Tobias, E. S. (2012). Let's play! Learning music through video games and virtual worlds. In G.

MUSIC EDUCATION McPherson & G. Welch (Eds.), Oxford handbook of music education (Vol. 2, pp. 531-548). Oxford,
England: Oxford University Press.
ity of Illinois Press.
ly published 1934).
ld music in the
I schools: 1838-1988
CHAPTER 6.3
n Gould reader

de. New York: LET'S PLAY!

University
LEARNING MUSIC
ireness. London:

w to lock down THROUGH VIDEO

New York: GAMES AND VIRTUAL
;ity Press.
:>la. NY: Dover.
Press.
WORLDS
'S of the
I' York: Mason

i man. Toronto: EVAN S. TOBIAS

ical ed. by
d 1964).
:T: Yale University

JOs Angeles:

Magazine. 8. The imagery and sounds of games such as Guitar Hero· and Rock Band have
captured the imaginations of popular media, the public, and would-be rock stars
• Durham. NC: across the world. Discourse and debate surrounding these games, however, typi-
cally remain constrained within a dichotomy of virtual versus "real" performance,
Oxford often excluding music video games' potential as media for musical learning.
Cautious music educators will wonder why they would choose to use their limited
time putting video game controllers in students' hands instead of instruments. In
this chapter I suggest that video games create virtual worlds rich with potential for
students to interact with music in new ways. construct musical understanding, and
connect their musical engagement and learning between school and home.
While video games may not be the primary form of entertainment media for
all young people, gameplay is firmly enmeshed in contemporary cultural milieux.
Acknowledging musical playas a productive site for constructing musical under-
standing (Harwood, 1998; Marsh & Young, 2006), music educators might consider
the challenges and potential of using video games and gameplay as a means of and
resource for teaching and learning music. Though studies pertaining to this focus
are emerging (Clements, Cody, & Gibbs, 2008; Lum, 2009), a lacuna in related
53 2 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEAH

empirical work compels music educators to envision curricular and pedagogical games featuring E
possibilities of these media. This chapter offers one step in this direction. player online gam
After outlining the background and current scope of music-focused video actions; and "seric
games, 1 situate video games in terms of new literacies (Gee, 2004; Lankshear & a game environm
Knobel, 2006). 1 then draw on research on video games and learning to provide a off-the-shelf gam«;
theoretical framework that supports the use of video games in music education. 360, PlayStation 3:
Along with music-focused video games 1discuss the roles that music plays in video Music-focuse.
games (Collins, 2008). As studies focusing on video games and music education involve players us
increase, the principles and approaches for learning music through gameplayand the games' visual [
integrating video games in music programs suggested in this chapter and by others ments range from
should be reexamined and developed further. Konga, respective-
Hero and Rock B
It is Friday evening, which means Rock Band 3 night at the Jimenez household.
Gina asks her mother, Sasha, for permission to purchase two songs by Lady games provide pll:
Gaga as downloadable content (DLC). Sasha says yes, adding, "but I'm playing the musicality of e
the drums." Sasha sits behind the drum controllers and starts hitting the rubber controllers, and go
pads and cymbals with drumsticks. Gripping the microphone controller, Gina correctly played p:
reminds her mother to use the plastic kick pedal to play the parts accurately. Physical perfOJ
Alex grabs a guitar controller and begins pressing the color-coded buttons that drum sets, and mt
simulate frets on the guitar neck while flicking the small plastic bar with his
microphone contre
thumb, which simulates strumming a guitar's strings. He plans to demonstrate
Players can manipi
his new skill of shifting his left hand down the neck and using his pinky, having
practiced on expert mode for hours on end. Javier glances at the keyboard and phrasing in \\
controller before picking another guitar controller up from the floor. He selects troller.3 Several gan
the bass part and tweaks his avatar's appearance.' online game syster:
Gina selects Poker Face, using the mode allowing for any song to be played Beyond its cel
rather than requiring advancement through music of increasing complexity. immersive envirOI
After each player chooses one of the five available difficulty levels the music tributing to an ov
begins. Forty seconds into the song dissonant sounds clang through the
music is an integr.
speakers resulting from Javier's trouble coordinating his fingers' placement on
culture seriously ie
the buttons and rhythmic strumming to the iconic notation scrolling across the
screen. A virtual crowd boos Javier's mistakes and Gina's spirited but inaccurate ence and engagem
vocal performance. Sasha's and Alex's accuracy keep the song advancing. Alex sitates an understo
gesticulates with his body emphatically, clicking and strumming the guitar experience them.•
parts that closely parallel the original song. After completing Poker Face Sasha works related to nc
exclaims "I rocked!" Their scores and accuracy-based-statistics display across porating video gar
the screen as Alex retorts, "Yeah, Mom, on easy mode. Let's see how you do
playing some Metal at medium or difficult."

MUSIC AND VIDEO GAMES

Warschauer and \"I
Video games are digital media that can be played on computers with or without print-based texts"
online access, handheld devices, and console systems in conjunction with a screen nologies (p. 215). TI
(Squire, 2008). These media take many forms including commercial-off-the-shelf ing making, funct
MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARNING MUSIC 533

ar and pedagogical games featuring genres such as adventure, sports, or role play; "massively multi-
direction. player online games" (MMOG), which feature open-ended worlds and player inter-
llsic-focused video actions; and "serious games," which aim to educate or present information within
2.004; Lankshear & a game environment (Squire, 2006, 2008). This chapter focuses on commercial-
:irning to provide a off-the-shelf games, particularly those played on console systems such as the Xbox
n music education. 360, PlayStation 3, and Nintendo Wii.
nusic plays in video Music-focused video games, referred to as rhythm action games, typically
music education involve players using controllers to match rhythmic and pitch content dictated by
gameplay and the games' visual interfaces (Miller, 2009). Peripheral controllers simulating instru-
apter and by others ments range from maracas and bongos in the games Samba de Amigo and Donkey
Konga, respectively, to microphones, guitars, and drum sets in the games Guitar
Hero and Rock Band or turntables in BeatMania and DJ Hero. Rhythm action
:lez household.
.gs by Lady games provide players with a sense that they are performing music and enhance
.It I'm playing the musicality of one's experience through connecting gameplay to visuals, audio,
:ting the rubber controllers, and game structures, such as the rewarding of higher point values for
ntroller, Gina correctly played phrases, as opposed to individual notes (SqUire, 2011).
i accurately. Physical performance is made possible through the use ofMIDI keyboards, MIDI
-d buttons that drum sets, and modified electric guitars in games such as Rock Band 3 along with
)arwith his
microphone controllers that reproduce and track the accuracy of a player's live voice.
:l demonstrate
Players can manipulate musical parameters to some extent, such as altering dynamics
oS pinky, having
keyboard and phrasing in Wii Music with the Nintendo Wii Remote, a wireless gestural con-
_oor. He selects troller.3 Several games allow people in different locations to collaborate or compete via
online game system networks in addition to the phYSical space around the console.
19 to be played Beyond its central role in rhythm action games, music is critical to creating
complexity. immersive environments and virtual worlds in other game genres. Whether con-
s the music tributing to an overarching narrative or providing feedback to a player's actions,
19h the
music is an integral element of contemporary video games. While taking gaming
placement on
culture seriously is a first step toward realizing the potential of the musical experi-
-ling across the
_but inaccurate ence and engagement offered by video games, developing informed praxis neces-
lancing. Alex sitates an understanding of these media and how young people engage with and
the guitar experience them. To this end the following section delineates theoretical frame-
:er Face Sasha works related to new literacies and learning through gameplay that support incor-
!splay across porating video games and virtual worlds in music programs.
ow you do

CONTEXTUALIZING VIDEO GAMES THROUGH

NEW LITERACIES

Warschauer and Ware (2008) argue that defining literacy as "the ability to decode
with or without print-based texts" excludes ways of communicating afforded by new digital tech-
:tion with a screen nologies (p. 215). They explain that beyond decoding, literacy "encompasses mean-
ing making, functional use of texts, and critical analysis" (p. 215). In expanding
534 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LJ

beyond print-based and static notions of literacy to those more inclusive and their
appropriate for digital media, educators might think in terms of literacies. This lems, and solu1
is consistent with Eisner's (1991) proposition that schools should provide students experimentatic
with opportunities to engage with multiple forms of literacy that take into account and related res.
diverse forms of sensation, meaning, and representation. Thinking in terms of lit- mine better so:
eracies is key to realizing the full potential of video games in music programs. reach a particu
Lankshear and Knobel (2006) define literacies as "socially recognized ways ers' learning at
of generating, communicating, and negotiating meaningful content through the (Gee, 2004, ZOC
medium of encoded texts within contexts of participation in Discourses (or as Gameplay
members of Discourses)" (p. 64). Discourses, in this case, are "ways of behaving, ical space outsi
interacting, valuing, thinking, believing, speaking, and often reading and writing, these two space
that are accepted as instantiations of particular identities ('or types of people') by "in-room," the
specific groups" (Gee, 2008, p. 3). The practices and Discourses related to digital argue that you
media such as video games can be considered "New Literacies" different from and each other and
expanding the concept of conventional print-based literacies through the affor- term "in-world
dances of digital technologies (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006). This perspective can technologies, aJ
help educators avoid constraining the use ofvideo games within conventional con- Those with
ceptions of music literacy by addressing the ways young people engage with music spaces characte
and their ensuing music literacies. masters, and ev
Whereas traditional notions of music literacy focus primarily on reading and by those who iJ
writing music through standard notation and discerning musical attributes, digi- dispersed arnot
tal technologies such as video games allow for new forms of text and ways of"read- edge; a diversit
ing and writing" (Gee, 2004). Engaging with these texts involves multimodality, ship that is flex:
which accounts for the infinite ways multimedia can be layered, morphed, and spaces also fast,
combined (Kress & Van Leeuwen, 2001). Music video games are prime examples of of games by rna
multimodal texts in that they integrate music and its visual representations, graph- creation of exte.
ics that create an immersive environment, peripheral controllers, and actions in ing on the desig
the physical space outside the game itself. music educator.
Addressing music and learning in the context ofvideo games requires educators making. How If
to broaden beyond a focus on reading and writing standard notation and grapple
with how people interact with, learn, and do music through digital media and multi-
modal texts. At stake are music educators' ability to capitalize on a significant aspect
of young people's popular culture and capacity to evolve with how people engage
with and understand music. These goals are best met with an understanding of the
Cor
Discourses surrounding video games and knowledge of how games afford learning.
While many of 1
ducive to learni
experiences ami
observing and eJ
LEARNING THROUGH VIDEO GAMES place around ga
to help them can
Given the problem-solving tasks, potential for collaboration, extended engage- the meanings yo
ment, and new literacies incorporated in video games, it is productive to concep- process (Squire,
tualize them as designed experiences (Squire, 2006, 2008). Players learn through that afford learn
USIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARNING MUSIC 535

Ife inclusive and their identification of and engagement with the patterns, generalizations, prob-
)f literacies. This lems, and solutions that make up the game's virtual world through repeated effort,
provide students experimentation, trial and error, and/or using information provided by the game
take into account and related resources (Gee, 2007). Failure is designed to encourage players to deter-
:ig in terms of Iit- mine better solutions to a given problem and allows for multiple opportunities to
;ic programs. reach a particular goal (Gee. 2008). Video games are thus designed to scaffold play-
recognized ways ers' learning and meaning making, which are situated and embodied in gameplay
ltent through the (Gee, 2004, 2007).
:Jiscourses (or as Gameplay often extends beyond the virtual worlds ofvideo games to the phys-
"{ays of behaving, ical space outside the games. Stevens, Satwicz, and McCarthy (2008) differentiate
ding and writing, these two spaces in terms of "in-game," within the virtual game environment, and
pes of people') by "in-room," the physical environment in which the game is played. The authors
related to digital argue that young people learn through their varied "in-room" interactions with
jfferent from and each other and make broader connections to other aspects of their lives, what they
1rough the affor- term "in-world." These interactions can also occur via the internet and mobile
.s perspective can technologies, and often include peer mentoring and collaboration.
:onventional con- Those with shared interest in video games often organize and create affinity
-ngage with music spaces characterized by: a common endeavor rather than one's identity; newbies,
masters, and everyone else sharing a common space; the transformation ofcontent
lyon reading and by those who interact with it; knowledge that is individualized, distributed, and
:t1 attributes, digi- dispersed among other spaces, such as websites; the encouragement of tacit knowl-
md ways of "read- edge; a diversity of possibilities for participating and gaining status; and leader-
es multimodality, ship that is flexible and changing (Gee, 2004, pp. 85-87). Video games and affinity
morphed, and spaces also foster opportunities for players to engage as producers or codesigners
)rime examples of of games by modding (modifying) content ranging from simple alterations to the
sentations, graph- creation of extensions for others to play (Gee, 2004, 2007; Squire, 2008). By draw-
rs, and actions in ing on the design elements, structures, and interactions surrounding video games,
music educators can play an important role in students' learning and meaning
requires educators making. How might this occur in music classrooms?
ation and grapple
.media and multi-
significant aspect
ow people engage
CONSIDERING THE EDUCATOR'S ROLE
ierstanding of the
:s afford learning.
While many of the aforementioned aspects of video games and gameplay are con-
ducive to learning, the onus is on music educators to recontextualize students'
experiences and play in terms of teaching and learning music. This demands
observing and employing the Discourses, conversations, and interactions that take
MES place around gameplay along with facilitating and scaffolding students' learning
to help them connect their in-game, in-room, and in-world experiences. Mediating
engage- the meanings young people make from interacting with video games is key to this
uctive to concep- process (Squire, 2006, 2008). By drawing on the characteristics of video games
learn through that afford learning, music educators might cultivate environments conducive to
536 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAYl; L

play, affinity spaces, and peer interaction where students would regularly expe- relate to andlo
rience collaboration, musical problem solving (Wiggins, 2009), a wide degree of instruments? '
autonomy, and opportunities to struggle through challenges before choosing to lacking, it is il
obtain assistance (Green, 2008). The remainder of this chapter offers possibilities ricular, and
for putting the aforementioned theories to practice.

Blurred til
The inclusion
Def Jam Raps
LEARNING MUSIC THROUGH VIDEO GAMES
some cases bll
the games rail
Developing a pedagogy that addresses the affordances of video games and virtual formance and
worlds for teaching and learning music compels music educators to mobilize the articulation, ly
conceptual frameworks discussed thus far and incorporate musical engagement representation
that intersects virtual and physical spaces. This section addresses performance contour, durat
issues relevant to music video games and suggests how video games might be consider how t
contextualized and integrated with engaged and critical listening, musical analy- in general. Sin
sis, creation of original music, and discussion of related sociocultural issues. In drum, and tur:
practice, these ways of engaging and thinking musically overlap and may occur Toconside
simultaneously and recursively with students' gameplay. The suggestions embed- listening, com
ded throughout the following discussion are starting points and invite additional might reflect (
approaches as related research emerges. standing thrm
learning and t
omy between \
Performing and what playE
In public discourse on music video games, a dichotomy of real and simulated sense of perf01
performance between rhythm action games and "real" instruments offers music contribute to t
educators and students opportunities to reexamine notions of performance. Many butes and inne
rhythm action garners feel as if they are performing, though they distinguish related questio
between performing music and playing these games (Lum, 2009; Miller, 2009). musicking.
Gameplay is often performative, with players enacting the role of rock star both
virtually, through choices made in the game regarding performance venues, and
in reality, through imitating their avatar's characteristics and physically embody- Expanding
ing this persona through theatrics and gestures, converting the in-room space Classrooms pr
into a virtual stage (Miller, 2009; Squire, 2008). Miller (2009) contextualizes this formance of ac
phenomenon as schizophonic performance, in which "the players and their audi- tions and com-
ence join the game designers and recorded musicians in stitching musical sound Music educatQo
and performing body back together" (p. 424). She also notes that some players ship between t
approach the game competitively, focusing more intently on scoring points than dents comparE
on performing. possibilities, SI
While rhythm action games provide players with musical, performative, and controllers' co-
aesthetic experiences, does the process of accurately triggering a song's musical sion from mu!:
elements on instrument-shaped controllers, as dictated by the game visualizations, not encompas-
constitute musical performance? What aspects of playing rhythm action games Embracing thE
P MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARNING MUSIC 537

:mld regularly expe- relate to and/or impact traditional notions of performance on acoustic and electric
19), a wide degree of instruments? Though empirical evidence informing discussion of these issues is
; before choosing to lacking. it is important for music educators to wrestle with the philosophical. cur-
er offers possibilities ricular. and pedagogical issues surrounding performance and video games.

Blurred Lines between Playing Games and Instruments

The inclusion of vocal parts in video games such as Rock Band. Guitar Hero. and
Def Jam Rapstar share similarities with aspects of musical performance and in
o GAMES some cases blur the lines between games and instruments. 4 Variations between
the games raise questions as to their potential impact on a player's musical per-
games and virtual formance and understanding outside the game environment. Vocal phrasing.
ltors to mobilize the articulation. lyric, and pitch accuracy, for example. might be affected by the visual
musical engagement representations of vocal parts. Students could compare and contrast how melodic
iresses performance contour, durational values, and intonation are represented in different games and
leo games might be consider how this might impact their performance and conceptualization of music
Ding, musical analy- in general. Similar issues may be considered in relation to using guitar. keyboard,
iocultural issues. In drum. and turntable controllers.
-rlap and may occur To consider the broader implications of rhythm action games for performance,
suggestions embed- listening, composing, and other forms of musical engagement, music educators
nd invite additional might reflect on how young people make meaning and develop musical under-
standing through interacting with these media. The potential of video games for
learning and teaching music is greatly expanded when we look beyond a dichot-
omy between virtual and real instruments and consider what game systems teach
and what players learn. How do representations of pitch and rhythm impact one's
real and simulated sense of performance. nuance. sensitivity, and/or phrasing? How does gameplay
aments offers music contribute to players' awareness and understanding of the music's stylistic attri-
performance. Many butes and inner workings? Along with serving as foci for future research. these and
they distinguish related questions might be posed to students for reflecting on their gameplay and
:009; Miller, 2009). musicking.
Ie of rock star both
mance venues, and
?hysically embody-
Expanding Notions of Play and Performance
the in-room space Classrooms provide a rich context for students' gameplay to occur along with per-
contextualizes this formance of acoustic and electric instruments, offering opportunities for connec-
-ers and their audi- tions and comparisons to be made between video game and musical performance.
jng musical sound Music educators' questions and prompts could help focus attention on the relation-
that some players ship between the game's visuals and what students perform or hear. By having stu-
::oring points than dents compare video games and musical performance in terms of their expressive
possibilities. such as vocal phrasing or nuanced dynamic change. the games' and
performative, and controllers' constraints become sites for inquiry rather than rationales for exclu-
g a song's musical sion from music classrooms. A traditional performance paradigm. however, does
arne visualizations. not encompass the full potential of including video games in music classrooms.
Ihm action games Embracing the multimodal and music literacies afforded by this technology might
 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LE

lead music educators to integrate aspects ofgamer culture, such as the creation and game. Smith (2
use of game mods. The in-room space, for example, leaves openings for perfor- to one's experif
mance and creative responses that can be explored by music teachers and students thinking in ter
(Smith, 2004; Squire, 2008). Miller (2009) i<
Technological developments are expanding the types ofcontrollers and instru- such as their ab
ments that can be used to create and perform music through video games. Students themselves pIa]
can play music and games simultaneously by using MIDI and acoustic drum sets they listened. 1
for percussion parts and strum and pluck strings rather than pressing buttons on the game. Videl
standard controllers with the YouRock digital/MIDI guitar, Fender Rock Band 3 standing, partil
Squier, or projects such as OpenChord.org's initiative to mod electric guitars into questions draw
game controllers. The game Rocksmith allows electric guitars to be used as con- are listening to
trollers. These mods and alternative controllers allow for a range ofcreative perfor- elusive or diffic
mance pOSSibilities in conjunction with and beyond traditional gameplay. learning with s1
Providing opportunities for students to think musically while exploring and ing and
imagining game mods may sow seeds that some day advance the use ofinstruments
as game controllers, increase the sophistication of game interfaces and designs to
EngagedLh
account for expressive interpretations of music, or allow musical performance to
control gameplay and elements. When legato or staccato articulations change how of Video Ga
a character traverses a virtual landscape or pitch fluctuations determine an avatar's The multimo<h
balance on a treacherous perch, game and musical play may merge in fascinating sees, hears, and
ways. Might music education playa critical role in the work of future video game can capitalize t
developers, programmers, composers, and players? ied experience .
While extensions and expansions of performance offer interesting possibilities Revolution (Dr
for students to learn music, framing music video games exclusively in terms of per- standard notati.
formance is limiting in scope and misses possibilities of integrating video games in combination of
music classrooms or ensembles through other types of musical engagement. The a lack of researc
remainder of this section explores the potential of combining listening, analysis, to engaged liste:
and creation of video game music with gameplay. Miller (200:
a strategy learnc
while playing tI
Engaged and Critical Listening and fast finger ..
Players use instrument game controllers to play along with the recording of a about the game':
chosen song. While the sounds emanating from most controllers are limited to 2008). Schultz (
clicks and taps, one's performance, if correct, is heard as parts of the song emitted action games m
from speakers. The connection between players' performance, aural feedback, and Games that
game visuals can be considered a form ofengaged listening (Campbell, 2004; Lum, eton of the mus.
2009). Campbell (2004) describes engaged listening as "the active participation by rhythms and pit
a listener in some extent of music-making while the recorded (or live) music is original part (k
sounding" (p. 91). She argues that for many students, "listening must be folded into does not necess-
a means of interactive engagement with the music" (p. 91). Expanding beyond a knows a particu
sole focus of comparing video games to musical performance allows music educa- mental part, it ()o
tors to access new vistas of engaged listening in music classrooms. identify and dis-
The use of instrument-shaped controllers in rhythm action games provide in a song. This F
players with an embodied form of engagement with the music they play in the ing a visual, kin.
OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARNING MUSIC 539

lch as the creation and game. Smith (2004) stresses the importance of connecting body, sound, and image
i openings for perfor- to one's experience playing music-focused games, explaining that "the player stops
teachers and students thinking in terms oflocking on targets and instead tries to feel the groove" (p. 65).
Miller (2009) identified changes in the ways Guitar Hero players listened to music,
controllers and instru- such as their ability to isolate specific instrumental parts in a song and envisioning
video games. Students themselves playing along with or seeing visual representations of music to which
nd acoustic drum sets they listened. Their listening in these ways extended beyond the songs played in
Lll pressing buttons on the game. Video games might then mediate students' listening and musical under-
t, Fender Rock Band 3 standing, particularly if music educators contextualize students' play with guided
>d electric guitars into questions drawing on their situated experience. By interacting with the music they
ars to be used as con- are listening to and viewing, students might hear aspects of the music otherwise
mge ofcreative perfor- elusive or difficult to hear. Video games can thus act as an entry point into musical
Inal gameplay. learning with students' gameplay as a safe, familiar, and enjoyable space for listen-
y while exploring and ing and hearing differently.
the use ofinstruments
:erfaces and designs to Engaged Listening and Multimodal Affordances
Illsical performance to
iculations change how of Video Games
sdetermine an avatar's The multimodal nature of video games affords connections between what one
y merge in fascinating sees, hears, and does in the game context. Auerbach (2010) details how educators
( of future video game can capitalize on these affordances by helping students connect their embod-
ied experience dancing and reading iconic notation while playing Dance Dance
nteresting possibilities Revolution (DDR) to vocalization, sight-reading, and transcribing music with
usively in terms of per- standard notation. Whether players focus primarily on the visual, the aural, or a
grating video games in combination of both aspects of video game music is speculative at this point, given
sical engagement. The a lack of research; however, "reading" music in music-focused games seems related
ing listening, analysis, to engaged listening.
Miller (2009) found that players read Guitar Hero notation as sets of patterns,
a strategy learned from prior formal music experience or during similar processes
while playing the game DDR. This suggests that beyond eye-hand coordination
and fast finger work, playing music video games requires a conceptual framework
ith the recording of a about the game's musical system on which one bases one's physical actions (Schultz,
ltrollers are limited to 2008). Schultz (2008) argues that such a theory is based on the way that rhythm
rts of the song emitted action games map musical time to physical space visually.
ce, aural feedback, and Games that provide several difficulty levels for each song begin with a skel-
:Campbell, 2004; Lum, eton of the musical content at the easy level and add additional content, filling in
active participation by rhythms and pitches as the difficulty progresses, until one must essentially play the
rded (or live) music is
ing must be folded into
original part (Miller, 2009; Schultz, 2008). Thus, particularly on easier levels, one
does not necessarily see what one hears. Though this may frustrate a player who
i
. Expanding beyond a knows a particular song and is required to playa simplified version of one instru- 1
ce allows music educa- mental part, it offers countless possibilities for students to sharpen their abilities to I
I
rooms. identify and distinguish between the varied tonal, rhythmic, and structural layers i
;j
action games provide in a song. This process can be repeated for each difficulty level, in essence, generat- l!
nusic they play in the ing a visual, kinesthetic, and aural gestalt.

j
540 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARN

Listening Critically Collins (2008) exph

tive in nature. She
Video games offer opportunities for students to listen critically and aesthetically
to gameplay, and ir
when contextualized in a music classroom. Music educators can frame video
actions. Dynamic a
games to elicit students' aesthetic preferences and musical thinking, ranging from
ing to game paramE
discussing the mixes created by professional DJs for DJ Hero to evaluating vocal
by responding to a
performances from the game SingStar or Def Jam Rapstar that were uploaded to
terms of adaptive, i
a game system network. This could also apply to students' perceptions of the aes-
for students to Iistel
thetic qualities and relevance of music in video games beyond the music-focused
The ability for 1
genres discussed thus far. Huiberts and van Tol's (2007) "pretty ugly game sound
and actions require
study," for example, encourages garners to submit and describe examples of good
designed so that it (
(pretty) and bad (ugly) video game music to a website that allows for discussion of
isting music, divide
the archived submissions. Having students critique and discuss video game music
(Collins, 2008). FOI
in the classroom combines garner culture with opportunities for developing stu-
could change base'
dents' listening and analytical skills.
object (Collins, 200
Jessie holds the controller, confused by the numerous buttons and knobs. "The garnes' virtual wod
last time I played a video game was in high school," she discloses to her partner, dynamic and respot
Erik. Erik inserts Uncharted 2; Among Thieves in the console system, replying,
gameplay and focus
"This is a bit different, but you'll figure it out." After a brief animated scene
critique the functiol
provides context to the game's start, Jessie finds herself, as the character Nathan
Drake, hanging precariously from a train teetering off a cliffside, surrounded expresses a particul:
by lightly falling snow and the whispering sound of wind. New to the game and to the player's overa
controller, Jessie takes several minutes before ascertaining how to make Drake 'Two tools used
climb the dangling train's surface. As she fiddles with the controller trying to (Collins, 2008), mil
climb and jump, the music alternates between a symphonic motive echoing the analyzing interacti'
game's theme music, a woodwind theme whispering along with the sounds of programmers to ide
wind and creaking wood, and ominous-sounding drums with string instrument
components and ev
tremolos. Turning a corner while clinging to a metal pipe, she (Drake) slips. The
dynamics swell, returning to calm as she gains her balance climbing upward. Cue sheets do not d
Suddenly, a French horn and strings enter at a fortissimo, swelling tensely as a music might occur 1
chunk of the train hurtles down toward her. She traverses the train car quickly, matches the player'!
avoiding the falling wreckage. The prior woodwind theme returns at a mezzo ponents in a game;
piano. "This is intense," Jessie exclaims. throughout gamepl
and create cue shee-
nonlinear nature at
Considering the Functions of Music in Video Games and for extending
Music contributes to video games' immersive environments and the illusion that analysis.
a player is outside her reality and in the virtual world of a video game by setting
particular moods, contributing to game narratives, signifying emotions, and play-
ing a preparatory function, such as warning a player that something important is Creating Origi
about to take place or focusing her attention on particular game elements (Collins, Music education aJ
lo08; Zehnder & Lipscomb, 2006). Understanding how music functions in the of original content
multimodal context of video games and gameplay can lead to new ways of per- rooms could funct
ceiving and experiencing music through digital media. Situating analysis and dis- role of video game
course in the context of playing games in class might provide concrete entry points tique along with tc
to address varied musical issues and music's interactive nature in video games. ation of interactive
MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARNING MUSIC 541

Collins (2008) explains that much of video game music is nonlinear and interac-
tive in nature. She makes a distinction between adaptive audio, which responds
Iy and aesthetically
to gameplay, and interactive audio, which changes according to a player's direct
:s can frame video
actions. Dynamic audio, according to Collins, is both adaptive through respond-
king, ranging from
ing to game parameters, such as a character's health in the game, and interactive,
to evaluating vocal
by responding to a player's direct input, such as moving an object. Thinking in
It were uploaded to
terms of adaptive, interactive, and dynamic audio opens new imaginative spaces
:::eptions of the aes-
for students to listen to, conceptualize, create, and perform music.
the music-focused
The ability for video game music to change based on a player's varied choices
y ugly game sound
and actions requires that music either be composed in a nonlinear fashion and
examples of good
"'lS for discussion of
designed so that it can be reconstructed in multiple ways or, in the case of preex-
isting music, divided into parts to be rearranged based on responses to gameplay
; video game music
(Collins, 2008). For example, the music playing at a particular point in a game
for developing stu-
could change based on the character's location relative to another character or
object (Collins, 2008). Thinking through music in the nonlinear context of video
.d knobs. "The games' virtual worlds offers students new ways of conceptualizing music that are
to her partner,
dynamic and responsive to someone other than a performer or conductor. Through
:stem, replying,
gameplay and focused listening students might engage with, analyze, describe, and
lated scene
.aracter Nathan critique the functions and qualities of video game music and the degree to which it
• surrounded expresses a particular mood or narrative, matches a game's design and play, or adds
) the game and to the player's overall experience. .
:> make Drake Two tools used by creators of video game music, cue sheets and emotion maps
TIer trying to (Collins, 2008), might be used in a classroom context as graphic organizers for
'Ve echoing the analyzing interactive video game music. Cue sheets are used by composers and
he sounds of
programmers to identify a game's components, describe the characteristics of the
ring instrument
components and events that might take place, and list associated musical content.
rake) slips. The
.ing upward. Cue sheets do not display music occurring linearly in time, instead outlining when
_g tensely as a music might occur based on a player's interaction with the game and how the music
in car quickly, matches the player's actions. Emotion maps represent the various events and com-
IS at a mezzo ponents in a game and trace the emotional trajectory as it rises, falls, and plateaus
throughout gameplay (Collins, 2008). Providing students with opportunities to use
and create cue sheets and emotion maps allows for a concrete representation of the
nonlinear nature of video game music and its relationship to games and gameplay,
iffies
and for extending students' engagement with video games from play to playful
ld the illusion that analysis.
game by setting
motions, and play-
thing important is Creating Original Video Game Music
elements (Collins, Music education and video game literacies share a common value in the creation
::: functions in the of original content by students and gamers (Gee, 2004; Squire, 2008). Music class-
new ways of per- rooms could function as interdisciplinary studios in which students embody the
8 analysis and dis- role of video game composers and use their gameplay, listening, analysis, and cri-
J.crete entry points tique along with tools such as cue sheets and emotion maps to inform their cre-
'e in video games. ation of interactive video game music. Creating original video game music would
542 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAYl: LE

require students to make musical decisions that encompass expressing the mood of Opportuni1
an event or scene, appropriate leitmotifs or themes for game components, the rela- brass qUintets I
tionship of musical content to gameplay and other parts of the music to allow for trollers in avid
interactivity, logical loop points in the music, and other issues that arise from their and raise comp
engagement with the game. Students' experience and knowledge of video games form music in t]
would thus intertwine with their musical learning and musicianship. Helping stu- across the game
dents create music for multimodal, nonlinear, and interactive contexts may require use of video ga
music educators to rethink how they approach compositional pedagogy, integrate music from m\
technology, and teach concepts such as musical structure and development. playing Gabriel
to be seen.

Creating Music in the Game Environment

In addition to composing music contributing to the immersive environments and Discussing l
virtual worlds of video games, students might compose in-game and create music Music video gar
to be played in a game environment. Games allowing one to create, layer, and cultural issues i
remix music seem to be moving from console systems to mobile gaming devices twined with ga
and phones; however, the inclusion of composition devices in game environments, example, avatar;
such as in Guitar Hero, offer interesting opportunities for students to both play the stereotypes. ThE
game and create original music. culture, or ethn
Since the introduction ofGuita.r Hero: World Tour, the Guitar Hero game series reflect related n
includes GH Mix, a composition toot allowing players to create original music in between video
the game environment. A player using GH Mix can create vocal, keyboard, rhythm dents to develol
guitar, lead guitar, and drum tracks in preexisting or user-created tonal systems games play in th
using the guitar and drum controllers. The music is notated with Guitar Hero's larger musical a
icon system and can be uploaded to the game's online network for others to down- deeply and critic
load and perform in the game environment on their own console systems.
Issues such as sonic aspects of the music, its visual representation, the extent to
which it can be played by the composer and others, and the constraints one faces
when attempting to realize one's ideal song can be addressed as students create
music in-game. Students can also reflect on and consider solutions to constraints
such as GH Mix's limited harmonic and timbral options. With a teacher's gUid-
ance, students creating music in video game environments could work through If music classr
musical problems, eventually transitioning to other media and tools to create their and emergent f
music. In this way the game acts as a site for musical exploration, decision-making, and classroom
thinking, and learning. ronment cond
The Rock Band Network, created by the video game company Harmonix, throughout thi
allows original music to be translated into Rock Band songs for play on the Xbox Amid many po
360 system and in some cases the PlayStation 3. Using the software sequencing account possib
program Reaper and a Rock Band plug-in,S one can create and record music using teaching and Ie
both digital audio and MIDI, adapt the song for each difficulty level, assign the The first m
musical content to the game's guitar, drum, and microphone controllers, and have ments, and re
the song played through the Rock Band video game. The ability to translate any beyond a dich
type of recorded music into a playable song in Rock Band opens exciting possibili- ing the virtual
ties for music education. modded music
 OF MUSIC EDUCATION
the mood of
components, the rela-
the music to allow for
es that arise from their
-vledge of video games
icianship. Helping stu-
"e contexts may require
lal pedagogy, integrate
)d development.
:sive environments and
same and create music
Ie to create, layer, and
:nobile gaming devices
in game environments,
:udents to both play the
:Juitar Hero game series
reate original music in
ocal, keyboard, rhythm
tonal systems
ted with Guitar Hero's
ork for others to down-
onsole systems.
the extent to
Ie constraints one faces
ssed as students create
Kllutions to constraints
With a teacher's guid-
ts could work through
Il.nd tools to create their
ition, decision-making,
e company Harmonix,
gs for play on the Xbox
ie software sequencing
and record music using
ficulty level, assign the
Ie controllers, and have
ability to translate any
'pens exciting possibili-
LET'S PLAYl: LEARNING MUSIC 543
Opportunities for students, whether in rock bands creating original music or
brass quintets performing baroque works, to have their music played with con-
trollers in a video game environment offer varied entry points into these musics
and raise compelling questions about what it means to create, listen to, and per-
form music in this context. Whether deciding how to distribute brass quintet parts
across the game controllers or visualizing the rhythms of an original riff, students'
use of video games in the music classroom affords new ways of interacting with
music from multiple viewpoints. The implications of creating, arranging, and
playing Gabrieli on a plastic guitar controller or samba on rubber drums are yet
to be seen.
Discussing Game-Related Issues
Music video games provide a wealth of entry points for integrating relevant socio-
cultural issues in music classrooms. Music educators can tease out issues inter-
twined with game design and play for critical investigation (Squire, 2008). For
example, avatars might be critiqued in terms of gendered and cultural norms and
stereotypes. The games' musical themes and timbres used to evoke a sense of place,
culture, or ethnicity can be investigated to determine the degree to which they
reflect related musics and draw on cultural tropes. Analysis of the relationship
between video games, the music industry, and music distribution may assist stu-
dents to develop sophisticated understandings of the role that music and video
games play in their lives. By using video game music as a springboard for exploring
larger musical and sociocultural issues music educators can help students think
deeply and critically about media in which they immerse themselves.
MODDING MUSIC EDUCATION
If music classrooms are to include multiple music literacies and music situated in
and emergent from video games and gameplay, changes in pedagogy, curriculum,
and classroom structure are in order. What steps might one take to create an envi-
ronment conducive to the ways of thinking through and being musical discussed
throughout this chapter? In other words, how might we mod music education?
Amid many possible modifications to music education the following five take into
account possibilities that video games and gameplay have for expanding music
teaching and learning.
The first mod consists ofallowing video games to coexist with other texts, instru-
ments, and resources used in music classrooms and ensembles. This means moving
beyond a dichotomy between virtual and physical musical engagement and allow-
ing the virtual worlds of video games to merge with those of music classrooms. In
madded music classrooms one might find guitar, drum, keyboard, and microphone
544 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAYI:

controllers next to guitars, drums, keyboards, and microphones; students playing and their ab
the game Rock Band and in rock bands; or ensembles playing video game music This includE
according to the gameplay projected on a screen as the score. Music educators would their ability
playa role in weaving these various experiences together to help students make con- While i'
nections between the intersections of game, social, and classroom spaces. they could t
Second, we might embrace a mix of musical and gaming cultures, where stu- in it themse
dents work within and across affinity groups on projects connected to their play studies to cc
(Gee, 2004; Squire, 2008). Contextualizing gameplay within curricular projects and ways ofbeir
drawing on students' situated experience with video games will prevent games from play music "
being relegated to disconnected activities. Project-based music classrooms that fos-
ter affinity spaces require flexible teaching and an environment in which students'
learning emerges from their play and project work, their knowledge is distributed
across the class, and connections are made beyond the classroom (Gee, 2004). In
such classrooms some students might playa game and analyze its music on one side
of the room while others on the opposite side create or perform original video game
music, with students moving between groups to collaborate. This may mean moving Building a r
away from strict sequential plans or disconnected activities and allowing for a degree on musicall
of spontaneity and learning that emerges from students' play but is contextualized and
within a project or unit. While logistical issues abound, careful consideration and games in PO]
planning can provide an environment conducive to this type oflearning and play. gameplaybc
Third, music educators might build on the affordances ofvideo games, treating pathways as
their constraints as learning opportunities. Allowing students to experience, think
1. Detel
through, and address the limitations of music video games provides a rich con-
unde
text for constructing musical understanding. Music educators can play an impor-
2. Detel
tant role in this process by helping students identify and negotiate constraints
learn
and affordances while giving them space to generate their own understandings
3. Leart
through experience.
one's
The fourth mod involves embracing multimodality, nonlinearity, and inter-
vice'
activity as they pertain to video games and music. The multimodal and interac-
4. Gain:
tive nature of video games provides alternative paradigms for thinking through
inter<
music in terms of space, structure, action, and other concepts. Classrooms embrac-
5. Deter
ing multimodality, nonlinearity, and interactivity would include a wide variety of
6. Learr
media and ways for students to engage with music. Taken-for-granted notions such
andg
as scores, instruments, musical development, and playing music might be inter-
7. Deter
preted widely and reframed in terms of new technologies and literacies.
game
Finally, music educators should act as facilitators. The previously mentioned
mods, while alluding to an increased degree of student choice and freedom, do not This agenda
imply that music classrooms would be unstructured or that music educators have surveys ofga
no role. It is critical to find an ideal balance between scaffolding and supporting games, musi.
students' learning without interfering in their work and construction of under- t ive research
standing (Green, 2008; Hargreaves, Marshall, & North, 2003). Just as video games as game stu,
have built-in structures and design, music educators have a role to play in scaffold- commercial!
ing students' play and learning by assessing their progress, providing feedback and include videl
information, and ensuring an optimal balance between the challenges they face handheld sys
JP MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LEARNING MUSIC 545

Jnes; students playing and their abilities to work through the issues at hand (Gee, 2007; Wiggins, 2009).
ng video game music This includes encouraging students to reflect on their experiences and facilitating
-:tusic educators would their ability to make connections between gameplay and musicianship.
lp students make con- While it is not necessary for music educators to become video game experts,
:lorn spaces. they could benefit from becoming literate in gaming and its culture by engaging
g cultures, where stu- in it themselves. Collaborating with colleagues in disciplines ranging from game
mnected to their play studies to computer programming could further one's knowledge and forge new
-urricular projects and ways of being musical (Lum, 2009). In modding music education we might then
JI prevent games from play music and video games with our students.
:c classrooms that fos-
ent in which students'
::>wledge is distributed
;room (Gee, 2004). In
e its music on one side
BUILDING A RESEARCH AGENDA
:n original video game
his may mean moving Building a research agenda that seeks to better understand video games' impact
d allowing for a degree on musical understanding and experience as well as their potential use in teaching
• but is contextualized and learning music will assist music educators in addreSSing the ubiquity of video
consideration and games in popular culture and young persons' lives. This requires research of video
oflearning and play. gameplay both in and out of school contexts. The following areas suggest pOSSible
:video games, treating pathways as starting points on which interested researchers may expand:
ts to experience, think
1. Determining how video games affect the development of students' musical
; provides a rich con-
understanding
,rs can play an impor-
2. Determining what students are learning about music and how they are
negotiate constraints
learning music through engaging with video games
own understandings
3. Learning if and to what extent playing music in video games impacts
one's performance abilities in musical contexts outside video games and
mlinearity, and inter-
vice versa
Itimodal and interac-
4. Gaining a deeper understanding of young peoples' Discourse and social
for thinking through
interactions surrounding their engagement with music video games
:. Classrooms embrac-
5. Determining affordances and constraints of music video games
lude a wide variety of
6. Learning what takes place in music classrooms that integrate video games
-granted notions such
and gaming culture
nusic might be inter-
7. Determining how music education and musicianship can inform video
;i literacies.
game development
?reviously mentioned
and freedom, do not This agenda requires a broad spectrum of research methods. Whether conducting
music educators have surveys ofgarners or ethnographic studies of music classrooms that integrate video
Iding and supporting games, music educators ought to consider working on interdisciplinary collabora-
mstruction of under- tive research projects benefiting from shared expertise of colleagues in fields such
). Just as video games as game studies and musicology (Lum, 2009). While this chapter has focused on
>Ie to play in scaffold- commercial off-the-shelf games for console systems, a research agenda should also
oviding feedback and include video games that are played on computers and mobile platforms such as
. challenges they face handheld systems and smart phones.
546 THE OXFORD HANDBOOK OF MUSIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAY!: LE

LOOKING FORWARD at the role of au

tualizing notio
(2006) book on
Squire (2008) suggests that
as games become more culturally entrenched, the idea of using games in
education may be passing from an opportunity to an imperative, if we are to
create an education system that adequately prepares students for life in an
information/knowledge rich economy. (p. 663)
Music educators should consider what it means to teach and learn music as musical 1. All references
engagement becomes increasingly multimodal and interactive. Though video games World Tour ar
are neither equivalent to nor replacements for traditional forms of musical perfor- 2. An avatar is tt
mance, listening, analysis, or creation, they are an interactive medium with potential 3. The Move and
respectively, p
to transform how young people engage with and understand music. Integrating video
movements.
games in music education requires music educators' willingness to design experi- 4. While these vi
ences and contextualize students' gameplay within broader conceptions of musical ratings, the m;
literacies, engagement, and learning (Gee, 2004; Squire, 2006, 2008). It is up to music appropriate in
educators to adapt to these societal changes in how people learn music and mOdify 5. A plug-in is a I
their pedagogies and curricula in a manner that is thoughtful and informed. software progl

REFLECTIVE QUESTIONS

Auerbach, B. (20
1. How might you connect to, recontextualize, and capitalize on the interest to aural skill
and knowledge students bring with them as a result of their immersion in societymusi.
video games and virtual worlds? Campbell, P. S. (.
2. In what ways do you or could you mod your pedagogy and curriculum York: Oxforc
to reflect the kinds of experiences and learning that new literacies, video Clements, A. c.,
games, and virtual worlds provide? What steps might you need to take for in virtual arl
Education };
this to occur?
Collins, K. (2008
3. Where are the spaces in your curriculum in which game culture and game music
music-making could take place simultaneously? Eisner, E. (1991).
4. How might your program inform and advance the work of future video Gee, J. P. (2004).
game designers, programmers, and composers? York: Routle
Gee, J. P. (2007).
updated 00.:
Gee, J. P. (zo08).
Green, L. (2008)
KEY SOURCES Aldercott, l:
Hargreaves, D. J.
first centur)"
To expand one's perspective on video games and education I recommend Gee's 147-163·
(2007) book on videogames and learning, as well as Squire's (2008) chapter on video Harwood, E. (19!
game literacy. Collins's (2008) book Game Sound offers an excellent in-depth look Music Educe
SIC EDUCATION LET'S PLAYI: LEARNING MUSIC 547

at the role of audio in video games. Those interested in broadening and reconcep-
tualizing notions of literacy would benefit from reading Lankshear and Knobel's
(2006) book on new literacies.

es in
'e are to
:in an NOTES

nusk as musical 1. All references to Guitar Hero in this chapter include the fourth iteration, Guitar Hero:
I1gh video games World Tour and the versions that followed, up to and including Band Hero.
. musical perfor- 2. An avatar is the character representing the player in a video game.
m with potential 3. The Move and Kinect, gestural controllers for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360,
respectively, portend an expanSion of music-focused video games controlled by players'
ntegrating video
movements.
:l design experi-
4. While these video games have Entertainment Software Rating Board (ESRB) "Teen"
tions of musical ratings, the majority of music in Rapstar contains explicit language that may not be
It is up to music appropriate in certain school contexts.
usic and modify 5. A plug-in is a software program that can be used within the environment of another
nformed. software program.

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before them, provi
chapter we oudino
well-established b.
gogical value by Ie
Digital media
using a computin
the practice invoh
than direct produ.
for acoustic soune
such as Ableton L
formance ofmusio
manipulation, sot
artists can create
ware employs gen