Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Resources, Conservation and Recycling

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/resconrec

Review

Evolution of palm oil mills into bio-refineries: Literature review on

current and potential uses of residual biomass and effluents
Jesus Alberto Garcia-Nunez a,c , Nidia Elizabeth Ramirez-Contreras a ,
Deisy Tatiana Rodriguez a , Electo Silva-Lora b , Craig Stuart Frear c , Claudio Stockle c ,
Manuel Garcia-Perez c,∗
a
Colombian Oil Palm Research Centre, Cenipalma, Bogotá, Colombia
b
Institute of Mechanical Engineering, Federal University of Itajubá, Brazil
c
Biological Systems Engineering Department, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The palm oil agroindustry not only produces the most consumed vegetable oil in the world, but also
Received 7 July 2015 a significant quantity of residual biomass. This waste represents real opportunity to create a variety
Received in revised form 4 March 2016 of products. In the context of sustainable oil production, the use of biomass to generate value-added
Accepted 23 March 2016
products can be addressed through the evolution of existing palm oil mills (POMs) into biorefineries. In
Available online 6 April 2016
this manuscript, the authors present a literature review of potential uses for biomass generated in palm
plantations and at the POM, including the main properties, quantities, and current practices. After this, a
Keywords:
review of novel, less traditional is made. Finally, strategies for the synthesis and analysis of POM biore-
Palm oil mil (POM)
Palm oil mill biomass
finery concepts are discussed. This review highlights the need for development of high-value products
Biorefinery from POM waste and the urgency to incubate these emerging technologies for gradual transition into
Empty fruit bunches (EFB) biorefineries. Based on short term economic performance, biomass pelletization and anaerobic digestion
Palm kernel shell (PKS) of POME are the most promising technologies. Furthermore, the production of biochar has great potential
Fiber when the environmental performance is taken into account. More work is needed to evaluate the long
term economic, social, and environmental impact of other new technologies both now and in the future.
© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
2. Oil palm and the biomass generated in the plantations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3. Features and availability of oil palm biomass generated within the POMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.1. Chemical compositions of solid biomass and liquid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2. Availability of biomass in the POMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4. Current uses of biomass from POM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5. The emerging and most promising technologies to be applied on the POM biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1. Production of pellets and briquettes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.2. Cellulosic ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.3. Torrefaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.4. Pyrolysis for bio-oil production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.5. Pyrolysis for biochar production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6. Activated carbon from POM biomass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.7. Production of biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.8. Production of compost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.9. Electricity generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: mgarcia-perez@wsu.edu (M. Garcia-Perez).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2016.03.022
0921-3449/© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
100 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114

5.10. Other products with high added-value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109

6. POM bio-refineries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Acknowledgements: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

1. Introduction in 2003. The principles and criteria of the RSPO are currently the
most ambitious sustainability standards for the palm oil agroindus-
Unlike crops that are grown in temperate climates, the oil try (Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, 2013). Globally, countries
palm is a perennial crop that grows in the tropical regions of the producing CPO have adjusted environmental standards to comply
world where production continues throughout the year. In 2014, with the recommendations of the RSPO. In the case of Colombia,
the world’s total oil palm production area was 16,472,000 ha, of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development has set
which 77.5% was located in Indonesia (8,150,000 ha) and Malaysia environmental regulations regarding the emissions of particulate
(4,620,000 ha). The remaining areas were Thailand (720,000 ha), matter from stationary sources (such as boilers using biomass as
Nigeria (440,000 ha), Colombia (354,000 ha), and other countries fuel) and pollutant discharges into bodies of water. In the first
(2,188,000) (Fedepalma, 2015). The two main products of this case, the requirement of particulate material leaving new boilers
industry are crude palm oil (CPO) and the solid palm kernel (PK). is 50 mg m−3 (Ministerio, 2008). Regarding POME, the new regula-
Palm oil is the most produced vegetable oil worldwide, with pro- tions require changing reduction percentages of organic matter by
duction reaching 59.23 million tons (t) in 2014 (Fedepalma, 2015). fixed values on BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand), COD (chemical
The main use of CPO is for food; however, it is recently being used oxygen demand), TSS (Total Suspend Solids), chlorides, sulphates,
for the production of biodiesel and oleo-chemical derivatives. Palm and cadmium (Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible,
kernel meal (PKM) and palm kernel oil (PKO) are obtained from the 2015). These new values cannot be achieved with the conventional
PK. In 2014, the production of PKO worldwide was of 6.52 million t, systems for the treatment of POME comprising anaerobic and fac-
and that of PKM was 7.81 million t (Fedepalma, 2015). While PKO is ultative lagoons. The gradual evolution of POM into biorefineries
mainly used for the manufacture of oleo-chemical products, PKM is as an opportunity not only to comply with the new strictest
is used mainly for animal feed (Fedepalma, 2015). environmental standards, but also to enable the creation of new
Besides CPO and PK, the palm oil agroindustry generates a sig- products and improve the overall economic, environmental and
nificant amount of residual biomass, which in 2010 was estimated social performance of these systems.
globally around 87 million t/y (wet basis) (Ng et al., 2012a). The There are several good reviews of POM residual biomass uti-
types of residual biomass generated in this agroindustry are: (i) lization (Prasertsan and Sajjakulnukit, 2006; Mekhilef et al., 2011;
Empty Fruit Bunches (EFB), which result from the removal of fruits Prasertsan and Prasertan, 1996; Tantitham et al., 2009; Shinoj et al.,
from the sterilized Fresh Fruit Bunches (FFB); (ii) fiber resulting 2011). Some reviews focus on the current status of specific conver-
from the pressing of the fruit; (iii) Palm Kernel Shells (PKS) from sion technologies. Biomass utilization in Malaysia including POM
the nuts; (iv) ash produced by burning the fiber and PKS in the biomass focusing on the production of biofuels and bio-power has
boilers; (v) Palm Oil Mill Effluents (POME) from the process of oil been described (Mekhilef et al., 2011). In Thailand, Prasertsan and
extraction in the Palm Oil Mill (POM); (vi) sludge removed from the Prasertan (1996), carried out a survey about the use of POM biomass
anaerobic lagoons in the wastewater treatment systems and; (vii) and identified potential uses of this biomass. Tantitham et al. (2009)
logs, roots and palm leaves left behind in the fields after replanting, discussed the status of three biogas projects in this country and
once they have met their production cycle which is nearly 25 years. (Prasertsan and Sajjakulnukit, 2006) reported biomass and biogas
The use of residual biomass from the palm oil agroindustry has energy uses from POM biomass. Shinoj et al. (2011) published a
gained attention in recent years since it can be converted, through review on the use of EFB fiber for composites. Singh et al. (2010)
the use of different technologies (cogeneration, composting, pel- reviewed the techniques for composting POM biomass. The review
letizing, briquetting, pressing, pyrolysis, enzymatic digestion, etc.) published by Gobi and Vadivelu (2013) focused on the production
into value-added products (Chiew and Shimada, 2013; Prasertsan of polyhydroxyalkanoates and bio-hydrogen from POME. The use
and Sajjakulnukit, 2006; Mekhilef et al., 2011). The gradual inte- of palm oil biomass for decentralized electricity generation was
gration of these technologies within the POMs, transforming them reviewed by Bazmi et al. (2011).
into biorefineries, is also an area of growing interest (Chiew and Reviews dealing more closely with biorefineries concepts have
Shimada, 2013; Chang, 2014; Kasivisvanathan et al., 2012; Chew also been published (Chiew and Shimada, 2013; Chang, 2014;
and Bhatia, 2008a). There are several meanings for “biorefinery” Kasivisvanathan et al., 2012; Chew and Bhatia, 2008a). Chiew and
available in the literature (Van Ree and Annevelink, 2007). For Shimada presented a paper reviewing seven technologies for using
example, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL (NREL, only EFB and making a comparison through life cycle assessment
2014), defines a biorefinery analogous to oil refineries: in the case tools (Chiew and Shimada, 2013). Chew and Bhatia (2008a) pre-
of the biorefinery, the raw material is biomass, which produces sented a very comprehensive review about the use of catalytic
fuels, power and chemical products through conversion processes routes for the production of biofuels from palm and oil palm
and the use of specific equipment. The DOE (Department of Energy biomass-based biorefinery. Chang (2014) wrote an extensive lit-
of the United States) mentions that an integrated biorefinery uses erature review about the use of EFB for the production of bio-oils
various combinations of raw material feedstock and conversion focusing on the major challenges and the perspectives of the use
technologies to produce a spectrum of products, with the main of this biomass. Kasivisvanathan et al. (2012) carried out a fuzzy
focus on energy production (US Department of Energy, 2011); optimization study to convert a POM into an integrated biorefinery.
co-products include chemicals, animal feed, heat, and energy (US This paper aims to review the existing literature on the main
Department of Energy, 2011). alternative uses of residual biomass from the palm oil agroindustry,
The enormous growth potential of this agribusiness coupled and the work that had been done to use this information in the
with the environmental and social impacts of palm oil producers led synthesis and analysis of POM biorefineries.
to the emergence of the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO)
 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
Fig. 1. Oil palm plantation biomass in Colombia (dried basis). ‘Oil palm without FFB’ includes the standing biomass of the palms, roots, trunk and leaves but not FFB (Henson
et al., 2012).
2. Oil palm and the biomass generated in the plantations
The oil palm belongs to the monocotyledon family (Corley and
Tinker, 2003). The two most common species of the genus Elaeis
originate from Africa (Elaeis guineensis) and America (E. oleifera).
The two species have often been hybridized experimentally (GxO).
The transplant of the seedlings from a field nursery is typically per-
formed between 10 and 20 months of age. The planting density is
usually 144 trees per hectare. After 3 years of planting, the palm
begins to produce FFB reaching a stable production after 7 years,
with a yield oscillating between 18 and 35 t of FFB ha−1 year −1
(Corley and Tinker, 2003). After 25 years, although the production
continues, harvesting FFB becomes difficult due to the height of the
palms; at this point it is necessary to eradicate the palms.
The reports on the amount of accumulated biomass per hectare
in an oil palm crop are highly variable (Corley and Tinker, 2003).
Corley and Tinker (2003) mentions that 27.5 years old palms, with
planting density of 122 palms ha−1 , have a biomass yield of 37.7,
14.1 and 16 t ha−1 in trunks, leaves and roots respectively during
crop eradication (on a dry basis). Delgado (2016), specified that
the amount of trunks and leaves during eradication, expressed as
dry matter, is of 86.6 and 16.5 t ha −1 respectively for a seeding
density of 143 palms ha −1 with an age of 29 years. Henson et al.,
(2012) reported the amount of annual biomass in dry weight ha−1
of palms during the lifetime of the crop. This biomass is made up of
accumulated biomass in the trunk and leaves of the palm, biomass
accumulated in the roots, residues in the soil (pruned leaves, husks
and male inflorescences), biomass present in the soil due mainly to
standing plant species (ground cover), and biomass extracted from
the crops in the form of FFB (Henson et al., 2012). Figure shows the
biomass evolutions of the crop over 25 years considering an average
production of 22 t of FFB ha−1 . In the figure, relationships from the
literature (Corley and Tinker, 2003) were used for the conversion
of the fresh matter from the FFB to dry matter, which have been
validated for the case of Colombia (Contreras et al., 2012).
The FFB harvested in plantations are taken to the POM where the
two main commercial products are extracted: CPO and PK. The part
that remains after the separation of the fruits make up what is com-
monly known as empty fruit bunch (EFB). Three well-differentiated
parts are distinguished in the fruit. The mesocarp, where palm oil
is stored, will later correspond to what is known as mesocarp fiber
or simply fiber. The seeds, inside the fruit, contain the kernel in the
101
inner part and the endocarp in the outer layer. This endocarp will
be known later as palm kernel shell (PKS) or simply shell. From
Fig. 1 it is possible to obtain the percentage of biomass that can
be expressed in dry matter generated by one ha of palm over 25
years. 39 wt.% corresponds to FFB extracted from the crop, while the
remaining 61% remains in the field. From the dry biomass removed
from the crop, 56 wt.% corresponds to the products CPO and PK
(18 and 4 wt.% respectively of the total biomass produced over 25
years), and 43% corresponds to the biomass available represented
in the EFB, fiber and PKS (7, 7, and 4 wt.% respectively of the total
biomass produced over 25 years). The conventional use of the fiber
and PKS is to meet the needs of heat, power, and electricity of the
POM; therefore, in practical terms we are talking about 7 wt.% of the
biomass generated during the lifetime of the crop, whether or not it
is to be returned to the plantation for the recycling of nutrients, or
to be used to obtain other products through biorefinery processes.
The implications of removing the residual biomass from the field
to be used as feedstock in biorefineries have been reported pre-
viously for other crops, especially for short cycle crops (Wilhelm
et al., 2007). Wilhelm et al. (2007) mention that for the production
of cellulosic ethanol from corn (Zea mays L.) the amount of biomass
extracted should be limited by the need for waste to be left in the
field in order to control wind and water erosion as well as to avoid
loss of organic carbon in the soil. Consequently, data have indicated
that it is ideal to leave between 5.25 and 12.50 t of biomass ha−1
in the field. Osborne et al. (2014) reported the negative impact of
reducing the erodible fraction and the organic material from the
soil at higher biomass extraction rates in corn crops. In Malaysia,
a strategy has been planned for the year 2020 with the purpose of
taking advantage of the biomass generated in oil palm plantations
and POMs (Agensi Inovasi Malaysia (AIM), 2013), considering not
only the use of biomass obtained in the POM but also the frond’s
basal portion especially for the production of cellulosic ethanol.
They mentioned that when using all types of biomass generated
in the plantation and the POM, 80% of the nutrients contained in
these biomasses should be left on the field. However, they mention
that it is necessary to carry out long-term research to determine
any impact on the production of palm oil and soil health (Agensi
Inovasi Malaysia (AIM), 2013).
The authors could not find any long-term studies performed
regarding oil palm. In the case of oil palm plantations all remain-
ing material in the field is returned to the ground except for the FFB
102 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114

Fig. 2. Example of POM baseline and Biorefinery concept.

removed during harvest. For example, leaves, petiole bases, hedges,
palm trunks, and even the roots are left in the field for nutrient
recycling (Henson et al., 2012).
3. Features and availability of oil palm biomass generated
within the POMs
Between 18 and 24 wt.% of the total of FFBs on a wet basis enter-
ing the POM are CPO; between 4 and 6 wt.% are kernels. The rest
of the solid biomass is EFB (20–23 wt.%), fiber (11–14 wt.%), and
PKS (5–7 wt.%) on a wet basis (Garcia Nuñez et al., 2010). The liquid
biomass, POME, that considers the moisture of the FFB, the remain-
ing water during steam sterilization of FFB and, the water added in
the process to facilitate the separation of CPO, produces between
0.7 and 0.9 m3 t FFB −1 (Garcia-Perez and Garcia-Nunez, 2013). This
effluent is mainly composed of organic material with a level of total
solids, which account for approximately 6 wt.% of the FFB. It should
also be noted that the biomass from the POM contains a percent-
age of impurities known as “oil losses” and “kernel losses”, i.e., the
amount of palm oil and kernels that are discarded through the out-
flows together with the biomass. The EFB and the POME have a
percentage of impregnated CPO (typically 0.6 wt.% oil/FFB) as an “oil
loss”, while PKS and fiber contain the two losses (0.01 wt.% oil/FFB
in PKS and 0,6 wt.% oil/FFB in fiber) (Cala et al., 2011).
 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
3.1. Chemical compositions of solid biomass and liquid waste
The solid biomass of oil palm is generally composed of cellulose,
hemicellulose and lignin; the composition varies with the existing
varieties of palms. The ranges of chemical composition of the EFB,
fiber and PKS are shown in Table 1. It can be said that the cellu-
lose and hemicellulose are the main components of the EFB and
fiber, while PKS contain a higher percentage of lignin, because that
macromolecule provides protection for the kernel.
The POME is a liquid waste composed of about 94 wt.% of water
and 6 wt.% solids (soluble or insoluble), which are essentially organ-
ics. Table 2 shows the composition ranges of POME. Currently the
most common treatment system for POME is anaerobic digestion
through open lagoons (Ramirez et al., 2011; Garcña Nuñez, 1996;
García Nuñez, 1997; Ling-Hoak et al., 2007; Yacob et al., 2006;
Miranda et al., 2007), which produces about 28 m3 biogas t−1 of
POME, of which 64% is CH4 (a greenhouse gas) (Yacob et al., 2006;
Miranda et al., 2007), the main source of environmental pollution
in the POM.
3.2. Availability of biomass in the POMs
The attention on the uses of the biomass from the POMs has
been focused on EFB because of their wide availability (Prasertsan
and Prasertan, 1996; Garcia Nuñez et al., 2010); however, from the
point of view of the processes for biorefineries it can be stated that
the amount of EFB obtained at the POM is practically similar to
that of fiber, approximately 8 wt.% of FFB in dry basis. PKS available
represents close to 4 wt.% of the dry FFB. The organics in the effluent
account for 6 wt.% of the dry FFB.
Even though oil palms produce FFB throughout the year, this
production is not uniform. Ideally, a uniform production rate would
imply a monthly percentage of 8.3 wt.%. However, according to data
from Fedepalma in Colombia (Fedepalma, 2013), during the peak
periods of the year, some oil palm plantations have FFB yields close
to 12%, while in other periods the yields are as low as 6%. This vari-
ability is related to the genetic material of the palm, age, agronomic
management, and climatic conditions of each geographical area.
This variability in production also affects the schedules of POMs,
causing working shifts at peak periods to be as long as 24 h day−1 ,
while in lean seasons there is only one 8-h working shift. Conse-
quently, these conditions cause the availability of biomass to vary
in the same way, which must be considered during the conceptual-
ization stage and regarding the technologies for the use of residual
biomass (Umar et al., 2013).
Despite the non-uniformity of the distribution of biomass gen-
erated in the POMs throughout the year, there is a big advantage:
having a biomass at a single location for which the transportation
cost of the FFBs have already been paid. Additionally, the syn-
ergies that can be obtained with the existing infrastructure in a
POM could increase the potential to generate value-added new
products at lower production costs. However, specific analyses are
required, considering the scale at which this could take place in a
POM in Colombia. The size of POMs in Colombia ranges from 5 to
60 t FFB h−1 (Cenipalma data). For example, a POM of a regular size
30 t FFB h−1 can process 150,000 t FFB year−1 , which would gener-
ate a dry biomass (EFB, PKS and fiber) of 37,000 t year−1 and POME
of 120,000 t year−1 .
4. Current uses of biomass from POM
In the producing countries of palm oil, the uses for the biomass
are practically the same. Fiber and PKS are generally used for
solid fuel in boilers to produce steam and electricity required for
the POM, and the EFB is sent to the plantations for mulching
103
(Prasertsan and Prasertan, 1996; Garcia Nuñez et al., 2010; Rozario
and Melssen, 2013; Yusoff, 2006). Ash from the boilers can be used
as fertilizer. In the specific case of Malaysia, POMs not integrated
to plantations are allowed to burn the EFBs and sell the ash as a
soil amendment (Er et al., 2011). The PKS is sometimes used as a
conditioner for pathways within plantations (Garcia Nuñez et al.,
2010; Er et al., 2011). Palm trunks after renovation are usually left
in the field (Delgado, 2016; Umar et al., 2013; Rozario and Melssen,
2013).
The conventional treatment of POME is anaerobic and facul-
tative lagooning which produces methane. The treated water is
poured into bodies of water or used for irrigation (Garcña Nuñez,
1996; García Nuñez, 1997).
5. The emerging and most promising technologies to be
applied on the POM biomass
In addition to the conventional uses that have been given to
the biomass generated in the agroindustry of oil palm, new tech-
nologies for the production of higher value added products have
been implemented in some sites, although they have not yet been
completely widespread. Among them are: composting, fiberboard
manufacturing, pellet production, cogeneration of electricity for
external sale, and methane capture for energy generation and/or
carbon certificates. For example, a survey conducted in Colombia
on the uses of solid biomass generated by POMs (Garcia Nuñez et al.,
2010) established that 20% of the fiber and 15% of the EFB is used for
composting and 16% of the shell is sold to other industries for dif-
ferent uses. The composting of the biomass from oil palm has been
widely reported in Malaysia, Colombia, and Central America (Singh
et al., 2010; Torres et al., 2004; Yoshizaki et al., 2012; Schuchardt
et al., 2008; Baharuddin et al., 2010). In the case of Malaysia, it
is said that the stems and leaves of the palm have specific niche
markets in the timber industry market for flooring, plywood, fiber-
board, and furniture (Rozario and Melssen, 2013; Er et al., 2011).
Likewise, in Malaysia and in Thailand some pellet manufacturing
projects from the solid biomass have been established (Prasertsan
and Sajjakulnukit, 2006; Rozario and Melssen, 2013; Er et al., 2011).
Value-added, medium density fiberboards, from palm biomass, are
produced in Malaysia (Er et al., 2011). Similarly, the capture and
use of methane from wastewater treatment systems is increasingly
more frequent and reported in most of the palm oil producing coun-
tries (Prasertsan and Sajjakulnukit, 2006; Tantitham et al., 2009;
Vijayendran, 2016; Conil, 2007). There have also been studies and
cases of electricity generation implemented through the use of solid
biomass (Prasertsan and Sajjakulnukit, 2006; Rozario and Melssen,
2013; Arrieta et al., 2007; Beck-Larsen, 2004; Lacrosse, 2010).
Considering that the quantities of available biomass are finite,
all of these scenarios for the use of residual biomass will compete
or complement each other with emerging technologies such as the
production of cellulosic alcohol, bio-oils and biochar through pyrol-
ysis, and chemical compounds of high added value. However the
adoption of new processes for biomass use has not been widely
accepted. As for Malaysia, the MPOB (Malaysian Palm Oil Board) has
generated innovative products through the use of biomass. How-
ever, as mentioned in the National Biomass Strategy Malaysia 2020
(Agensi Inovasi Malaysia (AIM), 2013), farmers have not embraced
these new technologies widely.
New and emerging technologies will have to prove their eco-
nomic and financial viability as well as their environmental and
societal viability. From the economic point of view, there are some
references on the selling prices of biomass in the POMs. In 2010 the
sale price of fiber was RM 40 (USD 12.5) t−1 , while shells ranged
from 140 to 200 RM (USD 43.7–62.5) t −1 (Agensi Inovasi Malaysia
104 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114

Table 1
Characteristics of the main components of solid biomass exiting the POMs (Chang, 2014; Chew and Bhatia, 2008a; Prasertsan and Prasertan, 1996; Shinoj et al., 2011; Kelly-
Yong et al., 2007; Garcia-Nunez, 2005; Piarpuzán et al., 2011; Cenipalma, 2011; Torres et al., 2004; Ramirez et al., 2011; Menon et al., 2004; Abdullah et al., 2010; Abdullah
and Gerhauser, 2008; Abnisa et al., 2011a; Sulaiman and Abdullah, 2011; Husain et al., 2002).

Components Biomass

Shell EFB Fiber

Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD

Lignin (%) 48 2.9 15 8.9 24 5.5

Cellulose (%) 26 4.0 43 15.1 30 5.4
Hemicellulose (%) 19 4.5 21 6.3 21 5.6
Moisture (%) 11 5.2 36 28.8 24 15.7
Ash (%) 5 2.7 5.7 3.5 5.8 –
Volatiles (%) 74 5.7 80 5.8 78 –
C (%) 50 1.0 47 4.2 44 –
N (%) 0.4 0.2 0.6 0.4 1.9 0.1
S (%) 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.0
Na (mg kg−1) 10.8 – 102.3 – 32.9 –
Mg (mg kg−1) 262,7 – 913.5 – 1,509.5 –
Al (mg kg−1) 31.7 – 802.1 – 1,216.3 –
P (mg kg−1) 115.0 – 572.7 – 594.9 –
K (mg kg−1) 1,477.7 – 5,574.0 – 5,188.3 –
Ca (mg kg−1) 173.7 – 173.7 – 1,771.6 –
Fe (mg kg−1) 56.3 – 320.4 – 1,239.4 –

Table 2
Composition of the palm oil mill effluents at the outlet of the POM.

Component Range References

−1
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) (mg L ) 39,650–113,000 Torres et al. (2004), Garcña Nuñez (1996), García Nuñez (1997), Galindo and
Romero (2012), Wee et al. (2002), Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011), and
Nasir et al. (2012)
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) (mg L−1 ) 18,700–175,521 Torres et al. (2004), Garcña Nuñez (1996), Wee et al. (2002) and
Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Total Solids (mg L−1 ) 31,306–111,029 Torres et al. (2004), Garcña Nuñez (1996) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental
(2011)
Suspended Solids (mg L−1 ) 10,500–88,258 Torres et al. (2004), Garcña Nuñez (1996) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental
(2011)
Settleable solids (mg L−1 ) 554–950 Torres et al. (2004) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Fats and Oils (mg L−1 ) 1963–80,701 Torres et al. (2004), Garcña Nuñez (1996) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental
(2011)
Total nitrogen (mg L−1 ) 494 Torres et al. (2004) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Phosphate (mg L−1 ) 180–368 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Iron (mg L−1 ) 46.5–76 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Copper (mg L−1 ) 0.9–2.7 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Magnesium (mg L−1 ) 244–615 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Manganese (mg L−1 ) 2–2.9 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Zinc (mg L−1 ) 2.3–4.2 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Calcium (mg L−1 ) 150–439 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
Potassium (mg L−1 ) 1350–2270 Torres et al. (2004), Wee et al. (2002) and Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)
pH (pH units) 3.8–5.3 Torres et al. (2004), Garcña Nuñez (1996), Galindo and Romero (2012) and
Fedepalma—Área Ambiental (2011)

(AIM), 2013). In Colombia, the selling price of the shell has remained
around USD 35 t −1 .
The emerging technologies that have begun to be used in POMs
for the use of biomass, as well as the most promising technologies
that are still under development, and that have potential to be used
in the short and medium term are reviewed in the sections that
follow.
5.1. Production of pellets and briquettes
There are several studies on the production of pellets and bri-
quettes with EFB, fiber, PKS and PKC (Palm Kernel Cake) (Husain
et al., 2002; Forero et al., 2012; Deraman et al., 2002; Chaiyaomporn
and Chavalparit, 2010; Rahman et al., 2013; Lai et al., 2013; Nasrin
et al., 2008, 2010, 2011a; Razuan et al., 2011; Salomon et al., 2013;
Deraman and Ismaip, 1995; Sing and Aris, 2013; Kavalek et al.,
2012; Chen et al., 2009). Razuan et al. (2011) conducted tests to
pelletize PKC in order to identify the most favorable conditions in
view of the variables of pressure, temperature, moisture and effect
of agglutinants. As a result of the investigation they identified that
in order to produce pellets from PKC, the process must be per-
formed at a pressure of 64.38 MPa, at a temperature of 80–100 ◦ C,
and a moisture content of 7.9%. The granules had densities of
1184 to 1226 kg m−3 and tensile strength of 930–1.007 kPa. The
authors estimated that the production of pellets from PKC with
2% of the weight of caustic soda as agglutinant would cost about
28–47 EUR t−1 (37–62 USD t−1 ).
Rahman et al. (2013) evaluated the production of pellets from
ground EFB and fiber with sagú starch as the agglutinant. The pellets
with higher percentage of starch from sagú showed better binding
of the particles. The calorific value of the pellets produced with
ground EFB (17,000 kJ kg−1 ) was close to that of pellets made from
pinewood, and briquettes from the mixture of fiber and PKS with
19,300 and 16,380 kJ kg−1 , respectively.
Nasrin et al. (2011a) studied the production of briquettes from
EFB and fiber mixed in certain proportions. The average calorific
value and the specific density of the briquettes obtained were in
the ranges of 17,995–18,322 kJ kg−1 and from 1179 to 1225 kg m−3
 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
respectively. Husain et al. (2002), manufactured briquettes from
PKS and fiber of 40, 50 and 60 mm diameter with densities ranging
between 1100 and 1200 kg m−3 .
Deraman and Ismaip (1995) studied the carbonization of pellets
at 1000 ◦ C in the production process of the coal used in Malaysia to
produce electrical and electronic components, as well as pipes and
filters in the chemical industry. The same author, Deraman et al.
(2002), studied the carbonization of pellets from EFB at 1000 ◦ C
with the addition of nitric acid (NHO3 ) (1.3 and 5 M) to improve
the electrical conductivity, hardness and the Young’s module of the
product.
5.2. Cellulosic ethanol
Several studies were found about the use of lignocellulose
biomass from oil palm constituents, such as palm leaves (fronds),
stems (trunks), EFB and fiber, to produce cellulosic ethanol
(Piarpuzán et al., 2011; Ofori-Boateng and Lee, 2014; Kosugi et al.,
2010; Jung et al., 2011; Jeon et al., 2014). These studies involved
biomass pretreatment. Jung et al. (2011) pretreated EFB at con-
ditions of 60 ◦ C, 12 h, and 21% (w/w) in a solution of aqueous
ammonia; the results showed 19.5% and 41.4% yield of glucose
during an enzymatic digestibility test in 96 h when using 15 and
60 FPU (filter paper units) of cellulase respectively. Using the pre-
treated EFB and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation
for 168 h with 5% (w/v) of glucan, 60 FPU cellulase, and 30CBU (cel-
lobiase units) b-glucosidase g−1 glucan, a production of ethanol of
18.6 g L−1 was achieved, which was 65.6% of the theoretical peak
performance. Piñeros et al. (2009) utilized an EFB pretreatment
consisting of NaOCl (6.25%) for 2 h at 100 rpm and 30 ◦ C, producing
200 g waste/L in a process of chemical delignification.
Jeon et al. (2014) conducted a small-scale study to produce bio-
ethanol from EFB. The pretreatment used on the EFB was Chemex
(Changhae ethanol multiexplosion). As a result, a production of
bio-ethanol at a conversion rate of 83.6% was obtained, and for its
purification a process of distillation and dehydration was used with
efficiencies of 98.9% and 99.2%, respectively. A total of 144.4 kg of
anhydrous ethanol (99.7% by weight) were produced from 1000 kg
of EFB.
The industry considers ethanol production from EFB as a tech-
nology with great potential; however, the limited number of
studies with POM residuals, the lack of key ready technology sup-
pliers, the lack of studies about potential synergisms with existing
infrastructure, and reliable techno-economic analyses are major
hurdles for the implementation of this technology in POMs.
5.3. Torrefaction
The papers published about POM biomass torrefaction have
had as their main purposes to convert the wet biomass into a
more energy densified solid fuel, to improve storage conditions,
reduce the hygroscopic range, enhance grindability, and pretreat
the biomass for easier pelletization (Lu et al., 2016; Chin et al.,
2013a; Sabil et al., 2013a, 2013b; Uemura et al., 2011, 2013;
Asadullah et al., 2014). Torrefaction studies with EFB, fiber and PKS
were conducted at temperatures between 200 and 300 ◦ C under
inert gas (typically N2 ) or an oxidant environment (streams doped
with O2 or Air) and residence times between 20 and 140 min (Lu
et al., 2016; Chin et al., 2013a; Sabil et al., 2013a; Asadullah et al.,
2014; Uemura et al., 2013). The yield of torrefied product varies
between 30 and 92 wt.% depending on the feedstock and process-
ing conditions. The high heating value (HHV) of the torrefied POM
biomass varies between 16.1 and 23.7 MJ kg−1 (Lu et al., 2016; Chin
et al., 2013a; Sabil et al., 2013a; Asadullah et al., 2014; Uemura et al.,
2013).
105
Sabil et al. (2013a) torrefied EFB, fiber, and shell at light (200,
220, and 240 ◦ C) and severe (260, 280, and 300 ◦ C) conditions.
When torrefying POM biomass at 300 ◦ C, PKS had the highest
carbon mass fraction of 55.6 wt.% while fiber had the highest
HHV of 23.73 MJ kg−1 . Torrefied PKS had the highest energy yield
(86–92 wt.%) when subjected from light to severe torrefaction con-
ditions until 280 ◦ C. Torrefied EFB and fiber only obtained 70–78%
of energy yield at light torrefaction conditions until 240 ◦ C. The
highest HHV for EFB, PKS and fiber were 22, 23 and 24 MJ kg −1
respectively.
Chin et al. (2013a) studied the optimum conditions to obtain
torrefied EFB, determining values of 23 MJ kg−1 and 9.55 wt.% of
HHV and weight loss respectively. Optimum conditions to obtain
torrefied PKS with high HHV and yields greater than 70 wt.% were
studied by Asadullah et al. (2014). They found that the best condi-
tions were at 300 ◦ C, residence time of 20 min, nitrogen flow rate
of 200 mL min−1 to obtain around 73% of bio-coal yield with a HHV
of 24.5 MJ kg−1 . Mohamad Haafiz et al. (2013) studied the torrefac-
tion of fiber finding that at temperatures between 200 and 250 ◦ C,
the torrefaction reactions are more exothermic than those carried
out a 300 ◦ C. Lu et al. (2016) studied the use of nitrogen and air
as carrier gases during torrefaction on fiber. They found that by
using nitrogen they obtained at 300 ◦ C, 51.7% and 23.4 MJ kg−1 of
solid yield and HHV respectively. These results are better than the
ones obtained at the same temperature but using air (30.2% and
19.1 MJ kg−1 respectively)
Torrefaction of EFB in limited amounts of oxygen was carried out
by Uemura et al. (2013). In concurrence with other researchers, they
found that the char yield decreases with increasing temperature
and oxygen concentration. All of the yields of torrefied biomass
were between 85 and 95 wt.%.
The effect of fiber torrefaction on pelletization was studied by
Fedepalma (2011). They related a torrefaction severity factor (a
single variable that integrates the effects of reaction time and tem-
perature, with a range between 5.23 and 6.85) with the ease of
making pellets. It was found that at higher values of the severity
factor the HHV of the torrefied material increases from 19.15 to
22.82 MJ kg−1 . However, when making pellets from the torrefied
fiber, better results were obtained with low severity factor than
the ones obtained at higher severity factor. In fact, pellets made
from torrefied fiber with low severity factor showed greater length
and good adhesion between particles. Optimal torrefaction condi-
tions to produce pellets with high energy yield and good formation
should be made using severity factor below 6.7 (Fedepalma, 2011).
Although torrefaction has shown many advantages to enhance
the use of biomass, there are still some impediments that make this
process unpopular in the industry (Asadullah et al., 2014; Nordin,
2016). Small variations on the parameters might cause reduction
on energy and mass yield (Asadullah et al., 2014). The reactors
for torrefaction come generally from drying and pyrolysis reac-
tor technologies (Kiel, 2013) that need technical adjustment for
torrefaction applications (Asadullah et al., 2014). The lack of read-
ily available torrefaction industrial equipment and studies on the
potential integration of this technology with POMs are limiting the
industrial implementation of torrefaction technology.
5.4. Pyrolysis for bio-oil production
Pyrolysis is a thermochemical process typically performed in
the absence of oxygen to transform biomass into a high energy
density liquid (bio-oil), a high energy density solid (biochar) and
low energy density gas (syngas) (Laird et al., 2009). Fast pyrol-
ysis (fast heat transfer and low residence times) is used mainly
for maximizing bio-oil production while slow pyrolysis (low heat-
ing transfer and high residence times) is used mainly to maximize
biochar production (Laird et al., 2009).
106 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114

Table 3
Summary of pyrolysis of EFB, Fiber and Shell.

Reference Abdullah and Abdullah and Abdullah and Khor et al. (2009) Abnisa et al. (2013)
Gerhauser (2008) Gerhauser (2008) Gerhauser (2008)

Operational Conditions
Feedstock Unwashed EFB Washed EFB Washed EFB Dried EFB bales Washed EFB
Reactor type Fluidized bed Fluidized bed Fluidized Pilot kiln Fluidized bed bench
Temperature (◦ C) 500 500 499 600 500
Heating/media/bed material Sand (350–500 ␮m) Sand (350–500 ␮m) Sand (350–500 ␮m) Sand (355–500 ␮m)
Capacity 150 g h−1 150 g h−1 1 kg h−1 100 kg bach−1 150 g h−1
Particle size 355–500 (␮m) 355–500 (␮m) 355–500 (␮m) Bale, L = 114 cm 1–2 mm
D = 76 cm

Input
Moisture (%) 7.5–9.0 5.7 6.8 8.6 Dried at 105 ◦ C

Yields (mf wt%)

Char 24.5 10.8 11.2 24.8 29.1
Organic part 34.7 61.3 57.3 12.9
Gas 22.3 14.7 23.1 12.9 25.2
Aqueous part 15.2a 11.0 7.0 49.4
Total liquids 49.9 72.3 64.2 62.3 45.8
Reference Venderbosch et al. Abnisa et al. (2013) Abnisa et al. (2011b) Abnisa et al. (2013) Asadullah et al. (2013)
(2016) and
Venderbosch (2010))

Operational Conditions
Feedstock Shredded EFB Washed Fiber Shell Washed Shell Shell
Type of pyrolysis Rotating cone reactor Fast pyrolysis Fast pyrolysis Fast pyrolysis Fluidized bed pyrolysis
Temperature (◦ C) 500 ◦ C 500 ◦ C 500 ◦ C 550 ◦ C
Heating/media/bed material No needed Sand (355–500 ␮m) Sand (355–500 ␮m) Quartz sand of
400–500 ␮m
Particle size <10 mm 1–2 mm 1.7–2 mm 1–2 mm 1–2 mm

Input
Moisture (%) ≤10 Dried, 105 ◦ C, 24h Dried, 105 ◦ C, 24h Dried, 105 ◦ C, 24h

Yields (mf wt%)

Char N.D 29.8 31.0 35.3 28.0
Organic part N.D
Gas 51.4 26.3 22.0 17.3 15.0

Aqueous part
Total liquids 43.8 47−0 47.4 57.0
a
Estimated from Abdullah and Gerhauser (2008) and Khor et al. (2009).

Table 4
New products that can be obtained from POM biorefineries (Garcia-Nunez et al., 2016; Ng and Ng, 2013; Ng et al., 2015; Ng et al., 2013a; Aam et al., 2015; Lim and Lee, 2011;
Begum and Saad, 2013; Ng et al., 2013b; Makm et al., 2015; Rincón et al., 2014; Moncada et al., 2014; Chew and Bhatia, 2008b; Kami Delivand and Gnansounou, 2013).

New products used in the synthesis and analysis of POM biorefineries References

Bio-ethanol, biodiesel Lim and Lee (2011)

Biogas and electricity production Begum and Saad (2013)
Electricity, briquets, pellets, dried long fiber, short fibers, gasification Ng et al. (2015)
Compost, dried fiber, pellets, briquette, biogas, electricity, steam, refined palm, charcoal, stearin/olein/fatty acid distillate Ng and Ng (2013)
Dried fiber, pellets, briquette, compost, biogas, refined palm stearin, olein, fatty acid distillate Ng et al. (2013a)
Compost, bioplastics, biochar, bioadsorbent, biodiesel, biocomposite, biovanillin, bioethanol, bio-butanol, electricity Aam et al. (2015)
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) bioplastic Makm et al. (2015)
Bioethanol, glycerol, biodiesel Rincón et al. (2014)
Biodiesel, glycerol, PHB, ethanol Moncada et al. (2014)
Transportation fuels, hydrogen, methanol, ethanol, higher alcohols, biodiesel, glycerin, olefin, aromatics Chew and Bhatia (2008b)
Bioethanol, biodiesel, crude glycerin, electricity Kami Delivand and Gnansounou (2013)
Pellet, DLF, Briquette, PKS Charcoal, PKS, Compost, Electricity, HPS, MPS, LPS Ng et al. (2013b)
Pellets, anaerobic digestion, composting, heat, bio-oil, bio-char, electricity Garcia-Nunez et al. (2016)

Work on bio-oil from pyrolysis of oil palm biomass has been
reported mainly from research groups in Malaysia e.g. Universiti
Sains Malaysia (Abdullah et al., 2010; Abdullah and Gerhauser,
2008; Sulaiman and Abdullah, 2011; Sulaiman et al., 2013; Abnisa
et al., 2013; Khor et al., 2009), the University of Malaysia (Abnisa
et al., 2011a, 2013, 2011b; Sulaiman et al., 2013; Salema and Ani,
2012), the Universiti Tecknologi Petronas, and the Malaysia Palm Oil
Board (MPOB) (Azizan et al., 2009; Sukiran et al., 2009). Table 3 sum-
marizes the main conditions used to produce bio-oil from POMs
biomass. In order to understand this table, it is necessary to clarify
some terminology about bio-oils that has been used in this lit-
erature review. Some authors (Abnisa et al., 2011a, 2013; Azizan
et al., 2009; Asadullah et al., 2013) named bio-oil as the total liq-
uid condensed produced during pyrolysis, while others just named
bio-oil as the organic fractions of the total liquid (Khor et al., 2009).
Khor et al. (2009) named EFB bio-oil as the viscous tar, while they
named the other fraction as the EFB vinegar, the “less oily brown-
ish aqueous phase”. Abnisa et al. (2013), after centrifugation of
the total liquid, named the two phases as the bio-oil upper layer
and the bio-oil bottom layer, while other authors (Asadullah et al.,
2013) just named the same two phases, as the product of nor-
mal separation of the bio-oil without centrifugation. In Table 3 we
have grouped the main characteristics of the bio-oils as “Total liq-
uid” (Total condensed liquids), “Organic Part” (bottom layer), and
“Aqueous Part” (top layer). The yield of fast pyrolysis products from
total liquid, char and gases from EFB, PKS was reported by Abnisa
 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
et al. (2013). Total bio-oil, ranged from 44 to 7 wt.%. Biochar yields
ranged between 29 and 35 wt.%.
The effects of ash content reduction by washing the EFB on
pyrolysis were studied by Abdullah and Gerhauser (2008). They
found that as the ash content increases, less total liquid is obtained
but the yields of char and gases increased. The yields of biochar
and total liquids for the unwashed EFB were 24.5 and 49.9% respec-
tively, while for the washed EFB were 10.8 and 72.3%, respectively
(Table 3). The influence of ash content in EFB, fiber, and shell was
also studied by García-Nuñez et al. (2008), who found that the
POM biomass thermal behavior, thermo-gravimetry (TG), and dif-
ferential scanning calorimetry (DSC), changed drastically for the
EFB and fiber, which had greater amount of ash, compared with
the PKS with less ash. In the case of EFB, the differential thermo-
gravimetric (DTG) curve changed from having two well-defined
peaks for unwashed samples, to one single peak for extractive
free EFB. Consequently, the amount of biochar was greater for the
unwashed sample, which is in accordance with the results men-
tioned by Abdullah and Gerhauser (2008).
Venderbosch (2010) reported on the first EFB pyrolysis plant
in Malaysia, which was developed by the BTG group. Some of the
main achievements during the first years of operation were: (i) from
5000 t of EFB, more than 20 wt.% of bio-oil were produced; (ii) the
drying of the EFB from 50 wt.% down to 5 wt.% was carried out using
the excess heat from the pyrolysis process; (iii) after drying, the
excess of energy could be used for electricity generation: (iv) the
capacity of the plant reached a maximum of 1.7 t h−1 ; and the bio-
oil was co-fired to replace conventional diesel in a facility located
300 km from the pyrolysis plant (Venderbosch, 2010).
Due to the characteristics of the bio-oils from POM biomass,
Shuit et al. (2009) mentioned that this oil could serve as a potential
feedstock for the production of fuels and chemicals in petroleum
refineries. The density of the bio-oils from total liquids obtained
from EFB, fiber, and PKS ranged between 1032 and 1200 kg m−3 ,
and the kinematic viscosity at 50 ◦ C ranged between 1.5 and 3.2 (cP)
(Abnisa et al., 2013, 2011b). The density of these bio-oils are higher
than the fossil diesel in Malaysia, which is around 855 kg m−3
(Khor et al., 2009; Asadullah et al., 2013). The higher bio-oil den-
sity from EFB, fiber and shell is due mainly to the heavy organic
molecules with great presence of oxygen such us phenolic com-
pounds (Asadullah et al., 2013). The viscosity of the organic phase
reported on EFB bio-oil from slow pyrolysis showed a high value of
13.52 cP (Khor et al., 2009) which is considerably higher not only
than the ones reported for the total liquids (between 1.5 and 3.2),
but also for diesel (Khor et al., 2009). The low pH values (ranged
from 1.7 to 3.1) of the bio-oils could be due to the amounts of
carboxylic acids presented in these bio-oils (Abnisa et al., 2011a,
2011b; Sulaiman and Abdullah, 2011; Khor et al., 2009; Sukiran
et al., 2009).
As mentioned previously, the characteristics of the bio-oils
change according with the pyrolysis conditions. Asadullah et al.
(2013) mentioned that the physical appearance of PKS bio-oil
changes at different temperatures. They also stated that bio-oil
produced below 500 ◦ C split on two phases while the one pro-
duced above 550 ◦ C showed just one homogenous phase. The HHV
is higher in the organic phase (ranged from 25.29 to 36.06 MJ kg−1 )
compared with those HHV of the total liquid (ranged from 6.58
to 18.63 MJ kg−1 ) (Abdullah and Gerhauser, 2008; Khor et al., 2009;
Abnisa et al., 2011b; Azizan et al., 2009; BTG, 2006). It is due mainly
to the heavier organic molecules presents in the organic phase.
5.5. Pyrolysis for biochar production
There have been an increasing number of publications about
biochar due primarily to its potential to improve soils for crop
production, soil moisture retention, pollution remediation, car-
107
bon sequestration, and nutrient (e.g. P, K) adsorption (Garcia-Perez
et al., 2013; Verheijen Fga et al., 2009; Spokas a et al., 2009; Sohi,
2009; Bracmorth, 2009; IBI, 2014). However, a review of litera-
ture shows very few publications related to biochar uses from POM
biomass.
Abnisa et al. (2013) pyrolyzed EFB, PKS and fiber in a fixed bed
bench reactor at 500 ◦ C during 60 min, using nitrogen flow rate of
2 L min−1 . The biochar yields were 29, 35, and 30%, respectively.
As may be seen, the highest biochar production was obtained with
shell due mainly to the highest amount of lignin of this material. The
HHV of the biochars from shell, EFB and Fiber varies between 27.9
and 32.6 MJ kg−1 . The ash content of these chars varies between
2 wt.% for the shell to close to 13 wt.% for the EFB char (Abnisa et al.,
2013).
A study of greenhouse gas emissions and economics of biochar
production from EFB was published recently (Harsono et al., 2013).
On a 20 t EFB day−1 slow pyrolysis pilot plant running since 2010,
they found a biochar yield per year of 20%, net energy yield of
11.47 MJ kg−1 , and net greenhouse gas emissions of 0.046 kg CO2
equiv. kg−1 EFB year (without considering carbon sequestration
into the soil and fertilizer substitution). They also stated that under
these conditions, biochar production would be profitable if the
biochar could be sold at least at USD 533 t−1 .
5.6. Activated carbon from POM biomass
Activated carbon (AC) can be obtained by physically activating
biochars at temperatures over 700 ◦ C in the presence of a weak
oxidizing agent (steam or CO2 ). AC from POM solid biomass has
been reported widely (Alam et al., 2007; Arami-Niya et al., 2011;
Guo et al., 2007; Guo and Lua, 2000; Hamad et al., 2011; Lua and
Guo, 2001, 2000; Sumathi et al., 2009; Tan et al., 2009, 2008). Due
to its chemical composition shown in Table 1 (e.g. high lignin con-
tent ∼ 48%), PKS has been the most important POM biomass residue
used for this purpose. Lua and Guo (2000) studied the activation
of oil PKS using one-step CO2 activation process. They found that
the optimum conditions for activation were at 850◦ and a holding
time of 2 h reaching values of BET and micropore surface area of
1410 and 942 m2 g−1 , respectively. These authors showed that the
particle size of the raw material and heating rate did not have sig-
nificant effects on the BET area. In a later study carried out by the
same authors (Lua and Guo, 2001) they showed that the optimum
conditions for producing AC from PKS (pyrolyzed at 600 ◦ C) with
high density, well-developed porosity, and high BET surface area
were: an activation temperature of 900 ◦ C, holding time of 30 min,
heating rate of 100 ◦ C min−1 and a CO2 flow rate of 100 cm3 min−1 .
The largest BET surface area found, using these conditions was
1366 m2 g−1 .
Guo et al. (2007) compared the conditions to produce AC not
only for PKS but also fiber. The optimum conditions were at an acti-
vation temperature of 800 ◦ C, and retention times of 30 and 50 min
for fiber and shell respectively. They found that pore distribution
was different for each AC. The one produced from fiber showed
mainly mesopores and macropores, while the AC produced from
PKS was mainly microporous. Therefore, they stated that PKS acti-
vated carbon could be used for gas-phase adsorption while fiber
activated carbon could be used for liquid-phase adsorption.
The use of microwave exposure to make AC from PKS was
reported by Guo and Lua (2000). By exposing the PKS biochar at
a microwave power of 750 W for 60 min with a CO2 flow rate of
200 cm3 min−1 , a BET surface area of 412.5 m2 g−1 was found. By
adding CuO the exposure time was reduced to 10 min and a BET
surface area of 526.7 m2 g−1 was obtained.
AC from POM biomass to be used in aqueous solutions has
also been studied. Alam et al. (2007) studied the AC from EFB for
removing phenol in aqueous solutions comparing thermal activa-
108 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
tion and physical activation. They found that the AC obtained by
thermal activation at 800 ◦ C had a maximum adsorption which var-
ied between 2.7 and 10.8 mg g−1 at initial phenol concentrations of
25–200 mg L−1 respectively. The biochar produced from physical
activation did not reach the same values obtained from the ones
produces from thermal activation (Alam et al., 2007). They also
found that the phenol adsorption capacity was higher at lower pH
values (2–3) and higher value of initial phenol concentration. The
production cost that Alam et al. (2007) found was USD 0.50 kg−1
of AC. EFB AC was also used by Aziz et al. (2012) in determining
the phenol adsorption capacity using four different particle sizes
(unsieved, >2, 0.355–1.0, and <0.15 mm mesh number). The high-
est phenol adsorption was found for particle size greater than 2 mm
with adsorption percentage of 73% (66.67 mg g−1 ). This percentage
was greater than the commercial activated carbon (68%).
Hamad et al. (2011) studied the adsorption of 4-chloro-2-
methoxyphenol (4C2MP) in aqueous solution using PKS AC. A
maximum adsorption capacity of 323.62 mg g−1 was found when
increasing contact time in acid conditions. The BET surface area,
pore volume and the average pore diameter were 1571 m2 g−1 ,
0.8 cm3 g−1 and 2.15 nm respectively. Another compound from the
phenolı́s group that was investigated to be adsorbed in aqueous
solution using PKS AC was 2,4,6-trichlorophenol (TCP) (Tan et al.,
2009). The TCP adsorption using a fixed-bed system of PKS AC was
shown in the form of an equation which relates the ratio of the out-
let concentration to the inlet concentration taking into account the
volumetric flow rate and the total flow time. The authors stated
that the fixed-bed obtained better results when using lower TCP
inlet concentration, lower flow rate, and higher activated carbon
bed height.
The effect of hydrochloric acid (HCl) treatment of PKS AC on
methylene blue (MB) adsorption was studied by Tan et al. (2008).
By using HCl the surface chemistry of the PKS AC was influenced
showing an adsorption capacity of MB of 303 mg g−1 compared
with 243 mg g−1 to the untreated PKS AC.
The use of AC from POM biomass for gas adsorption was stud-
ied by Sumathi et al. (2009). They used PKS AC for individual and
simultaneous adsorption of SOX and NOX from flue gas at low tem-
peratures (100–300 ◦ C). In comparing the use of PKS AC with and
without metal catalysts (Ni and Ce), they found that pure PKS AC
could only remove SOX whereas PKS AC impregnate with Ni and
CE removed both, SOX and NOX . The best simultaneous removal
of those two gases was obtained at 200 ◦ C. A study carried out by
Arami-Niya et al. (2011) about PKS AC related to methane adsorp-
tion capacity showed that high BET surface area and micropore
volume of AC did not determine the methane capacity adsorption.
5.7. Production of biogas
Methane gas (CH4 ) yields obtained from POME have reported
for different configurations. For example, Schuchardt et al. (2002)
and Yáñez et al. (2011) reported that one ton of CPO produced is
responsible for the emission of 46 m3 of CH4 . Conil and Kervyn
(2015) reported that one ton of processed FFB produces 15 m3 of
CH4 . Harsono et al. (2014), Chin et al. (2013b) and Miranda et al.
(2007) reported methane percentage close to 60% of the biogas
generated from the POME. Methane has been categorized as one
of the greenhouse gases with a global warming potential (GWP) of
25, according to the IPCC (IPCC, 2007). Arthur and Glover (2012),
estimated the potential of methane generated from POME in the
palm oil industry in Ghana during 2002–2009 in 38.5 million m3 ,
the equivalent of 388 GWh of energy. Considering its GWP of 25,
methane emissions were about 2,770,000 t CO2 eq.
Harsono et al. (2014), identified the amount of biogas produced
in a POM in Sumatra, Indonesia, where 710 t year−1 of biogas were
obtained, equivalent to a production of 440 t of methane CH4 year−1
and an electricity output year−1 of 26,275 GJ, or 2.02 GJ year −1 ha
−1 , based on a heating value for methane of 39.89 MJ m−3 CH . As
4
discussed by Harsono et al. (2014), the estimated energy output is
higher compared to the results of other studies which reported an
electricity output of 1.72 GJ ha−1 year−1 (Yusoff and Hansen, 2007),
1.54 GJ ha−1 year−1 (Pleanjai et al., 2009) and, 1.85 GJ ha−1 year
−1 (Pereira de Souza et al., 2010). In Colombia, Yáñez et al. (2011),
reported that POME treatment lagoons are the main source of emis-
sion of greenhouse gases within the analyses of the life cycle of
biodiesel from CPO, with a GHG of 946 kg CO2 eq t−1 of biodiesel,
representing 34.92% of total emissions of the biodiesel production.
A commercial example of CO2 captures in the frame of the clean
development mechanism (CDM), was described by Yoshizaki et al.
(2013). The FELDA Serting Hilir POM in Malaysia, was subjected for
a new approach to integrate technology for energy production from
biogas and composting of EFB and sludges to reduce the effects of
greenhouse gas emissions. This POM processes 54 t h−1 of FFB and
has the potential to produce 8.2 GWh of electricity per year from
biogas captured in the POME treatment system.
In Latin America, there are several countries that have imple-
mented CDM projects to capture biogas from POME. For example,
Conil (2007) mentions that Palmas del Espino in Perú is working on
reducing emissions of greenhouse gases by replacing diesel with
biogas since 2007. This project provides a reduction of emissions of
approximately 26,719 t CO2 eq y−1 (Conil, 2007; UNFCCC, 2015). In
Honduras, the POM Palcasa processes about 100,000 t of FFB y −1 ,
and it has a biogas plant that provide 1.26 MW to the grid via two
630 kW generator sets (Conil, 2007).
In the case of Colombia, there are two POMs that are capturing
biogas from the system for the treatment of POME: one of them
generates electricity to cover the demands of its own industrial
complex. Currently this facility has an electricity generation of 1.5
MW from the biogas captured from the lagoons, whose charac-
teristics include a content composition of CH4 lower than 30%, a
content of H2 S of 200 mg Nm−3 , and a pressure of 4–6 kPa. This
POM has estimated purchasing two other engines will produce 3
MW of generation and enable the selling of power to the national
grid (based on personal communication).
Biogas can be considered as an alternative and affordable green
fuel. In Malaysia, there are about 410 POMs producing about 58
million t of POME, which can produce nearly 300 MW (Nasir et al.,
2012). Harsono et al. (2014) estimate the efficiency for methane
conversion into electricity in the cogeneration plant is 30 wt.%, and
that the electricity and heat generated in the cogeneration plant
can meet the energy demands of the POM and possibly adjacent
communities as well (Harsono et al., 2014). The main limitation of
the anaerobic digestion technology is the fact that although it can
convert an important fraction of the organics into biogas most of
the nutrients (N and P) still remain in the effluents.
5.8. Production of compost
Miranda et al. (2007) mention that it is possible to achieve sus-
tainable processes for the treatment of waste generated in a POM
by using, in the first place, the POME for biogas capture and then
use it in compost along with the EFB in a ratio of 3.48 m3 of POME
t−1 of EFB and a processing time of 8–10 weeks. In general, com-
post is one of the most applied technologies in the oil palm sector.
Commercial studies, such as the one by Torres et al. (2004), have
reported that when composting the biomass, it is possible to reduce
the transportation cost comparing with the transportation of fresh
EFB and fiber. For each ton of fiber processed, 560 kg of compost
are obtained, which has a density of 417 kg m−3 as compared with
the density of EFB, which is 250 kg m−3. The content of N, P, K, Mg
and Ca in POM composted residual material is typically between
 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
0.92 and 3.65, 0.16 and 2.01, 0.36 and 7.96, 0.20 and 1.28, 0.52
and 12.80 wt.% respectively (Torres et al., 2004; Baharuddin et al.,
2010, 2009; Schuchardt et al., 2002; Stichnothe and Schuchardt,
2010). The big ranges on the figures could be explained due to many
factors such as: specific fertilization conditions in each plantation,
time of composting, mixture of compost with digested POME, etc.
Another case of commercial unit of composting is reported by
Ling-Hoak et al. (2007), where the conversion of POME and EFB into
organic fertilizers with zero waste was first developed at a pilot
plant in Malaysia called Boustead Biotherm Palms Plant (BBPP),
which was able to evaporate up to 1.14 kg water kg−1 of dry matter
day−1 over a period of seven days. Based on the results obtained in
the pilot plant, a commercial scale facility was designed to treat and
convert all the effluents produced in a POM into organic fertilizer
through composting and bio-drying, using EFBs as raw material.
They also mention that this zero-waste and zero-discharge plant
could replace anaerobic ponds for treatment of POME and elim-
inate the emission of methane, and therefore qualify for carbon
credits, improve nutrient recycling, help protect water streams and
contribute to the sustainability of palm oil plantations.
Among the considerations established from the works analyzed
by Cenipalma in 2013, and according to the references of POMs
in Colombia, the following are the best conditions for composting:
Ratios: 3.2 m3 POME/t EFB, composting time: 2.5–3 months, tem-
perature: Minimum: 40 ◦ C, maximum 75 ◦ C. number of turns: 2–3
turns per week, Irrigation: 2–3 per week, cell size: 2.5 m wide by
2.5 m high by 100 m long. The ash produced in the boilers is also
added to the composting piles.
From the environmental point of view, it is also possible to apply
the CDM methodology for the production of compost, as in the work
by Yoshizaki et al. (2012), who conducted a case study in 2011 to
evaluate the economic viability of composting in a POM in Malaysia,
with and without the CDM. A POM with a capacity of 54 t FFB h−1
has the potential to produce per year fertilizers equivalent to 488 t
of nitrogen, 76 t of phosphorus and 1065 t of potassium per year.
The economic analysis of the project for a period of 10 years indi-
cated that the CDM provided a significant impact and ensured the
economic viability of the project with a 31% internal rate of return
(IRR), RM 10.87 million of, net present value (NPV) and 2.9 years
for payback of the investment.
5.9. Electricity generation
The practice of cogeneration has been used in most mills more
with the intention of meeting the electrical and thermal needs in
the process of extraction of CPO, rather than as a source of extra
income by selling electricity to the network. As has been mentioned
in previous sections the most commonly used biomass for this type
of generation is fiber, followed by PKS, while the EFB, given its high
moisture content and large size, is not used very frequently for this
purpose. By using only the fiber and PKS as fuels for steam pro-
duction in low-pressure boilers, and the generation of electrical
energy obtained, the energy requirements in the POM are gener-
ally supplied (these are between 600 and 650 kg steam t −1 FFB and
15–20 kW h t −1 FFB (Nasrin et al., 2011b)).
Bazmi et al. (2011) conducted a study on the challenges for
decentralized electricity generation with palm oil biomass consid-
ering the global oil palm industry (South East Asia, West Africa,
Central Africa, and Latin America). The study indicates that the elec-
tricity generated by biomass combustion has a low efficiency, but
there has been a significant change in technology in recent years
by using high-pressure boilers, which, together with the use of the
EFB, could generate more electricity. In this sense, the projections
for the annual electricity generation for the Asian oil palm sector
are 8000, 5000, and 500 GWh for Malaysia, Indonesia and Thailand,
respectively (Renewable Cogen Asia Sector Biopower Asia, 2010).
109
In Malaysia, the combined generation of electricity and steam is
widely used in 77% of the mills (Umar et al., 2014). The potential
use of extra electricity generation at POMs in Malaysia has been
recognized as the most important and easily exploitable renewable
source (Sulaiman et al., 2011) worth 1.67 billion dollars annually
in 2001 (Zamzam Jaafar et al., 2003). The region of North Suma-
tra, Indonesia, is in a different situation from that of Asia: the use
of biomass for power generation is novel because it is rare to see
this type of application there (Nasution et al., 2014). However, the
government has realized that there is a need to diversify energy
sources and considers as a goal for 2025 that biomass energy shall
contribute 5% (Nasution et al., 2014). In this regard, they have stud-
ied the potential of POMs as energy generators within the national
network, having obtained as a result that facilities with a capacity
of 30 t h−1 of FFB can provide 20–35 MW (Nasution et al., 2014). By
contrast, the African industry has not explored the use of biomass
energy. They continue to use outdated steam boilers supplied with
fiber to cover the heat demands of the oil plant; similarly, they use
diesel generators to meet the demand of electricity (Bazmi et al.,
2011).
The Colombian palm oil sector has a great potential for elec-
tricity generation still not exploited. In the current operating
conditions, the POMs with cogeneration in the country stand out
because they focus on meeting the thermal needs of the produc-
tion process, for which the efficiency in electric generation does
not reach representative increases (Vargas et al., 2011).
The specific aspects found in the literature regarding the effi-
ciency of boilers and turbines, energy utilization factor, heat-power
ratio, and technological replacement of backpressure steam tur-
bines for condensing turbines are shown below. A study performed
in 7 POMs in Malaysia (Husain et al., 2003) provides a calorific value
of the fuel—a mixture of fiber and PKS of 14.25 MJ kg−1 mentioning
that this value can be improved by reducing the moisture present
from 40% for fiber and 7% for the PKS. The average efficiency of the
boiler and the turbine were 73% and 68.5% respectively, which is
low compared to a conventional power plan. Replacing the back-
pressure turbines for condensation turbines increased the electric
power on average by 60% and the utilization factor of the cogen-
eration system was 65%, and can be further improved with an
extraction-condensing turbine (Husain et al., 2003).
In a similar study (Nasrin et al., 2011b) the efficiency of boil-
ers, turbines and global generation of the mill was estimated in
six POMs in Malaysia with capacities ranging from 20 to 45 t FFB
h−1 . The average boiler efficiency (<80%) and cogeneration plant
(35%) are moderate compared with fossil fuel-fired power plants.
The inlet and outlet pressures of the steam turbine were 1800–2000
and 290–320 kPa respectively. The cogeneration efficiency ranged
from 57 to 70%. Regarding the energy potential, for a capacity of
20 t of FFB h−1 it was 113 kW, and for 54 t of FFB h−1 it was 900 kW.
However, it could be greater in the sense that POMs use excessive
specific energy to generate steam and electricity as compared with
the optimal industrial data. Arrieta et al. (2007) in a comparative
study conducted in Colombia, indicate that the potential for cogen-
eration in POMs for a FFB processing capacity of 18–60 t FFB h−1 ,
provides a surplus power from 1 to 7 MW, and that with an aver-
age capacity factor of approximately 0.4. An index of generation
of 75–160 KWh t FFB−1 can be expected when the POM is either
in operation or stopped, respectively, i.e., three or four times bet-
ter than using a traditional system of backpressure steam turbines
(Arrieta et al., 2007).
5.10. Other products with high added-value
There is wide research on other products that can be obtained
from the biomass production of POMs such as bio-composites
(Shinoj et al., 2011; Hashim et al., 2011), the production of cel-
110 J.A. Garcia-Nunez et al. / Resources, Conservation and Recycling 110 (2016) 99–114
lulose pulp and paper, (Prasertsan and Prasertan, 1996; Shuit et al.,
2009; Cheah, 2008; Kong, 2003), bio-plastics (Shuit et al., 2009),
production of hydrogen and synthesis gases (Chew and Bhatia,
2008a; Kelly-Yong et al., 2007; Shuit et al., 2009), food for rumi-
nants (Kong, 2003), chemicals via catalytic technologies (Chew and
Bhatia, 2008a), production of enzymes (Alam et al., 2009; Moya
and Torres, 2012), production of phenol from effluents (Jamal et al.,
2011). The production of bio-diesel from palm oil has also been
studied extensively in Colombia (Garcia-Nunez et al., 2009, 2011)
and Malaysia (Chew and Bhatia, 2008a; Kusdiana and Saka, 2004).
Hydro-treatment of CPO for the production of green diesel has also
been studied in the literature (Guzman et al., 2010).
6. POM bio-refineries
The conversion of an existing industrial plant into a biorefin-
ery brings many advantages, such as those mentioned by Van
Heiningen (2006) in the case of a paper mill in Canada. Therefore,
it is possible to think of a gradual evolution of POMs into biore-
fineries, which would bring several advantages over the concepts
of biorefineries for semester crops. In the case of POMs, the biomass
to be used is in an industrial area where there are facilities already
and is obtained throughout the year. Several papers on the synthe-
sis and analysis of palm oil mill bio-refineries have been reported
in the literature (Hashim et al., 2011; Cheah, 2008; Kong, 2003;
Alam et al., 2009; Moya and Torres, 2012; Jamal et al., 2011; Garcia-
Nunez et al., 2009, 2011, 2016; Kusdiana and Saka, 2004; Guzman
et al., 2010; Van Heiningen , 2006). The capacity of the POM used
as baseline for these studies vary between 30 and 60 t h−1 (Garcia-
Nunez et al., 2016; Ng and Ng, 2013; Ng et al., 2015; Aam et al.,
2015). Fig. 2 shows an example of a baseline POM and a biorefinery
concept studied in the literature (Garcia-Nunez et al., 2016).
There are many emerging technologies that can be used in the
synthesis of palm oil mill bio-refineries. The Technology Readiness
level (TRL) concept as a way to evaluate the maturity of emerging
technologies (Overend, 2016). This is a very important parameter
that have to be taking into account in the selection of the technolo-
gies that will be used in the synthesis of new bio-refinery concepts
(Garcia-Perez and Garcia-Nunez, 2013). Table 4 shows some of the
technologies included in the synthesis and analysis of POM biore-
fineries reported in the literature.
Like in the case of the petroleum industry, process synthesis
is also expected to play a critical role development of POM bio-
refineries (Yuan et al., 2013). Process synthesis aims to identify in
a systematic way the type of interconnections among the different
units that create the best total flowsheet (Yuan et al., 2013; Pham
and El-Halwagi, 2012; Ponce-Ortega et al., 2012). In the literature
three approaches have been used for POM biorefinery synthesis: (1)
heuristic approach which use specific process knowledge and expe-
rience (example hierarchical decomposition based approach, pinch
technology of Linnhoff, brain storming); (2) superstructure opti-
mization based on the formulation and solution of mathematical
problems often by linear programming (Ng and Ng, 2013; Ng et al.,
2015; Ng et al., 2013a; Pham and El-Halwagi, 2012; Ponce-Ortega
et al., 2012; Murillo-Alvarado et al., 2013; Kelloway and Daoutidis,
2014) and (3) hybrid approach (Yuan et al., 2013; Ng et al., 2012b).
The analysis of bio-refineries and the selection of the most
promising alternatives is typically done by comparing economic,
environmental and social indicators among competing bio-refinery
concepts. Most of the bio-refinery studies reported in the literature
(Ng and Ng, 2013; Ng et al., 2015; Begum and Saad, 2013; Ng et al.,
2013a; Makm et al., 2015) base their analysis on economic perfor-
mance indicators (net present value, gross profit, internal rate of
return and payback period, production costs). Some studies (Lim
and Lee, 2011; Rincón et al., 2014; Moncada et al., 2014; Kami
Delivand and Gnansounou, 2013) also use environmental perfor-
mance indicators very often derived from Life Cycle Analyses (net
energy ratio, net carbon emission ratio, and green-house gases,
waste reduction algorithm from EPA). There are very few stud-
ies of POM bio-refineries (Garcia-Nunez et al., 2016) that explicitly
consider social performance indicators.
The method for the selection of the best bio-refinery con-
cept varies from the comparison of performance indicators using
selection criteria based on the system of values of stakeholder
(Garcia-Nunez et al., 2016) to optimization strategies (Ng et al.,
2015) that required the solution of complex mathematical prob-
lems.
7. Conclusions
The gradual evolution of POMs into biorefineries is an attrac-
tive option because POMs produce biomass all year round. The
industrial facilities and farms can dramatically decrease capital
investments compared with starting a biorefinery from scratch.
From the total dried biomass generated per ha in the cultivation
of oil palm after 25 years, 39% corresponds to the harvest of FFB.
The oil and kernel represent 18 and 4 wt.% of the total biomass pro-
duced, respectively, while the residual biomass is comprised of EFB
(7 wt.%), fiber (7 wt.%), and shell (4 wt.%). Fiber and shell are gen-
erally used to produce steam, power, and electricity necessary to
meet the requirements of a POM. The challenge of converting a POM
into a biorefinery will be to consider the optimal use of the avail-
able biomass to improve the economic, social, and environmental
performance of the industry.
There is an explosion in the number of technologies that are
being studied at the lab scale; many technologies are being tested
at the pilot plant and demonstration scale and the number of
companies commercializing them is also increasing. We also see
great progresses in the fundamental sciences advancing our under-
standing on the main phenomena supporting biomass conversion.
Existing biomass processing industries, like the palm oil industry,
have to be attentive of these new developments and continuously
evaluate their potential impact on the gradual evolution of POMs
into biorefineries.
In the short term-based on economic performance, biomass pel-
letization and the anaerobic digestion of POME seems to be the most
promising technologies. The production of biochar has great poten-
tial when the environmental performance is taken into account. In
the long term many new technological options will be available, so
a thorough analysis of their economic, social, and environmental
impact is needed.
The key finding of this review is that technologies that were
previously only proven at the laboratory scale are today showing
positive results at the pilot and demonstration scale. Indeed, the
palm oil industry is on the cusp of gradual evolution into a co-
operating, synergistic biorefinery industry.
Acknowledgements:
Financial support is appreciated from the Washington State
Agricultural Research Center (NIFA-Hatch-WNP00701), CAPES
(Brazil) and from the Fulbright scholarship program, and from the
Oil Palm Development Fund managed by Fedepalma (Colombia)
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