figure 3a), and an
acoustic waves substantially. In this section, we present and dis- open hollow long tube, as designed by Zhai et al.[38] The influ-
cuss some representative AMs in detail. Based on the character- ences of geometric dimensioning and materials on the band
istics of their structures and the properties of their responses structure were researched. The band structures of the designed
Figure 3. Locally resonant AMs. a) Lead spherical cores coated with silicone rubber.[5] b) Mass-in-mass model embedded with piezoelectric stack.[42]
c) Mass-in-mass model with damped oscillator. Reproduced with permission.[43] Copyright 2016, Elesvier. d) Locally resonant AMs with piezoelectric
stacking and additional loss circuits.[45] e) Double negative locally resonant AMs with tunable bandgaps. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative
Commons CC-BY license.[46] Copyright 2016, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. f) 3D locally resonant AMs with Bragg scattering and cou-
pling resonance. Reproduced with permission.[47] Copyright 2013, Elesvier. g) 2D single, double, and triple oscillators based on concentric-ring locally
resonant AMs.[48] h) Multilayered locally resonant AMs. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license.[49] Copyright 2019, The
Author(s), published by Elesvier.
AMs were determined to be controllable via the selection of resonant structure of metamaterials (Figure 3g). The coupling
different composition-material combinations for multicompo- effect further increased the resonance modes, widened the fre-
nent metamaterials. Meanwhile, Yeh and Chen[39] adopted the quency ranges, and aggrandized the bandgap numbers. Sim-
transfer matrix method to study the bandgap characteristics ilar structures (Figure 3h) were also researched by Shi et al.[49]
of metamaterial beams with additional strip oscillator struc- based on the influence of band structure, material properties,
tures and reported that a lower and wider frequency range of and thickness and quantity of scatters on acoustic properties.
bandgap was obtained when the additional strip oscillator was
made of steel than when it was made of aluminum.
In addition to studying the influences of the basic properties 3.2. Helmholtz Resonance Structure
of materials (such as Young’s modulus and mass density) on
the bandgap, some researchers have introduced materials with The Helmholtz resonator is one of the most basic acoustic
unique properties, such as piezoelectric materials and damping models and is generally used in acoustic absorption and noise
materials, as constituent materials of locally resonant struc- reduction. A typical Helmholtz resonator consists of a neck and
tures.[40,41] Hu et al.[42,43] studied the bandgap characteristics of a an air cavity. In 2006, Fang et al.[7] proposed a type of AM with
mass-in-mass model embedded with a piezoelectric stack and a a 1D Helmholtz resonant cavity in the subwavelength category
damped oscillator (Figure 3b,c), and their results demonstrated (Figure 4a) and observed that the equivalent elastic modulus
that the width of the bandgap greatly increased and shifted to a was negative when resonance occurred. The band structure
low frequency under the condition of strong electromechanical and transmission coefficient were then calculated based on the
coupling or the use of an additional oscillator. Similar results equivalent medium theory. Meanwhile, Gao et al.[55] studied the
were also confirmed by Liu and co-workers.[41,44] Meanwhile, transmission characteristics of AMs in a 1D Helmholtz cavity.
Chen et al.[45] also used piezoelectric stacking and additional Through a variety of combinations of the two basic structures
loss circuits to increase the attenuation characteristics in the of the Helmholtz cavity (open short tube and cavity), four meta-
bandgap, as illustrated in Figure 3d. materials can be obtained. Among these metamaterials, the
Many researchers have proposed a variety of approaches, open short tube resulted in a better low-frequency bandgap.
including topology optimization,[50] active control,[46,51] and cou- Ding et al.[56,62] conducted a series of studies on AMs based
pling resonance,[47] to optimize the acoustic properties of their on the Helmholtz cavity (shown in Figure 4b). They proposed
designed materials. For example, Chen et al.[46] devised a tun- an AM with an open hollow sphere model. The geometric size,
able double negative characteristic AM (as shown in Figure 3e), arrangement, and number of open hollow spheres and the
wherein the tension and stretch of the membranes can be real- influence of air or water within the cavity on the transmission
ized using thimbles controlled by an electromagnet driven by properties were also investigated. Based on the improvement
external DC power. The development of adjustable metamate- of the open hollow sphere model, a double-opening hollow ball
rials characterized by the active control of electrical, thermal, model and a multiopening hollow ball model were also pro-
and optical excitation was also beneficial to the construction posed. The influences of opening holes of different diameters
of electricity-sensitive, heat-sensitive, and light-sensitive meta- and opening angles on the transmission property were further
materials. A 3D underwater locally resonant AM (displayed researched.[63] This kind of open hollow ball model offered
in Figure 3f), on the other hand, was researched through the great inspiration for and provided theoretical and numerical
effects of Bragg scattering and coupling resonance.[47] The support to the design of Helmholtz AMs.
resonance frequency bandwidth and the depth of the Bragg To broaden the working frequency bandwidth of a single
bandgap can be increased by reducing the difference between conventional Helmholtz resonator, Peng et al.[64] innovatively
them. The coupled gap can induce excellent acoustic isolation proposed two Helmholtz resonators separated by a perforated
and efficient sound absorption, which is beneficial for the wid- brass plate; for this pair of resonators, the volume of the back
ening of conduction bands in the low-frequency region. cavity was adjusted continuously by a piston. Through proper
In addition to the optimization and control of a single adjustments of the coupled vibrating plate and cavity volume,
bandgap structure through the design of a hybrid frequency the bandwidth of the acoustic device was significantly extended
structure, the concept of multiple adjacent bandgaps, which can compared with that of a traditional Helmholtz resonator. In
also meet the demand for expanding bandgaps and bandwidths, another report, a series of coupled Helmholtz resonators
was introduced. In 2010, Huang and Sun[52] designed a mass- arranged periodically, for transforming acoustic energy into
in-mass structure with two embedded oscillators, which can electric energy (Figure 4c), was presented by Liu et al.[57] High
produce two adjacent negative effective mass density regions. voltage derived from deformation caused by an alternant push–
Tan et al.,[53] on the other hand, further studied the bandgap pull force was realized. Moreover, the transformation efficiency
characteristics of a hybrid frequency structure with two oscilla- could be improved because of the similar dipole modes of the
tors. Their results showed that the complex frequency structure coupled Helmholtz resonators. Similarly, Yang et al.[65] com-
exhibited a larger attenuation compared to that of the single bined a Helmholtz resonator with cantilever beams constructed
oscillator structure. Meanwhile, Pai et al.[54] designed a beam with dual piezoelectric ceramics to achieve sound energy con-
consisting of two additional series-wound oscillators. It was version. Meanwhile, a 2D unit cell, consisting of three adja-
revealed that the band structure can be governed based on the cent Helmholtz resonators with different heights (shown
number of oscillators and parameter adjustment over a wide in Figure 4d), that exhibited multiband and multifunctional
frequency range. Chen et al.[48] investigated 2D single, double, acoustic characteristics was developed by Zhu and Assouar.[58]
and triple oscillators based on the concentric-ring locally With this device, excellent reflection and different localizations
Figure 4. Helmholtz resonance structures. a) 1D Helmholtz resonant cavity.[7] b) Helmholtz resonant cavity with open hollow sphere model.[56]
c) Contiguous coupled Helmholtz resonator array. Reproduced with permission.[57] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing. d) Helmholtz resonator array of
three adjacent Helmholtz resonators with different cavities. Reproduced with permission.[58] Copyright 2019, American Physical Society. e) Helmholtz
resonators periodically arranged on one side of pipe. Reproduced with permission.[59] Copyright 2019, Elesvier. f) Cube Helmholtz cavities with dif-
ferent volumes arranged on one or both sides of pipe. Reproduced with permission.[60] Copyright 2018, American Physical Society. g) Hybrid resonance
structure combining Helmholtz resonator and coiling-up space structure. Reproduced with permission.[61] Copyright 2019, AIP Publishing.
of acoustic focusing were demonstrated numerically and exper- 3.3. Membrane-Type Structure
imentally. This research provided a novel method for designing
multifunctional acoustic devices that possess extraordinary dis- A membrane-type structure, which is an important type of AM,
persion properties. consists of a membrane fixed onto a hard boundary, to which a
To manipulate low-frequency and hybrid noises, a kind of central mass block may be attached. In 2008, Yang et al.[8] first
Helmholtz resonator array was proposed by Wu et al.,[59] who realized a membrane-type AM that possessed negative dynamic
arranged Helmholtz resonators periodically on either side mass properties. Soon afterward, through the combination
of a pipe with the same cross-sectional area (as shown in of membrane-type structures into an array, excellent sound
Figure 4e). With this set-up, broadband noise isolation was absorption was achieved for multiple frequency bands. The
achieved at the expected resonance frequencies. Similar struc- transmission loss and its maximum and minimum values, fre-
tures were further investigated by Zhou et al.,[60] who attached quency distributions, natural frequencies, and modes of mem-
Helmholtz resonator pairs symmetrically to a cylindrical wave- brane-type structures were further researched by Naify et al.[67]
guide, as illustrated in Figure 4f, wherein the cube cavities H1 via numerical and experimental methods, wherein prestressing
and H2 are shown to be different in height. Double negativi- on the membrane and the mass was varied.
ties at multiple frequency bands can be accurately and lightly A membrane-type AM with acoustic performance that
adjusted through changes in the geometries and number is adjustable via a noncontact gradient magnetic field was
of coupled Helmholtz resonators. Wu et al.,[61] on the other designed by Chen et al.[25,73] using a magnetorheological elastic
hand, designed perfect acoustic absorption devices by com- membrane. The reported magneto-AMs achieved dynamic reg-
bining coiling-up space structures and Helmholtz resonators ulation of the equivalent density, whereas the sound was com-
(shown in Figure 4g). The proposed hybrid metamaterials can pletely controlled via a gradient magnetic field. Meanwhile, Gao
absorb over 99% acoustic energy because of friction losses. et al.[68] proposed a two-layer actively controlled membrane-type
The absorption peak and bandwidth can be manipulated flex- AM with a magnetic mass block (Figure 5a) and obtained a
ibly through changes in the folding numbers of the channel light structure that can effectively isolate acoustic waves with
and the structure parameters. A similar hybrid construction low frequencies.
was also developed in a study by Ryoo and Jeon.[66] The hybrid The acoustic properties of membrane-type AMs can be
resonances were observed at a designated frequency, which can improved through filling of the space between the two membranes
be adjusted using geometric parameters. In addition, the thick- with different materials. For example, Ma et al.[69,74] introduced
nesses of the designed acoustic devices can be optimized for the use of sealed gas to an ultrathin membrane AM. Almost total
the predicted frequencies. absorption and no reflection were achieved, and a high energy
Figure 5. Membrane-type AMs with mass block attached. a) Two-layer actively controlled AMs with membrane-type structure. Reproduced with permis-
sion.[68] Copyright 2017, Elesvier. b) Static pressurization membrane-type AMs. Reproduced with permission.[70] Copyright 2016, Elesvier. c) Constrained
membrane-type AMs. Reproduced with permission.[71] Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing. d) Layered membrane-type AMs filled with porous materials.[75]
Reproduced with permission. Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing.
conversion into other energy forms, such as electrical energy, was better acoustic performance at certain degrees.[79] A kind of low-
actualized. Similarly, Langfeldt et al.[70] filled the space between the loss, membrane-type AM without mass blocks was developed
two membranes with pressurized air to control intrinsic modal by Lee et al.,[80] who arranged multiple prestressed membranes
and acoustic transmission losses (Figure 5b). Wang et al.,[75] on separated by certain distances in a waveguide (Figure 6a). They
the other hand, filled the cavity with porous materials (Figure 5d), also created a double negative AM with a membrane-type struc-
which benefited acoustic wave energy dissipation. ture composed of membranes and side holes arranged periodi-
Compared with most membrane-type AMs that produced cally,[81] as shown in Figure 6b. A negative effective mass density
only a negative equivalent density, membrane-type AMs charac- was achieved under the first resonance mode of the membrane.
terized by negative equivalent density and bulk modulus were The nonlinear response of an acoustic wave to this peculiar
proposed by Yang et al.[76] and Wang et al.[71] They fabricated membrane-type AM was then demonstrated by Fan et al.[79]
constrained membrane AMs that can significantly increase the Meanwhile, Bongard et al.[82] analytically derived the acoustic
effective bandwidth and reduce the sound transmission loss impedance of a membrane-type AM without mass blocks
(Figure 5c). Langfeldt et al.[77] also presented a new multiwave- attached (Figure 6c). In that study, the transmission and effective
length membrane-type AM. They adopted a novel method for acoustic parameters were estimated. Similar investigations were
studying the effects of prestress, additional mass blocks, and also conducted by Li et al.[20] It was discovered that a negative
distributions on the transmission loss of a 120-unit membrane- equivalent bulk modulus and density can be realized below the
type AM. first resonant frequency, resulting in a negative refractive index.
In contrast to previous investigations, wherein the mass Ma et al.,[83] on the other hand, designed a double-layer mem-
weights were concentrated at the centers of the membranes, brane-type AM consisting of two circular membranes made of
other research efforts accomplished the fabrication of speci- stiff nylon with a certain distance between them. The negative
mens with coaxial rings attached to the membranes.[78] A novel equivalent density can be adjusted through the introduction of a
membrane-type AM, which comprised rectangular membranes periodic boundary condition below a cutoff frequency.
to which several semicircular mass blocks were adhered, was
proposed by Mei et al.[72] Almost total absorption was achieved
from the energy conversion and multiple resonance. In addi- 3.4. Coiling-Up Space Structure
tion, the absorption frequencies at which multiple resonances
occurred could be manipulated through changes in the weights Of the AM structures discussed thus far, locally resonant AMs
of the semicircular mass blocks or in the distances between have limitations in terms of their complex structures and rela-
these mass blocks. tively small bandgaps, whereas membrane-type AMs entail
Compared to membrane-type AMs with mass blocks problems in terms of short lifespans, easy deformation, and
attached, membrane-type AMs without mass blocks can exhibit unstable performance. In recent years, many bold attempts
Figure 6. Membrane-type AMs without mass blocks attached. a) Prestressed membranes without mass blocks. Reproduced with permission.[80]
Copyright 2009, Elesvier. b) Membrane-type AM with membranes and side holes arranged periodically. Reproduced with permission.[81] Copyright
2010, American Physical Society. c) Membrane-type AM without mass blocks and with open channels. Reproduced with permission.[82] Copyright 2010,
American Physical Society.
have been made to design coiling-up space AMs for the pur- from nearly critical coupling occurred for a broad frequency
poses of extending the travel distances of acoustic waves and bandwidth. Through the assembly of coiling-up space struc-
reducing the equivalent speeds of sound, to induce these AMs tures with different parameters, the absorption frequency band
into having relatively high refractive indices. In this way, the was further extended.
shortcomings of locally resonant and membrane-type AMs, Apart from the aforementioned structures, coiling-up space
such as short lifetimes and narrow bandgaps, can be overcome. AMs with spiral channels can also achieve excellent acoustic
In 2012, a coiling-up space AM with labyrinth structures properties. In 2015, Cheng and co-workers[26,96,134] proposed a
was designed by Liang et al. via bending and perforation,[84,90] symmetrical circular coiling-up space AM (shown in Figure 8a),
as displayed in Figure 7a. This metamaterial can greatly extend which was able to achieve double negativity, near-total reflec-
the propagation paths of sound waves in space, and its anisot- tion, and a large acoustic transmission loss even at small filling
ropy can be controlled through adjustments of the length of the rates because of its multiple Mie resonance characteristics.
channel in each direction. A high refractive index can thus be The acoustic transmission loss reached 93.4% at the monopole
obtained, whereas double negative effective acoustic parameters resonance when the filling rate was 15%. In 2016, Li et al.[93]
that are observed in locally resonant and membrane-type AMs designed a perfect sound absorber with subwavelength thick-
can also be achieved. Following the design ideas of Liang et al., ness by combining perforated plates and cavities with spiral
Jia et al.[91] changed the length of the channel to manipulate channels (shown in Figure 8b). Impedance matching and excel-
the operating frequency. Through designs of structures with lent sound absorption were achieved at low frequencies as a
different twining factors, the isolation of noises at particular result of the compensation of acoustic impedance. In contrast
frequencies was achieved. Meanwhile, Xie et al.[92] ameliorated to the structure proposed by Li et al., Cai et al.[94] wrapped a
coiling-up space AMs with conical channels or spatial spiral resonant tube to make it coplanar and embedded it in a rectan-
channels to improve impedance matching. gular perforated plate, as shown in Figure 8c. When coplanar,
Despite the preternatural and flexible capacities of these AMs the designed AM can be equivalent to a Helmholtz resonator
to manipulate the propagation of acoustic waves, the design of in resonance. Moreover, for the reported structure, the absorp-
coiling-up space AMs that exhibit excellent performance with tion peak can shift to low frequencies for certain thicknesses.
conventional zigzag channels remains a challenge. A series In 2019, Liang et al.[95] designed a spiral AM, as shown in
of self-similar labyrinthine AMs was exploited by Liu et al.;[85] Figure 8d. The pitch was designed as a cylindrical element with
the schematic illustrations of the structures are shown in linear variation along the axial axis. The impedance of the hel-
Figure 7b. With these structures, the complete forbidden band ical AM with varying pitch can match that of air, enabling more
can be broadened and shifted to a lower frequency for the first sound energy to pass through the structure.
bandgap. Meanwhile, Liu et al.[86] adopted symmetry operations
to design coiling-up space AMs (visualized in Figure 7c). The
acoustic transmission loss was measured to be almost 0.99, and 3.5. Miscellaneous Structures
with these devices, sound supertunneling and acoustic cloaking
were also accomplished. Song et al.,[87] on the other hand, real- A variety of original AMs aside from the aforementioned four
ized multiple frequency bands and excellent absorption capa- types have been designed by many researchers. A grooved struc-
bilities through Hilbert fractal elements (shown in Figure 7d) ture of a certain thickness, composed of solid steel plates sepa-
with sizes that are smaller than the wavelength. rated by adjacent grooves with equivalent distances and linearly
Maurya et al.[88] extended 2D coiling-up space structures to increasing depths (Figure 9a), was reported to exhibit extraordi-
3D by designing propagation channels perpendicular to each nary sound transmission based on the generalized law of reflec-
other (shown in Figure 7e). The proposed structure possessed tion.[97,98] Combining a circular tunnel with grooved-structure
high symmetry and occupied doubly negative properties. Wang AMs, Zhu et al.[99] designed and fabricated a multiport acoustic
et al.,[89] on the other hand, designed an acoustic absorber con- device that induced the transmission wave to pass through
sisting of perforated plates and air cavities with 3D labyrinthine a desired direction, instead of in both directions, at one port
channels, as shown in Figure 7f. Total absorption resulting (Figure 9b). On the other hand, a gradient-comb-like composite
Figure 7. Coiling-up space AM with labyrinthine structures. a) Labyrinth structure with zigzag paths. Reproduced with permission.[84] Copyright 2012,
American Physical Society. b) Self-similar labyrinthine structure. Reproduced with permission.[85] Copyright 2018, Elesvier. c) Labyrinthine structure
with four symmetry operations. Reproduced with permission.[86] Copyright 2017, Elesvier. d) Hilbert fractal structure. Reproduced with permission.[87]
Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing. e) 3D labyrinth structure with propagation channels perpendicular to each other. Reproduced under the terms of the
Creative Commons CC-BY license.[88] Copyright 2016, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. f) 3D Hybrid structure with perforated plates and
air cavities with labyrinthine channels. Reproduced with permission.[89] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing.
Figure 8. Coiling-up space AMs with spiral structures. a) Symmetrical circular structure with eight parts. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative
Commons CC-BY license.[134] Copyright 2018, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. b) Hybrid structure with perforated plates and cavities with
spiral channels. Reproduced with permission.[93] Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing. c) Coplanar resonant tube embedded in rectangular perforated plate.
Reproduced with permission.[94] Copyright 2014, AIP Publishing. d) Helical AM with varying pitch. Reproduced with permission.[95] Copyright 2019, Elesvier.
structure[100] filled with porous material of linearly increasing force. Li et al.,[105] on the other hand, designed an ultrathin hyper-
thicknesses can achieve perfect acoustic performance for wide bolic gradient-index planar lens composed of a series of hybrid
incident angles at operation frequencies (Figure 9c). labyrinthine concentric rings with coiling-up space channels
A new type of ultrathin diffuser consisting of periodically and straight channels inside (Figure 9i). Meanwhile, the use of
arranged Helmholtz-like resonators, each with a thickness ideal thermoacoustic units was introduced by Sun et al. for the
of 1/20 of the working wavelength (Figure 9d), was proposed assembly of a neoteric type of AM (Figure 9j).[106] The proposed
by Zhu et al.[101] The phase delay of the reflected wave can be AMs can manipulate acoustic waves arbitrarily through a variety
manipulated via adjustment of the widths of the necks. This of mechanisms, such as acoustic focusing, asymmetric con-
device can not only produce satisfactory acoustic diffuse reflec- verging, and Bessel-like beams.
tion but also extend the bandwidth of the operation frequency. In summary, based on the characteristics of their structures
In another study, an active tube array consisting of numerous and properties of their responses to acoustic waves, AMs are
thin tubes with different depths and piezoelectric ceramics divided into several categories: locally resonant structures,
attached to the bottom of each tube (Figure 9e) was developed, Helmholtz resonant structures, membrane-type structures,
the directivity performance of the acoustic source was exam- coiling-up space structures, among other structures of AMs.
ined, and an extraordinary acoustic beam was generated.[102] Locally resonant metamaterials are characterized by the local
Inspired by the phenomenon of Fano-like interference, resonances of their structures. The basic structural elements
Ghaffarivardavagh et al.[103] designed and fabricated an of locally resonant metamaterials for achieving bandgaps are
air-permeabilized and sound-isolated device with an open region usually unipolar resonance elements and dipole resonance ele-
of almost 60% for the air passage (Figure 9f). Meanwhile, com- ments. A typical Helmholtz resonator consists of a neck and
bining coiling-up space metamaterials and Helmholtz cavity struc- an air cavity, whereas a membrane-type structure consists of a
tures, Jiang et al.[21] presented a double-layer antireflective acoustic membrane fixed onto a hard boundary, to which a central mass
focusing lens that possessed capacities to converge the acoustic block may be attached. Because these kinds of AMs have limi-
wave while preventing backscattering caused by the surroundings. tations in terms of their complex structures, relatively small
A thin acoustic focusing planar lens, composed of a series of bandgaps, short lifespans, easy deformation, and unstable per-
concentric annuli made of steel, that can be employed both in formance, researchers have made great efforts to improve their
water and in air (Figure 9g,h) was proposed and fabricated by properties and develop novel kinds of AMs, such as coiling-up
Chen et al.[19,104] The designed acoustic lens can converge acoustic space structures, grooved structures, multiport acoustic wave-
waves over a wide frequency range both in water and in air. In guides, and ultrathin acoustic focusing planar lens.
contrast to traditional transducer arrays[107] that produce acoustic
vortex beams characterized by the individual manipulation of
either amplitude or phase, an original acoustic metamaterial 4. Fabrication Approaches and Materials
composed of a copper plate with an Archimedean spiral grating
attached on the reverse side was designed and manufactured by Fabrication approaches, which serve as bridges between real-
Wang et al.[108] to generate acoustic torque and acoustic radiation world applications and structural design, play a critical role in
Figure 9. Other structures of AMs. a) Grooved struccture. Reproduced with permission.[97] Copyright 2015, AIP Publishing. b) Multiport acoustic
waveguide. Reproduced with permission.[99] Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing. c) Gradient-comb-like composite structure filled with porous material.
Reproduced with permission.[100] Copyright 2018, Elesvier. d) Ultrathin acoustic diffuser based on AMs. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.[101] Copyright 2017, The Author(s), published by American Physical Society. e) Active tube array. Repro-
duced with permission.[102] Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing. f) Air-permeabilized and sound-isolated acoustic device. Reproduced with permission.[103]
Copyright 2017, American Physical Society. g) Ultrathin hyperbolic gradient-index planar lens. Reproduced with permission.[19] Copyright 2019, AIP
Publishing. h) Ultrathin acoustic focusing planar lens. Reproduced with permission.[104] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing. i) Archimedean spiral grating.
Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license.[105] Copyright 2014, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. j) Thermoa-
coustic metamaterials unit. Reproduced with permission.[106] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing.
the development of AMs. To date, several considerable fabrica- perfect acoustic energy absorber was prepared by Fernández-
tion approaches have been used to manufacture AMs. In this Marín et al.[110] via laser cutting and assembly using a circular
section, these fabrication approaches and their materials are aerogel plate. Meanwhile, a broadband acoustic device was
discussed in detail. built by Bloemer and co-workers[111] via extruding, slotting, and
drilling holes on a plate. On the other hand, Xia et al.[112] pre-
pared an acoustic graded grating plate for particle delivery via a
4.1. Conventional Fabrication Approaches mechanical process (Figure 10b). Many other acoustic devices,
including 3D acoustic cloak,[113] planar acoustic focusing lens
Conventional fabrication approaches, including laser cut- (Figure 10c),[104,114] and acoustic passive logic gates[115] can also
ting, computerized numerical control (CNC) machines, and be prepared via conventional methods.
assembly, can be used to fabricate several simple 2D, and even
3D, AMs. A certain number of Helmholtz resonance struc-
tures, locally resonant structures, among other AM structures, 4.2. Additive Manufacturing Approaches
can be prepared through the removal of redundant material
from embryo material via laser cutting or CNC machining. For Additive manufacturing, more commonly known as 3D
example, a gradient-impeding AM with Helmholtz resonance printing, is an advanced manufacturing technology that has
structures (Figure 10a) was fabricated by Song et al. through progressed rapidly in recent years and is now being widely
CNC machining using prefabricated aluminum,[109] whereas a used in numerous fields. Several additive manufacturing
Figure 10. Fabrication approaches to AM manufacturing. a) CNC. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license.[109]
Copyright 2016, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. b) Slotting with mechanical process. Reproduced with permission.[112] Copyright 2017,
AIP Publishing. c) Drilling mechanically. Reproduced with permission.[114] Copyright 2014, Elesvier. d) FDM. Reproduced with permission.[99] Copyright
2016, AIP Publishing. e) SLA. Reproduced with permission.[147] Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing. f) Casting and forming. Reproduced with permission.[137]
Copyright 2018, Elesvier. g) Engraving. Reproduced with permission.[139] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing. h) Combined method of additive manufacturing
and assembly. Reproduced with permission.[144] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing. i) Combined method of mechanical process and casting–forming.
Reproduced with permission.[146] Copyright 2012, AIP Publishing.
methods that build objects layer by layer, including lami- Wang et al. fabricated a tunable acoustic absorber using
nated object manufacturing,[116] fused deposition modeling coiling-up space AMs via the same technology.[89] At present,
(FDM),[117] selective laser melting (SLM),[118] selective laser sin- FDM and SLA are the most commonly used additive manufac-
tering (SLS),[119] stereolithography (SLA),[120] and electron beam turing methods. However, these approaches cannot meet the
melting (EBM),[121] have been developed. The emergence of requirements of size and accuracy with the rapid development
additive manufacturing has greatly facilitated the development of AMs. Therefore, it is believed that other approaches, such
and practical application of AMs. FDM, a low-cost, high-speed, as 3D direct-writing technology, digital projection lithography
and easy operation method, has become the most commonly (DPL), continuous liquid interface production (CLIP), SLS,
used additive manufacturing technology for fabricating AMs. SLM, EBM, and even large-scale additive manufacturing tech-
It has been reported that locally resonant AMs,[122] Helmholtz nology, can be adopted for the preparation of AMs.
resonance AMs,[12,101] coiling-up space AMs,[123,124] and other
kinds of AMs (Figure 10d)[98,99,102,125,126] have been fabricated
using acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) or polylactide (PLA) 4.3. Miscellaneous Fabrication Approaches
filaments via FDM. For instance, a highly efficient ventilated
acoustic absorber was built by Wu et al. through FDM using Many approaches apart from the manufacturing methods men-
polylactide,[122] whereas Li et al.[12] fabricated bianisotropic tioned in Sections 4.1 and 4.2 have been applied by researchers
metamaterials for abnormal acoustic manipulation via FDM to the fabrication of different AMs using various materials.
using an ABS filament. In another study, an acoustic meta- Casting and forming is a frequently used approach for the fab-
grating for the reversal of transmission and reflection was also rication of AMs with locally resonant structures. In this process,
printed via FDM.[127] Meanwhile, with photosensitive resins as epoxy resin, silicone rubber, or other liquids are poured into a
raw materials, SLA has also been utilized in the preparation prefabricated mold. The designed structure can be obtained via
of AMs.[128–131] Using this technology, Qian et al.[132,133] fabri- curing with the aid of a cross-linking agent, temperature, etc.
cated a broadband acoustic focusing lens with Helmholtz reso- For example, Li et al.[136,137] filled a battery of holes with epoxy
nant AMs, whereas Zhang et al.[134] printed a coiling-up space resin or rubber and successfully prepared locally resonant AMs
AM. Furthermore, an ultrathin AM with Helmholtz resonant (Figure 10f), whereas Barnhart[138] fabricated a dissipative mul-
structures for perfect sound absorption was built by Jiménez tiresonator AM composed of a thick lead mass covered with sili-
et al. through SLA using photosensitive resins (Figure 10e).[135] cone rubber and an epoxy matrix via the same approach.
Several kinds of AMs made of metal, such as aluminum In summary, based on the fabrication process, the adopted
and brass, can be prepared via laser engraving. For instance, AM manufacturing approaches are divided into three typ-
an Archimedean spiral grating was engraved in a brass plate ical categories, namely, conventional fabrication approaches,
by Li et al (Figure 10g).[139] In another study, a series of parallel additive manufacturing approaches, and miscellaneous fabrica-
grooves was engraved onto the surface of an aluminum plate to tion approaches, as summarized in Table 1. Among the afore-
fabricate an asymmetric acoustic transmission lens with a wide mentioned fabrication approaches, conventional fabrication
frequency band.[140] Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) can also approaches are appropriate for the fabrication of AMs with
be used to fabricate AMs through engraving.[22] relatively simple structures. Meanwhile, because of its conveni-
A combination of CNC, additive manufacturing, manual ence, efficiency, and low cost, additive manufacturing has been
methods, and/or assembly is an efficient approach to the extensively used to fabricate AMs with a variety of materials,
fabrication of AMs.[46,72,141–143] For example, to enhance sound including PLA, ABS, and photosensitive resins. Casting and
transmission loss, Lee et al.[144,145] assembled a membrane- forming, on the other hand, is applied mainly to the construc-
type AM composed of two Mylar films and inner and outer tion of a locally resonant structure, whereas laser engraving
frames printed via FDM using PLA (Figure 10h). Wang et al.,[75] is suitable for plate acoustic gratings. Combinations of these
on the other hand, fabricated a double-zero, membrane-type methods offer great flexibility for the fabrication of many kinds
metamaterial using circular steel disks, fiberglass wool, and of AMs. Moreover, membrane-type AMs are prepared mainly via
polycarbonate film via machining and assembly. A locally reso- manual methods or assembly. In addition to the aforementioned
nant structure composed of a brass plate with a series of holes approaches that are used to fabricate AMs, many advanced
filled with epoxy was also created via machining methods and manufacturing methods, including 3D direct-writing technology,
casting–forming (Figure 10i).[146] DPL, CLIP, SLS, SLM, EBM, and even large-scale additive
Table 1. Fabrication approaches and materials for AM manufacturing.
Category of fabrication Manufacturing technology Type Materials Reference

Conventional fabrication approaches Computerized numerical control (CNC) machine Helmholtz resonance Aluminum [109]
Mechanical process Other Steel/aluminum [111,114]
Laser cutting Other Aluminum [104]
Epoxy [115]
Acrylic sheets [113]
Assemble/handmade Membrane Polycarbonate film and porous [75]
material
Elastic membrane [72,142,148]
Other PMMA [141]
Additive manufacturing FDM Local resonance ABS/PLA [122]
Helmholtz resonance [12]
Membrane [149,150]
Coiling-up space [123,124,127]
Other [102,125,151]
SLA Local resonance Photosensitive resin [152]
Helmholtz resonance [133,147]
Coiling-up space [89,131,153]
Other [128,129,132]
Other fabrication approaches Casting and forming Local resonance Epoxy resin [136,137]
Engraving Other Brass [139]
Aluminum [140]
Plexiglass [22]
Mechanical process + handmade Local resonance Polyethylene films [154]
Mechanical process + pouring Local resonance Epoxy and brass plats [146]
SLA + laser cutting Helmholtz resonance Photosensitive resin and aerogel [110]
plate
SLA + CNC Other Aluminum and photosensitive [143]
resin
SLA + handmade Other Resin [155]
FDM+ assemble Membrane PLA and Mylar films [144,145]
manufacturing technology, are believed to be adoptable for the cloaking in air. To reduce the geometric dimensioning of
preparation of AMs. acoustic cloaks, Zhai et al.[161] introduced an acoustic cloak with
a thickness of only 1/10 of the wavelength of the audible fre-
quency range; a unit of this device was composed of a mem-
5. Applications of Acoustic Metamaterials brane and a cavity. Similarly, an ultrathin acoustic carpet cloak
composed of cavities covered with membranes (Figure 11b) was
Because of their many unique properties compared with those also reported by Esfahlani et al.[23] Sun et al.[162] proposed a 2D
of traditional acoustic materials, AMs have been developed and impedance matching acoustic cloaking technique (Figure 11c)
utilized in numerous fields, such as acoustic cloaking, acoustic via a quasi-conformal transformation method, which was uti-
lensing, acoustic absorption, noise reduction, and supernormal lized to obtain the desired acoustic parameters. Amin et al.[163]
sound transmission. In this section, applications of AMs are developed an acoustic transformational metamaterial capable of
discussed in detail. deflecting incident waves in the requested direction and gen-
erating a good cloaking effect with a wavelength of 790 mm
through perfect scattering along the normal direction of the
5.1. Acoustic Cloaking surface. For underwater acoustic cloaking, Zhang et al.[164] first
devised an integrated acoustic circuit using a 16-layer struc-
In the field of electromagnetic metamaterials, Pendry and tural unit composed of a 2D propagation network and a cavity
co-workers[156] presented a transformation optics method for at the subwavelength scale. Through the geometric size of the
achieving electromagnetic cloaking. Based on the principle of structure, the requirements of acoustic conversion for cloaking
transformation optics, researchers also developed a method were realized, and 2D cylindrical acoustic stealth was achieved
for accomplishing acoustic cloaking. Cummer and Schurig[157] within the range 52–64 kHz (as illustrated in Figure 11d).
obtained a transformation acoustic equation in cylindrical coor- Aside from 2D acoustic cloaking, 3D acoustic cloaking can
dinates; based on this equation, a 2D acoustic cloak was the- also be realized through the use of AM technology. For example,
oretically realized. Meanwhile, Chen et al.[158] developed a 3D Zigoneanu et al.[113] designed a 3D carpet acoustic cloak, specifi-
acoustic cloak with a spherical Bessel function, which laid a cally a near-perfect 3D, broadband, and omnidirectional cloak,
theoretical foundation for the design of 3D acoustic cloaking. for airborne use via the coordinate transformation method.
Numerous approaches to develop AMs that exhibit 2D The results indicate a good cloaking effect. They also per-
acoustic cloaking, including alternating uniform media, mul- formed experiments to further investigate the 3D cloaking effect
tilayered concentric column structures, and diamond-shaped and discovered that their designed acoustic cloak exhibited a
porous structures,[159] have been reported. For example, Zhu remarkable cloaking effect on incident waves in any plane at
et al.[160] designed a rhomboid structure of homogeneous random incident angles, which strongly demonstrated that the
materials (Figure 11a) that could theoretically achieve acoustic cloak has a good 3D acoustic cloaking ability. In 2013, Sanchis
Figure 11. 2D acoustic cloaking. a) Acoustic cloaking with rhomboid structures. Reproduced with permission.[160] Copyright 2010, AIP Publishing.
b) Ultrathin invisibility cloak. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 International license.[23] Copyright 2016, The
Author(s), published by American Physical Society. c) Impedance matching acoustic cloaking. Reproduced with permission.[162] Copyright 2019, AIP
Publishing. d) Underwater broadband acoustic cloaking. Reproduced with permission.[164] Copyright 2011, American Physical Society.
Figure 12. 3D acoustic cloaking. a) Directional 3D cloaking at audible frequencies. Reproduced with permission.[165] Copyright 2013, American Physical
Society. b) Broadband acoustic cloaking based on coordinate transformation principle. Reproduced with permission.[166] Copyright 2015, American
Physical Society. c) Axisymmetric acoustic cloak. Reproduced with permission.[167] Copyright 2019, American Physical Society. d) Underwater octahedral
pyramid acoustic cloak. Reproduced with permission.[168] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing.
et al.[165] arranged 60 coaxial rings outside a spherical object Jia et al.[169] designed a flat hyperlens for airborne use based on
to achieve directional 3D cloaking at audible frequencies, as a periodic array of hard plates (Figure 13a). In this experiment,
shown in Figure 12a. The distributions of the scattered pressure the researchers broke the diffraction limit and observed a half-
field with and without acoustic cloaks, as shown in Figure 12a, peak width of only 0.07 for hyperlens imaging. The distribution
demonstrated that the scattering of acoustic waves by the of the acoustic field along the x-axis and z-axis clearly dem-
objects was negligible. In 2015, Kan et al.[166] proposed the use onstrated that an acoustic wave passing through the sample
of the coordinate transformation principle to develop a broad- appeared at its peak at the center with a very high intensity but
band acoustic cloaking metamaterial, which was able to com- only a subwavelength width.
pletely conceal a 3D object in a cavity with arbitrary openings, High transmissivity and focus in air were attained with
as displayed in Figure 12b. Meanwhile, Jin et al.[167] proposed a multilayered acoustic lens via the optimization of related
a diffraction grating for acoustic ground cloaking (as shown parameters. This method provides a novel way of designing
in Figure 12c). An axisymmetric acoustic cloak composed of a 3D acoustic lens. Peng and Bai et al.[170] developed acoustic
hard surfaces with grooves was also numerically simulated and lenses that can manipulate refractive indices and acoustic
experimentally tested, and the results proved that an excellent impedance. The focusing effect was realized through a
scattering cancellation effect was realized. An underwater 3D design based on the gradient refractive index of the acoustic
acoustic cloak (Figure 12d), on the other hand, was presented focusing grating (Figure 13b). Besides, deflection acoustic lens,
by Bi et al.[168] This octahedral pyramid acoustic cloak was com- convergent acoustic lens and convergent acoustic lens can be
posed of periodically arranged steel strips and achieved broad- realized by anisotropic unit cells without changing the unit
band acoustic cloaking. cell structure.[171] In contrast to the aforementioned transmis-
sion-type acoustic focusing lens, a type of 2D reflective multi-
frequency acoustic focusing lens with groove structures was
5.2. Acoustic Lens presented by Zhu et al.,[172] as shown in Figure 13c. The mul-
tifrequency acoustic focusing of a plane wave was achieved
Acoustic lenses have numerous potential applications in bio- via a design based on a matched phase gradient, which breaks
medical and industrial fields. The emergence of AMs provided limitations in traditional resonant structures operating at a
a possibility for the fabrication of acoustic lenses, and thus single frequency. On the other hand, Chen et al.[126] devised
the application of AMs to the production of acoustic lenses an acoustic focusing lens that can manipulate both the near
has undergone great development in recent years. In 2010, and far fields of acoustic waves. The focusing behavior of their
Figure 13. Acoustic lens for airborne use. a) Flat hyperlens. Reproduced with permission.[169] Copyright 2010, AIP Publishing. b) Subwavelength lens
with coiling-up space structure. Reproduced with permission.[170] Copyright 2014, Elesvier. c) Reflective broadband acoustic lens. Reproduced under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC-BY) license.[172] Copyright 2016, The Author(s), published by AIP Publishing. d) Ultracompact acoustic
lens for near-field and far-field focusing. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license.[126] Copyright 2018, The Author(s),
published by Springer Nature. e) Vortex acoustic lens. Reproduced with permission.[173] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing.
roposed structure is visualized in Figure 13d, and this demon-

p The design of acoustic devices without dispersion is the
strates the excellent focusing capacity of this structure in both ultimate goal of AM technology. To overcome the shortcom-
the far and near fields. ings of previously developed focusing lenses with narrow
Aside from transmission and reflection acoustic focusing, frequency bands, a broadband focusing lens with a gradient
acoustic vortices have also drawn considerable attention from index (Figure 14b) was proposed by Su et al.[176] The focusing
researchers. A vortex-focusing lens (Figure 13e) consisting of effects are also illustrated in Figure 14b, demonstrating that
several arms was proposed by Jimenez et al.[173] based on the broadband acoustic focusing was attained from 15 to 40 kHz.
Fresnel spiral grating. The reported vortex-focusing method can A broadband focusing lens for ultrasound use was also pro-
control sharp acoustic focusing through changes in the number posed by Chen et al.[19] Its focusing effect was numerically and
of arms and in the geometrical parameter. The acoustic fields experimentally proven, as shown in Figure 14c. The designed
and phase distributions obtained based on theory, simulations, ultrasonic focusing lens can operate over a wide frequency
and experiments are visualized in Figure 13e. This vortex- range.
focusing lens opens new opportunities for establishing interac- Although 2D acoustic focusing lenses for underwater use
tion systems between waves and matter. have been abundantly proposed and fabricated in recent years,
In another study, periodically arranged coiling-up space underwater acoustics presents new challenges to 3D acoustic
metamaterials were used by Tang et al.[22,170,174] to focus acoustic focusing. For this reason, a 3D acoustic focusing composite
waves in water, wherein the focusing of Gaussian beans was lens composed of square arrays with cross-shaped steel rods
realized successfully. Meanwhile, a far-field underwater acoustic was devised by Ruan et al.,[18] as shown in Figure 14d. It is
focusing lens with a gradient negative refractive index (shown clear that the acoustic waves can be converged by the pro-
in Figure 14a) was developed by Peng et al.[175] Its great focusing posed composite lens in both the horizontal and vertical
effect and focal distance can be manipulated via changes in the planes, demonstrating the realization of 3D underwater
lattice distance. acoustic focusing.
Figure 14. Underwater acoustic lens. a) Far-field underwater acoustic focusing lens. Reproduced with permission.[175] Copyright 2010, AIP Publishing.
b) Underwater broadband acoustic focusing lens. Reproduced with permission.[176] Copyright 2017, AIP Publishing. c) Broadband ultrasonic focusing.
Reproduced with permission.[19] Copyright 2019, AIP Publishing. d) 3D underwater acoustic focusing. Reproduced with permission.[18] Copyright 2019,
AIP Publishing.
5.3. Acoustic Absorption and Noise Reduction a thickness of only about 1/50 of the wavelength (as shown in
Figure 8c) and theoretically achieved a near-perfect acoustic
Acoustic absorbers, whose development was inspired by absorber for subwavelengths. Subsequently, Li and Assouar[93]
absorption in electromagnetism/optics, have emerged and proposed an original absorber and theoretically derived the con-
played a particularly vital role in noise control with the rapid dition for obtaining perfect sound absorption. Chen et al.[180]
development of AMs because of their resonance characteristics then developed a structure for wideband absorption, as shown
for deep subwavelengths. in Figure 15d. Many researchers have also constructed sub-
Yang et al.[8] first proposed an acoustic absorber with a wavelength acoustic absorption devices based on the Helmholtz
membrane-type structure in 2008 and demonstrated that reso- resonator and its variants.[183] For example, Jiménez et al.[135,184]
nance could be attained. Since then, membrane-type absorbers proposed different ultrathin perfect acoustic absorption devices
have undergone widespread development. Mei et al.[69,72] theo- based on the critical coupling theory and slow sound principle.
retically and experimentally investigated an acoustic blackbody Wei et al.[185] applied coherent perfect absorption to acoustics
consisting of a membrane attached to a semi-cylindrical mass (as shown in Figure 15e) and accomplished perfect absorp-
block and characterized by subwavelengths. The energy of the tion with symmetry and antisymmetry based on theory. Meng
incident wave was almost concentrated on the membrane and et al.[148,186] also achieved coherent perfect absorption experi-
consumed, thus achieving near-perfect sound absorption. Yang mentally by using membrane materials, phase channels, and
et al.[76] reported coupled membranes with negative acoustic the nonlinear characteristics of Helmholtz resonators.
parameters and excellent acoustic absorption was achieved. The coiling-up space structure, characterized by its high
Subsequently, Yang et al.[177] used two decorated membrane res- equivalent refractive index, is also widely used in sound absorp-
onators with degenerate states to achieve near-perfect absorption. A broadband near-perfect absorber (Figure 15f) was
tion for low-frequency acoustic waves (shown in Figure 15b). designed by Zhang and Hu[182] via the folding of six resonators
These design concepts have also led to the further develop- with a thickness of 0.07 of the wavelength. Subsequently, a wide
ment of broadband acoustic perfect absorbers (as shown in variety of similarly folded resonators were designed and used
Figure 15c) based on membrane-type AMs.[149,178] It is worth in sound absorption.[89,187] In 2017, Yang et al.[188] revealed the
noting that an almost perfect acoustic absorber with a thick- relationship between the thickness of a sound absorber and its
ness of ≈1/200 of the wavelength was analyzed theoretically and absorption coefficient from the theory of causality, which pro-
experimentally by Aurégan,[179] using a similar structure of a vided theoretical support for the design of sound absorbers.
membrane decorated with a mass block. It should be noted that the system not only compensates for
Although membrane-type AMs possess excellent acoustic the low efficiencies of acoustic porous materials in absorbing
properties, it can be difficult to control their prestresses. For- acoustic waves with low frequencies, but also solves the problem
tunately, the development of 3D printing provides great con- of low absorption efficiency in the high-frequency region.
venience for the design and manufacture of AMs. In 2014, The double-port sound absorber is a system with both the inci-
Cai et al.[94] constructed a coplanar Helmholtz resonator with dent end and the outgoing end open. As previously mentioned,
Figure 15. Acoustic absorber. a) Membrane-type AMs for acoustic absorption with cylindrical mass blocks. Reproduced with permission.[76] Copyright
2013, American Physical Society. b) AMs with degenerate resonators for acoustic absorption. Reproduced with permission.[177] Copyright 2015, AIP
Publishing. c) Broadband acoustic absorption using membrane-type AMs. Reproduced with permission.[149] Copyright 2019, Elesvier. d) Coplanar
Helmholtz resonator for acoustic absorption. Reproduced with permission.[180] Copyright 2017, AIP Publishing. e) Acoustic absorber for symmetrical
and antisymmetrical perfect absorption. Reproduced with permission.[181] Copyright 2014, AIP Publishing. f) Broadband acoustic absorption using
coiling-up space AMs. Reproduced with permission.[182] Copyright 2016, American Physical Society.
because the end of a single-ended absorber is backed by a rigid theoretically realizing the anomalous regulation of reflected
wall, perfect absorption can be achieved simply via the elimina- acoustic waves. For the broadband modulation of reflected
tion of the reflected sound energy of the system. However, for a acoustic waves, Zhu et al.[192] proposed a dispersion-free wave-
double-end sound absorber, this mechanism is more complex front modulation method and actualized the arbitrary regula-
than in a single-end sound absorber. To obtain perfect absorption of reflected acoustic waves with a subwavelength folded
tion in a two-port system using a single beam, Merkel et al.[189] AM (as shown in Figure 16a). For normal incident waves at
constructed point scatterers, mirror symmetric scatterers, and different frequencies, all the reflection angles exhibited by the
asymmetric scatterers using the theory of acoustically induced AM were 45°, indicating an abnormal reflection phenomenon.
transparency, and they finally achieved near-perfect absorption Meanwhile, Zhao et al.[193] produced abnormal reflections via
for the asymmetric scatterers. Subsequently, Fu et al.[190] used changes in the impedance at the interface or using an open
a hybrid film to achieve symmetric absorption in a dual-port hollow sphere structure with a negative effective elastic mod-
absorption system. Meanwhile, Jimenez et al.[191] developed a ulus. In addition to anomalous reflection, anomalous transmis-
rainbow-captured broadband asymmetric absorber instead of a sion can also be achieved using similar methods through the
Helmholtz resonator, whereas Wu et al.[122] accomplished effi- modulation of transmitted waves. In recent years, several AMs
cient acoustic symmetric absorption using two metamaterials. have been proposed by researchers to realize anomalous trans-
mission.[14,194,195] Xie et al.[194] designed a spiral labyrinth struc-
ture and produced obvious anomalous refraction for normal
5.4. Supernormal Sound Transmission incident waves. Experiments were conducted to investigate
and prove the occurrence of anomalous refraction. Coiling-up
Because of their extraordinary capacities to manipulate acoustic space structures were also used by Tang et al.[195] to realize the
waves flexibly and arbitrarily, AMs can be utilized to achieve arbitrary regulation of transmitted acoustic waves (exhibited
supernormal sound transmission. In 2013, Li et al.[36] designed in Figure 16b). Experiments and simulations were performed
a 2D ultrathin AM based on the coiling-up space structure, at 2.25 kHz with normal incident waves, and occurrences of
Figure 16. Supernormal sound transmission. a) Abnormal reflection. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license.[192]
Copyright 2018, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. b) Anomalous refraction. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY
license.[195] Copyright 2014, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. c) Unidirectional acoustic propagation. Reproduced with permission.[97]
Copyright 2015, AIP Publishing. d) Multiport asymmetrical acoustic transmission. Reproduced with permission.[99] Copyright 2016, AIP Publishing.
e) Triangular acoustic prism. Reproduced with permission.[198] Copyright 2019, AIP Publishing. f) Propagation along serpentine pathways. Reproduced
with permission.[199] Copyright 2017, American Physical Society.
anomalous refraction were demonstrated. Meanwhile, Cai same year, Popa et al.[201] designed a subwavelength active
et al.[196] realized the arbitrary regulation of transmitted acoustic AM with very strong nonreciprocity. On the other hand, a
waves through changes in the refractive index of the AM units. unidirectional acoustic propagation device composed of a
On the other hand, to overcome mismatched impedance and straight channel and anomalous reflected AMs (Figure 16c)
strong dispersion, Tang et al.[197] proposed a sandwich-like was devised by Zhu et al.[97] Their proposed system can effec-
structure constructed using coiling-up space AMs. Anomalous tively allow acoustic waves to propagate from one direction
refraction was achieved through adjustments of the refractive and prohibit propagation from the other direction. To allow
index of the functional layer and the impedance of the auxiliary for the exchange of substances, such as air and light, while
layers over two broadbands. the acoustic wave propagates along only one direction, the
Asymmetric acoustic transmission is another important development of an open acoustic channel was necessary.[98]
application of AMs. In 2014, Fleury et al.[200] designed a res- Later in 2016, a multiport asymmetrical acoustic transmission
onant annular cavity biased by a moving fluid. The angular device (Figure 16d) was creatively proposed by Zhu et al.[99]
momentum bias generated by this moving fluid caused This multiport acoustic device caused the transmission waves
the angular resonance mode of the ring to split, resulting to pass through a desired direction, instead of in both direc-
in very strong nonreciprocity for the acoustic waves. In the tions, at one port.
Many researchers have made significant efforts to expand AMs, which can provide abundant valuable structures for
the frequency band for asymmetric acoustic transmission. Fu gaining acoustic pressure amplification and convergence.[210]
et al.[127,202] developed acoustic devices consisting of a near-zero The Helmholtz resonance structure was investigated by many
index layer, gradient index layer, plates, gratings, and/or coiling- researchers for its possible capability to convert sound energy
up space AMs that can operate over a wide frequency range with into electricity. For instance, Noh et al.[211] placed a cantilever
high transmissivities for normal incident waves. Meanwhile, beam made of polyvinylidene difluoride into a Helmholtz
Song et al.[198] designed a high-refractive-index triangular acoustic resonator to achieve acoustic energy harvesting. To improve
prism consisting of unit cells with a spiral structure to achieve the combination of properties for acoustic energy harvesting
asymmetric acoustic transmission in a broadband frequency based on the Helmholtz resonance structure, a hybrid acoustic
(Figure 16e). Through the meticulous design of the angle of the energy harvesting device that combines electromagnetic and
prism and effective refractive indices of the units, the acoustic piezoelectric methods was developed by Khan and Izhar.[212]
wave could propagate the designed prism with high transmis- Meanwhile, a wideband acoustic energy harvesting system
sivity from one side while blocked from the opposite direction, comprising piezoelectric ceramics and coupled Helmholtz reso-
for a frequency range from 2000 to 3500 Hz. On the other hand, nators was designed by Liu et al.[57] The locally resonant struc-
Ju et al.[203] designed a three-layer labyrinthine AM for asym- ture[137] and coiling-up space structure[213] can also be utilized
metric acoustic transmission. Acoustic waves characterized by to realize acoustic energy harvesting (as shown in Figure 17c).
positive incidence could pass through the device for incident Wang et al.[206] used an AM composed of a transducer and a
angles from 10° to 40°, whereas acoustic waves characterized by pair of membrane-type AMs fixed onto a holder to achieve pres-
negative incidence were blocked for the same incident angles. sure amplification and remarkable improvement of energy
Dai et al.[199] designed two different acoustic networks, in conversion.
which the acoustic wave could propagate along arbitrary path- Compared to optical holograms that are extensively used
ways, such as serpentine-shape and stairway-shape pathways in many applications, acoustic holograms, as a technology for
(Figure 16f). The proposed networks were composed of rectan- recording and reestablishing information in acoustic fields, are
gular waveguides, Helmholtz resonators, and square columns. currently less developed because of the limited acoustic perfor-
Meanwhile, the reformatory construct of asymmetric flexural mance that conventional or natural materials exhibit. Recently,
wave transmission based on double-layer gradient metama- however, the development of AMs that can manipulate acoustic
terials was achieved by Cao et al.[204] The designed structure waves flexibly and arbitrarily provides an unprecedented oppor-
exhibited a wide working frequency regardless of internal loss tunity for the use of acoustic holograms. Xie et al.[123] achieved
and mode transformation. the creation of acoustic holograms using labyrinthine pas-
sive AM unit cells, which could be regarded as pixels. In their
study, a letter “A” pattern was projected onto a plane through
5.5. Miscellaneous Applications of Acoustic Metamaterials the design of the phase patterns of AM unit cells. An AM con-
structed with perforated panels and coiling up space unit cells
AMs are also suitable for many applications apart from the four that can synchronously manipulate amplitude and phase was
previously mentioned application fields. For example, the con- used to realize acoustic holography by Tian et al.[214] Subse-
version of cylindrical waves to plane waves has aroused wide- quently, a high-quality acoustic hologram with more complex
spread interest among researchers. This extraordinary reverse patterns was realized by Zhu et al.[129] High-quality acoustic hol-
process, which was inspired by acoustic focusing using AMs, ograms were demonstrated by the imaging of the Nanjing Uni-
was realized with a membrane-type hyperbolical AM designed versity logo. Single-plane and multiplane acoustic holograms
by Zhai et al.[205] based on the generalized Snell’s law. Apart were also demonstrated by the imaging of a tree and the let-
from membrane-type AMs, the conversion of cylindrical to ters “N,” “J,” and “U” (as shown in Figure 17d). Multiple holo-
plane waves can also be realized using a Helmholtz resonance graphic images were created at different frequencies with only
structure. In 2017, Lan et al.[11] devised an AM unit cell con- one AM consisting of four acoustic air cavities by Zhu et al.[215]
sisting of four Helmholtz resonators periodically arranged on Jiménez-Gambín et al. proposed an acoustic holographic lens
the side of a single slit. The conversion of cylindrical waves to establish the distribution of acoustic field in the skull.[216]
to plane waves was observed using a designed subwavelength Based on near-field acoustic holography, the far acoustic field of
acoustic lens (Figure 17a). an acoustic source was successfully obtained by Salin et al.[217]
Perfect sound diffusers with a uniform angular distribution Acoustic Airy beams, as a significant type of acoustic beam,
of acoustic intensity play a significant role in numerous prac- have attracted widespread attention from researchers because of
tical fields ranging from noise control to architectural acous- their specific acoustic properties, such as self-acceleration and
tics. For example, an ultrathin Schroeder diffuser (displayed nondispersion. Chen et al.[218] designed two symmetrical AMs
in Figure 17b) with ultra-wideband and uniform distribution consisting of coiling-up space structures to generate two sym-
of reflected acoustic intensity was proposed by Fan et al.[101,209] metrical Airy beams by manipulating the refracted phase of the
Compared with conventional diffusers, this proposed diffuser acoustic waves. On the other hand, a broadband Airy-like air-
was characterized by a lower thickness and a wider frequency borne beam (shown in Figure 17f) was generated using a coded
band with different incident angles and a homogeneous radia- AM developed by Chen.[208] The generated wide-frequency-
tion distribution of acoustic intensity. band Airy-like beam exhibited properties for self-healing, self-
As an energy conversion technique, acoustic energy har- accelerating, and substantial angular variability. Similarly, a
vesting has been greatly developed with the emergence of Bessel acoustic beam can be generated using various structured
Figure 17. Other applications of AMs. a) Conversion of cylindrical to plane waves. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY
license.[11] Copyright 2017, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. b) Ultrathin sound diffuser with uniform angular distribution of acoustic
intensity. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license.[101] Copyright 2017, The Author(s), published by
American Physical Society. c) Acoustic energy harvesting. Reproduced with permission.[137] Copyright 2018, Elesvier. d) Acoustic holograms. Repro-
duced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY license.[129] Copyright 2018, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature. e) Bessel acoustic
beam. Reproduced with permission.[207] Copyright 2017, AIP Publishing. f) Acoustic Airy beam.Reproduced with permission.[208] Copyright 2019, AIP
Publishing. g) Straight acoustic manipulation on particles. Reproduced with permission.[112] Copyright 2017, AIP Publishing. h) Rotational acoustic
manipulation on particles. Reproduced with permission.[139] Copyright 2018, AIP Publishing. i) Acoustic coding metamaterial. Reproduced with per-
mission.[220] Copyright 2017, Wiley-VCH. j) Acoustic edge state propagation with various lattice defects. Reproduced with permission.[223] Copyright
2015, American Physical Society. k) Transmission of acoustic topological edge states. Reproduced under the terms of the Creative Commons CC-BY
license.[226] Copyright 2018, The Author(s), published by Springer Nature.
metamaterials. Zhai et al.[219] numerically and experimentally The acoustic manipulation of particles, a contactless and non-
designed a membrane-type reflected AM to create a Bessel destructive technique with multiple applications, has become
acoustic beam at 3.7 kHz. A nondiffracting Bessel beam (shown an interesting subject of recent research. Particle delivery along
in Figure 17e) was also produced using V-shaped AMs charac- a desired pathway without complex transducer arrays or mov-
terized by high transmittivities and a broad band, as reported able transducers was accomplished by Xia et al.,[112] who con-
by Lan et al.[106,206] trolled the operating frequency to cause a particle to move
along a prearranged pathway using the acoustic radiation force posed a 3D honeycomb valley acoustic crystal composed of two
(as shown in Figure 17g). Aside from the direct acoustic manip- kind of acoustic unit cells. The acoustic topological valley states
ulation of particles, the rotational manipulation of targets can can propagate in the horizontal and vertical planes in designed
also be accomplished using AMs (shown in Figure 17h). The system.
rotational particle delivery of small balls, disks, and sticks was
realized using vortex beams generated by Archimedean spiral
gratings designed by Li et al.[108,139] The angular velocities of the 6. Conclusions and Outlook
targets delivered by the second-order vortex beams were virtu-
ally twice those of first-order vortex beams. AMs have aroused widespread interest because of their excep-
In the field of electromagnetics and optics, the coding meta- tional performance in manipulating acoustic waves. In this
materials have been a research hotspot. Similarly, wide atten- review, we investigated and summarized current progresses
tion has been paid to the acoustic coding metamaterials in in AM research. Starting with the acoustic wave equation, sev-
the field of acoustic. The first acoustic coding metamaterial eral AM-related major theories, including the crystal lattice
composed of Boolean unit cells was proposed by Xie et al., and energy band theory, effective medium theory, and general
who successfully realized acoustic bits “0” and “1” (Figure 17i). Snell’s law, are explained in detail. Based on the characteristics
Furthermore, a Fresnel lens was successfully demonstrated by of their structures and their distinctive responses to acoustic
numerical and experimental methods.[220] A tunable acoustic waves, the AMs are then divided into the following categories:
coding metamaterials, composed of the rigid strips, can manip- locally resonant structures, Helmholtz resonance structures,
ulate the direction of reflected acoustic wave were designed by membrane-type structures, and coiling-up space structures,
Zuo et al. in 2019.[221] In order to broaden the band of tunable among others. In addition, fabrication approaches and mate-
acoustic focusing lens, Chen et al.[222] proposed a coding meta- rials relevant to AM manufacturing are discussed in detail.
material consisting of coiling up space acoustic metamaterials. Compared with conventional materials, AMs have many excep-
the designed tunable acoustic focusing lens can easily modify tional properties, which benefit their practical applications in
the focus length in a wide frequency range. numerous fields, such as acoustic cloaking, acoustic lenses,
Inspired by the topological insulators in electromagnetics, acoustic absorption, noise reduction, and supernormal sound
acoustic topological edge states, an entirely new field of transmission. The recent decades have witnessed substantial
acoustic, has been verified and become one of the most cutting- developments in AM technology, and numerous breakthroughs
edge research areas. Yang et al.[223] realized acoustic topological in the arbitrary manipulation of the refraction, reflection, and
edge states by the designed system composed of triangular absorption of acoustic waves have been accomplished. How-
lattice with rigid solid cylinder, and unidirectional acoustic ever, substantial challenges remain with regard to the structural
transmission behaves were achieved (Figure 17j). Hencefor- design, fabrication approach, and application of recent discov-
ward, great progresses have been made in the field of acoustic eries from AM research (Figure 18).
topological edge states. Driven by the quantum Hall effect dis-
covered in electronic systems, numerous designs about ana- (1) In view of the structural design: Most designed AMs can
logue quantum Hall effect have been reported according to the operate only within a narrow frequency band, and some-
principle in sonic crystals.[224] By changing geometric structural times only at a single frequency, which can substantially
parameters, He et al.[225] designed a 2D honeycomb lattice com- impede their practical applications. This is especially true
posed of steel rods to achieve the acoustic topological edge states for resonant structures. To improve their properties over
transmission, including the cases of bends, cavities, and lat- a broad frequency bandwidth, many integrated design ap-
tice disorders. Mei et al.[226] reported acoustic systems with 2D proaches can be used to extend the bandwidth. However,
acoustic triangular arrays (Figure 17k). In the designed system, this tactic may sacrifice the compactness of the structure.
the pseudospin states were constructed, and the acoustic edges Therefore, as a novel design method that can guarantee
states possessing unidirectional properties propagated along both a broad operating frequency range at a certain degree
the boundaries regardless of the sharp bend defection. Intro- and the compactness of the structure, the use of active
ducing the valley states concept to acoustic first, Lu et al.[227] metamaterials, such as piezoelectric ceramics and ther-
achieved acoustic valley states transition by the designed hex- moelectrical materials, whose properties can be modified
agonal acoustic crystals, in which the mirror symmetries were via external stimuli should be a considerable direction
broken by manipulating the rotation angle. Based on the prin- in the development of AM technology. The performance
ciple, many primitive unit cells composed of different scatterers and functionalities of designed metamaterials can also be
were designed to realize acoustic topological valley states tran- controlled via the implementation of active control. In ad-
sition. Apart from a single layer acoustic system, Lu et al.[228] dition, intrinsic thermoviscous losses within AMs clearly
reported a novel structure that contained two layers acoustic have a strong impact on their functions and properties, es-
crystals consisting of two honeycomb lattices separated by rigid pecially for transmissive AMs; this is because these losses
plates. The designed bilayer acoustic system allowed acoustic can lead to low transmission coefficients and low transmit-
waves occupied the same valley to propagate from one side in ted acoustic energies. It is therefore essential to compen-
one layer and to the other layer, which demonstrated that the sate for thermoviscous losses via elaborate structural de-
conversion between two layers was realized efficiently. Beyond signs, such as topologically protected acoustic propagation
2D topological sonics crystals, acoustic topological edge states and Willis coupling, which will become the focus of future
can also be observed in 3D sonic crystals.[229] He et al.[230] pro- research on AM technology.
Figure 18. Possible future directions of AM research. Integration of fabrication approach and structural design is indispensable.
(2) In view of the fabrication approaches: Although AMs be considered in strategies for the implementation of multi-
have undergone extensive development, the practical functional AMs. Furthermore, apart from AMs for airborne
implementation of AM technology, which serves as a bridge use, developing AMs that can be employed in water or other
between real-world applications and structural design, re- water-like fluids should be an important research direction.
mains a substantial challenge because of the lack of robust- Compared with air, water and water-like fluids exhibit smaller
ness of fabrication methods, sizes, and material properties. differences in their effective acoustic properties, e.g., acous-
For example, some properties may be sensitive to prestress- tic impedance; this favors the design of AMs characterized
ing forces that are difficult to adjust and maintain for a long by a matched acoustic impedance and a desired phase and
time for most membrane-type AMs. Unfortunately, at pre- amplitude. Unfortunately, for the majority of AMs, a sig-
sent, most membrane-type AMs are manually manufactured nificant fraction of acoustic energy is transmitted into solid
and require a variety of materials with different properties; structures, which can complicate the travel path and result in
this inevitably leads to the loss of consistency. Therefore, greater amounts of acoustic energy loss and limit the obtain-
some exquisite designs and fabrication approaches should able effective acoustic parameters.
be developed to enable the practical application of AM tech-
nology. Additive manufacturing (3D printing), a rapidly de- Overall, AMs have undergone considerable progress, and
veloping technology, is very suitable for the fabrication of numerous breakthroughs in the arbitrary manipulation and
most AMs because this technology can fabricate arbitrarily control of the refraction, reflection, and absorption of acoustic
complex structures using a variety of materials. However, waves have been accomplished in recent decades, especially in
this technology also possesses limitations and cannot meet recent years. However, because AMs constitute an emerging
all requirements for the fabrication of AMs. Therefore, it is research field, there remains a wide gap between large-scale
necessary to develop more advanced fabrication approaches practical applications and scientific research; particularly, this
for the practical implementation of AM technology. gap entails theoretical research, structural design, and fab-
(3) In view of applications: Although present investigations rication methods, among others. More particularly, innova-
always focus on the single-function structural design, the tions in manufacturing methods could determine whether the
research on multifunctional composite AMs has become a designed structures can be implemented. In this respect, addi-
research hotspot, such as active and tunable acoustic meta- tive manufacturing would be a good choice for the fabrication
materials. With the persistent pursuit of the miniaturization of most AMs. However, because limitations still exist for this
and integration of AMs, multifunctional AMs such as air- approach, it is necessary to develop more advanced fabrication
permeabilized and acoustic isolated devices will be the focus approaches for the practical implementation of AM technology.
of future research. Multifunctional AMs that combine ther- Integrated designs that combine theoretical analysis, struc-
moelectric materials, piezoelectric materials, self-regulating tural design, and manufacturing approaches to realize actual
structures, and even artificial intelligence-based structures applications are required and inevitable, and such integrated
possess integrated functionalities such as perception, ac- designs will greatly facilitate the future development of AM
tive control, action, and energy transformation. These intel- technology.
ligent functionalities can not only provide these AMs with
the ability to perceive changes in their surroundings (such
as changes in acoustic intensity, illumination, temperature, Acknowledgements
and frequency) but also alter their acoustic properties in re- This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation
sponse to external stimuli (e.g., electromagnetic field, acous- of China (Grant No. 51905478), the Key R&D Program of Zhejiang
tic intensity, and temperature) for frequency self-adaptation Province (Grant No. 2020C01033), and the China Postdoctoral Science
and high efficiency. Therefore, these characteristics should Foundations (Grant Nos. 2019T120510 and 2018M640553).
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Guangxin Liao received his B.E. degree from Wuhan Institute of Technology, China, in 2015,
and his M.E. degree from joint training program of Ningbo University and Ningbo Institute of
Materials Technology and Engineering, Chinese Academy of Sciences, in 2018. He is pursuing his
Ph.D. degree in the School of Mechanical Engineering at Zhejiang University, China. His research
interests focus on the acoustic metamaterials and acoustic devices.
Congcong Luan received his B.E. and Ph.D. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Chongqing
University, China in 2013, and Zhejiang University, China in 2018, respectively. He is working at the
Engineering Training Center, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China. His research interests include
smart structures and additive manufacturing of composite materials.
Jianzhong Fu received his B.E., M.E., and Ph.D. degrees from the School of Mechanical
Engineering at Zhejiang University, China in 1990, 1992, and 1996, respectively. He is currently
working as a professor in Zhejiang University, and the head of the Institute of Manufacturing
Technology and Automation. He also is the Director of the Key Laboratory of 3D Printing Process
and Equipment of Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China. His research interests focus on the intel-
ligent manufacturing, additive manufacturing, and intelligent CAD/CAM/CNC.

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