ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL
Title No. 116-M113
Electrical Resistivity as Durability Index for Concrete
Structures
by Andrés A. Torres-Acosta, Francisco Presuel-Moreno, and Carmen Andrade
The potential use of the electrical resistivity (ρ) and the saturated
electrical resistivity (ρS ) for the durability design of new concrete
structures and the forecasting for in-service concrete structures
has been increasing in the past three decades. Many investigations
have proven the ease of the method and the possibility of it being a
quality control/assurance tool during construction of new concrete
infrastructure. Some previous investigations even consider the ρS
test a feasible one to remove other, more complicated and expensive
tests used in cement-based materials as durability indicators; a few
of them defined correlations between ρS and the other indexes.
The present investigation uses published data to determine if
empirical correlations exist between ρS and rapid chloride perme-
ability (RCP), and between ρS and the apparent chloride diffusion
coefficient (DAP ). A literature search was done on the three dura-
bility indexes in question (ρS , RCP, and DAP ) and some empir-
ical equations were derived. Good empirical correlations were
observed for ρS versus RCP and ρS versus DAP . The latter correla-
tion, obtained from data of different sources, supported that ρS and
chloride diffusivity follows the well-defined Einstein law of diffu-
sion with minor modifications for cement-based materials.
Keywords: chloride diffusion coefficient; chloride permeability; durability;
electrical resistivity.
INTRODUCTION
Transportation infrastructure built of reinforced concrete
(for example, bridges and piers) and located in marine and/
or industrial environments suffers damage mainly from
corrosion of the reinforcing or the prestressing steel.1,2 These
environmental actions are mainly generated by anthropo-
genic pollution (for example, CO2 and SO2) in urban and
industrial zones, chlorides in marine environments, and/or
from deicing salts in northern states in the United States.
These chemical species can apply environmental loads to
the materials in structures, chemically reacting with them
and changing their chemical state. These reactions can cause
volumetric modifications in the form of expansion inside
the concrete matrix, producing internal tension and cracks
because concrete does not tolerate significant tension forces.
Changes of this type in concrete and steel create numerous
pathologies that manifest principally as spalls, cracks, or
oxide stains on the surface of concrete structural elements.3
Concrete structures base their durability in the compact-
ness of the material and its low permeability. Regardless of
that, it has been noted in the last decades a growing number
of deteriorations that are fundamentally centered in the corro-
sion of the reinforcing/prestressing steel. This corrosion is
produced from chloride ion penetration in marine environ-
ments and from carbon dioxide (gas) penetration (called
carbonation) in urban/industrial environments, through the
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
TECHNICAL PAPER
pore network inside concrete. Chlorides produce a form
of localized corrosion, and carbonation induces a general
corrosion of the reinforcing steel bar (rebar) or prestressing
wires, cables, or tendons inside the concrete.
In the last couple of decades, experimental methods
have been proposed to evaluate the impermeability of the
concrete to these aggressive substances,4-7 and models have
been developed8-11 to predict the time to corrosion initiation
of the embedded steel. Natural exposure methods needed
weeks, even months or years, of experimentation.4,5 This
was the reason that accelerated methods were developed in
the case of chlorides through the application of an electric
field that increases the transport rate of the chloride ions6,7,12
and, in the case of the carbonation, through the increase of
CO2 concentration in the environment.13,14 The accelerated
methods, however, usually reproduce even less-real condi-
tions, and those made in a very short time (very accelerated)
are destructive—that is, they can modify the microstruc-
ture of the specimens, invalidating them for being used for
other type of tests. Most accelerated short-term methods are
destructive and require multiple samples, which increases
the number of concrete cylinders that need to be prepared
at casting.
An accelerated method that ignores these inconveniences
is the so-called saturated electrical resistivity (ρS) method,
which has a very direct relationship with the resistance
against the movement of ions.11,12 It is called “saturated”
because the method assumes that a high moisture content is
within the pore structure and that enough time has passed as
to achieve a stable pore water conductivity (that is, the ions’
concentration approaches uniform concentration through
the concrete). The pore network should be fully saturated
to ensure the resistivity measured is the minimum possible
in that specimen. This method could also help to indicate
concrete resistance against carbonation, considering that ρS
increases when the concrete dries, leaving more space for the
entry of gasses such as CO2. The measurement of the ρS is
also implicit in the method that is more commonly employed
to evaluate the transport resistance to chlorides, which is the
ASTM 12028 method, initially proposed by Whiting6 as the
rapid chloride permeability (RCP) test, and which has also
been proven to be a measure of the ρS.15
ACI Materials Journal, V. 116, No. 6, November 2019.
MS No. M-2018-514.R1, doi: 10.14359/51718057, received December 11, 2018,
and reviewed under Institute publication policies. Copyright ©  2019, American
Concrete Institute. All rights reserved, including the making of copies unless
permission is obtained from the copyright proprietors. Pertinent discussion including
author’s closure, if any, will be published ten months from this journal’s date if the
discussion is received within four months of the paper’s print publication.
245
 This RCP method applies a 60 V potential difference
between two electrodes among which a concrete slice (10 ±
0.1 cm [4 in.] in diameter and 5 ± 0.2 cm [2 in.] in height) is
situated, and the current that goes through it during 6 hours
is registered. The value of the current intensity by the time
registered, in coulombs, and the chloride transport resistance
is classified according to the total coulombs accumulated and
registered. It is defined as a durable concrete any concrete
that presents less than 1000 coulombs in this test method.
The result of this method is commonly defined as a “dura-
bility indicator” of the concrete evaluated, because its dura-
bility is valued based on a generality: a defined threshold
number. The ρS measurement can also be used as a mere
generic “durability indicator” because the 1000 coulombs
are equivalent to 200 Ω∙m (20 kΩ∙cm) of ρS.
Nevertheless, an advantage of the ρS test in contrast with
RCP test is that it has been incorporated to a model in which
the time is an explicit variable, which is to say, in a service
life model.15 In summary, using Einstein relation expressed
as the “random walk” of ions, the ρS and the time can be
related in the form indicated in the following expression11
x 2 ⋅ ρS
t= (1)
F�
where x is chloride ion transport front; and F is an envi-
ronmental factor (chloride concentration), which relates
the resistivity and the diffusion coefficient.16 This equation
allows the calculation of the concrete cover needed to avoid
the arrival of the chloride ion front at the reinforcing bar
depth x with a determined resistivity ρS.
This model must be completed with two other factors: one
factor takes into account that the chloride that penetrates in
part reacts with the hydrated phases of the cement and the
transport does not progress (retardation factor) as fast; the
other factor takes into account that the resistivity increases
with time (age or aging factor). The completed equation
of the model for both corrosion initiation and propagation
periods is12,16
q   t q 
t  Pcorr ⋅ ρe ⋅  1   ⋅ ε
x ⋅ ρe ⋅  1  ⋅ rb
2
t    t0  
tlife = 0
+ (2)
Fam K corr
where ρe is resistivity at 28 days in saturated conditions
(effective resistivity); x is cover depth; t0 is time of the first
test (28 days); t1 is time at which the aging finishes or the
entire lifetime period; rb is retardation factor; Fen is envi-
ronmental factor; Pcorr is steel cross section reached at the
time tp; q is aging factor of the resistivity; ε is environmental
factor of the corrosion rate (it can be of 10 ± 2 for carbon-
ation and 30 ± 5 for chlorides); and Kcorr is constant with a
value of 26 µA/cm2 · kΩ·cm = to 26 mV/cm, relating the
resistivity and the corrosion rate icorr .
RESEARCH SIGNIFICANCE
The present study’s objective was to use published data
to determine if empirical correlations exist between ρS and
246
RCP, and between ρS and the apparent chloride diffusion
coefficient (DAP). Measurement of only ρS would thus allow
estimation of the RCP and DAP durability indexes. A litera-
ture search was done of the three durability indexes in ques-
tion (ρS, RCP, and DAP). Many of these data were generated
as part of two large projects in Mexico evaluating concrete
mixtures designed for durability in the construction of large
concrete infrastructure in chloride-laden environments.17,18
Other sources include two projects in Florida in which
several bridges built between the 1960s and 1990s were
evaluated using the ρS and DAP indexes.19,20 The final two
sources are studies that evaluated the ρS and DAP from labo-
ratory tests Cl– diffusion data indicators.20,21
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
The indirect methods (ρS and RCP) have been widely used
(especially ρS) over the last 20 years to characterize concrete
quality and durability.12,17-24 Determining ρS involves a
simple technique that quickly measures its value using a
concrete specimen, and it is cost-effective, given the low
cost of the required equipment.12 It uses the same type of
cylinders (normally 10 x 20 cm [4 x 8 in.]) or cubes (usually
10 x 10 cm [4 x 4 in.]) produced for compressive strength
tests. The specimen is removed from the curing pond or
chamber (hence the name ρS), wet sponges placed on either
end, and metal (normally a corrosion-resistant metal such
as stainless steel or bronze) plates placed on either end,
touching the sponges. Voltage is then sent through the two
plates and the resulting ionic current measured. Equipment
voltage and current values are used to calculate electrical
resistance between the plates—that is, the electrical resis-
tance (Re) of the concrete specimen. The resulting value is
multiplied by a constant: specimen area (A) and divided by
the specimen length (L). The ρS value is the material’s elec-
tric resistivity. Measurement of each specimen requires, at
most, 1 to 2 minutes, making it time-efficient. The Wenner
probe can also be used to measure cylindrical specimens and
with an additional cell constant converted to saturated elec-
trical resistivity.20,25
In the test, named RCP, a voltage difference is applied
between the faces of a concrete slice and the current that
circulates through it for 6 hours is measured. This test is, in
fact, an electrical resistance test in which, instead of making
an instantaneous measurement, the voltage is applied for
6 hours. To obtain resistivity, in addition of applying Ohm’s
law R = V/l, it is necessary to introduce the geometry of the
concrete sample in a way that: ρS = R · A/L, where A is the
transverse section of the concrete slice and L is thickness
of the same slice. With the dimensions that are indicated in
ASTM C1202,7 the theoretical equivalence value is 20,400
in a way that
20,400
Q(coulombs) = (3)
ρS (ohm·cm)
ρS versus RCP laboratory data
These data are from two studies. The first set of data is
from a bridge in Mexico (Yucatan Peninsula).17 The concrete
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
used in the evaluation was a self-consolidating concrete
containing 8% microsilica as a mineral additive and a high-
range, third-generation, water reducer (polycarboxylate)
to increase mixture fluidity. The water-cement ratio (w/c)
ranged from 0.35 to 0.32, and cementitious content was
480 kg/m3 (960 lb/yd3).
The second set of data is from a foundation built at the
new Mexico City airport with durable concrete with the
following specifications: < 15 mm (0.6 in.) slump; mineral
additions of microsilica (~8% by cement replacement),
fly ash (20 to 40% by cement replacement) or metakaolin
(10  to 20% by cement replacement); 0.40 w/c; and 450 kg/m3
(900 lb/yd3) cementitious content.26,27
ρS and RCP indexes were estimated from 10 x 20 cm
(4  x 8 in.) cylinders. During the 300- to 450-day moni-
toring period, measurements of ρS were done at least once
a week, taking care that ambient temperature at the moment
of measurement was 22 ± 2°C (72 ± 3.6°F). This was done
in response to a previous analysis of ρS at different room
temperatures, which gave ρS value changes up to 30% higher
if the temperature decreased to 15°C.17
After the evaluation period was completed, the cylinders
were cut into three slices (5 ± 0.2 cm [2 ± 0.08 in.]; Fig. 1).
ρS measurements for each round continued until reaching a
constant value (±0.5% of the previous day’s measurement)
at the same temperature (22 ± 2°C [72 ± 3.6°F]). Once a
constant ρS value was reached, the RCP durability index for
each round was measured as described earlier. This produced
paired ρS and RCP values for each round.17,26,27
ρS versus DAP field data from cores (field data)
Chloride ion penetration was studied in cores from several
bridges.19,20 In both studies, concrete cores were drilled from
each bridge at the tidal and splash-evaporation zones, as well
as from the atmospheric exposure zone in one bridge. Cores
were extracted with a cylindrical 5 cm (2 in.) core drill bit
(operating at ~200 rpm) and had a ~4.5 cm (1.8 in.) diameter.
Core elevations ranged from –0.6 m (2 ft) to +37 m (120 ft)
above the high tide (AHT) line. In the 2001 study,19 the cores
for chloride analysis were dry cut with a fine-toothed tile
saw to obtain sections corresponding to various distances
from the external concrete surface. In the 2015 study,20 the
cores were sliced with a wet tile saw using a lapidary thin
blade. Each solid slice was separately ground to powder. The
concrete powders were chemically analyzed for acid-soluble
chloride (“total chloride”) content following an adaptation
of international standards.28 The as-ground (not oven-dried)
powder mass was used to calculate chloride content per unit
mass of the sample. Results were reported as chloride mass
per unit volume, using an assumed unit weight of 2374 kg/m3
(4750 lb/yd3). The resulting chloride concentration versus
depth profile was mathematically processed to determine the
combination of surface chloride concentration (CS), back-
ground chloride concentration (C0), and the apparent chlo-
ride diffusion coefficient (DAP) that provided a satisfactory
numerical fit to a simple diffusion concentration profile per
Eq. (4) (where t is bridge age at the time of core extraction
and x is distance from concrete surface).
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Fig. 1—Empirical correlation between ρS and RCP,17,26,27
and schematic representation of cylinder 10 x 20 cm saw-
cutting to obtain three concrete sections for RCP testing.
  x 
Cx = Ci + (Cs − Ci ) 1 − erf   (4)
  2 DAP ⋅ te 
Other selected concrete cores obtained during the field
visits were placed in a 100% relative humidity chamber and
exposed until reaching a constant weight. Concrete electrical
resistivity from Sagües et al.19 was then measured nonde-
structively using a four-point Wenner array probe, correcting
for specimen size,25 and reported as saturated electric resis-
tivity (ρS).29 On the other hand, ρS measurements performed
with cores from Liu et al.20 were on the body (length-wise)
of the core as bulk resistivity. Carbonation was either not
present or less than a couple of mm; thus, the effect of this
section on the resistivity measured was negligible.
The third set of data is from self-consolidating concrete
from the bridge in Mexico (Yucatan Peninsula) mentioned
previously,18 and was obtained from cores (5 cm [2 in.] in
diameter, and between 15 and 20 cm [6 and 8 in.] long)
extracted from cast-in-place piles and pile caps after 2 years
of exposure to a tropical marine environment.
Value pairs for ρS and DAP were recorded following the
procedures described previously and using cores extracted
from the studied bridge. Two cores were taken from each of
the selected six piles (a total of 12 cores) at heights ranging
from 1.2 to 1.5 m (4 to 5 ft) above the high tide line (AHTL).
Another two cores were taken from six pile caps (a total of
12 cores) at heights ranging from 3.5 to 4.5 m (12 to 15 ft)
AHTL. Immediately after extraction, the cores were placed
in sealed plastic bags to preserve their moisture content.
They were transported to the laboratory, placed in a high-
humidity chamber, and the bulk ρS monitored until it reached
a constant value (±0.5% of the previous day’s measurement;
temperature = 22 ± 2°C [72 ± 3.6°F]) in each core. Once
reached, the cores were cut into five sections (2.5 ± 0.5 cm
thick) and processed as described previously to quantify
total chloride content per sample weight (concrete). Paired
ρS and DAP values were thus produced for each core section.
247
ρS versus DAP from cylinders at short-term curing
(laboratory control data)
Data were obtained from two studies performed by Liu
et al.20 and Andrade et al.21 In both studies, cylinders were
made and soaked in chloride-free water to constant weight.
The cylinders in Liu et al. study20 followed NT Build 443.30
For the other study, once the half-cylinder was saturated,
they were placed in plastic bags to prevent evaporation. At
the upper surface of each cylinder, a plastic tube containing
distilled water with a 3.5% NaCl concentration was placed
and worked as a ponding pool. Cylinder edges were sealed
to prevent the saltwater from filtering onto other cylinder
surfaces. At different time periods (Andrade et al.21: 38 and
120 days; Liu et al.20: between 100 and 400 days), selected
cylinders from Andrade et al.21 were removed from the
system and a central core extracted from the entire 20 cm
length using a 5 cm diameter core drill bit. Liu et al.20 cylin-
ders were sliced with a pattern similar to the extracted cores
in bridges. The cores were cut and the sections processed
as described previously to measure total chloride concentra-
tion. In the 2016 study,21 each cylinder’s ρS was measured
using the same Wenner array and four points as in the study
of the bridges, and at three times: 1) during initial cylinder
saturation; 2) before placement in plastic bags; and 3) after
removal from the NaCl solution. In Liu et al.’s study,20 the
resistivity was measured on companion cylinders using a
Wenner probe array, but the measured values were converted
to ρS. This procedure produced paired ρS and DAP values for
each cylinder at each stage.
RESULTS
Correlation between ρS and RCP
The analyses produced empirical correlations between ρS
and RCP data for the two concrete types evaluated for bridge
construction (Fig. 1): self-consolidating concrete (SCC)
and normal concrete with slump (NC). Trend and regres-
sion equations were developed for each type and a correla-
tion line proposed for each equation. Both the ρS and RCP
indexes show a clear inverse tendency: ρS values increasing
as RCP values decrease.
Performance in SCC data was slightly better than in NC
data. All values were within the 150 coulombs < RCP < 3000
coulomb and 6 kΩ-cm < ρS < 120 kΩ-cm ranges, corre-
sponding to concretes of regular performance (10 kΩ-cm <
ρS < 20 kΩ-cm; 2000 coulomb < RCP < 1000 coulomb),
good performance (20 kΩ-cm < ρS < 50 kΩ-cm; 1000
coulomb < RCP < 500 coulomb), and excellent performance
(ρS > 50 kΩ-cm; RCP < 500 coulomb).
These three concrete types had correlations very similar
to those established by Andrade and Whiting.15 Although
the regressions for SCC were nearer to the theoretical value,
proposed from the aforementioned reference, than that of
the normal concretes with slump (NC). Nevertheless, good
correlations (R2 > 0.84) were observed from all collected
data highlighting the use of ρS tests as a viable tool to indi-
rectly determine RCP information in the evaluated concrete.
The relation observed between ρS and RCP from Fig. 1 is
quite clear, and the regression coefficients from all the test
data are very high (0.8865 < R2 < 0.8440) and thus acceptable.
248
Fig. 2—Empirical correlation between ρS and DAP for
Florida bridges.19 Exposure time for each bridge is defined
with number in parentheses (that is, exposure time for HFB
bridge is 9 years).
As to the equivalent factor, a very close value of 18,245 is
obtained from the test data from SCC experimental data,
while in a second test series (NC), the value obtained (7389)
is quite different than the theoretical constant value (20,400).
This new evidence corroborates previous investigations,15
and that goes in the same direction with what ASTM is
currently taking on—who is preparing a standard of the
electrical resistivity method. Several other trials are being
performed at the present (that is, experiments with repair
mortar: low, intermediate, and high durability performance)
and will be presented in the near future to corroborate this
empirical correlation ρS versus RCP.
Correlation between ρS and DAP from aged bridges
cores
Results for each of the three data sources18-20 are addressed
individually and then as a whole to determine a possible
correlation between ρS and chloride diffusivity.
Sagüés et al.19 results are given in Fig. 2. The ρS and DAP
data from this study showed a good correlation (0.9881 <
R2 < 0.756) between both indexes (Fig. 2). Two correlations
were considered with these data because a slight deviation
was observed for the DPE bridge values (w/c = 0.38), which
differed from the other bridges in that it contained a concrete
with clear differences from the other evaluated bridges: it
contained a thick, granite-based aggregate and a mineral
addition from blast-furnace slag substitution (70% by
cement replacement). The concrete in all the other bridges
contained limestone gravel aggregate (except HFB, which
also contained granite; w/c = 0.41), and fly ash (20 to 30%
replacement for concrete) and/or microsilica (<10% replace-
ment for concrete) as mineral additives. A better perfor-
mance was obtained from the three bridges with concrete
containing a mixture of fly ash and microsilica: CCC (w/c =
0.35), BLP (w/c < 0.37), and BSB (w/c < 0.42).
All the concretes used to build the studied bridges were
formulated with a mineral additive (fly ash, microsilica,
blast-furnace slag, or a combination thereof), except that in
bridge BCB (w/c = 0.42), which was made only with port-
land cement. The ρS and DAP values for BCB, built over
50 years ago, were the least favorable, demonstrating that
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Fig. 3—Empirical relation between ρS and DAP in bridges
Liu et al.20 (exposure time between 2.5 and 12 years).
Fig. 4—Empirical correlation between ρS and DAP for cores
from Mexico Bridge18 (exposure time is approximately
2.5 years).
mineral additives reduce concrete porosity and therefore
increase service life. Due to the difference between the DPE
bridge concrete mixture and those of the other bridges, data
from DPE Bridge was no further considered in the regres-
sion evaluation with other researcher’s data. The tendency
line for Sagüés et al.19 has ordinate at the origin (constant in
the correlation equation) of 4 × 10–7.
Figure 3 shows the results obtained by Liu et al.20 in
bridges. The regression coefficient is also acceptable
(0.8049) and the slope is smaller than 1; the tendency line
has an ordinate in the origin of 7 × 10–8, one order of magni-
tude smaller than in previous data.19
The data on bridges from Torres-Acosta et al.18 are repre-
sented in Fig. 4. The results from the 24 cores (half extracted
from piles and the other half extracted from pile caps) from
the bridge on the north coast of the Yucatan Peninsula
exhibited trends in the ρS-versus-DAP correlation similar to
those in the previous two studies (Fig. 2 and 3). Of the three
studies, the value ranges from the Mexico Bridge were the
least favorable (20 kΩ-cm < ρS < 5 kΩ-cm; 8 × 10–9 cm2/s <
DAP < 1.5 × 10–7 cm2/s) as was the correlation (R2 = 0.544 for
piles and R2 = 0.5515). The data correlation for this bridge
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
Fig. 5—Empirical correlation between ρS and DAP for Spain
cylinders.21
was not as good as in the previous studies but the overall
trend was quite similar to them.
If all data from Torres-Acosta et al.18 are considered
similar, regardless of the structural element where the cores
were extracted, the regression line should be DAP = 6.0 ×
10–7 ρS–1.413 with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.7648,
which is better than when the results are analyzed separately.
This correlation using all data together gave an ordinate to
the origin of 6 × 10–7, which is in the same order as data from
Sagüés et al.19
Relation between ρS and DAP from cylinders at
short-term curing
Figure 5 shows the data from Andrade et al.20 The results
for the study of water-saturated 10 x 20 cm cylinders using
the ponding method to expose one end to 3.5% NaCl in water
at 38 and 120 days showed a clear tendency: the greater the
exposure time, the lower the DAP value and the higher the
ρS value.
The correlation coefficients for Andrade et al.21 data are
quite good (0.7593 < R2 < 0.7496). The overall tendency was
similar to that obtained from aged bridge cores: as ρS values
increase, DAP values decrease. If all data from Andrade
et al.21 are considered to be similar, regardless of exposure
time, the regression line should be is DAP = 2.0 × 10–6 ρS–1.326
with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.816 and, which is
better than when the results are analyzed separately.
Figure 6 depicts the data from Liu et al.20 The slope of
the regression line is very close to the theoretical of 1. It
can be also noticed that in spite that the range of data from
Andrade et al.21 were between 7 and 70 KΩ-cm and those of
Liu et al.20 are higher between 150 and almost 400 KΩ-cm,
all data align in the same regression range.
Comparing the data from Andrade et al.21 and laboratory
data from Liu et al.,20 it is quite interesting to observe the
differences between the ρS exponent (–1.227 and –1.345 for
the first reference, and –0.914 for the second reference), but
will be discussed later. If all data from Andrade et al.21 and
laboratory tests from Liu et al.20 are considered similar, the
regression line is DAP = 5.0 × 10–7 ρS–0.908 with a correlation
249
Fig. 6—Empirical correlation between ρS and DAP for cylin-
drical specimens exposed in laboratory environment.20
coefficient of R2 = 0.8731, which is better than when the
results are analyzed separately.
DISCUSSION
First, some comments will be made on the expected
correlations and further, the discussion on all data repre-
sented together will enable some general overview.
Expected relations
The relationship between ρs and RCP was given in the
experimental part based in that the test can be considered a
resistivity test. With respect to the relation between DAP and
ρs, it is based on the Einstein law of diffusivity12 in which the
K is a constant that depends on the salinity of the solution.
For seawater concentration, it takes a value of 2.1 × 10–4
cm2/s·ohm·cm
D = K · ρ–1 (5)
When representing Eq. (5) in a log-log axis, it appears
as a straight line. This equation was formulated for ions
with free and spontaneous movement under the driving
force of a concentration gradient in solution and not for a
porous media such as concrete is. Because of that difference,
Andrade12 formulated a series of assumptions for its appli-
cation in concrete. Among these considerations was that the
coefficient D value is the one that can be defined as “effec-
tive” (DEF), which means that the ions are not chemically
combined and moves without interactions with the pore
walls, and it is expressed in g/L of the volume of the aqueous
phase.
However, the D coefficient value that is measured from
a chloride concentration profile is not DEF, but one that is
denominated “apparent” (DAP), which is the result of the
movement of diffusion and of the chemical reaction with
the cement hydrated phases. The DAP coefficient of a chlo-
ride concentration profile, when directly compared with the
electrical resistivity using Einstein’s law, should be analyzed
taking into account the due to this chemical binding. In
summary, as the DAP is expressed in percent of the entire
mass, in order to be compared with the resistivity (directly
250
Fig. 7—Empirical correlation between ρS and DAP from
laboratory and field data based on Liu et al.20 information
(exposure time for field data is between 2.5 and 12 years).
related to the DEF), it should be multiplied by the porosity of
the specimen.
Other aspects from Einstein relation to be analyzed are the
ordinate in the origin for seawater concentration would be of
2.1 × 10–4 and that the slope of the relation D-versus-ρs is –1.
Smaller values of the slope that seem to not have physical
sense, and higher values would indicate that part of the chlo-
rides are bound, not participating in the diffusion.12
Comparison of laboratory and field data
Both sets of data from Liu et al.20 are given first—labo-
ratory cylinders and in field (Fig. 7). Two correlations are
shown from this reference (Fig. 7): ρS versus DAP from field
test data and from laboratory test data. The main difference
between them apparently was the exposed environment
(bridge data exposure with wetting-and-drying cycles due to
rain; laboratory data from wet cylinder exposure all the time)
and possibly the exposure time (for bridge data, >5 years; for
laboratory data, <2 years).
There is a clear difference between the data collected
from bridges under real field exposure conditions and that
collected from the non-steady-state laboratory procedure
using concrete cylinders with a NaCl ponding exposure and
under saturated conditions. It appears that the diffusivity of
chlorides is more rapid when concrete is saturated than in
concrete experiencing wetting-and-drying cycles, like that in
a bridge substructure: estimated DAP values from laboratory
tests were about five times the estimated DAP values from
field data. This shows how laboratory tests to predict the
service life of concrete structures in the marine environment
can produce an overestimated prognosis.
Another possibility that may affect the DAP of laboratory
tests is the time of exposure. Bridge data from field exposure
lasted greater than 5 years (an average of 12 years) compared
to laboratory tests data, which lasted less than 2 years after
concrete cylinders were fabricated. This exposure time
difference may produce changes in the chemical bonding of
chlorides from the hydration products, which in turn could
change its bulk diffusivity. This needs to be addressed later
with further results and will be presented in the near future.
ACI Materials Journal/November 2019
 Fig. 9—Empirical correlation from all data between ρS
Fig. 8—Empirical correlation between ρS versus DAP for
versus DAP for laboratory experiments and field exposure,
laboratory experiments and under field conditions from each
regardless of reference.18-21
reference.18-21
being constantly saturated with water, thus accelerating the
Comparing data from Andrade et al.21 of laboratory data
transport of chloride ions within the concrete cylinders. In
(Fig. 5) with those of Liu et al.,20 it is quite interesting to
contrast, the cores extracted from the bridges18-20 were all
observe the differences between the ρS exponent (–1.227 and
from concrete elements that experienced cyclical wetting-
–1.345 for the first reference, and –0.914 for the second refer-
and-drying exposure, meaning the chlorides would not be
ence), but will be discussed later. If all data from Andrade
constantly transported throughout the exposure time of these
et al.21 and laboratory tests from Liu et al.20 are considered
concretes to the marine environment (Fig. 9).
similar, the regression line should be DAP = 5.0 × 10–7ρS–0.908
An aspect to consider is the slope of the representations,
with a correlation coefficient of R2 = 0.8731.
in turn, are not of –1 but higher or lower in absolute value.
When pooled, the data from the four studies had ranges of
The value in the exponent of –1 appears in the basic equation
8 kΩ-cm < ρS < 300 kΩ-cm, and 2 × 10–9 cm2/s < DAP < 1.5 ×
of Einstein previously presented and, therefore, the differ-
10–7 cm2/s for laboratory non-steady-state exposure. For
ence in the value from –1 to the ones that appear in the full
field exposure in bridges around the Gulf of Mexico, ranges
data representations of Fig. 9 (value for field data –1.2) indi-
were 4 kΩ-cm < ρS < 100 kΩ-cm, and 1 × 10–9 cm2/s < DEF <
cate that part of the chlorides have combined. This is what
1.2 × 10–7 cm2/s (Fig. 8).
in Reference 12 was called “reaction factor”, which is not
Even though they were exposed to the Gulf of Mexico at
going to be commented on here but it takes into account that
different latitudes, the data for concrete infrastructure exposed
not all chlorides diffuse but some part stay chemically fixed
to marine environments from the three studies18-20 exhibited
with the media (cement hydration products).
very similar ρS-versus-DAP correlations. Their correlation
The greater in absolute value is in this exponent, the greater
coefficients (0.7581 < R2 < 0.8049) were also good despite
is the amount of bound chlorides in the concrete. Figure 9
differences in service times, core extraction elevation AHT,
also displays values of the exponent minor to 1 (absolute
and concrete types (variations in w/c, cement types, pres-
value) for laboratory data, although very close (0.908). This
ence/absence of mineral additives, and different aggregates).
value does not have a physical sense and can only be due to
Data from the bridges evaluated by Sagüés et  al.19 and
the dispersion expected of the measured values. Finally, if in
Liu et al.20 exhibited better performance (5 kΩ-cm  < ρS <
a test of ρS or RCP, the value obtained was –1, then it would
80 kΩ-cm; 1 × 10–9 cm2/s < DAP < 8 × 10–8 cm2/s) than the
mean that a reaction from the chlorides wasn’t produced and
concrete from the bridge evaluated by Torres-Acosta et al.18
chloride was spreading through the pores without reacting
(4 kΩ-cm < ρS < 20 kΩ-cm; 8 × 10–9 cm2/s < DAP < 1.5 ×
with the hydrated cement.
10–7 cm2/s). Nevertheless, in all cases, the values occurred in
Another important aspect observed from the test data
the same data cloud with the same tendency.
gather is that the chloride profile concentration value is
The data plotted together are represented in Fig. 9 as field
expressed in percent by the mass of the sample—that is to
and laboratory data, regardless of authors. The correlation
say, it refers to the entire volume of the sample. Meanwhile,
between laboratory data was better (R2 = 0.8731) than for the
it was discussed before that the coefficient D in Einstein’s
field concrete data (R2 = 0.869), but both are good enough
expression is the “effective” expressed in g/L of the aqueous
regardless of concrete type, time of exposure, and environ-
phase. Therefore, it is necessary to multiply the DAP by the
ment differences. This suggests that the correlation between
porosity to obtain the same ordinate in the origin (the same
ρS and chloride diffusivity follows the well-defined Einstein
constant K of Eq. (5)) of that indicated by Einstein. Given that
law of diffusion. However, the trend line tended toward
the porosity is usually in the order of 10% in many concretes,
higher DAP for laboratory data when compared to the DAP
not multiplying the DAP by the porosity supposes a deviation
values for field data with the same ρS values (Fig. 9). This
of about an order of magnitude. In the present work, the DAP
may be due to, as explained before, laboratory cylinders20,21

ACI Materials Journal/November 2019 251

has not been multiplied by the porosity because it was not
known for all test data used from previous investigations.
This, in turn, does not invalidate all the relations found, but
does point out that it is not possible to verify if Einstein’s
constant is fulfilled the way it was found in previous cases.12
In summary, the representation of the exposed cases indi-
cates a clear relation of the DAP with the resistivity close to a
slope of –1. This performance corroborates that, even in the
case of a porous media such as concrete, where the ion trans-
port is “reactive” (because part of it does not progress and
stays chemically bound in the cement phases), Einstein’s
law is fulfilled.12,21 This is very definitive to validate the
application of the theoretical relation to concrete, providing
the data come from such different sources with very different
cement concretes and conditions. The evidence, however,
calls for suggesting, before recommending, the substitution
of the chloride profile testing of always making a calibration
for each specific concrete.
CONCLUSIONS
Good empirical correlations were observed for ρS versus
RCP and ρS versus DAP. The latter is the most useful of the
two because it can directly predict the service or remaining
life of a concrete structure in service in a marine environ-
ment. Using the proposed empirical equations, any one
of the three tests can be done and then used to extrapolate
approximate experimental results for the other two.
The correlation for ρS versus RCP was not affected by
mixture design properties (cement type, mineral, and chem-
ical admixture contents, aggregate type, and content), and
differences between the ρS-versus-RCP correlations for
self-consolidating concrete (SCC) and normal concretes
(with slump) are quite small. With the test data gathered
now, it was proven that the RCP test is an electrical resis-
tivity test because it follows Ohm’s Law.
The ρS-versus-DAP correlation for the field data was unaf-
fected by mixture design properties (cement type, mineral,
and chemical admixture contents, aggregate type, and
content) for all the bridges evaluated in the Gulf of Mexico
region. Further evaluation is needed using field data from
other marine environments around the world.
When comparing the rS-versus-DAP correlation from field
data versus laboratory data, it is important to consider if the
chloride environment simulation includes saturated concrete
during the entire experimental period. Further correlations
with wetting-and-drying cycles in a laboratory environ-
ment need to be evaluated to confirm the field data collected
obtained to date.
It is enormously encouraging that data from such different
sources taken by researchers from two different continents,
with very different concretes and cements (or cementitious)
materials, coincide in the manner that has been found here.
This supports Einstein’s law with minor modifications for
cement-based materials application and it highlights the
universal character of this models. In other words, the move-
ment of ions by diffusion can be measured knowing the elec-
trical resistivity of the medium, regardless of solution type:
either the ions move freely in the liquid type of electrolyte or
in a porous medium.
252
It has been proven with the present data that the pore walls,
which interfere due to having electric polarity and also the
chloride chemical combination with the hydrated phases of
the cement, did not interfere with the general performance of
Einstein’s law of diffusion.
It can be easily deduced that electrical resistivity tests can
substitute the accelerated method of chloride diffusion (RCP
test) and the one with long-term chloride diffusion (chloride
profiles from extracted cores). However, it is recommended
that a calibration test, which allows one to know the value
of the exponent of the slope, is done to predict with a higher
security level.
AUTHOR BIOS
ACI member Andrés A. Torres-Acosta is a Full-Time Professor and
Researcher at the Instituto Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de
Monterrey (ITESM) in Querétaro, Mexico. He received his PhD in engi-
neering science at the University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, in 1999.
His research interests include construction materials and structures, with
a special emphasis in concrete infrastructure inspection, evaluation, and
durability forecasting.
ACI member Francisco J. Presuel-Moreno is a Professor at Florida
Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL. He received his PhD in engineering
science from the University of South Florida in 2002. His research interests
include metallic corrosion in concrete, the durability of reinforced concrete
structures, nondestructive testing, and experimental and computational
modeling of corrosion processes.
Carmen Andrade is a Visiting Research Professor at CIMNE: Interna-
tional Center for Numerical Methods in Engineering, Barcelona, Spain,
and received his doctorate in industrial chemistry. His research interests
include concrete durability and reinforcement corrosion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author acknowledges the institutions they represent: Instituto
Tecnológico de Estudios Superiores de Monterrey (ITESM), Querétaro,
Mexico; Florida Atlantic University (FAU), Boca Raton, FL; and the
International Centre for Numerical Methods in Engineering (CIMNE),
Barcelona, Spain, for the manuscript preparation. The opinions and find-
ings in this paper are those of the author and not necessarily those of the
funding agencies.
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253
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