Wind Tunnel Test on Model Cessna

Laboratory Report

Marker: Sharif Khodael, Dr Zahra

Department: Department of Aeronautics
Course: A401 MEng in Aeronautics
Module: AE1-113 Experimental Methods
Academic year: 2017/2018

Student: Mr. Tey Jia Sheng

CID: 01400841
Personal tutor: Sharif Khodael, Dr Zahra
Date: March 2, 2018

Department of Aeronautics
South Kensington Campus
Imperial College London
London SW7 2AZ
U.K.

Abstract
A model Cessna 172 was analyzed in the Donald Campbell Wind Tunnel at various angle of
attack of 0◦ to 13◦ at airspeeds 20.77 ms−1 and 31.63 ms−1 . Information such as lift and drag
forces, corresponding non-dimensional coefficients, drag polar, efficiency ratio, stalling angle
of attack, stall speed for full-scale Cessna 172 and lift-induced drag force are obtained and
plotted into characteristic graphs to show relationships. Stalling angle of attack is 12.4◦ and
lift-induced drag at stalling angle of attack on model is 1.145 N at airspeed equals 31.63 ms−1 ;
stalling angle of attack is 11.9◦ and lift-induced drag at stalling angle of attack on model is
1.208 N with airspeed at 20.77 ms−1 , all at respective corresponding CLmax . Experimental stall
speed calculated for full-scale Cessna 172 is 30.07 ms−1 , which is 15.6% higher than the actual
value.
Contents

Table of Contents i

List of Figures ii

List of Tables ii

List of Symbols iii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Context and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

2 Theoretical Background 2
2.1 Donald Campbell Wind Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 Model Aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Pitot Static Probe and Temperature Probe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.4 Multi-channel Voltmeter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Freestream Velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

3 Experimental Procedure and Apparatus 6

4 Experimental Results 8
4.1 Freestream Velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4.2 Graphical Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.1 Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2.2 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient CL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.2.3 Drag-to-Lift Ratio DL
Against Lift Coefficient CL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2.4 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient Squared CL 2 . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Discussion 18
5.1 Stall Speed Vstall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.2 Maximum Gliding Distance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
5.3 Errors and Uncertainties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6 Conclusion 22

References 23

A Graphical Representations 24

B Raw Data 25

i
List of Figures

2.1 Main components of closed return wind tunnel [2]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2.2 Model Cessna mounted on strut with Pitot Static Tube at top right corner. . . . 3
2.3 Furness Micro-manometer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Multi-channel Voltmeter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

4.1 Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α with wind tunnel at 75% power. . 10
4.2 Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α with wind tunnel at 50% power. . 11
4.3 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 75% power. 13
4.4 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 50% power. 13
4.5 Drag-to-Lift Ratio DL
Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 75% power. 14
4.6 Drag-to-Lift Ratio DL
Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 50% power. 15
4.7 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient Squared CL 2 with wind tunnel at
75% power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.8 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient Squared CL 2 with wind tunnel at
50% power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

5.1 Free body diagram of aircraft in gliding regime from [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

5.2 Range of aircraft in gliding regime from [3]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

A.1 Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α from [5]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

List of Tables

4.1 Freestream velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re for wind tunnel at 75% Power. 9
4.2 Freestream velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re for wind tunnel at 50% Power. 9

B.1 Raw data for wind tunnel test at 75% power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

B.2 continued from Table B.1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
B.3 Raw data for wind tunnel test at 50% power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
B.4 Continued from Table B.3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

ii
List of Symbols

The list describes several symbols that will be later used within this report.

α Angle of attack, [◦ ]

Æ
R Aspect ratio, [dimensionless]
D
L
Drag to lift ratio, [dimensionless]
L
D
Lift to drag ratio, [dimensionless]

µ Viscosity, [m2 s−1 ]

µ0 Reference viscosity, [m2 s−1 ]

ρ Air density, [kgm−3 ]

θ Gliding angle, [◦ ]

CD Drag coefficient, [dimensionless]

CL Lift coefficient, [dimensionless]

CD0 Zero lift drag coefficient, [dimensionless]

CDi Lift induced drag coefficient, [dimensionless]

CDmin Minimum drag coefficient, [dimensionless]

CLmin drag Lift coefficient corresponding to Minimum drag coefficient, [dimensionless]

CLmax Maximum lift coefficient, [dimensionless]

CLmin Minimum lift coefficient corresponding to minimum drag to lift ratio, [dimen-
sionless]

D Aerodynamic drag force, [N]

Di Lift induced drag force, [N]

g Gravitational acceleration constant (= 9.81), [Nkg−1 ]

k Performance ratio of aircraft, [dimensionless]

L Aerodynamic lift force, [N]

L1 Lift component 1, [N]

L2 Lift component 2, [N]

iii
m Mass, [kg]

P Total pressure, [Pa]

P0 Static pressure, [Pa]

q∞ Dynamic pressure, [Pa]

R Specific gas constant for air, [Jkg−1 K−1 ]

Re Reynold’s Number, [dimensionless]

S Reference wing area, [m2 ]

T Temperature, [K]

T0 Reference temperature, [K]

V∞ Freestream velocity, [ms−1 ]

Vstall Stall speed, [ms−1 ]

W Weight, [N]
 
D
L min
Minimum drag to lift ratio, [dimensionless]

iv
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Context and motivation

Wind tunnel test is widely used to analyze the performance of aircraft in the field of aeronau-
tics. Essential aircraft performance parameters such as lift and drag can be measured for most
types of flight condition. This allows aircraft designers to modify the aircraft as to suit its
desired function. Production of full-scale aircraft can be started after required functions for the
aircraft is achieved. This saves costs since aircraft is only in production when aircraft is able
to fulfill its function.

The Cessna 172 has been built and flown since 1955 [6] and hence have sufficient and re-
liable data of it recorded during real flight situations. Choosing the Cessna 172 as the model
for this wind tunnel test is a good way to observe the difference between the free air flow in
the real world and the air flow in the wind tunnel. The stall speed of the full-scale aircraft
is calculated experimentally based on data recorded from wind tunnel test and compared to
data from real flight condition, is 15.6% larger, indicating that corrections should be made to
manipulating the data collected to reflect the real world flight condition. With corrections and
more wind tunnel tests, more accurate and reliable representations of the flight parameters can
be produced.

The following are objectives of this wind tunnel test.

1. Analyze the relationship between lift, drag, and angle of attack for the
model aircraft.

2. Plot graphs of essential aircraft coefficient parameters and discuss the

graphs produced.

3. Compare the difference in stall speed obtained experimentally and in

real-world flight condition.

1
Chapter 2

Theoretical Background

2.1 Donald Campbell Wind Tunnel

Donald Campbell Wind Tunnel is a low speed closed return wind tunnel situated in Roderic
Hill Building, Imperial College London. It has a 1.37m×1.22m working section and can provide
a maximum wind speed of 40 ms−1 when powered up to 100%. The power setting of the wind
tunnel is controlled using a voltage regulator with a scale from 0 to 10 V. Figure 2.1 from NASA
[2] shows how the air is circulated in the wind tunnel. As stated from [2], some advantages
of the closed return tunnel are quiet during operation relative to open return tunnel and low
operating costs. One of the disadvantages are hotter running conditions, hence require heat
exchangers or active cooling.

Figure 2.1: Main components of closed return wind tunnel [2].

2
2.2 Model Aircraft
The model aircraft used in this wind tunnel test is the 1/20th scale Model Cessna 172, with a
mass of 1.04 kg. It was mounted on a pivot at the top of a streamlined strut. The model is
angled in such a way that almost zero lift is produced at a zero angle of attack. A simple flow
visualization close to the surface of the model fuselage and wings can be observed using wool
tufts attached to it.

2.3 Pitot Static Probe and Temperature Probe

A Pitot Static Probe mounted in the roof of the test section sufficiently far away from the
model aircraft is connected to the Furness Micro-manometer. It measures the total pressure
(pressure experienced at the front tip of the probe) and static pressure (pressure experienced
along the side of the probe) and displays the dynamic pressure, which is the difference between
total pressure and static pressure on the digital display of the Furness Micro-manometer in
Pascals (Pa) as shown in Figure 2.3. The position of Pitot Static Tube in the working section
relative to model aircraft is shown in Figure 2.2. A Temperature Probe is also placed inside
the working section of the wind tunnel connected to the Furness Micro-manometer to output
the temperature of air during the wind tunnel test.

Figure 2.2: Model Cessna mounted on strut with Pitot Static Tube at top right corner.

3
 Figure 2.3: Furness Micro-manometer.

2.4 Multi-channel Voltmeter

The forces applied onto the model aircraft are measured using three strain-gauged ”flexures”
which have already been calibrated. Two of them are mounted inside the model aircraft and the
third is attached to the tail wire, all of them connected to the multi-channel voltmeter. Each
of them respectively measures the drag force D connected to channel 1, the lift component L1
connected to channel 2, and the lift component L2 connected to channel 3. The multi-channel
voltmeter used is shown in Figure 2.4.

Figure 2.4: Multi-channel Voltmeter.

4
2.5 Freestream Velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re
Dynamic Pressure q∞ is defined as in Equation 2.1

1
q∞ = ρV∞ 2 (2.1)
2

where ρ is the density of air and V∞ 2 is the freestream velocity. By rearranging it, we can
calculate the freestream velocity V∞ using the dynamic pressure q∞ recorded from the Furness
Micro-manometer as shown in Equation 2.2.

s
2
2q∞
V∞ = (2.2)
ρ

Reynold’s Number Re is defined as in Equation 2.3

ρV∞ D
Re = (2.3)
µ

where D is the wing root chord and µ is the fluid viscosity. Fluid viscosity µ can be calculated
using the Sutherland’s formula shown in Equation 2.4 from [4]. In Equation 2.4, T0 is the refer-
ence temperature at 288.2 K, µ0 is the reference fluid viscosity which is 1.789 × 10−5 kgm−1 s−1
and T is the temperature of the operating fluid in the wind tunnel which is air in this experiment.

 
 32
T0 + 110.3 T

µ = µ0   (2.4)
T + 110.3 T0

5
Chapter 3

Experimental Procedure and

Apparatus

The following steps were taken during the wind tunnel test.
1. Model Cessna is set to have a zero angle of attack α.
2. Before switching the wind tunnel on, the Barometric pressure P and the
initial temperature T of the wind tunnel displayed on the Furness Micro-
manometer is recorded.
3. All three readings on the multi-channel voltmeter are all adjusted to zero.
4. Key operated main power supply for the main motor in the wind tunnel is
switched on. This simultaneously switched on the cooling fan for the main
motor.
5. Green start button is pressed.
6. The voltage regulator is switched on.
7. The airspeed reference voltage knob is turned to set the tunnel airspeed at
50%.
8. All three readings on the multi-channel voltmeter are recorded.
9. Dynamic pressure on the Furness Micro-manometer is recorded.
10. Angle of attack is changed to 1◦ up to 8◦ in steps of 1◦ , followed by steps
of 0.5◦ up to 13◦ .
11. All three readings on the multi-channel voltmeter and the dynamic pressure
on the Furness Micro-manometer is recorded at each angle of attack α.
12. The airspeed reference voltage knob is turned to set the tunnel airspeed at
0% power.
13. The voltage regulator is switched off.
14. The red stop button is pressed.
15. Key operated main power supply for the main motor in the wind tunnel is
switched off.
16. Model aircraft is set back to a zero angle of attack α.
17. Steps above are repeated with the airspeed reference voltage knob turned
to set the tunnel airspeed at 75%.

6
The following are apparatus used in this wind tunnel test.

1. Donald Campbell Wind Tunnel

2. 1/20th scale Model Cessna 172
3. Pitot Static Probe
4. Temperature Probe
5. Furness Micro-manometer
6. Multi-channel Voltmeter
7. Voltage Regulator

7
Chapter 4

Experimental Results

4.1 Freestream Velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re

For this wind tunnel test, initial temperature T recorded is 295.4 K and static pressure P
recorded is 101440 Pa. Density of the operating fluid (air in this case), can be determined using
values of T and P and the Ideal Gas Law Equation as shown in Equation 4.1. (Specific gas
constant for air R is 287.058 Jkg−1 K−1 )

P
ρ=
RT

101440 (4.1)
=
287.058 × 295.4

= 1.196 kgm−3 (4 s.f.)

Freestream velocity V∞ for this wind tunnel test can be determined by using Equation 2.2
and the air density ρ calculated in Equation 4.1, which are 31.63 ms−1 (4s.f.) at 75% power and
20.77 ms−1 (4s.f.) at 50% power.

Using both Equation 2.3, 2.4 and the freestream velocity V∞ calculated, Reynold’s Number
Re are calculated to be 166100 (4s.f.) and 109000 (4s.f.) when wind tunnel is operating at 75%
and 50% power respectively (refer to Table 4.1 and Table 4.2 for elaborate calculations).

8
 Table 4.1: Freestream velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re for wind tunnel at 75% Power.

Pressure (mmH2 O) Dynamic Pressure (Pa) Velocity (ms−1 ) Average Velocity (ms−1 ) Re Average Re
61.081 599.00 31.65 166100
61.081 599.00 31.65 166100
61.081 599.00 31.65 166100
61.183 600.00 31.68 166300
61.183 600.00 31.68 166300
61.112 599.30 31.66 166200
61.081 599.00 31.65 166100
61.081 599.00 31.65 166100
60.979 598.00 31.62 166000
60.979 598.00 31.62 31.63 166000 166100
60.928 597.50 31.61 165900
60.928 597.50 31.61 165900
60.928 597.50 31.61 165900
60.928 597.50 31.61 165900
60.877 597.00 31.60 165800
60.979 598.00 31.62 166000
60.979 598.00 31.62 166000
60.979 598.00 31.62 166000
60.826 596.50 31.58 165800

Table 4.2: Freestream velocity V∞ and Reynold’s Number Re for wind tunnel at 50% Power.

Pressure (mmH2 O) Dynamic Pressure (Pa) Velocity (ms−1 ) Average Velocity (ms−1 ) Re Average Re
26.258 257.50 20.75 108900
26.360 258.50 20.79 109100
26.360 258.50 20.79 109100
26.360 258.50 20.79 109100
26.360 258.50 20.79 109100
26.309 258.00 20.77 109000
26.309 258.00 20.77 109000
26.309 258.00 20.77 109000
26.309 258.00 20.77 109000
26.309 258.00 20.77 20.77 109000 109000
26.309 258.00 20.77 109000
26.309 258.00 20.77 109000
26.278 257.70 20.76 109000
26.278 257.70 20.76 109000
26.247 257.40 20.75 108900
26.247 257.40 20.75 108900
26.247 257.40 20.75 108900
26.247 257.40 20.75 108900
26.207 257.00 20.73 108800

9
4.2 Graphical Representations
4.2.1 Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α
Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 shows the lift coefficient CL against angle of attack α with wind
tunnel at 75% and 50% power respectively. At α = 0◦ , both graphs have CL approximate to
zero, which is expected as the zero angle of attack for the model aircraft is initially angled in
such a way so that no lift is produced. A linear relationship between CL and α can be observed
for 0◦ ≤ α ≤ 12.0◦ . A peak for CL is observed at α = 12.4◦ on Figure 4.1 and α = 11.9◦ on
Figure 4.2, which corresponds to CLmax = 1.1649 and CLmax = 1.2092 respectively. Beyond
that, CL decreases with α for both curves indicating that main portion of the wing is stalling.
Further increase in α only reduces lift.

Figure 4.1: Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α with wind tunnel at 75% power.

10
Figure 4.2: Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α with wind tunnel at 50% power.

11
4.2.2 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient CL
Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 are very similar to each other and both represents the drag polar
of the model aircraft at two different freestream velocity V∞ . Drag polar of an aircraft shows
the relationship between CD and CL , with respect to various angle of attack α as defined in
Equation 4.2, where each point on the drag polar corresponds to a different α.

k
CD = CD0 + CL 2
πÆR
(4.2)
where CD0 = zero lift drag coefficient
k
CL 2 = drag due to lift
πÆR

CD0 represents the drag forces such as pressure drag and skin friction drag experienced by
the aircraft when the lift is zero. In the case of Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4, CD0 is CD of the
curve at CL = 0, where CD0 = 0.1309 on Figure 4.3 and CD0 = 0.1357 on Figure 4.4.

It is crucial to note that CD0 is slightly larger than CDmin , where CDmin is the minimum CD
of the curve, and the corresponding value of CL is defined as CLmin drag . In the case of Figure 4.3
and Figure 4.4, both have CDmin = 0.1230. This changes our drag polar equation in Equation
4.2 into Equation 4.3 as shown in [3].

k
CD = CDmin + (CL − CLmin drag )2
πÆR (4.3)

Physically, CDmin is the minimum lift independent drag for aircraft operating at a spe-
cific V∞ , which can be easily determined from Figure 4.3 by drawing a horizontal line where
y = CDmin . The area between the drag polar curve and y = CDmin is the lift-induced drag and it
increases with CL , indicating that lift-induced drag increases with α. This is due to separation
of flow along the top of wing section, causing a loss of lift.

12
Figure 4.3: Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 75% power.

Figure 4.4: Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 50% power.

13
 D
4.2.3 Drag-to-Lift Ratio L Against Lift Coefficient CL
L
Lift and drag are governing aerodynamic forces for an aircraft, and lift-to-drag ratio D is an
D
indication of the aerodynamic efficiency for an aircraft, hence drag-to-lift ratio L is the inverse
of said aerodynamic efficiency. Referring to Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6, an inverse relationship
between D L
and lift coefficient CL can be seen.

L
To maximize aerodynamic efficiency is to mathematically maximize D , which implies to
D
minimize L . This is shown at the far right of the curves (high CL ) on both Figure 4.5 and
Figure 4.6. Physically, the larger the possible lift force generated for the same amount of drag
force, the higher the aerodynamic efficiency of the aircraft.

D
Figure 4.5: Drag-to-Lift Ratio L Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 75% power.

14
 D
Figure 4.6: Drag-to-Lift Ratio L Against Lift Coefficient CL with wind tunnel at 50% power.

4.2.4 Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient Squared CL 2

Counter-rotating trailing vortices are formed at the wing tips of a finite wing. This is due
to the difference in pressure of air on top and below the wings. Air at the wing tips is free
to move from a region of high pressure to low pressure (bottom of wings to top of wings).
This additional flow added another downstream-facing aerodynamic force component, which is
called the induced drag Di . From [1], a linear relationship between drag coefficient CD and lift
coefficient squared CL 2 can be stated as in Equation 4.4.

Di k
CDi = = CL 2 (4.4)
1
2
ρV∞ 2 S πÆR

where k is the performance ratio of aircraft, Æ

R is the aspect ratio of aircraft, ρ is the air
2
density and V∞ is the freestream velocity.

Therefore by rearranging, Di can be calculated as in Equation 4.5.

k 1
Di = CL 2 × ρV∞ 2 S (4.5)
πÆR 2

k
Referring to Figure 4.7, gradient of the fitted line is πÆR
. Hence, when operating at each
CLmax obtained from Figure 4.1 and 4.2, Di experienced by model aircraft when wind tunnel is
operating at 75% power is Di = 1.145 N as shown in Equation 4.6, and Di experienced by model
aircraft when wind tunnel is operating at 50% power is Di = 1.208 N as shown in Equation 4.7.

15
 CLmax 2 1
Di = × (1.196)(31.63)2 (0.038)
0.03712 2

1.1649 1
= × (1.196)(31.63)2 (0.038) (4.6)
0.03712 2

= 1.145 N

CLmax 2 1
Di = × (1.196)(20.77)2 (0.038)
0.08428 2

1.2092 1
= × (1.196)(20.77)2 (0.038) (4.7)
0.03712 2

= 1.208 N

16
Figure 4.7: Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient Squared CL 2 with wind tunnel at 75% power.

Figure 4.8: Drag Coefficient CD Against Lift Coefficient Squared CL 2 with wind tunnel at 50% power.

17
Chapter 5

Discussion

5.1 Stall Speed Vstall

Given in [1], the full scale Cessna 172 have a wing area of 16.2 m2 with a mass of 1040 kg.
Knowing that lift force can be expressed as in Equation 5.1, we can rearrange it into Equation
5.2, hence determine air speed V .

1
L= ρV 2 SCL (5.1)
2

s
2
2L
V = (5.2)
ρSCL

At the point of stalling, lift force L is balanced by the weight mg of aircraft, and using the
data from wind tunnel test at 75% power, where CLmax = 1.1649, experimental stalling speed
Vstall for the full scale Cessna 172 is 30.1 ms−1 as shown in Equation 5.3.

s
2
2mg
Vstall =
ρSCLmax

v
2(1040)(9.81)
u
u
= 2
t (5.3)
(1.196)(16.2)(1.1649)

= 30.07 ms−1

18
 However, given in [1] the actual stall speed for a full scale Cessna 172 is 26 ms−1 . This
indicates that experimental stall speed Vstall is 15.6% higher than actual stall speed. Knowing
that mg and S stays constant, values of ρ and CLmax should be larger to give a smaller Vstall . By
referring to the ISA, ρ does not increase from ground level to cruise level during flight. Hence,
it is deduced that CLmax recorded from this wind tunnel test is lower than usual.

Referring to Figure A.1, CLmax for a NACA 2412 airfoil is 1.6. Using this value, the new
experimental stall speed is 25.7 ms−1 , which is very close to the actual stall speed. A logical
reasoning for this result is the model aircraft used for this wind tunnel test is too big for the
work section of the wind tunnel. The boundary layer of the wind tunnel walls might have
affected the airflow at the wing tip, causing turbulent flow which is a phenomenon that does
not occur in real flight situation. Loss of lift to the separation of flow in the turbulent regime
accounts for the lower experimental CLmax .

5.2 Maximum Gliding Distance

In a steady, unaccelerated descent due to an engine failure, free body diagram of the aircraft
on Figure 5.1 lead to Equation 5.4 and 5.5.

Figure 5.1: Free body diagram of aircraft in gliding regime from [3].

L = W cos θ
(5.4)

D = W sin θ
(5.5)

where θ is the glide angle. By constructing Figure 5.2, θ should be at a minimum to

achieve maximum gliding distance, and referring to Equation 5.6,  drag-to-lift
 ratio should
D
be at a minimum to reduce θ. Using Figure 4.5 and 4.6 to find L and corresponding
min
CLmin , Equation 5.6 to find θmin and while rearranging Equation 5.1 and 5.4, aircraft should
be operating at V ≈ 28.95 ms−1 to maximize gliding distance. (refer to Equation 5.7 and 5.8)

19
Figure 5.2: Range of aircraft in gliding regime from [3].

!
D
tan θmin =
L min (5.6)

s
2
2 mg cos θmin
V =
ρSCLmin

v
2 (1040)(9.81) cos (7.1645) (5.7)
u
u
2
= t
(1.196)(16.2)(1.24)

= 29.14 ms−1

s
2
2 mg cos θmin
V =
ρSCLmin

v
2 (1040)(9.81) cos (0.007739) (5.8)
u
u
2
= t
(1.196)(16.2)(1.2732)

= 28.76 ms−1

20
5.3 Errors and Uncertainties
Errors and uncertainties are inevitable in real experiments as seen in Section 5.1. Measures
and steps are taken to ensure data recorded from the wind tunnel test is reliable.

The following are variables in this wind tunnel test that might have
contributed to the error and uncertainties.

1. Dynamic pressure q∞ recorded from the Furness Micro-manometer. q∞

fluctuates and hence an average value is recorded.

2. Voltages recorded from the Multi-channel Voltmeter. Analogue display of

voltages experienced by strain gauges fluctuates and hence average values
are recorded.

3. Temperature T during wind tunnel test. T increases as wind tunnel test

progress and are not accounted for besides the air density ρ from q∞ .

The blockage effect due to flattening of streamlines near the tunnel wall as mentioned in
the previous section contributed to errors encountered since this does not occur in free air. The
spreadsheet used to analyze data recorded have its correction to reduce the error.

21
Chapter 6

Conclusion

In this wind tunnel test, strain gauges attached to a model Cessna 172 are analysed at various
angle of attack from 0◦ to 13◦ at 2 different airspeeds, 20.77 ms−1 and 31.63 ms−1 . Information
such as lift and drag forces, their corresponding non-dimensional coefficients, stalling angle of
attack, drag polar, efficiency ratio, stall speed for full-scale Cessna 172 and lift-induced drag
force are recorded and presented. With airspeed at 31.63 ms−1 , stalling angle of attack is 12.4◦
and lift-induced drag at stalling angle of attack on model is 1.145 N; with airspeed at 20.77 ms−1 ,
stalling angle of attack is 11.9◦ and lift-induced drag at stalling angle of attack on model is
1.208 N, all at corresponding CLmax respectively. Experimental stall speed calculated for full
scale Cessna 172 is 30.07 ms−1 , which is 15.6% higher than the actual value, reason explained
in Section 5.3.

The following are better practices to improve this wind tunnel test.

1. Using a model aircraft that have a 5 − 10% frontal area of the wind tunnel
cross-sectional area. This is to prevent streamline compression near tunnel
walls.

2. Voltage and dynamic pressure recordings should be logged into a text

file to prevent human error as values fluctuate, and can be manipulated
post-experiment.

22
Bibliography

Reference

1. Wind Tunnel Tests on a Model Cessna. London: Department of Aeronau-

tics, Imperial College London; 2017.

2. Nancy Hall. Closed return wind tunnel. National Aeronautics and

Space Administration, Washington, D.C. United States. Available from:
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/tuncret.html# [Accessed:
22nd February 2018]

3. John D. Anderson, Jr. Aircraft Performance and Design. Boston,

Mass. London. McGraw-Hill. 1999.

4. Alexander J Smits Turbulent shear layers in supersonic flow. 2nd

Edition. New York ; London. Springer. 2006.

5. Seetharam, H. C., Rodgers, E. J., Wentz, W. H., Jr. Ex-

perimental Studies of Flow Separation of the NACA 2412 Air-
foil at Low Speeds. National Aeronautics and Space Admin-
istration, Washington, D.C. United States. Available from:
https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19950002355.pdf
[Accessed: 22nd February 2018]

6. Cessna 172. Wikipedia. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

/Cessna 172 [Accessed: 22nd February 2018]

23
Appendix A

Graphical Representations

Figure A.1: Lift Coefficient CL Against Angle of Attack α from [5].

24
Appendix B

Raw Data

Table B.1: Raw data for wind tunnel test at 75% power.

ANGLE OF ATTACK (◦ ) L1 (2) L2 (3) D(1) PRESSURE (mm.H2O) L1 D1 PRESSURE (Pa)

NO WIND -4.5 18 -18 0 0.00
0 -8 -39 320 61.081 -60.5 338 491.18
1 86 -38 320 61.081 34.5 338 491.18
2 180 -36 310 61.081 130.5 328 491.18
3 270 -34 300 61.183 222.5 318 492.00
4 370 -32 300 61.183 324.5 318 492.00
5 440 -28 290 61.112 398.5 308 491.43
6 510 -24 320 61.081 472.5 338 491.18
7 580 -17.5 380 61.081 549 398 491.18
8 640 -11.5 400 60.979 615 418 490.36
8.5 680 -8 400 60.979 658.5 418 490.36
9 700 -4.5 410 60.928 682 428 489.95
9.5 720 -2 390 60.928 704.5 408 489.95
10 760 4 400 60.928 750.5 418 489.95
10.5 780 8 420 60.928 774.5 438 489.95
11 800 12 420 60.877 798.5 438 489.54
11.5 820 16 440 60.979 822.5 458 490.36
12 840 20 460 60.979 846.5 478 490.36
12.5 860 25 500 60.979 871.5 518 490.36
13 800 46 680 60.826 832.5 698 489.13

Table B.2: continued from Table B.1.

Incidence (corr) CD (tunnel) Velocity (ms−1 ) Lift (N) Drag (N) CL CD D

L
L
D
CL 2
0.00
-0.097718844 0.000167154 28.66 -1.82939473 2.48E+00 -0.09801 0.132821 -1.35E+00 -7.39E-01 0.009606525
1.033744954 1.99332E-05 28.66 0.631739366 2.47E+00 0.033846 0.132376 3.91E+00 2.56E-01 0.001145585
2.167006697 0.000488233 28.66 3.126532826 2.391633611 0.167509 0.128624 7.65E-01 1.31E+00 0.02805934
3.294241765 0.001515541 28.68 5.517699587 2.313100946 0.295127 0.125237 4.19E-01 2.39E+00 0.087100033
4.435157052 0.003314752 28.68 8.160180404 2.307131551 0.436466 0.126717 2.83E-01 3.54E+00 0.190502963
5.538427958 0.005074744 28.66 10.08502702 2.229652309 0.540048 0.124471 2.21E-01 4.52E+00 0.291651953
6.63986225 0.007166909 28.66 11.97886288 2.444767083 0.641788 0.138149 2.04E-01 4.90E+00 0.41189134
7.743240499 0.009669804 28.66 13.91420735 2.879181059 0.745477 0.163927 2.07E-01 4.83E+00 0.555735853
8.835139619 0.012208916 28.63 15.6085425 3.021615517 0.837653 0.174368 1.94E-01 5.17E+00 0.701661839
9.395436891 0.014035533 28.63 16.73548285 3.019069745 0.898131 0.176058 1.80E-01 5.54E+00 0.806639805
9.928372917 0.015087034 28.62 17.33653702 3.090842947 0.931166 0.1811 1.78E-01 5.61E+00 0.867070895
10.46041758 0.016146527 28.62 17.93494258 2.943229161 0.963308 0.174231 1.64E-01 6.09E+00 0.927961348
11.02381843 0.01834868 28.62 19.11889692 3.013685585 1.026899 0.180217 1.58E-01 6.34E+00 1.054521818
11.55628342 0.019530792 28.62 19.72515174 3.158578029 1.059462 0.189182 1.60E-01 6.24E+00 1.122459323
12.09049153 0.020816299 28.61 20.34691193 3.157173465 1.093773 0.190534 1.55E-01 6.44E+00 1.196339044
12.6211053 0.022001472 28.63 20.95316674 3.302065909 1.124479 0.199211 1.58E-01 6.35E+00 1.264452423
13.15354314 0.023293064 28.63 21.55942156 3.446958353 1.157014 0.208279 1.60E-01 6.25E+00 1.338681814
13.6865375 0.024644606 28.63 22.17607766 3.738089281 1.190108 0.225254 1.69E-01 5.93E+00 1.416356639
14.12784112 0.022266645 28.60 21.02616894 5.057044766 1.131235 0.294342 2.41E-01 4.16E+00 1.279692235

25
 Table B.3: Raw data for wind tunnel test at 50% power.

ANGLE OF ATTACK (◦ ) L1 (2) L2 (3) D(1) PRESSURE (mm.H2O) L1 D1 PRESSURE (Pa)

NO WIND -5 19 -14 0 0.00
0 -2 -5 130 26.258 -20.5 148 211.15
1 44 -8 130 26.36 22.5 148 211.97
2 80 -4.5 120 26.36 62 138 211.97
3 120 -3 120 26.36 103.5 138 211.97
4 150 -4 120 26.36 132.5 138 211.97
5 180 -2 130 26.309 164.5 148 211.56
6 210 2 130 26.309 198.5 148 211.56
7 250 4 135 26.309 240.5 153 211.56
8 270 6 140 26.309 262.5 158 211.56
8.5 280 7.5 145 26.309 274 163 211.56
9 320 9 150 26.309 315.5 168 211.56
9.5 332 10 160 26.309 328.5 178 211.56
10 340 12 160 26.278 338.5 178 211.31
10.5 360 14 175 26.278 360.5 193 211.31
11 360 15 180 26.247 361.5 198 211.06
11.5 380 17 185 26.247 383.5 203 211.06
12 380 19 200 26.247 385.5 218 211.06
12.6 350 30 260 26.247 366.5 278 211.06
13 350 33 280 26.207 369.5 298 210.74

Table B.4: Continued from Table B.3.

Incidence (corr) CD (tunnel) Velocity (ms−1 ) Lift (N) Drag (N) CL CD D

L
L
D

0.00
-0.080247469 0.000112725 18.79 -0.64582664 1.08E+00 -0.08049 0.135186 -1.68E+00 -5.96E-01
1.057946376 5.87776E-05 18.82 0.468160374 1.08E+00 0.058121 0.134297 2.31E+00 4.33E-01
2.185566228 0.000602777 18.82 1.499226713 1.005820897 0.186125 0.125472 6.71E-01 1.49E+00
3.318639672 0.001777291 18.82 2.574353713 1.003392172 0.319598 0.126345 3.90E-01 2.57E+00
4.411630753 0.002966023 18.82 3.325647279 1.001694991 0.412869 0.127324 3.01E-01 3.32E+00
5.514277012 0.004629703 18.81 4.146908179 1.072970743 0.515824 0.138094 2.59E-01 3.86E+00
6.623512382 0.006805329 18.81 5.027735118 1.070980945 0.625389 0.140022 2.13E-01 4.69E+00
7.757969467 0.010056859 18.81 6.11193911 1.105097211 0.76025 0.147517 1.81E-01 5.53E+00
8.828170454 0.012006002 18.81 6.678009608 1.140383946 0.830662 0.153856 1.71E-01 5.86E+00
9.364636988 0.013086592 18.81 6.972060022 1.176285178 0.867239 0.159402 1.69E-01 5.93E+00
9.997487671 0.017417026 18.81 8.043310677 1.210430705 1.000489 0.16798 1.50E-01 6.64E+00
10.53829269 0.018871157 18.81 8.372344758 1.282818403 1.041417 0.178438 1.53E-01 6.53E+00
11.07168351 0.020104442 18.80 8.631411505 1.282233169 1.074908 0.179787 1.49E-01 6.73E+00
11.64100473 0.022789449 18.80 9.189729314 1.390668408 1.144438 0.195976 1.51E-01 6.61E+00
12.14509089 0.022952968 18.78 9.211759644 1.427184136 1.148537 0.200897 1.55E-01 6.45E+00
12.7154577 0.025860602 18.78 9.777830142 1.462470871 1.219115 0.208204 1.50E-01 6.69E+00
13.22045292 0.0260736 18.78 9.818014457 1.57207658 1.224125 0.222083 1.60E-01 6.25E+00
13.75348312 0.02329064 18.78 9.2792715 2.012079549 1.156954 0.27416 2.17E-01 4.61E+00
14.16298925 0.023676109 18.77 9.341486145 2.158200987 1.166489 0.293175 2.31E-01 4.33E+00

26