"What is ethics?".

The different types of ethics, namely, normative ethics,

metaethics, and applied ethics.
The term ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which originally means custom or
character. Broadly construed, ethics is a branch of philosophy that studies the rightness or
wrongness of a human action. In particular, this branch of philosophy is concerned with
questions of how human persons ought to act, and the search for a definition of a right conduct
and the good life. It is for this reason that the attempt to seek the "good" through the aid of
reason is the traditional goal of ethicists (Albert, Denise & Peterfreund 1984, p. 1-2).
It must be noted, however, that there is no single, absolute definition of ethics. This is
because ethics as a discipline is constantly evolving as a result of a change in socio-cultural
and political context. For example, in the Greek tradition, ethics was conceived as relating to the
concept of the "good life". Thus, the ethical inquiry during this time was directed toward
discovering the nature of happiness. In fact, Aristotle's Nicomachean Ethics does not only
present a theory of happiness but also provides ways in which happiness is attained. Now,
centuries later, a quite different orientation was introduced by the Judeo-Christian tradition. In
this ethical tradition, the ideals of righteousness before God and the love of God and neighbor,
not the happy or pleasant life, constitute the substance of ethics. Indeed, if we make an effort to
reconcile these views, we are faced with the difficult task of defining the relationship between
"doing what is right" and "being happy". Again, it is for this reason that we cannot have an
absolute definition of ethics. The least that we can do, in my opinion, is to describe the nature
and dynamics of ethics based on a specific time and context.
It is also important to note that ethics is not the same with morality, although many
philosophers believe that the two terms can be used interchangeably. This is because the
former denotes the theory of right action and the greater good, while the latter indicates
practice, that is, the rightness or wrongness of a human action. In other words, ethics
undertakes the systematic study (that is, questioning and critical examination) of the underlying
principles of morality. Hence, it is interested primarily in the illustration of a more general
problem and the examination of underlying assumptions and the critical evaluation of moral
principles.
Morality, on the other hand, is more prescriptive in nature. It tells us what we ought to do
and exhorts us to follow the right way. According to Terrance McConnell (1994), “morality is
characterized as an 'end- governed rational enterprise' whose object is to equip people with a
body of norms (rules and values) that make for peaceful and collectively satisfying coexistence
by facilitating their living together and interacting in a way that is productive for the realization
of the general benefit". For example, a religious leader may ask her followers to be good at all
times. In this way, a moralist may want to keep alive the values she considers to be worthwhile
and to improve the moral quality of the community where she belongs. Hence, morality, at the
very least, aims to guide one's action by reason and gives equal weight to the interests of each
individual affected by one's decision. Indeed, this gives us a picture of what it really means to be
a morally upright person.

Types of Ethics
 During the mid-20th century, according to Sumner (1967), a "certain theory in the
methodology of ethics has gradually become more and more widely accepted, at least by British
and American moral philosophers". According to this position, there are two ways of doing
ethical inquiry, namely, normative ethics and metaethics.
On the one hand, normative ethics is prescriptive in nature as it seeks to set norms or
standards that regulate right and wrong or good and bad conduct. This may involve articulating
the good habits that we should acquire, the duties that we should follow, or the consequences
of our behavior on others. Hence, normative ethics normally attempts to develop guidelines or
theories that tell us how we ought to behave. For example, Immanuel Kant's claim that an act is
morally right if it is done for the sake of duty is an example of a normative ethics.
Metaethics, on the other hand, is descriptive in nature. According to Sumner (1967),
"metaethics is allegedly constituted, at least in part, by questions of the meanings of the various
ethical terms and functions of ethical utterances." Hence, if a normative ethical inquiry is
evaluative and prescriptive, metaethics is analytical and descriptive. Put simply, metaethics is a
type of ethical inquiry that aims to understand the nature and dynamics of ethical principles. It
asks questions about the nature and origin of moral facts, as well as the way in which we learn
and acquire moral beliefs. Thus, for example, if normative ethics urges us to do good at all
times, metaethics asks the question "What is good?". For sure, if a moral philosopher attempts
to address the questions "What is good?", "What is justice?", "Why should I be moral?", then that
moral philosopher is doing metaethics. Hence, when Plato proposed an answer to the question
"Why should I be moral", Plato was doing metaethics-indeed, Plato raised a metaethical
question.
In the course of the development of ethics, applied ethics became its third major type.
As its name suggests, applied ethics is the actual application of ethical or moral theories for the
purpose of deciding which ethical or moral actions are appropriate in a given situation. For this
reason, casuists (that is, the adherents of applied ethics) are concerned with individual moral
problems, such as abortion or euthanasia, and attempt to resolve the conflicting issues that
surround these particular moral problems. Casuists may also act on some occasions in an
advisory capacity, such as guiding individuals in their choice of actions. For example, they may
attempt to resolve the conflicting duties of a mother suffering from ectopic pregnancy who has
no other option than to abort the fetus.
Applied ethics is usually divided into different fields. For example, we may talk about
business ethics, which deals with ethical behavior in the corporate world; biomedical and
environmental ethics, which deal with issues relating to health, welfare, and the responsibility
we have towards people and our environment; and social ethics, which deals with the principles
and guidelines that regulate corporate welfare within societies.
Finally, the difference between the three major types of ethics can be illustrated in the
following situation:
A police officer shoots a terrorist who is about to blow up a crowded shopping mall.
The act of the police officer is morally wrong according to metaethics because it is
always wrong to kill. As is well known, killing in itself is intrinsically wrong. However, if the police
officer does not shoot the terrorist, many innocent people will die or get injured. Though the
police officer's act may be wrong, the adherents of normative ethics may say that it is the right
thing to do in this particular situation because not doing so will result in the death of so many
people. Hence, the action might be morally correct. Finally, the casuists may say that the police
officer is just doing his best to fulfill his duty, that is, to protect as many innocent lives as
possible.

What is Philosophy?

Meaning of Philosophy
Philosophy, particularly Western philosophy, comes from the two Greek words philia,
which means "love" and sophia, "wisdom". Thus, etymologically speaking, philosophy means the
love of wisdom.
As is well known, love in this context is understood as a strong desire for a particular
object; while wisdom is understood as a correct application of knowledge. Thus, philosophy as
the love of wisdom, at least in this context, could refer to the strong desire of the human person
to possess knowledge and apply it correctly. It's not a coincidence, therefore, that most
philosophers in the Ancient World, particularly in Greece, India, and China were sages or wise
men. Think for example of Socrates, Gautama Buddha, Confucius, and Lao Tzu.
Traditionally, however, philosophy is defined as a science that studies beings in their
ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid of human reason alone. And when we
speak of "being" or "beings" in philosophy in this context, we mean all things that exist, material
or immaterial. An example of beings are "stones", "trees”, “persons”, “cars”, air, water; and the
notions of "God", "soul”, “spirit”. All of these are beings, and philosophy studies their ultimate
causes, reason, and principles through the aid of reason alone.
In other words, philosophy is concerned with the reason and principles that account for
everything that exists. Thus, some of the basic questions in philosophy are:
1. What is the origin of the world, of everything that exists? 2. Why do these things exist,
rather than not exist at all?
3. Is there God? If so, how can we justify the goodness of God in the face of evil?
4. What is the meaning and purpose of life? Why do we have to suffer? 5. If one is
suffering from an unbearable pain, such as cancer, is it morally right to resort to euthanasia or
assisted suicide?
These are just some of the questions that philosophy attempted to address. And in
doing so, philosophy uses reason as a tool, which can be expressed in many forms, such as the
ability to reflect, question, articulate one's thought, and analyze certain phenomenon or event. In
short, philosophy attempts to understand things in a critical and logical
manner.
It is important to note, however, that philosophers do not agree on a single definition of
philosophy. In fact, philosophers differ in their basic understanding of philosophy. For example,
Karl Jaspers, a famous German existential philosopher, understands philosophy as a discipline
in which questions are more important than answers because answers themselves will, in turn,
become questions.
Major Branches of Philosophy
 After addressing the question "what is philosophy?", let us now discuss the major
branches of philosophy. Philosophy is normally divided into four major branches, namely:
Metaphysics, Epistemology, Logic, and Ethics.
Metaphysics comes from the two Greek words meta, which means "beyond" or "after"
and physika, "physical" or "nature". Hence, etymologically speaking, metaphysics means the
study of things beyond the physical, that is, concepts or things that cannot be experienced, such
as the concepts of God, freedom, and soul.
Metaphysics is commonly understood as the foundation of philosophy. In fact, Aristotle
calls it the "first philosophy". Originally, the Greek word metaphysika, which literally means "after
physics", actually designated that part of Aristotle's works, which came after those chapters
that dealt with physics. However, it was misappropriated later by the Medieval commentators
on classical texts as that which is beyond the physical. Thus, over time, metaphysics has been
understood as the study of that which exists beyond the physical.
Metaphysics is subdivided into two, namely, General Metaphysics and Special
Metaphysics. General Metaphysics is also referred to as Ontology. Under Special Metaphysics,
we have Cosmology, Psychology or Anthropology, and Natural Theology or Theodicy.
Ontology is derived from the two Greek words onto, which means "being" or "that which
is", that is, everything that exists; and logos, which means "knowledge" or "study". (Note,
however, that the term logos in ancient Greek scholarship have different connotations. For
example, Heraclitus, a Greek philosopher of the late 6th century BCE, understands Logos as
reason or the underlying principle of all that is.) Ontology, therefore, is the specific branch of
philosophy that studies beings in their ultimate causes, reasons, and principles through the aid
of reason alone. In other words, Ontology studies the first principles or the essence of all things.
Some of the basic questions in ontology are:
1. What is being?
2. Why do things exist, rather than not exist at all?
3. What is the meaning and nature of reality?
4. What is the underlying principle of all that exist? 5. Is there nothing?
Please note that my concern here is just to describe very schematically the four major branches
of philosophy. If you want to know more about the nature and dynamics of Ontology per se, see
John Rickaby, S.J. General Metaphysics.
Cosmology, from the Ancient Greek words kosmos, which means the "world" and logos,
meaning "study", is the specific sub-branch of philosophy that studies the world (or universe),
including its origin, dynamics, and characteristics, as well as the laws that govern its order.
Some of the basic questions in cosmology are:
1. What is the origin of the world?
2. What is the basic material of which the world is formed?
3. How do things arise?
4. In what consists its (the world) fundamental form or principle of order? 5. Is the world or
universe infinite?
Psychology comes from the two Greek words psyche, which means "soul" (but loosely
understood as mind) and logos, study. Thus, psychology is the specific sub-branch of
philosophy that studies the soul or mind. Broadly construed, though, psychology is the study of
the nature and dynamics of the human person as a whole, with emphasis on the way the
person's mind functions and the way she behaves.
Some of the questions in psychology are:
1. What is the nature of the human person? 2. Is there such thing as human nature?
3. What is the meaning and purpose, if any, of life?
4. Is there life after death?
5. How do we account for the existence of sufferings in the world?
Theodicy (Natural theology) is derived from the Greek word theos, which means God.
The word theodicy was coined by the famous 18th century German philosopher Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibniz in his 1710 work titled Théodicée. Broadly construed, theodicy is the study of
God. But specifically, theodicy is concerned with the justification of the goodness of God in the
face of the existence of evil in the world.
Some of the questions in theodicy are:
1. Is there God?
2. What and who is God, if He exists at all?
3. How do we prove the existence of God?
4. If God exists, how do we justify the existence of evil and suffering in the world?
5. Does a belief in God really necessary?
For a detailed discussion on special metaphysics, see Louis de Poissy, Special
Metaphysics.
The second major branch of philosophy is Epistemology.
Epistemology comes from the two Greek words episteme, which means knowledge, and
logos which means study. It is formally defined as the study of the nature and scope of
knowledge and justified belief. Specifically, it analyzes the nature of knowledge and how it
relates to similar notions, such as truth, belief, and justification.
Some of the basic questions in epistemology are:
1. What is knowledge?
2. What do we know?
3. How is knowledge acquired?
4. What is the structures and limits of knowledge?
5. What makes justified beliefs justified?
For an in-depth discussion of epistemology, see The Basics of Philosophy,
The third major branch of philosophy is Logic. Logic comes from the Greek word logos,
which, as I already mentioned, has different meanings. It is defined as the science of correct
thinking or the study of the principles and criteria of a valid argument. More specifically, logic
attempts to distinguish sound or good reasoning from unsound or bad reasoning.
Some of the basic questions in logic are:
Some of the basic questions in logic are:
1. What is correct reasoning?
2. What distinguishes a good argument from a bad one?
3. How can we detect a fallacy in an argument?
4. What are the criteria for determining the validity of an argument? 5. What are the types of
logic?
 Ethics is derived from the Greek word ethos, which originally means custom or habit.
Broadly construed, ethics is the morality of human actions. Ethics, therefore, is concerned with
questions of how human persons ought to act, and the search for a definition of a right conduct
and the good life.
It is important to note that ethics is not the same with morality. This is because ethics
denotes the theory of right action and the greater good, while morality indicates practice, that is,
the rightness or wrongness of a human action.
Some of the questions in ethics are:
1. What is a right conduct as that which causes the realization of the greatest good?
2. How do we determine a right conduct? In other words, what makes a right conduct right?
3. What is a good life and can we attain it?
4. What is the difference between human act and actions that are based
on instinct?
5. What do people think is right?
It is important to note that some scholars argue that there are five major branches of
philosophy, namely, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, and aesthetics. While there is
nothing wrong with this contention, in these notes, I adhered to the classical understanding of
the major branches of philosophy, namely, metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and logic. The
argument is that "aesthetics", which is the study of beauty, is under metaphysics.
It is also important to note that some scholars put ethics and aesthetics under axiology,
the philosophical study of value. There is also nothing wrong with it. It's just that, as intimated
above, I adhered to the classical understanding of the major branches of philosophy, namely,
metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and logic.
As we can see, there is no absolute, one-size-fits-all understanding of the major
branches of philosophy. Hence, our understanding of the major branches of philosophy
depends entirely on a specific tradition one is coming from.

What is Logic?
Logic is one of the major branches of philosophy, which is
commonly understood as the science or study of correct processes of thinking or reasoning.
Broadly construed, logic, therefore, is that specific branch of philosophy that studies the
processes of correct thinking.
Etymologically speaking, the term "logic" is derived from the Greek word logos, which is
often translated in English as "word", "discourse" or "reason". In the Greek tradition of
understanding the nature of reality, the term "reason" was commonly appropriated. And for the
ancient Greek thinkers, logos as "reason" could mean two things, namely: 1) that which refers to
"human reason", which seeks to attain an objective or universal understanding of the nature of
reality, and 2) that which refers to "universal intelligence" or "rational divine intelligence"-indeed,
that universal ruling force that governs the
cosmos.
When understood in the second sense, logos then means (as the ancient Greek thinkers
would have us believe) the "light-giving principle", which enables human persons to understand
the nature, dynamics, and mysteries of the universe. When understood in the first sense, that is,
as "human reason", logos connotes "study", that is, the rationality of the human mind which
seeks to attain an objective or universal understanding of the nature of reality.
Thus, when we employ the term logos in our attempt to make sense of or study
something, then we are dealing with the term logos in the first sense. For example, when we
define the term "psychology" from the vantage point of its etymology, then we say that
psychology comes from the two Greek words, namely, psyche, which means "mind", and logos,
which means "study". Thus, etymologically speaking, psychology is defined as the study of the
mind. Indeed, it is in this context that "logic" is, again, defined as the study (or science or reason)
of the correct processes of thinking or reasoning.
More specifically, when we study the correct processes of thinking or reasoning, we are
necessarily dealing with arguments.
Hence, in logic, we will be primarily dealing with the principles that govern the validity of
arguments, that is, whether a certain conclusion follows from the given premises or
assumptions.
Let us consider the examples below.
If it rains today, then the road is wet.
It rains today.
Therefore, the road is wet.

All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

The professor will be absent if and only if she is sick.

The professor is sick.
Therefore, she will be absent.
The arguments above are obviously valid arguments because their conclusions
necessarily follow from the premises. Again, if the premises are true, then the conclusion must
be true for the argument to be valid. However, there are more complicated arguments whose
validity cannot be determined by simply looking at them. These arguments require a thorough
analysis before we can say that they are indeed valid or not. This is precisely what concerns us
in logic, and this is what the rest of the discussions in logic would like to address.