1€ ry) : x ae Properties of Ethanoic Acid EXPERIMENT-9 Objective To study the following properties of acetic acid (ethanoic acid): (a) Odour (b) Solubility in water (©) Effect on litmus (d) Reaction with sodium bicarbonate Materials Required Ethanoic acid (pure glacial acetic acid), sodium bicarbonate, blue and red litmus paper strips, water, freshly prepared limewater, test tubes, delivery tube bent twice at right angles and cork with a hole Theory Ethanoic acid, commonly called acetic acid, is an organic acid. ® Its chemical formula is CH3COOH, having a —COOH (carboxylic) group in it. It is a weak acid with a vinegar-like smell. In pure form, it is called glacial acetic acid because on cooling below 16.5°C, it forms ice-like crystals. © It tums blue litmus to red. It is readily soluble in water. * It reacts with sodium bicarbonate to produce sodium ethanoate and water with the liberation of carbon dioxide gas. CH3COOH() + NaHCO3(s)_ —»+ CH3COONa(aq) + H,0) + —CO2g) Acetic acid. ‘Sodium bicarbonate Sodium ethanoate Water Carbon dioxide Similar reaction occurs with sodium carbonate (NaCO3). 2CH3COOH() + —NagCO3(s) —+ 2CH3COONa(aq) + Hp0()) Acetic acid Sodium carbonate + COx9) Sodium ethanoate Water. Carbon dioxide Procedure ee eae I food (a) Odour Take 1 ml of acetic acid in a test tube and smell it. Take some dil. HCI in another test tube and add few drops of red litmus solution to it, (b) Solubility in Water Take some water in a test tube and add 1 ml of acetic acid init. Shake it. Vinegar-like smell ‘Acetic acid smells like vinegar. No change in the colour of red litmus HCl is an acid because acids do not solution, affect red litmus solution. Acetic acid forms a homogeneous Acetic acid is soluble in water. solution,‘4 When you add sodium hydrogen carbonate to acstic acid ina test tube a gas iberates immediately trth a brisk effervescence, Name this gas. Describe the method of testing this £05 ‘ans ‘ans, Carbon diode gas is produced. On pasing carton diode gas through lmewater, 1s observed that ise water tue a b+ Co, > C+ nowt SES chen Confirms aie nature of acetic ai fet on utmas “Toke 1 mt of acetic acid na test_| The colour of ble mus paper sia ed but rea mus pope st tube and dip sips of blue and ed | tums emus papers in feone by one. | remains unaffected (a) Reaction with sodium ‘acid or glacial ethane ald? Teeflakes at 100 Uke glacier, Pure ethanoie acid 44. Why fs ethanofc acid also known a glacial ac foc ca rane snc [Aus and onus g___| Th dE mB Ca ode iL gtael ee Biased adh | oar bn eens Sagat tal a oro cho Schon beatomte en ae cna ehe cnn rent whom om Wate teen acon o Revevantt ye ne tt ccd ps cto il ay rene cha ‘ans. Ethanol acd reacts with sodium carbonate to produce & salt called sodium ethancate, carbon lone gas are! wo, + coon —+ IYEOONN + OE + HO co, + encoot oss eo Fmewater with te help of ever tube cihaneste Slows 6: 1s the mixtare of ethanoc acid and water homogeneous oF heterogeneous? What do you infer yo fadd water to ethanole acid? [vc ana ‘ans dd atre of eanoi ad and water fs homogeneous. This shows that ethanol acid esses in water {a all proportions. swver the following questions: 7. iman experiment to study the properties of acid a {ay Name the substance which on adltion to acetic aid produces carbon dioxide gus. (@) How carbon dloxide gas i tested in the laboratory? {or sodium bicarbonate ~ NaHCO) Precautions 1. Handle acetic acid carefully as it is corrosive to skin. 2. Always use freshly prepared limewater to test carbon dioxide gas. pos VIVA VOCE ‘Ans (0) The substance om carbonate (8400s) sane texted by passing the ga Oooh neater, smewate ul oe ‘eons eB aco HO Loewe te vente ipes te SR aulvaperno 2 What is an acid? ‘Ans. § chemical substance that produces Hints aqueous solution scaled an acid 22. What isan organic acid? ‘Ans. A chemical substance that contains a COOH (carboxylic) group is called an organic acid. ‘3. What isthe formula of ethan ace? ‘Ans. The chemical formula of ethanoc (acetic) acid 1s HCOOH, “4. What Is glacial acetic acd? ‘Ans. Pure form of acetic ci (ethanol aids Known as glacial acetic acid 5 Is acetic acid a weak or strong acid? ‘Ans, Acetic acid i a weak aid ‘6. What bappens when acti acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate? ‘Ans. When acetic acid reacts with sodium bicarbonate, carbon dioxide gas is produced, 7. What is vinegar? ‘Ans. Vinegar is dilute solution of acetic aid It is commonly used as a food preservative. '& How does acetic acid affect red litmus paper? ‘Ans. Acetic acid has no effect on red litmus paper because acids do not change the colour of red itu PRACTICAL SKILL-BASED SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. List two observations which you make when you adda pinch of sodlum hydrogen carbonate to ‘acid in a test tube. Write chemical equations for the reaction that occurs. sion ‘Ans. (a) A colores gas is produced with effervescence, and hissing sound is produced. (©) On passing the colourless gas through lime water, we observe hat line water tus my, 2. Give two physical properties of ethanoie acid. ‘Ans. (a) Ethanoic acid has a distinctive sour taste. (©) Its soluble im water i all properties,Soaps — EXPERIMENT-10 Objective ‘To study the comparative cleaning capacity of a sample of soap in soft and hard water Materials Required Ground water (water from a handpump), distilled water, soap sample, calcium hydrogencarbonate calelum sulphate, physical balance and weight box, beakers (each of 100 mi}, glass rods, test and test tube stand, measuring scale and measuring cylinder (50 ma) Theory ‘+ Each soap molecule has a polar end COO-Na* and a nonpolar end which is formed of a long ch ‘of carbon atoms, The nonpolar end is represented by ®'. The polar end of soap is soluble in water ‘while nonpolar end is insoluble in water but soluble in ol ‘© The cleaning capacity of a soap depends upon its capacity to form foam with water. soap forms) ‘good amount of foam when dissolved in soft water. In case of hard water, soaps do not form foam but produce « curdy white precipitate called scum. 2RCOONat + Cah 5 RCOOTACa + BNA So cals 0 Sceyatep * Som de (bar wae Due to formation of curdy white precipitate, soap isnot abe to form foam and hence cleaning capacity of soap decreases in hard water. Procedure ‘© Take three beakers, each with 100 ml. capacity and label them as A, B and C. ‘© Pour 20 mL distilled water each in beaker A and C, and 20 ml. ground water in beaker B. © Add 2 ¢ of calcium hydrogencarbonate or calcium sulphate in beaker C and stir wel, ‘© Add 1 g soap sample in each beaker, Le, A, B and C and stir the content with separate glass rods. Leave the mixture for some time. © Now, arrange three clean and dry test tubes in a test tube stand and label them as A, B and C. * Pour 4 ml soap solution from beaker A into test tube A 4m om beaker B into test tbe B 4 mL from beaker C into test tube C. eae ‘© Measure the height of solution in each test tube and note It down in the observat * Now, take test tube A, shake it 10 times by closing Its mouth with your thumb and. the test tube stand. Measure the height of solution with foam i i the teat tube stan inthe test tube and) Do the same with test tubes B and C. le. iit back in. Observations and Calculations ceo Test tube A= Soap solution in sled water (soft water) ‘est tube B~ Soap slution in round water (hard water) Test tube €~ Soap soliton in sted water containing aUHCoy or CaSO (hard water Conclusion and Explanation +P Maximum foam is produced in distilled water and minimum in distilled water containing Ca(HCO3h oF CaSO. « The production of foam by soap depends on the availability of free hydrophobic part (allyl group) Tcsap. In case of hard water, hydrophobic part of soap is trapped due to scum or precipitation Ghd less amount of foam is formed. Therefore, hard water is not suitable for washing purpose. Precautions ‘> Take equal quantity of soap solution in each test tube. {> ach test tube should be shaken for equal number of times and with equal force. ‘The measurement of foam should be done soon after shaking the test tube ‘Ans. Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of long chain fatty acids 2 How is soap prepared? ‘Ans. Soap is prepared by the reaction of vegetable oll and sodium hydroxide ‘iat Is the by-product of saponification reaction? ‘Ans, Glycerol i the by-product of saponification reaction. 4. What do you mean by saponification? [Ans. Saponification is alkaline hydrolysis of fats (esters) that forms soap and glycerol 5. What kind of reaction is saponification-exothermic or endothermic? Seporification isan exothermic reaction as heat is Uberated during the reaction. 6. Is soap acidic or basic? Soap is basic in nature because it changes red litmus to blue. Why is common salt added while preparing soap? - Common salt is added to help in the precipitation of soap. ‘What are diferent kinds of soap? Different types of soap are sodium stearate, sodium oleate and sodium palmitate ‘Can got carbonate (NagCO3) be usd in place of sodium hydroxide (N20) in saponification reseton? No. I's because sodium carbonate is a weak alka and we need a strong alkl forthe hydrolysis of fs 10, What does the cleaning eapacity of soap depend om? Cleaning capacity of soap depends on the formation of foam in water VIVA VOCE 1, What is soap? "“1 Hie GY aL Study of Binary Fission and Budding EXPERIMEN’ 5 (A) Objective ‘To study binary fission in Amoeba with the help of prepared slides Materials Required Permanent slide of binary fssion in Amoeba, compound microscope, notebook, pencil and eraser Theory + Living organisms reproduce by two methods — sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction. Jn sexual reproduction, male and female gametes are formed which unite to form a new indivi asexual reproduction, gametes are not formed. In this case, the single parent individual f riduals by diferent methods such as binary fission, budding, fragmentation, etc. {a simple type of asexual reproduction in unicellular forms in which an ind us of aimostequa size. It oceurs in Amoeba, Paramecium, etc. ‘nucleus divides into two daughter nuclel and then the cytoplasm di ‘calls. The diughter cells grovt in size and each divides to form two ne Procedure * Focus the given slide first under the low power and then under high power of compound microscope. + Observe the process and structures carefully Draw a neat and labelled diagram, Fig 15.4 Binary fson in Amoeba Observations ‘© Tes the side of binary fission in Amoeba. ‘© Tt shows an elongated Amoeba having a constriction in the middle, © The nucleus is also elongated with a thin strand in the middle. © The slide shows a parent Amoeba being divided into two daughter amocbse. precautions ‘The slide should be hold from the sides so that it does not become dity ‘The slide should be focused first under low power and then under high power of microscope. ‘ever use coarse adjustment while focusing the slide under high power, EXPERIMENT-15(B) | objective tp study budding In Yeast withthe help of prepared aides Materials Required temanent slide of buding in yeas, compound microscope, notebook, endl and eraser Theory suing Is anther type of asenal reproduction in ving organisms in which a small cugrowih arses | fiom the body of parent organism and grows in sze. Ths outgrow scaled bud. When the bud hpocomes fully developed, it separates from the parent body and becomes @ new individual. Budding {s-common in yeast, Hydra, sponges, etc. Procedure © Focus the slide first under low power and then under high power of microscope. © Observe the process and structures carefully. Draw a neat and labelled diagram. Observations —— © tes the slide of budding in yeast © We shows a yeast cell with a chain of cells. © The largest cell has many smaller cells atached to ts one side> fone on top of the other. © Each cell has a central nucleus in it © The chain of cells has been formed due to multiple budding. Precautions © Same as in Experiment 15 (A), e352 Baddngin yest EXPE! JENT-15(C) Objective ‘To study budding in Hydra with the help of a permanent slide Materials Required Permanent slide of Hydra showing budding, Compound microscope Theory © Budding 1s a type of asexual reproduction. In this process, a bulging appears on the parent body Sa result of repeated mitotic divisions of the cells © Hydra isa tiny freshwater multicellular organism. Budding in Hydra results in the formation of a {pdr satiny frshatr ulcer and mouth and tna are oredr. 8 lal puro called bod. Bu conti te be nd separts a aby Ha © Hydra multiplies by budding under favourable conditions. Budding isa faster process of reproduction ‘in which several Buds form simultaneously. TSwhich type of division takes place during asexual reproduction? ‘ano, Mitotic dvsion takes place during asexual reproduction. nat is the division of nucleus called? ‘Te division of nucleus is called Karyokinesis. tra do you mean by cytokines? ‘Te avision of cytoplasm during cel vision is known as cytokines wr uhat is the distinguishing feature of budding in itydra? tn Hydra, bud is formed as alteal outgroveth onthe parent body te the bud formed in Hydra unicellular or malicelaar? ‘Tae bud formed in Hydra is mulceliulr [ine yeast does the chain of buds form in sya Ne In Hydra, bud detaches from the parent body and develops asa separate individual. ‘Why is budding considered a faster means of reproduction? ‘Budding ts considered a faster means of reproduction because it does not involve formation and fusion of male and female gametes ‘hich type of cell division is involved in budding? ios PRACTICAL SKILL-BASED SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS Why are binary fission and budding included under asexual reproduction? [ncon ab Maa (a) Only one parent is involve. (© Gametes are not produced. (@ Fertlisation does not occur, (@ Daughter organisms are genetically identical vo die pases Uigiens>— 4. Are binary fssfon and budding faster processes of reproduction as compared to sexual feyswiucuon? justly. (ENT at Man ‘Ans. Yes, in binary fission and budding, daughter cells are formed by simple cell division whereas in sexual Teproduction, gamete formation, fusion of gametes (feelisaton) and development from zygote take much Tonger time. 5 Why is t justified to call mito Avision as binary fission? ‘Ans. Asa result of mitotic division in unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena yeast bacteria, ‘icy the two daughter individuals are formed which are genetically identical to parent organism as well 5 fich other, Hence, mito dvision cam also be called binary fission. 6. Differentiate between asexual and sexual reproduction. _— sccmares ure at ee he “pe i ag te a = epads ae formed on the parent organism laterally, near the basal part of the body, Penton © Abbud starts growing as a small bulge. 3 aetees atta camer en 2 Pabst enc rat ete eat Le é= Fig. 382 Buckling in Hye ans: Rs Bek fs Hse c. Inference age © The “ul shows vous saa of formation. the buds are fomed laterally ‘organism. Hence, it is concluded’that the given slide shows budding in Hydra. — % VIVA voce What is reproduction? ae Reproduction i a process in ving organisms ‘What is sexual reproduction? ‘Reproduction in which male a female ‘What is asexual reproduction? Reproduction in wich no gametes are Called asemal reproduction” ‘equred but a single parent organism forms new What do you mean by bingy fission? by which they produce new inavdual of their ‘mets fs to form new inva alle sexual 1. Sl paren inode ae rte. | 1 Two parts noe (oh al nd ema ones ae 2. No gamete s formed no moc division takes place. | 2. Gametes are formed; ioc dvsion takes pace. 2. Ferttsaton does not occur 23. Fertcation takes place. Where does binary fission occur? “Now indus ered are gently Kea | 4 Now il med re apnatcaly rent ‘Bloary fission generally ocurs rm ech ot — Fina son generaly occurs uncer organisms suchas Amoe you understand by budding? ba, Paramecium, Euglena, adding is «pe of ase reprod oe Why do we classify budding, fission and spore formation as asexual type of reproduction? ‘Ans. All these types of reproduction are classified under asexual reproduction because: (a) They involve single parent. {) No gamete formation takes place. (© No ferlisation occurs (© Organisms formed are geneialy similar, 7, Where does budding take place? ‘Ans Wudalng takes place in yeas, Hydra, sponges et Cnn| lume 2. structure of Embryo EXPERIMENT-16 Objective To identify the different parts of an embryo of a dicot seed (Pea, Gram or Red Kidney Bean) Materials Required Healthy seeds of pea, gram or red kidney bean, beaker, cotton, petri dish, needle, forceps, slide, and hand lens water Theory seed is formed in higher plants as a result of fertilisation. Each seed consists of an embryo and endosperm enclosed inside a protective seed coat. On getting suitable conditions, the seed germinates to grow into a new plant. Structure of a dicot seed * A typical dicot seed has three parts: + The seed coat consists of two layers—outer thick layer called testa and inner thin layer called tegmen. © There is a small scar on the seed coat called hilum. It is the place where seed was attached to the placenta through a stalk called funiculus. © A small pore called micropyle is present just below the hilum. Seed absorbs water through micropyle during germination. | © The embryo lies below the seed coat. It is a baby plant. The embryo consists of two fleshy cotyledons and a small embryonal axis. © Cotyledons are called leaves of embryo or seed leaves. They are hinged to the embryonal axis. | Cotyledons are thin and papery but sometimes, they become fleshy by storing food. © The embryonal axis is made up of radicle and plumule. On germination, radicle forms the root and plumule forms the shoot. % Endosperm is a food-storing tissue. Seeds having endosperm till maturity are called endospermic or albuminous seeds and the seeds that consume food from endosperm at young stages are called | nonendospermic or exalbuminous seeds. | Procedure | © Take some seeds of pea or gram or red kidney beans and soak them in water in a beaker for two days. Put the soaked seeds on moist cotton in a petri dish for one day. * Pick up one germinated seed and find the location of hilum and micropyl.> Carefully remove its seed coat with the help of forceps. * Pull apart the two cotyledons to take out the embryonal axis. * Place the embryonal axis and cotyledons on a clean slide. * Study the structure of embryonal axis with the help of a hand lens. Seed coat cotyledons (food stores) Plumule (future shoot) Raphe- ilu fade Micropyle (future root) (2) External features {b) Embryo with cotyledons unfolded {) Embryonal axis Fig. 16.1 Structure of a gram seed Observations © The hilum and micropyle are easily located. * The seed coat is hard which becomes soft after soaking in water. It confines the embryo. The embryo consists of an embryonal axis and two cotyledons. © The embryonal axis has two parts—lower radicle and upper plumule. * Cotyledons are two and fleshy. Conclusion and Explanation ~ The seed is a dicot seed-because it-has two cotyledons. ~ The seed 1s nonendospermic because it has fleshy cotyledons which store food. Precautions ~ Seed should be healthy and well-soaked. ~ Remove the seed coat carefully so that cotyledons are not damaged. ~ Take out the embryonal axis carefully because it is very delicate and may get damaged easily. VIVA VOCE 1, What is a seed? Ans. A seed is a ripened ovule which is formed after fertilisation in higher plants. What does a seed contain? Ans. A seed contains an embryo (baby plant) and reserved food inside it. 3, What are the two layers of seed coat? Ans. Outer thick testa and inner thin tegmen. 4. What is embryonal axis made up of? Ans. The embryonal axis is made up of plumule and radicle. 5. What is plumule? Ans. Plumule is the upper part of embryonal axis that forms shoot on seed germination, 6. What is radicle? ‘Ans. Radicle is the lower part of embryonal axis that forms root on seed germination, og QE\° : a! a 2. \ ye A Y ee gh SJ He Electricity and Its Effects (Ohm's Law) Wy ‘nmeier | Votete EXPERIMENT-5 Fig. 5 Circuit diagram fran electra drut to study the dependence Objective ‘of earrent (hon potantal ference (V) ‘To study the dependence of the potential difference (V) across a resistor on the current (1) p through it and determine its resistance. Also plot a graph between V and I Materials Required ‘An unknown resistance, DC ammeter (0-3A), DC voltmeter, (0-3V),rheosta, connecting wires, dry ¢ or battery and Key Theory ‘Ohm's law states that at constant temperature, the current () lowing through a conductor is direct proportional to the potential (V’) applied across Mathematically, Observations and Calculations ‘Least count of ammeter = Least count of voltmeter = InV 0 orver or ve RE here, Ris the resistance of the conductor When potential (V) increases, the current (1) flowing through the conductor also increases but th kK cor © rem: 3 ¥. ratio V: Tor Y remains constant, ie, ¥ Mean va of R= ohn Conclusion from heave cans, conc tat says remains constant Hence, he cae) ‘owing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (V) applied across Its ends. j Graph between V and 1 ‘¢ Plot a graph taking the values of Fon X-axis and the values of Von Y-ans. ‘> Join all the points and extend the Joining line up to ‘origin O of the graph. A slopy straight line is obtained. ‘ Calculate the slope of the straight line. It is equal to the resistance of the resistor. (on plotng graph between poten dieene (Vand cent (tri Une pas ‘the origin is obtained. aa pang Procedure ® Make a circuit by arranging various components as shown in the cifcult lagram in Fig. 5. ® Connect the electrical components with the help of connecting wires. Connect the voltmeter in parallel with the resistance wire. © Connect the ammeter in series with the resistance wire, Close the key by inserting a plug in its hole a ipa chants iy SORE crm bt co a sitet aoe vengr o csiasee ios TE eres 0 «AY can Also note down the least count of both ammeter and voltmeter. a Precautions f © Take five sets of readings. ‘ all connections should be tight. © Open ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with a sandpaper. "ig. 52 Aroph between potential ‘ference (V) and curen ) : TS 2Combination of Resistors EXPERIMENT-6(A) Objective ‘To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in series Materials Required “Two resistors (of known resistances), DC ammeter (0-5), DC voltmeter (0-5V), dry cells (1.5 or battery key, rheosta, connecting wires and sandpaper Theory \When two or more resistors reconnected ins ret, their arrangement is known as combina of resistors, Combination of resistors cane of (bes Series combination 2 Paral! combination ¢ Series Combination of Resistors When wo or more resistors ae connected nd'0-end he combination i now a sere combination {series combinaon of restr, the cusent Nowig hugh each rear bsame. The equalent Fesstance of the restos insets combination i equal tthe sum of thet nda restances {eteisainays more than the individual resistance of any resistor connected in seis Mathematical, a Re AthtRt Smart wii Er? where, = ty s a Fe 6 Sere combination resto Ry, RyRy = Resistances of individual resistors joined in series + Parallel Combination of Resistors ‘When mo oF mor resistors are connected between two common pons, thet combination is known 2 pale combbaton n parallel combination of Testor, the potential ference tana Scross cach restr and the clment fing through each ress varies according to its restance ‘he equivalent resistance of parallel combination i less than the india Westagc of ane ee connected in parallel, We can say tha the reciprocal of equivalent resistance of fall conan 4s equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances. i” i ~~ Clean the ends of connecting wires by rubbing them ‘with a piece of sandpaper. Now, connect all the components of the circuit by using connecting wires according to the circuit ‘diagram given in Fig. 63. mm ‘s Insert the plug in the hole of Key and adjust the py rheostat ‘¢ Note down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter In the observation table. o Take about 4 sets of readings by adjusting the TMheostat every time to vary the value of current in the aircult. «> Also, draw the circult diagram in your notebook as shown in Fig. 6.3. sae +41] —©——ww Fie. 63 cht dagram for series ‘combination of ents Observations and Calculations ‘Least count of ammeter east count of voltmeter ~ Conclusion ‘The equivalent resistance of series combination is equal to the sum of resistances of all the resistors. ‘Ao, the value of equivalent resistance of series combination is more than the individual resistances of the resistors. Precautions + all the connections should be tight. Ends of connecting wires should be cleaned with the help of a sandpaper. + Positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery. ‘© Ammeter should be connected in the series of combination of resistances. “ Voltmeter should be connected in the parallel of combination of resistances, The current should be allowed to flow for a short while so that it does not cause heating of the areutt aEee EXPERIMENT-6(8) Objective ‘To determine the equivalent resistance of two resistors when connected in parallel Materials Required rl ences, DC amnte 5A DC valine (5¥, dyes (15 TAS img ean snd Procedure “¢ Find out the east counts of ammeter and voltmeter. ‘> Clean the ends of connecting wires by rubbing them stl) Kay with a piece of sandpaper. + Now, connect ll the components by using connecting ‘wires according to the given circuit diagram. |} ew fest et creat © Note down the readings of ammeter and voltmeter in * ‘© Insert the plug in the hole of key to complete the ‘Adjust the theostat to make the current smaller, the observation table. ‘¢ Take about 4 sets of readings by adjusting the | rheostat every time to vary the value of current in the circu + Also, draw the circuit diagram in your notebook, Fie 84 circuit dir for parallel ‘enbnaton of estore Observations and Calculations Least count of ammeter. = Least count of voltmeter = ‘Mean value of R= ___ ohm. Conclusion The equivalent resistance of parallel combination of two resistors is less than the individual resistance of each resistor. Also, the reciprocal of equivalent resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of the ‘wo resistors joined in parallel. Precautions ie * All the connections should be tight. oy © nds of connecting wires should be cleaned withthe help ofa sandpaper. i” MME TT + Positive terminals of ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to the positive terminal of the battery. .» Ammeter should be connected in the series of combination of resistances. +» Voltmeter should be connected in the parallel of combination of resistances. ‘9 The current should be allowed to flow for a short while so that it does not cause heating of the circuit. VIVA VOCE 1. What is combination of resistors? ‘When two or more resistors are joined in a circuit to the same source of electric curren, tis arrangement fs known as combination of resistors. ‘What are two types of combinations of resistors? “The two types of combinations of resistors are series combination and parallel combination. ‘What do you mean by series combination of resistors? ‘When two oF more resistors are joined end:toend in a circuit, their combination Is known as series combination. ‘What do you mean by parallel combination of resistors? ‘When two oF more resistors ae joined between two same points in a czeult, their combination is known, 4s parallel combination. ‘Which combination i used to increase the equivalent resistance of two oF more resistors? Series combination of resistors What is the equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel combination? 1m parallel combination the equivalent resistance is smaller than the individual resistance ofeach resistor. Actually, the recprocal of equvalent resistance is equal to the sum of reciprocals of the given resistances, What happens tothe resistance ofa wire if ts length is halved? ‘The resistance ofthe wire becomes half It is because resistance of a wire is directly proportional to the length of wate. What happens tothe resistance of a wire when its thickness is doubled? ‘The resistance ofthe wire becomes half. Is because resistance ofa wire is inversely proportional tits thickness, Le, area of cross-section. What is the value of current owing through each resistor in series ‘The same current flows through all the resistors in series combination. ‘What is the value of current flowing through each resistor in parallel combination? 'm parallel combination, the current flowing through a resistor depends on its resistance. The value of ‘current loving trough a resistor is inversely proportional tothe resistance of that resister. Rske Fe Fy Tele Fo Bebe PRACTICAL SKIL! JESTIONS 1, Two resistors having resistances of 4 and 6 0 respectively are connected 10 «circu. Iwas found ‘hat the total resistance in he cies ess than 4 In what way dhe resistances have been connected? What can be the possible value af et resistance? ‘Ans, As total resistance of the combination of resistors of resistances Ry = 4 and Re = 6 is even less than {he smaller individual resistance of 4, the two resistors are connected in parallel arrangement. ‘The net resistance should have a valie a~ SR +R) Cnn