eading for academic purposes Reading for academic purposes DH Reading is a very important language skill for students to develop in order to study effectively, because during their academic courses they may be expected to read many pages in a week; possibly hundreds! Ie seems fairly obvious that the more someone reads the better a reader he/she will become. Reading will also help in the reader's efforts to develop other language skills. According to Pulido (2003), ‘as you read you will develop a wider vocabulary. She goes on to provide statistical evidence to back up her claim, It is generally believed that good readers also make good writers. Reading can act as a model for writing as the reader is exposed 0, and. absorbs, everwidening patterns of writing forms and styles. Bassett (2010) expands on his. 1 theme below: Reading stories in an extensive reading programme wil improve reading fluency by increasing automaticity in processing, and will also improve proficiency in writing, listening, and speaking - provided thatthe student really is reading extensively lo] wing 40 or 50 graded readers a year. 1S Bassett’ focus is on graded readers, but arguably the type of text should suit the needs and interests of individuals. Whae is more relevant isthe reference to “increasing automaticity in processing’ and how this impacts on other areas of language learning and development. “Auromaticty’ can be defined as ‘fast, effortless and accurate word recognition that grows ‘out of practice and instruction. Automaticity allows students to retrieve words quickly from 2 memory and concentrate on other aspects of reading, such as comprehension’ (University of North Carolina, 2010). Ie seems safe to assume as well that a wider vocabulary will facilitate reading. Developing vocabulary and grammar unconsciously through reading is often more effective than hours spent working through a vocabulary or grammar book in an effort to memorize words 25 or structures. With growing competence in the language, students should also gain more confidence. The more confident they are, the more they will be motivated to use the target language ~ to experiment with it and increasingly to improve their competence. Al this applies equally to a student’ efforts to learn a foreign language as it does to their own first language. Bir the focus is English for academic purposes (EAP) then most of the materials used will normally be on academic topics, or atleast topics which are thought to be interesting for ‘serious’ readers. The topics are chosen because itis considered that they should be interesting for language learners to read no matter what they are going to study on their academic courses. Selected texts normally contain examples of woeabuilary which are 35 typically academic and the types of language structures commonly found in academic texts. Students will be exposed to language which is directly relevant to their specific fields of study when their own academic programmes begin. The aim of EAP programmes is to help students develop effective reading skills before joining their academic departments, In someAcacms Reading for academic purposes cases they may have already begun their academic studies and are attending sessional courses; ete, texts may be chosen which are more directly relevant to theit area of study. This will particulatly be the case if they have begun what is often referred to as a ‘dedicated’ course which blends academic English language learning with a particular course stich as English for Food Science. ° In academic reading classes, students are often expected to read a selection of different texts 48 on the same topic. To a greater or lesser extent this simulates what might be expected on their academic programmes, with each text containing different features. Different viewpoints may be expressed, or more detail may be given in one text than in another, or the focus may vary. Students are also often expected to research the topic themselves and so need! co develop the habit of reading around the subject. This is an important skill to work on. 50 Students also need to learn how to analyze whar they are reading: for example, to read and think critically about content and style, and the argument put forward by the writer. Kurland 2000) differentiates between critical reading and critical thinking. He describes, the former as ‘careful, active, reflective, analytic reading’, whereas critical thinking ‘involves reflecting on the validity of what you have read in the light of our prior knowledge and 55 understanding of the world’. The critical reacer would never accept everything in a text being accurate or acceptable, ot well written, without careful consideration; likewise, the reader would apply his/her critical thinking powers in order to reach a conclusion about the contents. Some writers try to persuade readers t0 accept a point of view with which the readers may not agree, whilst some texts may be strongly biased, giving only one side of «© the argument rather than a balanced view. Readers need to be critica, for example, when. researching material on the Internet, as some sources may not be reliable ~ although the same could be said about many text types and media sources. Reading serves a purpose. For example, a novel may be read simply for entertainment, or because the reader has read something before by the same author and liked its or a «book may be picked up to fill the time on a flight or a train journey. Some people read merely because reading isa hobby. People read newspapers to check on current events. The purpose for reading at university or school, however, is usualy to learn something, t0 complete an assignment, to prepare for a lecture or tutorial, or to revise for an exam. For instance, students might be reading to find information that would help them complete the 7 following assignment: English is referred to as a global language. What are the advantages and disadvantages of global languages? Discuss. Iris important to keep the reading purpose in mind while reading a text; this way, the reader can make decisions about the most effective way to read that text. By Keeping the purpose 7 in mind, the reader can decide whether to read quickly through a text, or skip some of the material and spend time reading carefully through the parts that help achieve the taskTextio (IRReClut heer Suieiti ress 1 EAP courses provide the learner with an ideal opportunity to acquire good reading routines. When students embark on their academic programmes they are expected to read widely and independently. They should get into the habit of reading in English for at least % 30 minutes each and every day of the week. The important thing about reading on an EAP course, or reading in general at university, is not to be content with reading only what is supplied. Students must learn to read independently and regularly and to recognize that while this may benefic their academic work specifically, the act of reading is also a reward in itself. There are excellent publications to be found relating to every field of interest; many sare now available online. Students may decide that material they read independently should relate to their intended area of study. This is often the case for postgraduate students, especially if they have already been provided with a reading list by the department they are to join. However, in reality it does not matter what is read independently at this stage as long as good reading habits are being developed, and the reader learns to enjoy reading and 9 benefit from the experience. What students read, as well as where and how, relates back to the reading purpose and to the level of concentration required. TH Ultimately, che more one reads, the better reader one should become as long as good reading habits are developed. There are some interesting statistics to consider in this context. To take vocabulary acquisition as an example, research suggests that readers will +5 need to be exposed to a new vocabulary item (a word or phrase) at least 12 times in different ways before that item becomes ‘active’ in their lexicon (see Nation, 1990). An individal’s lexicon consists ofall the vocabulary items that are both passively or actively known, Vocabulary items are said to be ‘active’ when they can reliably and automatically be used - for example, to understand a reading text or to communicate information or ideas. Regular 10 reading will help provide the necessary level of exposure. Further research by Nation (2001) has also shown that learners reading in a foreign language need to understand at least 80% of the words in a text before that text can be read with the same amount of understanding as an educated native speaker. Nation (2001) claims that to read with ‘minimal disturbance from unknown vocabulary, language users probably need a vocabulary of 15,000 to 20,000 ns words’ In sum, the more readers read, the quicker and better they should be able to read with understanding. References Bazett, J, 2010) Reacng stores roa beter English. Revieved Apri 11,201, from wwvwigetenglshessons.com/A676! Jemife-basstt-eadingstoresbetieenglshv Kurland, OJ, 2000). What is crcl thinking? Revived Api 1,201, from wwwcitcaading com/etcal_thinking htm Notion, P (1990). Tavehing ad leaming vocabulary. Boston, MA: Heinle & Henle, Nation, P (2001, Leaning vocabulary in another language. Carbrisge: Cambdge University Pes Polio, D. (2003). Modeling the role of L2 proficiency and topic fama in 2 incidental vocabulary acquiston through reading. Language Leaning. §3, 233-284 University of North Caralna (201). Learn NC [webst). Chapel Hil, NC: Scho! of Education, Unversity of North Carolina "at Chapel Hil Reeved December 19,201, fom wwwleamx.orgreterencfautomatcty. ! © Now” Caro Useful website Ademavc, M2009), Online uty. Retrieved lune 8, 211 rom worwronine-uhyorgenglih/eadabity Source: Jann Slaght LC Unversty of Rening, UKMee The SQ3R reading and study system The SQ3R reading and study system ‘The SQ3R system was developed in the 1940s and has been used successfully since then, Introduced bby Robinson (1946), i is especially useful fr reeding academic texts, because it helps the reader to ‘understand and to remember the information in them. ‘The term SQ3R’ stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recall and Review. These are the five steps you need 5 to take when reading an academic text purposefully, particularly ifyou want to understand a text fully inorder to achieve a goal such as completing a writing task or preparing fora tutorial ‘The first step, to survey the text, means that you should look at the ttle, section headings, images and graphs and other figures inthe book or article tis also important to think about what the written style can tll you about the type of text tis (eg, isit an academic text? Isit an introductory textbook ora peer- ¥ reviewed research article?) and briefly check any references in order to get some idea of the source(s) of the material ‘After surveying the text, you should begin to question. The frst questions should relate to the overall topic. Ask yourself: What do I already know about this? What more do I need to know?” A longer text ‘may be divided into sections, each one witha heading, and you can ask similar questions of each section. +s You could turn each heading into a question and think about what information might be given. For example, an article about ‘contemporary culture’ might havea section headed “The role of museums. ‘This could easly be turned into questions, e.g, ‘What isthe role of museums in contemporary culture?” ‘The frst ofthe three Rs is read. At this point you are likely to use several different reading strategies. ‘The first step is to kim the article fora general idea about the text - reading fr the’lst. This wll help 22 you become more familiar with the content ~ giving you a global view and enabling you to see more clearly how the text is organized. Next you need to scan the text and see if any of your questions are ansusered, Finally, read intensively the parts of the text that you have already decided are likely to be ‘most relevant, and identity the main ideas and any other useful information (including, where relevant, the sources of information, as indicated by the references). A good way to find useful information 128 again for example, to use in an assignment or in examination revision ~is to mark the information using underlining ora highlighter pen and/or to write notes in the margin. “The second R is recall. To recall means to ‘remember. Recalling is an essenial aspect of the reading process tan be done at various stages in reading a text ~for example, inthe ease of longer texts, after reading paragraphs and/or sections. You should cover up the text you have read and try to remember 40 the main points. Have your questions been answered? What information was given in each paragraph or section? Recalling this information will tll you how much you have actually understood. Ifyou cannot remember a point, ook at the text again, check your understanding of what you have read and repeat the point to yourself. This process also helps you focus onthe essentials ofthe text and express these in ‘your own words. At this point you could write down everything you remember in note form ~ possibly 85 set out asa mind map. “The final R is review. At this stage you should check the text again to make sure your notes are accurate and you have writen down everything you need from the text Reference Robinson, FP. (1946). Effective study. New York/London: Harper & Brothers, ‘Source: ewe 5. 200) The S3R edn an stay stem, Unpablsed manus. eration ty nd Language Cen, Unvesty thang UeSustainable energy ExPeil Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use (O} [BEYOND Foss FUELS Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use (1) KRISTIANSTAD, Sweden ~ When this city vowed a decade ago to wean itself from fossil fuels, it was a lofty aspiration, like zero deaths from traffic accidents or the 5 elimination of childhood obesity. But Kristianstad has already crossed a crucial threshold: the city and surrounding county, ‘with a population of 80,000, essentially use no oil, natural gas or coal to heat homes . and businesses, even during the long frozen winters. It is a complete reversal from 20 years ago, when all of their heat came from fossil fuels. ‘The ot of Kista in southern Sweden ses essential foster neatna even ding wor This area in southern Sweden, best known ‘sas the home of Absolut vodka, has not generally substituted solar panels or wind turbines for the traditional fuels it has forsaken. Instead, as befits a region that is an epicentre of farming and food 1» processing, it generates energy from a iverse assortment of ingredients like potato peels, manure, used cooking of, stale cookies and pig intestines. A massive ten-year-old plant on the outskirts of as Kristianstad uses a biological process to transform this detritus into biogas, a form of methane. The gas which is produced is burned to create heat and electricity, or is refined as a fuel for cars. Once the city 20 council got into the habit of harnessing power locally, they began developing fuel from a variety of sources: Kristianstad also burns gas emanating from an old landfill and sewage ponds, as well as wood waste ss from flooring factories and tree pruning ‘Bogas fom waste is bumed o eteae eat and eect forText 2a Eire oan [eaters ates TCE Over the last five years, many European countries have increased their reliance on renewable energy, from wind farms to hydroelectric dams, because fossil 4 fuels are expensive on the Continent and their overuse is, effectively, taxed by the European Union's carbon trading system. Nonetheless, for many agricultural regions, @ crucial component of the renewable ssenergy mix has become gas extracted from biomass like farm and food waste. In Germany alone, about 5,000 biogas systems generate power, in many cases on individual farms. Kristianstad has gone further, harnessing biogas for an across-the-board regional energy makeover that has halved its fossil fuel use and reduced the city’s carbon dioxide emissions by one-quarter in the last decade. According to Lennart ss Erfors, the engineer who is overseeing the transition in this colourful city of 18th- century style houses, it is a much more secure energy supply and it has helped create employment. © In the United States, biogas systems are quite rare. There are currently only 151 biomass digesters in the country, most of them small and using only manure, according to the Environmental Protection ‘Agency. The EPA has estimated that installing such plants would actually be feasible at about 8,000 US farms. However, so far, such projects have been limited by high initial costs, scant government 1» financing and the lack of a business model. ‘There is no supply network for moving manure to a centralized plant and no outlet to sell the biogas generated, Still, a number of states and companies are considering 75 new investment. Two California utilities, Southern California Gas and San Diego Gas & Electric, have filed for permission with the state's Public Utilities Commission to ny Exopeun couttes ae making more ie of enorabe ‘roy rm winaome and goa prodiceain mass gears build plants in California to turn organic to waste from farms and gas from water treatment plants into biogas that would feed into the state's natural-gas pipelines after purification. Using biogas would help the utilities meet requirements in California 45 and many other states to generate a portion of their power using renewable energy within the coming decade. Soure: ped tom owl 200, Oscb 1). ng ‘este Seah ty ct os The Ne omer. Reed Mp9, 201% tomes concer om Te ew York Tes, December 1, 2010. © The New ork Times Al igtsresered Used by pension and pected by the copy aur of be United Setar Tepe, cop, ‘einbuten, or earamation the Mate thou exes ‘atten pion potei See eee BCP Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use BEYOND FossiL FUELS Using waste, Swedish city cuts its fossil fuel use (2) Both natural gas and biogas create emissions when burned, but far less than coal and oil do. Unlike natural gas, which is pumped from deep underground, biogas counts as a renewable energy source: it is made from biological waste that in many cases would otherwise decompose in farm fields or landfills and yield no benefit at al, releasing heat-trapping methane into the atmosphere and contributing to global warming. Interest in the initiative introduced in the southern Swedish city of Kristianstad was developed by representatives from Wisconsin Bioenergy Initiative in the USA, who toured similar biogas programmes in Germany to help formulate a plan to encourage the industry. The policy director of the Wisconsin group describes biomass as an ‘opportunity fuel’. Like Kristianstad, California and Wisconsin have an inadequate supply of fossil fuel to meet their needs but produce a great amount of waste from food processing and dairy farms. Biogas plants can devour vast quantities of biological waste and manure that would otherwise pollute the air and could affect water supplies, turning these materials into an energy source. In Kristianstad, old fossil-fuel technologies coexist awkwardly alongside their biomass replacements. The type of tanker truck that used to deliver heating oil now delivers another type of biomass fuel: wood pellets, the main heating fuel in the region's more remote areas. ‘rsanstad calles tha! telinaed64 tons of CO, emisions Sanus by sing wood pote to heat cy groenncuse, The start-up costs, covered by the city and through Swedish government grants, have been considerable: the centralized biomass heating system cost $144 million, including constructing a new incineration. plant, laying networks of pipes, replacing furnaces and installing generators. However, officials say the benefits have already been significant: Kristianstad now spends about $3.2 million each year to heat its municipal buildings rather than the $7 million it would spend if it still relied on oil and electricity. It fuels its municipal cars, buses and trucks with biogas fuel, avoiding the need to purchase nearly half a million gallons of diesel or gas each year, The operations at the biogas and heating plants generate income, because farms and factories pay fees to dispose of their waste and the plants sell the heat, electricity and car fuel they produce.Kristianstad’s energy conversion is rooted in the oil price shocks of the 1980s, when the city could barely afford to heat its schools « and hospitals. To save on fuel consumption, the city began laying heating pipes to form an underground heating grid known as ‘district heating’ Such systems use one ‘or more central furnaces to heat water or produce steam that is fed into the network. Ie is far more efficient to pump heat into a system that can warm an entire city than to heat buildings individually with boilers. District heating systems can generate heat from any fuel source, and like New York City's, Kristianstad’s heating supply initially relied on fossil fuel. After Sweden became the first country to impose a tax on carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuels, in 1991, Kristianstad started looking for substitutes. By 1993, it was taking in and burning local wood waste, and in 1099, it began relying on heat generated from the new biogas plant. Some buildings 4 that are too remote to be connected to the district heating system have been fitted with individual furnaces that use tiny pellets that are also made from wood waste. Burning wood in this form is more 4s efficient and produces less carbon dioxide than burning logs does; such heating has given birth to a booming pellet industry in northern Europe. Government subsidies underwrite purchases of pellet furnaces by so homeowners and businesses; pellet-fuelled heat costs halfas much as of. Having dispensed with fossil fuels for heating, Kristianstad is moving on to other challenges. City planners hope ss that by 2020 total local emissions will be 40 percent lower than they were in 1990, and that running the city will require no fossil fuel and produce no emissions at all. Transportation now Kralasads mines vehi row run en base fue Bowing consorbe angen conventonl tc accounts for 60 percent of fossil fuel use, so city planners want drivers to use cars that run on local biogas, which municipal vehicles already do. That will require increasing production of the fuel. Kristianstad is looking into building satellite biogas plants for outlying areas and expanding its network of underground biogas pipes to allow the construction of more filling stations. At the moment, this is something of a chicken-and-egg problem: even though biogas fuel costs about 20 percent less than gasoline, consumers are reluctant to spend $32,000 (about $4,000 more than for a conventional car) on a biogas or dualuel car until they are certain that the network will keep growing. Source: ped om Rosenthal € 2010, Dsarbe 1.3 waste, Seda cy et fos fee. The New er Tes. Revives ay, 201, fom vay conv 201O Tc! caine from the New Yor Tins Decebe 1201.0 The New You Ties, lights reserved Use by pemison an petected by the Copyaht Lans he Unt Sater. Te pn, coy, ‘easter evarsmsion ofthe tea who eps ‘riven perms probed. a‘3 The business of science LSiKCIE Stop selling out science to commerce Introduction DO COMMERCIAL pressures have @ negative impact fon science? This debate has been raging fr so long that it usually rales Htle mora than a shrug of indiflerence, Thats no longer defensible response. A ew report rom the organisation Scientists for Glabal Responsibility (SGR) exposes prablems so serous that ‘we can ne longer aford tobe neifterent to them. Section 1 ‘Thereportlooksattheimpactotfivecommercalseetors fom science and technology over the past 20 years. The ‘camaging influence of two of these, pharmaceuticals and tobacco, has been noted belor. But we aso locked at the oll and g9s, detence and biotech sectors, which have been subjected to less scrutiny, We found a wide ‘ange of disturbing commercial inluences on science, land evidence that similar problems are occuring ‘across academic disciplines. (Over the past two decades, government policy in the US, UK and elsewhere has fundamentally altered the academic landscape in a driv for prof. 29 Universities have been pushed to adopt a much Stop selling out science to commerce ‘more commercial mindset, from taking out patents to prionitsing research that promises shortterm economic gains. The rapid spread of partnerships between businesses ané universities has led to some ‘disciplines becoming so intertwined with industry that few academics aro able to retain their independence. Chemical engineering and geology are stronely linked to oil companies, for example, and it is hard to find an engineoring department in the UK which does not receive funding from the ams industry. And many ite sciences departments have extensive links with the Diotechnolegy and pharmaceutical industries. Section 2 This creates enormous potential for conficts of interest. The problem has long been recognised in ‘medical research, and journals are starting to erack ‘down oni, but in other disciplines the problems are rarely even discussed, lt alone acted upon. Such problems are a major concern because they can undermine the quality and reliablity of research, ‘This is perhaps best ilustrated by ‘sponsorship bias, ‘where research generates results that suit the funderLGKRGIN Stop selling out science to commerce ss 8 (Tie Journal of the American Medical Associaton, 290, p 921). Another well-documented problem ts the {allure to report results unfavourable tothe {under Research is also. undermined by misleeding ‘messages put out by industry funded lobby groups ‘Again, these tactics are wel known from the tobacco andl industries, with their deliberate questioning of health research and sponsorship of climate sceptics. ‘Less attention has been gion tothe funding of some patient groups by pharmaceutical companies anc the (sometimes covert) use of PR companies by the biotechnology industry in the debate over genetically ‘mosified crops. This does not bode well for public tiscussions on the rsks of synthetic biclogy, Section 3 ‘Another cornerstone of science that Is being eroded ie the freedom to set the pubic research agenda 20 that it “serves the public intrest Governments are increasingly focused on delivering competitiveness, and business interests are able to exert pressure on funding bodies ‘rough representatives on ther boards. As a result, ‘environmental and. social problems and ‘bluesy’ research commonly ose out to short.torm commercial ‘in. For example, gonetics now dominates agricultral ‘science, not least because genetic technologies ave high patentable, This not only dominates privately funded research, but also steers. ublielytundea esearch away from work that takes a ciferent ‘ppr0ach oF explores low-tech solutions. As a result, “iowinput’ agriculture, which requires minimal use of cehomicaltertiisers and pesticides anc is eneaper and ‘more uselu to poorer farmers, i largely overlooked, ‘Similan, research on how to improve fod distribution receives inadequste support. ‘Section 4 ‘Another example is research on security issues, Which 1 overwfielmingly focused on new military technology. Research into understanding the roots of conflict, orto support negotiation and reconciliation programmes, recsives 2 tiny fraction of the tens Of billions of dollars spant globally on developing military hardware, And most of that is public money. Put bluntly, much publiclyfunded science's no longer being done in the public interest, Despite this, policy ‘makers are complacent anc argue tht any damaging 8 tects of commercial influence are minor. Incontrat, many scientists are noticing the effects and becoming iscomfited by them. Some are starting to speak out For example, sta atthe Open University in the UK ‘are pushing for new ethical standards for business partnerships folowing the university’ involvement in {major miltary contract. However. these carnpaigns are few and far between, There i a strong incentive for scientists nat to make a fus if their department receives industry funds. This is strengthened by contractual requirement fr secrecy that often come with industry partnerships. Conclusion To delend independent science, reform is needed, from the level of government policy down to that of the research study. To this end, SGR fs making recommendations. These include: the open pubiieation of all funding arrangements between academia and business: ethical standards for businese-univesity partnership; proper handling of conlcts of interest by journals; more involvement ofthe public in setting research priorities; anda change in government policies which prioritise research with shorkterm commercial priovties above all else, Scientists must now voice their concerns publicly in order that policymakers hear them. They could co worse than follow the example set by campaigners at the Open University. Stuart Parkinson and Chris Langley re authors ofthe 'SGR report Science and the Corporate Agenda, which ‘ean be downloaded from sgrorg uk Sours: Adped rom Paso, 8 ange, ©2009) Stop seling ox scence to conmete New Sent 040279), 32°33Text 3b efore the emergence of biotechnology, business and science operated in largely Separate spheres. The business world hhad little interest in expanding scientific knowledge, leaving research firmly within the domain of universities, government Inboratories and non-profit institutions (Pisano, 2006). However, the now millennium saw a marriage of business power and seientific development as biotechnological advanees drew both interests together. ‘The impact of the alliance between business and science has boon substantial, but it has not always been seen positively. Many would claim that science has lost the freedom and the time to carry out research as thoroughly and as painstakingly as it should. The situation has been aggravated by the frustration felt by business interests, ‘as investors demand, in their view quite reasonably, a much quicker return on their investment than has often been experieneed, Fa « A number of controversial questions have arisen. Does modern research (particularly medical research) serve the interests of society in general as well as it should? Is the approach to medical research as honest as it should be? To what extent is scientific research for its own sake being restricted in deference to short-term economic interests? Are governments and venture capitalists — people who make high-risk investments but with the possibility of making a significant profit ~ biased towards immediate economic gains with little or no respect for the health and welfare of society? Are scientists and the institutions they represent being both naive and greedy in joining forees with commercial enterprise? Should science make a stand against aggressive business tacties, or should business experts promote a relationship with science that more equitably serves the interests of both investors and social welfare? Commercial interest in scientific research can have a detrimental effect. A further issue is the extent to which society benefits from such research ~ if it does so at all,% ss Tn 2001 an important conference was held in London to consider these concerns (see Ho & Saunders, 2001). A major cause for concern highlighted by one delegate at the conference — haematologist Nancy Olivieri, of Toronto University ~ was the concealientofresearch findings which might be detrimental to the interests particularly of large multinational companies. Olivieri’s struggle with her employer and with a drug company since 1996 is well documented, She had been undertaking research at the university hospital involving a drug for treating the blood disease thalassaemia. Olivieri maintained that when evidence ‘emerged that the drug had a high level of toxicity, the company that produced the drug and funded the research went to great lengths to stop her publicising her concerns, Olivieri argued that the suppression of medical research findings was contrary to the principles of the Hippocratic Oath — according to which doctors swear to practise medicine ethically. ‘A ey conference delegate was the late John Ziman ~ a noted physicist who was ‘also interested in the social aspects of Science who categorized research as cither, instrumental or. non-instrumental. Instrumental’ or. ‘applied” research is, intended to. be immediately useful, often in terms of economie or financial gain; consequently, it may often be tied to business, interests. Non-instrumental or ‘theoretical research typically seeks to answer more basic ‘Questions and offers no obvious short- or medium-term opportunity for economic or financial gain, Ziman described Mistramental aescareh as practical, ‘proprietary’ and ‘partisan’. This meani Sis tach? resomreh had an anticipated futeome and research results would be the property of some individual, company or corporation with a vested interest; az a resul any interpretation of the outcome was likely to be biased, Ziman noted that although. non-instrumental. research formed a crucial foundation for instrumental research, the motivation for undertaking oninstrumental research was much Jess immediately obvious. Por him, non instrumental research was not only a 10 1s us jource-of wonder’ but also a way to develop ‘critical rationality’ ~ ie., an unwillingness to accept claims or arguments without question. Ziman argued that a ‘post: academic culture’ had evolved in. which science was no longer the province of universities or non-commercial research institutes but was treated as a ‘saleable commodity’ not necessarily in the interests of the public. However, there is little doubt that serious scientific research would struggle if not collapse without cooperation between. universities and business interests, underpinned by government support. This was a viewpoint emphasized by another delegate, David Weatherall of Oxford University’s Institute of Molecular Medicine. He stressed the importance of eliminating the pressure on science always to achieve short-term goals. Weatherall concluded that ‘many scientists and universities were naive and too easily exploited, and suggested that review panels be set up to monitor all scientific research to protect both science and the public it served.aiKJemm Is business bad for science? The issue of scientific research only promising immediate or short-term economic benefits was also tackled by another delegate, environmentalist and 180 political activist George Monbiot. He laid the blame on governments for encouraging this, attitude, He also argued that commercial bias was evident in terms of which areas of research were selected for funding, referring 185 to this as ‘the radon factor’. The chemical clement radon is the only pollutant known to occur naturally and not as the result of industrial or agricultural activity, and Monbiot suggested that scientific research wo on radon pollution was more likely to be funded than researeh on any other kind of pollution simply because radon pollution does not occur as a result of human activity Similar bias, he asserted, was demonstrated us in the way that publie fimds were allocated for research on biotechnology in agriculture and medicine while research on the possible dangers of genetic engineering was clearly neglected. Monbiot contended that scientists 180 were too easily enticed by business funding without due consideration for publie needs. He urged a dramatic change of course by academies ~ a ‘revolution in the laboratory’ ‘The need to promote critical public 1s undorstanding of scientific research was a further point delegates raised. Similarly, the need to ensure that science was ‘accountable’ to society was highlighted in various presentations. ‘The compilers of wo the conference report, Peter Saunders and ‘Mae-Wan Ho, concluded: ‘It is not just the individual freedom of scientists to tell the truth that is at stake, important though that is; itis their independence and their freedom 15 to work for public good that must be restored and maintained’ (Ho & Saunders, 2001). A. different viewpoint on the argument over links between scientific research and business interests in the USA is presented vo in an article by Harvard Business School ‘economist Gary Pisano (Pisano, 2006). He explains that by 2006 a great deal of monoy 5 ome $300 billion) had been invested in developing biotechnology in the belief that it could transform healtheare in the USA. Originally, the idea was that promoting new forms of entrepreneurial activity Would in turn promote basic scientific medical research that would be profitable for investors, However, none of this had yet happened. Pisano blamed this failure to be profitable fon the structure of the biotechnology industry. He said an industry model that had been used successfully with computer and software companies was inappropriate when applied in a biotechnological context. Pisano’s view was that there was a conflict between, on the one hand, how industry manages and rewards risks and how businesses are funded, and on the other hand, the research and development timetable required to create new drugs. Basically, opportunities for learning through trial and error and through sharing of knowledge between scientists representing a plethora of disciplines are frustrated when individual companies closely safeguard intellectual property rights. Venture capitalists have a time horizon of about three years for a particular investment, which is much less than the average time most companies take to get anew drug on the market, Meanwhile, the period taken to confirm the safety and effectiveness of a newly developed drug is lengthy, involving a process of trial and error, which does not sit easily with much commercial or politieal planning. References Ho, M.W., & Saunders, P. (200 July 10, Big busine had science? Fis News, of, Retived April 20m, fiom wor. -sisorgubisisneves/-sisnews5- pip Pisano, G.P. (2008). Can sctence be a busines? Lesions from biotech. Harvard Busines Review: 80), Source: nah, SLC Unversity of Reading UX, based may on Ho Saunders 2000 ad Pon 2008)LI) Society today Growing grey John |. Clarke and Andrew Graven ve nam apt soir, fn which people ae. discriminated aginst on {he pounds of age ‘This caro The population of the world is ageing. ‘because most countries in the world have The proportion of elderly people in both > eine arion, wih « goving roptin of | developed and developing countries is Syl sofpsttysocinyanecommy growing. This article considers the statistics and some of the impacts of this Ell Who are the old? ema gotiay Saat ereran etary demographic phenomenon. It is relevant ya's. Sark wells saci hs lt at to anyone studying population change. 1 and very ekeih) from the test of the population Internationally, the UN Population Division. defines the old as those aged 60 and over (United Nations, 2005), In 2005 there-wee-about-673-raillon-ol pope ccording tothe iention.- 1K D6 hdl | TRUGNG DAI HOC KINH TE=LUAT | THU VIEN | 3903020 Reading & Writing Source BookText4a (Reims 1 population. In the developing world this was 8% of the population and in the developed world 208, The rather low UN threshold of 60 makes sense in the |__ developing word as people havelowerlifeexpetances | there, but in the doveloped world asa whole those aged 60 and over already outnumber childsen aged 0-1, ‘Thewidelyciteddatasheetsofthe Population Reference Bureau (Haub, 2005) use the higher threshold of 5 and ‘ver asa definition of od age, According to this, about ‘Hof the world population wee'old'in2005:only Sof 25 the developing world, but 15% ofthe doveloped world. In the UK we have tended. rather idiosyneratcally. to define old people ar those of pensionable age ~ 65 and over for men and 60 and over for women, This is despite the fact that women tend to outlive men. At the 2001 census 184% ofthe UK population, or 1038 million people ll into this category. Fortunately, the | gender difference inthe definition is being replaced by | general move to 65 and over. Bl wn are the very old? Demographers often distinguish between the ‘ald 435 and the ‘very old’ because they difer considerably in their activities, health, medical and housing. needs Independence, socal itepration/sqreation and in theiconributonsto society. Bvenaccestothe Internet tends tovarybyage Again thereisno clear-cut threshld Figure t, Peventag: of papaaton aed 60 and ner in 2005 Snare: United Nations (2005) <0 for the rapidly growing very old population. Seventy five and over is commonly used in the UK and other developed countries, and 85 and over forthe increasing, ‘mumbers of ery very old. However, the UN Population Divison provides dat for an intermediate age group = the olestali~ aged 80 and over. In 2005 this group counted for only 13% of the world population, and more than half of them were in the developed world ssherelessthanaifthof che world population waslving (United Nations, 2005). More old and very old people ‘Ageing of the population is mainly caused by the worldwide phenomenon of fertility decline, which is bringing about widespread but variable reductions in the percentage of young people, It is augmented by Ineeased life expectancy. The number of those aged 60 and over in the world is increasing by about 2% annually. faster than younger age groups. I 2000, there were approximately thrce times as many people ‘aged 60 and overin the world asin 1950; by 2050 they are expected to triple again to reach 22% of the world twtal or almost 1.9 billion. Eight outof ten of them will. belivingin the developing word Naturally, the percentage of old people (Figure 1) and ther rate of increase varies among countries. In 2005, those aged 60 and over ranged from more than 25% =BEECI Growing grey Personsagedao+in20800%) Figure >, Percomtaeof population aged 80 end over in 2050 Sone: United Nations (2005). 65 in Japan, Italy and Germany to less than 5% in most tropical Avian couneries and in the eich countries inthe Middle Ese that attract numerous young workers By 2050, the ange sexpectedtobeeven wider from more than 40% in Japan (which as the longest ifeexpectancy inthe word, aly, the Republic of Korez and Slovenia to stil es than 5% in afew Afican countries (Equatorial Guinea, Liberia and Swaziland), Broadly, ageing, of population is fastest in counties with rapid fertilty decline (eg, China. the Repablicof Korea, Tunisia ran and ‘Alpera) and slowest in the least developed countries of tropical Africa (eg, Niger Ugands) that hae experienced Timited fertility “decline, These contrasts between ‘countries are much the same ifthe 65-year threshold is ‘used, In this ageing process the UK is about average for a developed country. In 2005, 21% of the UK population ‘ere aged 60 and over, and this sexpected tose 10 29% in 2050, By this time, ome develope countries will have ‘wo elderly people for every child “The geographical differencas are even more striking among the oldest age groups, whose rates of growth are tore rapid sill UN projections indicate that the world population of oldestold aged 80 and over is increasing by 42% annually. is expected to grow from 87 milion (1.3% of the world total) in 2005 to 394 milion (1.3% ‘of the total) in 2050, 70% ofthis group living, in the Aeveloped world. In India and China this group may ‘number 100 milion and 53 milion respectively by 2050. However. much higher percentages of oldest ‘ld sr kel tobe found in some developed counties 5 moce than 15% in Japan and Italy and up to 9 in the UK (Pigore 2). In contrast, many African populations will sill have lss than 15 of their populations aged 80 andovet The 2001 census in the UK gives more than 1.1 nillion people (19%) aged 85 and over. Tisis 55 times ‘x0 the number counted 50 years earlier at the 1951 census m.2001 there weremorethana third ofa million aged 90 and over-The very lds the fastest growing age group. Bl more old women Women generally lve longer than men, although the difference varies from over 10 yeas in many counties 1a imeastern Europe (13 years in Russa) to 1 year or ess in some countries in south-central Asia (Nepal, Bangladesh and Ina) So the majority of oer people are women, but that majority increases with agen the world populstion ‘of 2005, there were about 10% more wornen than men ‘io aged 60 and over (67 milion) However. there were twice _asmany womenasmen aged 80 and ove and fu times as many female centenarians. In male dominated societies, elderty widows who outlive their usually older husbands face particularly severe social and economic problems. 115 More than half fall women aged 75 and over inthe UK live alone, compared with less than a third of men ofthat ‘age because more elderly men remarry.t \ Figure 3. The tn UK dst wth she highest percentages sf eran freien age and perio aged 85 and eer. “The suigein the numbers and proportion fol peoples posing rom pelted dependency burden onthe Ectve populations of most countries This s sometimes measured by a potential support rato (PSR), which isthe rato of the number aged 15-64 to those aged 65 or tore Sine 1950, the wes PSR has allen from 12 to 9, and by 2050 ii expected to fall to aleve already attained by the UK and Spins even lower han this in Portugal (38), Grece (37, tay 5) and articular in Japan 3)-By 202 one four Japanese twill be over 65. fn the developed wodld, we have had time to become accustomed tothe growing prodlems of pensions, poverty, heath, hosing and islation of dey peopl in individualistic societies wth loosening family tes es unfortunate thatthe valuable experince of elderly people often overooked asa resource they ae insufficient strated ito society. and a growing percentage of ther ae living ale In the developing word ageing of populations is happening much more Tapio ie urbanizstion anda decline inthe cheson ff the extended family, traditionally 9 support for the ede The problems of adjastment to ageing ar | therfore oreauteandimmedeinkesecnomaly developed cunts Gi age-selective migration Migration plays an important part in the age differentiation of populations, particularly at a local level within countries. For many years the movement of people of working aye as dominated migration, but retirement migration has a dea effect on the location of elderly people in developed countries In Britain all ten districts with the highest proportions (26-46% at the 200 census) of persons aged 85 and over andall ten 1s0 districts with the highest proportions (274-331%) of pertons of retirement age have coastal locations in the {outh and southeast of England. These are traditional retiement area (Figure3).Seven ofthe districts appear in both ists: Christchurch (Dorset), East Devon, West Somerset, Tendring (Esse). Arun (West Sussex), and Rother and Eastource (Eat Suse). The inevitable preponderance of od women in these districts means they have lowe gender ratios, sometimes fewer than 90 males per 100 females. No doubt the pattern would have Deen sharperhadienatbeen forthe recent preference for retiring abroad to sunnier climes, Differential ageing of populations also leads to international migration. The more aged populations of the developed countries are inevitably. attracting younger migrant workers from less developed countries. All countries of the European Union, for example, are faced ith gowinginternational migration and growing ethnic diversity of populations. These have become ‘thorny politcal topics especially withthe emergence of terrorism and militant religious fundamentalism. The impact of international migration may be one of the major consequences of ageing populations during the ‘seen fist entry References Hau, C. (2005). 2005 word populon data set. ‘Washington, DC: Population Reference Bare Recseved October 26, 2911, from wwrptb.ong/ lf05/05workddacasheet engl Unite Nations (2005). World papton prospects: The 2004 revision, highlights (ESA/P/WPL93). New York: ‘United Nations, Department of Economie and Social Afairs Population Division. Retrieved October 26, 201, fom wwwam.orgfes/populaionfpublietions) WHP2004/2004Highlighs_finalrevisd pl Soh Ca an ereitsprofes of rograpy t the Oty of Daum, lr wrk ed ced any books ot poration epg Andrew Cine i reach dincor at soewae comune S03 Sone Source: itd om Ce 11, 8 Craven A. 2006) Gn GF Geaaty Re 22, 10219. a erect by pemisson Pip Alon Uptes FEE Growing greyRU Clriiclt Well connected? The biological implications of ‘social networking’ One of the most pronounced changes in the dally habits of British citizens is a reduction in the number of ‘minutes per day that they interact with another human being. Recent history has seen people in marked retreat from one another as Britain moves from a culture of greater common experience toa society of more isolated experience. Shei in good company, as Amoricans too step back from one another in unprecedented magnitude Avie Sigman jentists reported in 2006 that BD ociat fof people saying there is no one with whom they discuss important matters nearly tripled. The number of both kin and non-kin confidants is deseri ‘dramatically smaller’ (McPherson, Smith: Lovin, & Brashears, 2006). A 2003 report by the UK's Office for National Statistics 1 (Ruston, 2003) found that Britons now spent approximately 50 minutes a day interacting socially with other people. Couples now spend less time in one another's company and more time at work, commuting, or in the same house but in se using different electronic media devices. Parents spend less time with their children than they did only a decade ago. Britain has the lowest proportion of ehildren in all 20 of Europe who cat with their parents at the Eera Text 4b WSIS Prac hid table. The proportion of people who work on their own at home continues to rise. The report went on to say that in the 20 years to 2003, “the proportion of people living alone doubled’ ~ a trend highly pronounced in the 25-44 age group. For the first time in our history a third of the adults in this country live alone, a trend that looks set to continue, cttw s Ae Figure 1. The amount of face-to-face soca interaction declines as use of electronic media increases. Thest trends are predicted to increase (data abstracted from a sores of time-use and demaprapicstuies) Britain's disinelination for togetherness is only equalled by her veneration of communicating through new technologies. ‘The rapid proliferation of electronic media is, now making private space available in almost every sphere of the individual's life. Yet this is now the most significant contributing factor to society's growing physical estrangement Gee Figure 1). Whether in or out of the hhome, more people of ail ages in the UK are physically and socially disengaged from the people around them because they are wearing earphones, talking or texting on a mobile telephone, or using: a laptop or Blackberry. US Senator Carl Kruger described how people walking around ‘tuned in’ were, in the process of being tuned in, being ‘tuned out’ to the world around them, ‘The malady is referred to-as iPod oblivion’ ne easier Maar Ei Bye and ear contact Children now spend more time in the family hhome alone in front of TV/eomputer sereens than doing anything else (Sigman, 2007). A 2008 study. (Childwise, 2008) reports that 25% of British five-year-olds own a computer or laptop of their own. In particular, the study noted an enormous increase in ‘social networking’ among younger children which had overtaken fun (online games) as the main reason to use the Internet. ‘Time that was previously spent interacting socially has increasingly been displaced by the virtual variety. A 2008 editorial in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine (Abbasi, 2008) made the timely point that social networking ‘encourages us to ignore the social networks that form in our non- virtual communities; and argued that ‘the time we spend socialising “electronically separates us from our physical networks’ But why precisely should physicians be concerned about these changes in people's ‘actwal contact and interaction with one another? One reason is that social eonnection is increasingly associated with physiological changes known to influence both morbidity (the incidence of disease in the population) and mortality (the death rate). 2 Ei Morbicity According to the Oxford English Dictionary mort sles tothe rate of disease, or 8 specific disease, ina population’. Several decades of research have found that greater social contact is related to reduced morbidity while fewer ‘contacts lead to. increased morbidity. ‘This relationship ig. validoo us 0 ST cit rec rau ‘independent of the individual's earlier health status, Rutledge et al. (2008) reported that women with fewer social relationships experienced strokes at more than twice the rate of those with more social relationships after adjusting for other possible medical reasons for strokes. A further study on strokes, involving experiments on male and female ‘ice, reported that social interaction reduced concentrations of protein. linked with strokes, and decreased the amount of damage to body tissue caused by the inflow of blood during a stroke. Loneliness is found to be a unique predictor of age-related differences in blood pressure when the heart is pumping blood. And blood pressure for married adults — especially those happily married ~ declines more during sleep than for single people who may therefore be at much greater risk of problems with the heart and blood vessels. In one experiment, in which men were challenged in order to increase their blood pressure, it was found that blood pressure returned to baseline levels more quickly in the men with more close friends. ‘The incidence of senile dementia (Alzheimer's disease) — @ serious mental disorder, in ‘alder people ~ is expected to double within fa generation, and research conducted by Harvard University’s School of Public Health (Brtel et al., 2008) examined the influence of social integration, including frequency of social interaction, on changes in memory in 16,638 subjects aged 50 and older. The study concluded that the rate of memory loss among the least-integrated was twice the rate of loss among the mostintegrated. Others report that the frequeney of social interaction is inversely related to the incidence of dementia A positive relationship between the sheer ‘amount of regular actual social contact and cognitive functioning has, however, been found in a variety of age groups including ‘younger adults. Most interesting is the study by Ybarra et al. (2008) in which participants who interaeted socially for only ten minutes showed improved cognitive performance, performance equivalent to that displayed by participants engaged in so-called intellectual activities. ‘The authors believe the results ‘show not only that the effect is causal but also that the process is very sensitive toonly small ‘amounts of social interaction. They conclude: ‘Social interaction directly affects memory and mental performance in a positive way.” EW Marriage and cohabitation Ruston (2003). reports that the long: recognised protective effect of marriage against suicide has persisted over the past 25, ‘years, despite changes in marriage patterns Botween 1983 and 2004, suicide rates for single people were around throe times higher than for married people. For single women, the differential compared with married women widened from just over two times to three times. Unfortunately, our marriage rate is at an alltime low. Statistics indicate that the protective effects conferred by marriage are curmulative, as are the harmful effects of years being divorced (Lund et al, 2006), i Conchusion While the precise mechanisms underlyin the. association between social. connection, ity and mortality continue to be investigated, it is clear that this is a growing public health issue for all. industrialized countries. Kraut et al. (1998), a detailed classic study of 73 families who used the Internet for communication (the ‘Internet paradox’ study), concluded that greater use of the Intemet was associated with declines in communication between family members in the household, declines in the size of their social cirele, and increases in their levels of depression and loneliness. The study went ‘on to report ‘both social disengagement and worsening of mood .. and limited face-to-face social interaction .. poor quality af life and diminished physical and psyehological health. Children are now experiencing less social interaction and have fewer social conneetions during key stages of their physiological, emotional and social development. An increasing proportion of men and women us nsSeME Well connected? The biological implications of ‘social networking’ are living alone during their ‘mating years’ having far fewer social contacts. And as the greying of the population continues, the incidence and effects of social isolation become ever more pronounced. Biologists can play a pivotal role in addressing these issues. 1s By making the abstract concept of social connection and its effects more concrete and measurable, biology may finally provide the key to public awareness, Presiding over a growing body of evidence, biologists should | v0 now explain the true meaning of the term ‘social networking’. Isolation ~ studies conclude thatthe frequency of socal interaction closely links to the incidence of dementia, Reteren Abbasi, K.(2008). MMR and the value of word of ‘mouth in social networks, Journal ofthe Reyal Society of Medicine, 1016), 215-21. (Childwise. 2008). Childeise Monitor Report 2007-8 (Children and the media, (Norwich: Author) Craft, TK. Glasper, BR, McCullough, La ‘Suyo, N. Otsu, Zhang, No ~Hurn, PD, & DeVries, A.C. (2008). Social interaction improves ‘experimental stroke outcome’ Stroke, 3619), 2006-2011, Brtel, KA, Giymour, M, & Berkman, L. F (2008), Heetsofsotal integration on preserving memory fanetion in a nationally representative US elderly population. American Journal of Pubic Health ‘95, 1215-1201 Kraut, R, Patterson, M., Landmark, V., Kiesler, 8. ‘Mukhopadhyay, T, & Scher, W. (1098). Intornet paradox: A socal technology that reduces social Involvement and pspeiologieal well-being? American Payehologist. 548), 1017-1081, LLupd, R., Christensen, U., Holstein, B. Ey Du, P ‘& Osler, MJ 2006) Influence of marital history over twe and three generations on ently death: A Tonaitedinal study of Danish men born in 1953 ‘Tournalof Epidembology and Community eal 6046), 496-501, L., & Brashear, ctworks aver two decades, ME. 2006), Discussion American Sociological Review. 7, 853-5. Ruston, D. (2008). Volunteer, helpers and socalisers ‘Social capital and time use. London: Office for National Statist, Rutledge, Linke, 8. E., Olso, MB, Francis, ‘J, Johnson, B.D, Bittner Vy. Baitey Mera, C 1/2008). Social nevworks aid incident of stoke among women with suspected myocardial ischemia, Peychosomatie Medicine, 70), 282-287, Sigman, A. 2007) Visual voodoo: The bilogieat impact of watching tlevision, Biologist. 54(), ‘Yoarra, O., Burnstein, B, Winkielman, P, Keller, M.C. Manis, M Chan, E, & Rodrigues, . 2008) Mental exercising throggh simple socialising: Social ‘interaction promotes general cognitive functioning, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 3, 248-258. ‘rie Sigman s a member of he Insite of Bog), a tlw ofthe Royal Sooty of Made and an asc flow athe Bite Paychloga Socey le has Paeled Lo varous counties, reg Nor Kera, uta, Tonga, nay tan, Suh Koren Yaar ih Boa Buna | ao, ndonea, Cambodia and Russa to cosene the influence of electronic media. eos ; Soure: Ate om Sigman, & 2003) Wellonrected The Boles mpiaton of saci netwrtg. Te Balog St,iCstiam Telemedicine comes home ‘The Econom, one 7, 2008 Telemedicine comes home Telemedicine permits remote consultations by video link and even remote surgery, but its future may le closer to home. ew places on earth are as isolated as ‘Tristan da Cunha, This small huddle of volcanic islands, with a population of just 269, sits in the middle of the South Atlantic, 1,750 miles from South Africa and 2,088 miles from South America, making it the most remote settlement in the world. So it sa bad place ‘ofall with an unusual disease, or sulfera serious injury. Because the islands do not have an airstrip, 10 there is no way to evacuate a patient for emergency ‘medical treatment, says Carel Van der Merve, the settlements only doctor. The only physical contact withthe outside world isa six-to seven-day ocean voyage’ he says. ‘So whatever needs to be done, 1s needs tobe done here’ Nevertheless, the islanders have access to some of the most advanced medical facilities in the world, thanks to Project Tristan, an elaborate experiment in telemedicine. This field, which combines telecommunications and medicine, is changing as technology improves. To stat with, it sought t0 help doctors and medical staff exchange information, for example by sending X-rays electronic form to a specialist. That sort of thing. Js becoming increasingly common. ‘What we are starting to see now isa patient-doctor model, says Richard Bakalar, chief medical officer at IBM, ‘8 computer giant that is one of the companies in Project Tristan, A satellite-internet connection to a 24-hour emergency medical centre in the United States enables Dr Van der Merve to send digitised X-rays, EP Reading & Writing Source Book[text clam Telemedicine comes home 8 The Eeomomis ae 7, 2008 slectrocardiograms (ECGs) and lung-function tests to experts. He can consult specialists over 4 video Tink when he needs to, The system even enables cardiologists to. test and re-program pacemakers or implanted defibrillators from the other side of the globe. In short, when a patient in Tristan da Cunha enters De Van der Merwe's surgery, he may as well be stepping into- the University of Pittsburgh medical centre, Itisa great comfort to local residents, says Dr Van der Merve, knowing that specialist consultations ate available, Most of the technology this requires is readily available, and it was surprisingly simple to set up, says Paul Grundy, a health-care expert at TBM. The biggest difficulty, he says, was to install the satellitenternet link, In theory, this sort of long-distance telemedicine could go much further. In 2001 a surgeon in New York performed a gall-bladder removal on a patient in Pais using a Fobotic-surgery system called Da Vinci, Although that was technologically impressive, i may not ‘be where the field is heading, Home is where the technology is. For advances in telemedicine are ess to do with the fele-than withthe medicine Inthelongterm, it may beless about providinglong-distance are to people ‘who are unwell, and more about monitoring people using wearable or implanted sensors in an effort to spot diseases at an early stage. The emphasis will shift from acute to chronic conditions, and from treatment to prevention. Today's stress on making ‘medical teeatment available to people in remote ‘settings is just one way telemedicine ean be used ~ ‘and it is merely the tip ofa very large iceberg thas. floating closer and closer to home. ‘That is because telemedicine holds great promise within mainstream health care. Countless trials are under way to assess technology that can ‘monitor people who have been diagnosed with heart conditions, or diseases like diabetes, from the comfort of their own homes. Rather than having their devices periodically checked ata clinic, some pacemaker patients can now have their implants inspected via mobile phone. That way, they need only visit the clinic when iis absolutely necessary. Simulay Bodyel, based in Germany, sone of fever ems to have developed sensors bated on Bluetooth wireless technology that can mesure thcoe level, blood presse and weight, and Upload the data toa secre webserver Patients can then manage and monitor ther conditions even at they ge updates othr doctors, Honeywell an American industri giant hae devised astm that patents can use at ome to measre peak flow ftom their ngs, ECG, oxygen sation ships nro mont cnn fanging ffom hing disease to congestive heart files Doctors continually review the data and Gan act by changing the patent’ medication, or example they spo any problems This sot of thing appeals to bath paints and healthcare providers alike, The. patients keep ther independence and gett tay at home, and Wet let wo tet them. And as populations age tn developed countries, the proapect of being abe to save money by tring people at ome ook increasingly atectve Tes not jst people wih diagnosed conditions ho are starting to reevethis kindof equipment. Since 2006, Bain has spent 80m (Sem) on ‘revertatve technology grants, which provide spell equipment to enable 14,000 elder people tostay intel homes, ast of today’s technology, however, calls onthe patents oetnemberto monitor themsee and Bo requires them o operat he equipment. For tome patients, sch a thse in the early sages of [lshelmers cease that is impractical Sort tt of work being dove to automate he montoring proces nd mate the equipment easier use Wiliam aise and iscolleguest he Univesity of Calms, Los Angles, have developed 1 “omar ene to lp monitor and advise people convalecing at home, for example" hat force sensors that measure press at the tip of te cane tod around the handle Ialio has motion sensors tnd aceerometes sys Dr Kalen, ues these to calculate the git ofthe patient and workout how they ae dng wih the cane, giving them feedback about how they could make better use ofText 4c as eS ae Bro Tur it to recover from, for example, a hip replacement. “It provides guidance, either as beeps or it can talk toyou, he says “Another approach isto use sensors embedded in ‘thehome. Oliver Goh of Implenia, a Swiss building: ‘management firm, has come up with a system to ‘monitor the well-being of the occupant of a house, Using sensors on doors and mattresses, smart pill boxes that can tell when they are being opened, hheart-monitors and a location-sensing wristwatch, the system allows carers to keep tabs on elderly people. Implenia now has six elderly volunteers lined up to test the technology, says Mr Goh. He hopes that if they have a heart attack, cannot get ‘outofbed or need help, their carers will soon know. ‘Ultimately, he say, the aim isto see if this sort of approach can help to extend life expectancy. Prevention is better than cure Looking even further ahead, some day it may rake sense to give these technologies to healthy people, the ‘walking well’ If sensors can monitor people without a threat to their privacy or comfort, doctors may be able to spot diseases before the patient notices any symptoms, “It moving from telemedicine to telehealth and teleprevention’ says Dr Grundy of IBM. It could also improve the efficiency of health-care systems, he say, This kind of approach could save money as well as spotting illnesses early, says Dr Kaiser. ‘We'll detect them earlier when the cost of treatment And impact on an individual willbe less’ he says. “The technology for this does not yet exist, admits John Linkous, executive director of the American “Telemedicine Association, "There stil isn'ta device that can give you a complete body check, he says. “But 'm very optimistic about iti the long run. ‘One idea isto use wireless infra-red skin sensors to measure blood-count, heart-rhythm and the level of oxygen in the blood. Another isto implant wireless sensors powered by the wearer's own body heat, Yet another common dea stousesmarttoilets that can monitor human waste fr the telltale signs, of intestinal disease or cancer. The hard part is not ‘0 much developing the sensor technology, says Dr ae i The Econom Jone 7 2008 Linkous, as sifting through the results. ‘It would produce a tsunami of data, and the peoblem is that ‘we aren't set up with health-care systems that can deal with ll that he says. ‘The ansiver will be even more technology, says Dr Bakalar. ‘There has to be a way of filtering this information so that it doesnt overwhelm the medical services! he says. The obvious approach is to use ‘expert systems’ ~ software programmed with expert medical knovledge that can make clinical judgments, Like telemedicine, expert systems have been around for some time. Trials in Denmark, to advise doctors how to prescribe, suggest the technology hhas great scope. Sometimes they can reach better clinical judgments than human experts do. But they are not widely used, partly because doctors are unwilling tobe bossed around by a computer in the corner, but also because they have been difficult to integrate into. medical practice. ‘They could be ideally suited to telehealth, however, quietly sifting through the data generated by sensors and only raising the alarm and calling in their human colleagues when it becomes necessary to do $0. ‘The shift from telemedicine to telchealth reflects 4 broader shift from diagnosis and treatment to ‘wellness: Taken to its technological conclusion, this would involve using wi nplants to screen entire populations for early igns of disease as they go about their daily lives. Ifit can be made to work, the days of making an appointment to see your doctor when you are not feeling well could be over. Instead, it may well be your doctor who calls you. cless sensors and ‘Source: Alpi or Telemedicine comes heme (208, bin? The conan, 37/583), 28-30 © The Konan Hwnpapr Lente, ado. eeFood security Diet and sustainability key to feeding the world: A food security report One of the greatest problems the world faces is food security. Starvation, malnutrition and associated health tnd welfare problems can best be addressed by @ systematic policy of education and research, 5 Grave concerns about food security have surfaced fora ‘number of reasons. Firstly, there has been a population explosion. According to the Royal Society between 1930 and 2010 the world’s population grew from 2 billion +o 638 billion now, with a projected peak of billion by 2050 % (Black, 2010), & further major eause for concer isthe impact on food production of climate change, brought bout by global warming. Population growth and climate ‘change will mean there isan increasing shoriage of water and of land for food production, and therefore more '5 competition for these resources. While threats to global food security are numerous and affect both economically developed and less-developed countries, itis the people ofthe later who are likely to feel the most impact. Vast numbers lack basic food 29 requirements: a east | billion people are undernourished and 2 billion sufler from micronutrient deficiency. Conversely 1.2 billion are overweight, ‘An environmental example’ of the impact of food production mismanagement on ecosystems, and the 25 wider implications of this, can be clearly ssen in the case of drastic declines in bitd species. For example, in Europe and North America populations of ‘specialist’ bird species ~ those that are adapted to live in specific ‘environments ~ have fallen by an estimated 30% over 0 40 years, This has been atebutd at least partially tothe Jmpact of farming, especially when this involves a sinle erop type being grown over a large area, In fact, a study by Stanford University biologists (Sekercioglu, Daily & Ehrlich, 2004) concluded that by 2100, 10% of all bird species were likely to disappear and another 15% could be onthe brink of extinction This dramatic loss is expected to have a negative impact on forest ecosystems and agriculture workdwide, and ‘5 warned that it might even encourage the spread of human diseases. The latter point is supported by reports ofa dramatic fll in vulture numbers in India, allowing an upsurge in numbers of rats and feral dogs, which spread Giseases that affect humans (see Swan et a, 2006, BvdLite International, 2008). The vulture population ash is atributed mainly to poisoning by high concentrations of diclofenac, a drug used to teat farm annals. The birds ingest the drug when they feed on the animals’ carcasses. 40 Thechallenges involved inadkressing the problem offood security are complex, Partof the solutions inereasing the potential of food yields, but the approach mus be sustainable. Producers and consumers of food mst play ‘a major role in allthis and take responsibility in terms of choosing how food is “produced, used and eonsaneed, Population growth isan often unspoken driver of ‘trends suchas deforestation,Text 5a PDS SEUSE Maer Lae CORR Cee ne RCM] ‘Reducing the amount of waste in the food production system is one approach to improving food security However, in future the ‘journey from farm to plate” also needs to be organized more systematically 4s and globally. A particular problem area here is the importing into economically developed ‘countries of exotic fruit and vegetables. This ean have a negative impact on food security in two ways. Firsily, importing (and especiilly air-feighting) fresh produce from overseas locations ean significantly increase the carbon footprint of food production, contributing to global warming and is associated problems. Secondly, if growers in less economically developed countries switch to producing fruit and vegetables £9 for export, this could displace local staple crops, resulting in worsening diets for what may be an already ‘malnourished population, ‘A further solution is to manage erop production to boost yields of some crops in countries with temperate climates. However, climate change could also cause shifts in seasonal patterns that put crops out of rhythm with the insects that pollinate them, or could increase the likelihood of extreme weather events damaging the developing flowers that are essential for the erop. There isa strong likelihood that diets will increasingly bbe dependent on animal sources of protein, but farmers do not necessarily adopt practices that lead to the fulfilment of potential yield. Helping them become more efficient offers @ further means of addressing the food security issue An integrated, systemic approach to the problems of food security has to be developed. This includes & encouraging agri-food research, with the most technologically advanced countries directing their attention and research focus towards dealing with the problem. In addition, a global approach is needed and specialist esearch initiatives will need to help with integrating the food-securty research undertaken by non-specialist institutions. ss References ‘Bitd.ife International 2008, April 30). Future evsis deepens. Rewieved October 31,201, fom www.bindieong! nows/news/2008:04valture_ declines hil Beddington, J. (ed) QI). Foresight report: The ure of food and farming. Challenges and choices for global ‘istainabfty. London: Government Office fr iene. Retrieved December 22, 201, from ww.bis govukassts/ bispartnersforesightidoesfood-and-farming/1-S46-fuute-f-ood-and-farming-eport pdf Black, R, (200, July 12. Global population study launched by Royal Society. BBC News. Retrieved December 21,2011, from wiv bbe coukine ws IOS7E484 kerio‘ u, C. ., Daly, G. C. & Ebi, P.R, (2004). Ecosystem consequences of bind declines, Proceedings ofthe ‘National Academy of Sciences, 10K82), 18082-18047, ‘Swan, G., Naidoo, V, Cuthbert, R., Green, RE, Pain, D.J, Swarup, D.... & Wolter, K. (2006). Removing the threat | ‘of diclofenac to critically endangered Asan vultures, PLoS Biology. 43): e66 iin, R. 201, January 24). Dit and sustainably key to feeding the world. [Press release. Reading: University of Reading, Retrieved October 31, 201, rom wwwtreading cu about newsandeventsreleasewPR345098 aspx Source; ob Sag LC, Urs Reding, UE baton the reece cdText 5b igorarel eats eraaect lar ed tl ne _ The challenge of feeding 9 billion people 4. Charles J. Godfray, John Bedlington, lan R, Crute, Lawrence Haddad, David Lawrence, James F Muir, Jules Pretty, Sherman Robinson, Sandy M. Thomas, Camila Toulmin* ABSTRACT: Continuing population and consumption grovith will mean that the global demand for food will increase for atleast another 40 years. Growing competition for land, water and energy, in addition to the overexpioittion of fisheries, wll affect our ability to produce food, as will the Urgent requirement to reduce the impact of the food system on the environment. The effects of climate change are further threat, But the world can produce more food and can ensure that itis | Used more efficiently and equitably. A multifaceted and linked global strategy is needed to ensure Th The past hal-century has seen marked {growth in food production, allowing for a dramatic decrease in the proportion of the world’s people that are hungry, despite a Goubling of the total population (World Bank, 2008; FAO, 2008a), Nevertheless, more than ‘one in seven people today stil do not have access to sufficient protein and energy from their diet, and even more suffer from some 1 form of mioronutrient malnourishment (FAO, 20091). The world is now facing a new set Of intersecting challenges (Evans, 2009). The global population will continue to grow: yet itis likely to plateau at some 9 billion people 1 by roughly the middle of this century, A major correlate of this deceleration in population growth is increased wealth, and with higher purchasing power comes higher consumption and a greater demand for processed food, ‘20 meat, dairy products and fish, all of which add pressure to the food supply system. At the same time, food producers are experiencing ‘greater rivalry for land, water and energy, and the need to curb the many negative effects 25 of food production on the environment is becoming increasingly clear (Tilman et al, 2001; WRI, 2005). Overarching all of these issues is the threat of the effects of substantial ‘imate change and concerns about how s@ mitigation and adaptation measures may affect the food system (Parry et al, 2007; Schmidhuber & Tubiello, 2007), BI A threctold challenge now faces the world (Von Braun, 2007}: match the rapidly changing 3s demand for food from a larger and more ble and equitable food security. Different components of this strategy are explored here. affluent population to its supply; do so in ‘ways that are environmentally and socially sustainable; and ensure that the world's poorest people are no longer hungry. This so challenge requires changes in the way food is produced, stored, processed, distributed land accessed that are as radical as those that ‘occurred during the 18th- and 19tn-century Industrial and Agricultural Revolutions and the 4 20th-century Green Revolution. increases in production wall have an important part to play, but they wil be constrained as never before: by the finite resources provided by the Earth's land, oceans and atmosphere (Conway, 1997). I Patterns in global food prices are indicators of how the availablity of food changes, at least {or those who can afford it and have access to world markets. Over the past century, gross food prices have generally fallen, leveling off 55 in the past three decades but punctuated by price spikes such as that caused by the 1970s Ol crisis, In mid-2008, there was an unexpected rapid rise in food prices ~ the cause of which is stil being debated - that subsided when the #0 world economy went into recession (Piesse. & Thirtl, 2009). However, many (but not all) commentators have precicted that this spike heralds a period of rising and more volatile food prices driven primarily by increased demand 45 from rapidly developing countries, as well as by ‘competition for resources from first-generation biofuels production (Royal Society, 2008). Increased food prices wil stimulate greater investment in food production, but the critical 20 importance of food to human well-being andf Moa The challenge of feeding 9 billion people ‘also to social and poitical stability makes it ikely that governments andl other organizations wil \want fo encourage food production beyond that driven by simple market mechanisms (Skidelsky, 2003). However, there are serious ‘concems about changes in food production patterns where production of traditional staple food sources is flattening out rather than rising inline withthe population explosion (Figure 1), The long-term nature of returns on investment for many aspects of food production {and the importance of policies that promote sustainabilly and equal treatment for al also argue against relying purely on market solutions. A Major rop plants “) — maaan Figure 1. Changes in the relative global production of crops and animals since 1964 (relative production ‘Scaled to tn 1963) where (A) major erop plants and {8} major types of livestock (FAO, 2008). ‘So how can more food be produced sustainably? In the past, the primary solution 10 food shortages was to use more land for agriculture and to exploit new fish stocks. Yet over the past five decades, while grain 49 production has more than doubled, the ‘amount of land devoted to arable agriculture ‘globally has increased by only about 99% (Pretty, 2008). Some new land could be ‘brought into cutivation, but the competition 95 for land from other human activities makes this ‘an increasingly unlikely and costly solution, particulary if protecting biodiversity and the public goods provided by natural ecosystems (for example, carbon storage in rainforests) 400 are given higher priorty (Balmiord etal, 2008). In recent decades, agricultural land that was formerly productive has been lost to Urbanization and other human uses, as well {as to desertification, salinization, sol erosion ves and other consequences of unsustainable land ‘management (Nelemanin et al, 2009). Further losses, which may be exacerbated by climate change, are likely (Parry et al, 2007). Recent policy decisions to produce first-generation 1 biofuels on good-quality agricuitural land have ‘added to the competitive pressures (Fargione t al, 2008). Thus, the most ikely scenario is that more food wil need to be produced {rom the same amount of (or even less) land, 1s Moreover, there are no major new fishing ‘grounds: virtually al capture fisheries are fully exploited, and most are overexploited. * Tho authors are mentbers of the UK Government Office for Science's Foresight Project on Global Food and Farming Futures. Source: Adopted fom Gost...) Beaton 1. Cute Avo, Loner, Mr, Fetal 201). Te caerge 1 feecin bon eopic Scenes 3275967), 812-818 5Smal Closing the yield gap Closing the yield gap IW There is a wide geographic variation in crop and livestock productivity, even across regions that experience similar climates. The difference between actual productivity and the best that 5 can be achieved using current genetic material and available technologies and management is tetmed the 'yield gap. EA The best yields that can be obtained locally depend on the capacity of farmers to access wo and use, among other tings, seeds, water, nutrients, pest management iechriques, soil, biodiversity an knowledge. It has been estimated that in those parts of Southeast Asia where irigation is avalable, average 1s maximum climate-adjusted roe yields are ‘8.5 metric tons per hectare, yet the average yields actually achieved are 60% of this figure (Cassman, 1999). Similar yield gaps are found tor rain-fed wheat in central Asia and rainfed 20 cereals in Argentina and Brazl. Another way to lutrate tho vied gap is to compare changes in per capita food production over the past 50 years. In Asia, this amount has increased approximately twotold, and i Latin America, ithas increased 1 6-oi: in Africa, per capita production fallback from the mid-1970s and fas only just reached the same level asin 41961 (FAO, 2009a: Evenson & Golin, 2003), Substantially more f003, as wel as the income so 0 purchase food, could be produced with current crops and iestock f methods were found to lose the yield gaps. is | ‘china ce proaucton Wrens fr sth trait yor EPEEREPERRE | Figure 2. China rice: bumper crop forecast for 2009- £2010 (FAS, 2008). Low yields occur because of technical ‘constraints that prevent local food producers 5 from increasing productivity or for economic reasons arising from market conditions. For ‘example, farmers may not have access to the technical knowledge and skills required to increase production, the finances required 40 to invest in higher production (eg. irrigation, {ertiizer, machinery, crop-protection products ‘and soi-conservation measures), or the orop ‘and livestock varieties that maximize yields. ‘Aiter harvest or slaughter, they may not be 45 able to store the produce or have access to the infrastructure to transport the produce to ‘consumer markets. Farmers may also choose ‘not to invest in improving agricultural productivity because the returns do not compare well with sa other uses of capital and labour, Exactly how best to faciltate increased food production is highiy region-specific, In the ost extreme cases of faled states and ‘nonfunctioning markets, the solution lies 58 completely outside the food system. Where a {unetioning state exists, there is a balance to be struck between investing in overall economic {growth as a spur to agriculture and focusing on investing in agricutture as a spur to economic «growth, though the two are obvious\y linked in regions, such as sub-Saharan Attica, where agriculture typically makes up 20 to 40% of gross domestic product. In some situations, such as low-income food-importing countries, «5 investing purely in generating widespread income growth to allow food purchases trom regions and countries with better production capabilities may be the bast choice, When investment is targeted at food production, 7 a further issu is the balance between putting resources into regional and national infrastructure, such as roads and ports, and investing in local social and economic capital (Hazell & Haddad, 2001; FARA, 2006). El A yield gap may also exist because high Ccosts of inputs or low profits from increased production mean that raising production to the ‘maximum that could theoretically be attained wil not be economically worthwhile, Poor to transport and market infrastructures raise the prices of inputs, such as fertlizers and water,Text Sc ePenC Rune ena ‘ang increase the costs of moving the food produced into national or world markets. Where the risks of investment are high and the means to offset these risks are absent, not investing ccan be the most rational decision, part of the ‘poverty trap’. Food production in developing, countries can be severely affected by market interventions in the developed world, such as. ‘subsidies or price supports. These need to be carefully designed and implemented so that their effects on global commodity prices do Not act as disincentives to production in other ‘counties (Anderson, 2008). ‘The globalization ofthe food system offers ‘some local food producers access to larger markets, as well as to capital for investment. When factors are taken together, such globalization also appears to increase the global efficiency of food production by allowing regional specialization in the production of the locally most appropriate foods. Because the | expansion of foed proctuction and the growth (of population both occur at cifferent rates in different geographic regions, global trade is necessary to balance supply and demand ‘across regions. However, the environmental ccosts of food production might increase with globalization, for example, because of increased greenhouse gas emissions associated with increased production and food transport (Pretty etal, 2005}. An unfettered market can also penalize particular communities and sectors - especialy the poorest, wie have the least influence on how {global markets are structured and reguiated. Expanded trade can provide insurance against regional shocks affecting production, such a conflict, epidemics, droughts or foods ~ shocks that are likely to increase in frequency {as climate change ocours. Conversely, 2 | ay connected fod estan may ead othe more widespread propagation of economic ||__concemns, as in the recent banking crisis, thus affecting more people. There is an urgent ‘need for a better understanding of the effects | cf globalization on the full food system and its “externaities' effects on the environment ‘or economy that are not reflected inthe cost 1 of food) Inrgation is @ key factorin environmental pollution. (Closing the yield gap would dramatically increase the supply of food, but with uncertain impacts on the environment and feedbacks that could undermine future food production. Food production has important negative externalities. These inciude the release of ‘greenhouse gases ~ especialy methane and Iitrous oxide, which are more damaging than CO, and of which agriculture is a mejor source (Stern, 2007), environmental polition {due to nutrient run-oif, water shortages due to over-extraction, sol degradation and the loss of biociversity through land conversion or inappropriate management, and ecosystem ‘dsruption due to the intensive harvesting of fish and other aquatic foods (WRI, 2008). [BD tis now widely recognized that to addrass these negative effects, food production ‘systems and the food chain in general must ‘become fuly sustainable (Royal Society, 2009). ‘The principle of sustainability implies the use of resources at rates that do not exceed the ‘capacity of the Earth to replace them. By dtirtion, dependency on nonrenewable inputs fs unsustainable, even if in the short term it is necessary as part of a progression toward sustainability. However, introducing measures 0 promote sustainability does not necessarily reduce yields or profits. One study of 286 agricultural sustainability projects in developing ‘countries, involving 12.6 milion chietly smallholder farmers on 37 milion hectares, found an average yield increase of 79% across a very wide variety of systems and crop types (Pretty et al, 2006). One-quarter of the projects voAcMEIam Closing the yield gap Figure 2, An example ofa msjor successful sustainable agriculture projec. In Tahoua, Nig well as crop yields increased over a period often years after donors invest ‘Satlite pictures show the same locality in 1076, at left, and 2006, at right (Rell & Smaling 2008; UNEP 2008). reported a doubling of yield. Research on the abilty of these and related programmes to reach an equivalent level of success at national ‘and regional levels should be a priority (see mo Figure 3) 'ET Sirategies designed to close the yield gap in the poorest countries face some particular challenges (Hazell & Wood, 2008). Much production is dominated by smaltholder 178. agriculture, with women often taking a dominant role in the workforce. Where viable, investment in the social and economic ‘mechanisms to enable improved smalholder yields, especially where targeted at women, 180 can be an important means of increasing the income of both farm and rural non-farm households. The lack of secure land rights. can be a particular problem for many poor ‘communities as it may act as a disincentive 12s. for smallholders to invest in managing the land more productively, and may make it harder to raise investment capital (Doininger & Feder, 2008). In atime of rising prices for food and land, it can also render these communities 1» vulnerable to displacement by more powerful interest groups. Where governments are prepared to protect the poorest and wavere the necessary infrastructure is available, adequate ‘support for the poor could be greatly assisted 195. by the application of modern information ‘and communication technologies. Even so, there will be mary people who cannot afford to purchase sulticient calories and nutrients treo cover as ‘oll and water conservation. {for a healthy life and who will require social protection programmes to increase their ability to obtain food. However, i properly designed, these programmes can help stimulate local agticuture by giving smalholders more Certainty about the demand for their products. “There is algo a roe for large-scale farming ‘operations in poorer countries, though the value of this and the contexts in which itis feasible are much debated (Collier, 2008). ‘Many of the very poorest people lve in areas so remote that they are effectively disconnected from national and world food ‘markets. But for others, especially the urban 200%, higher food prices have a direct negative etfect on the abilty to purchase a healthy diet. Also, many rural farmers and other food producers ive on the very edge of being net food consumers and producers and can be atfected in complex ways by rising food prices, with some benefiting and some being harmed (Hazel & Haddad, 2001). Thus, although free world trade should stimulate overall food production in developing countries, not ‘everyone will gain (Anderson, 2009; Aksoy & Beghin, 2005). Betier models that can more accurately predict these complex interactions are urgently needed, Source: Apia om Gacy th. 201)Dealing with the situation Tl The most productive crops, such as sugar ‘cane, growing in optimum conditions, can ‘convert solar energy into biomass with an | _etficiency of about 2%, resulting in high yields sof biomass (up to 150 metric tons per hectare: Gilbert et al. 2006). There is much debate over what the theoretical mits are forthe major ‘crops under different conditions, and similarly, for the maximum yield that can be obtained 10 for livestock rearing (Royal Society, 2009). However, there is clearly considerable scope for increasing production limits. ‘The Green Revolution succeeded by using conventional breeding to develop FI hybrid 15 varieties of maize and semi-dvart, disease- | resistant varieties of wheat and rice. These varieties could be provided with more irigation and fertlzer (Evenson & Golin, 2003) without the risk of major crop losses due to lodging 20 {falling over) or severe rust epidemics. Increased yields stil a major goal, but the importance of greater water- and nutrient se efficiency, as well as tolerance of abiotic stress, is also likely to increase. Modem 25 genetic techniques and a better understanding gy | Of crop physiology allow for a more directed approach to selection across multiple traits, ‘The speed and costs at which genomes today ccan be sequenced or resequenced means that so these techniques can be more easly applied to develop varieties of crop species that will yield wellin challenging environments, These, include crops such as sorghum, millet, cassava and banana — species that are staple foods 1s for many of the world’s poorest communities | (AASTD, 2008). Curent the maior commercialized goneticaly es rmodiog (GM) Gop ive relate sine manpulaone, euch athe inserton of 8 1» gone fr herbed resblance o nate: or a postingect toxin. The next cade wl see the doveopment of comoinabone of dosrablo 7 tats and teinrocucton of new ras uch as |. drug taerance By md-cenury mach more | reaeal optons mong hiny poygentc vals tray be feasible. Producing cloned amas ‘Wh ongheered inate inurunty to dseases ieee Dealing with the situation that reduce production efficiency could reduce ‘substantial losses. Biotechnology could also 50 produce plants for animal feed that help to increase the efficiency of meat production and reduce methane emissions. Figure 4: Make-up of ota food waste in USA and UK (developed countries) compared to developing counties. Real food service andhome and ‘municipal categories are combined for developing 2008; COSU, 2008; Roughly 30 to 40% of food in both the developed and developing worlds is lost to. ‘waste, though the causes behind this are very different (Figure 4). In te developing world, losses are mainly attributable to the absence of food-chain infrastructure and the lack of knowledge about or investment in storage ‘technologies on the farm, although data are scarce, For example, in Inia, itis estimated that 35 to 40% of fresh produce is lost because neither wholesale nor retail cutlots have cold storage (Nellemann et a, 2009), Even with rice grain, which can be stored more readily, as much as one-third of the harvest in Southeast Asia can be lost after harvest to pests and spoliage (FAO, 1997). But the picture is more complex than a simple lack of storage facilis: although storage after harvest when there isa glut of food would seem to make ‘economic sense, the farmer often has to sell immediately to raise cash.