eiace cs INTRODUCTION Non Directional Beacons (NDB) are ground-based transmitters that transmit radio energy equally in all directions. The airborne system in the aircraft is the Automatic Direction Finder (ADF). The indicator in the aircraft always points toward the tuned NDB. (Exceptions to this are discussed later in this chapter.) PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION The NDB transmitter is very simple, An RF oscillator provides a carrier wave. This carrier wave is the NDB signal that the airborne equipment (ADF) uses to determine the direction of the transmitting station. A low-frequency oscillator provides the identification signal of the transmitting station or ident. The low-frequency signal modulates the carrier wave in the modulator. Frequency LF/MF — 190 to 1750 kHz. In Europe, the frequencies are normally between 225 and 455 kHz. EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS Long Range Beacons NON A1A Short Range Beacons NON A2A Its Important to bear in mind that, although the airborne equipment only needs the bare carrier signal to indicate the direction to the transmitter, there must be a way of identifying the selected station. In the above emission characteristics, both the long and short range beacons transmit NON. This is the unmodulated carrier wave on which the indication relies. Itis the A1A or A2A that provides the identification. ‘The A1A emission keys the carrier wave. The paragraph in Chapter 1 on heterodyning states that to have an audio frequency input to the headphones there must be two radio frequencies. As a result, the BFO must be tumed on to provide the second frequency. This means that the audio tone is heard during the entire NON phase of the incoming signal and during the active part of the keyed A1A signal. The A2A emission modulates the audio tone frequency directly onto the carrier and therefore the BFO selection should be turned off. In this case, it is the demodulator within the ADF that feeds the audio ident tone to the headphones. ‘The ICAO recommended emission characteristic is A2A, unless operational or environmental considerations dictate the use of A1A, such as long range coastal installations. Radio Navigation 34Chapter 3 Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding LOOP THEORY To understand direction finding, an understanding of a loop aerial is necessary. Below is a representation of a loop aerial. The loop has two vertical elements shown as A and B. ' [ : 7 Phase Difference (AC) = AB CosB, ‘The NDB transmits a vertically polarised signal which induces voltage in vertical elements A and B, but no voltage iin the horizontal elements of the loop. If the loop is lying across the path of the incoming signal, the voltages induced in elements A and B are equal, and vary with the incoming signal at the same rate. Because an electric current only flows when a voltage difference occurs, ro current flows in the loop when itis across the path of the incoming signal. Now consider the loop aerial aligned with the incoming signal as in the diagram above. The magnitutde of the signal wave form is different across elements A and B, and this induces voltages of different levels which causes an AC current to flow in the loop. By plotting the strength of the iduced current in the loop for one complete revolution of the signal source around the loop a figure of eight polar diagram is developed. ‘The polar diagram shows two ill-defined maxima (90° and 270°) and two well-defined minima at (0° and 180°) ‘The minima are usually used in direction finding. Even with two well-defined minima, there is no indication as to which side of the loop the transmitter is sited. A sensing aerial resolves the ambiguity. 32 Radio NavigationNon Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding Chapter 3 SENSING Inserting a vertical di-pole into the loop resolves the ambiguity of the polar diagram above as shown in the diagram below. bef The polar diagram of the sensing di-pole appears below. ‘Combining the polar diagram for the loop aerial and the sensing aerial forms a poler diagram in the shape of a cardioid. ¢ Ss ‘A cardioid diagram has only one null position, and resolves the 180° ambiguity. The principle of the ADF is that the loop is turned to the position for minimum which corresponds to the null position of the cardioid. The instrument's needle incications are also relative to the position of the loop aerial. The system is called the Automatic Direction Finder because the aerial rotation and the interpretation of its relative signal strength are done automatically. The indicator information is such that, by laying the instrument panel down flat, the ADF needle points directly at the transmitting station. The system component which drives the indicator in response to the sensed direction of the signal source is called a ‘Goniometer’. Radio Navigation 33Chapter 3 ‘Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding NDB OPERATION In this method of operation, an amplified signal radiates omni-directionally. The transmission mast may be either a single mast or a large T-aerial strung between two masts. These aerial arrangements produce a vertically polarised signal. The polar diagram for the aerial is omni- directional in the horizontal plane but, as shown below, exhibits directional properties in the vertical plane. No Signal 21 Ee See CONE OF SILENCE ‘Above the station, marked by the points at which the radiated power has fallen to 0.5 of its ‘maximum value, is a conical area in which signal strength may be too low for use. This volume of ‘space is called the cone of silence or cone of confusion. For an NDB, this angle is 40° from the vertical ADF OPERATION ‘The Automatic Direction Finder (ADF) consists of a receiver, a sense aerial, a loop aerial, and an indicator. The receiver control panel and the indicator are on the instrument panel, and the loop and sense aerials are normally combined in a single aerial unit, normally mounted under the fuselage. The pilot uses the receiver control panel to enter the frequency corresponding to the NDB for intended use. ‘The ADF indicator consists of a needle, which indicates the direction from which the signals of the selected NDB ground station are coming. The most basic ADF indicator is known as a Radio Compass. In this configuration, the needle moves against a scale calibrated in degrees from 0° - 369°. The datum for the direction measurement is the nose of the aircraft and therefore, the radio compass indications are relative bearings. 34 Radio NaviNon Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding Chapter 3 BEARING DETERMINATION The loop, or directional aerial, rotates electronically and, by combining information from the loop and sense aerials, the unit derives the bearing to the station intemally. When a looped conductor, such as the loop aerial encounters electromagnetic waves it induces voltages in the two halves of the loop, These voltages depend on the angular position of the loop relative to the incoming electromagnetic (EM) waves. The total voltage induced in the loop is the algebraic difference between the voltages from the two halves. This total voltage is the signal output from the loop aerial TYPES Typical associated power outputs and uses are as follows: Locator Beacon Radiating between 15 and 40 watts and used for intermediate approach guidance toward establishing the final approach path of an ILS, these beacons are short range and are normally NON A2A. Their maximum range is 15 - 25 nm. Homing ‘These beacons primarily serve as an approach and holding aid near an aerodrome. They are medium range beacons, normally NON A2A. Their maximum range is 50 nm, AirwaysiRoute Beacons Radiating at up to 200 watts and used for track guidance and general navigation, these beacons are normally NON A2A, Long-Range Beacons Radiating at up to 4 kilowatts, and generally located on islands or oceanic coastlines, these beacons serve to provide guidance and navigation resources to transoceanic flights. These beacons are normally NON A1A. Besides NDBs, other transmitters operate within the NDB band of frequencies and can be detected by the aircraft's receiver. These include: > Broadcast stations (.2. those carrying entertainment, news, etc.). Broadcast stations can have repeater transmitters at different locations causing synchronous transmission errors. > Marine Beacons. Do not use stations if their detalis are not published in the AIP or appropriate Flight Guides, ‘Where information on Marine Beacon is published, pilots need to be aware that a number of beacons are grouped together on the same frequency, and each beacon transmits for a period of 60 seconds in a cycle of six minutes. ‘The use of signals from such published stations guarantees that, within the published range by day, the signal from the desired station is at least three times stronger than any other signal on the same or near frequency. The use of transmissions from non-published sources may lead to errors, as they are not protected from such harmful interference. Radio Navigation 35Chapter 3 Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding CONTROL PANELS AND INDICATORS CONTROL PANEL There are different types of ADF control panels, but their operational use is almost the same. An example appears below. The mode selector, of function switch, has several positions, enabling the pilot to select the desired function. Typical markings are: OFF, ADF, ANT, and LOOP. Q ADF is the position when the pilot wants the needle to automatically display bearing information, ANT is the abbreviation of antenna. In this position, only the signal from the sense aerial is used. This results in no satisfactory directional information to the ADF needle. There are two reasons for selecting the ANT position: > Easier identification of the NDB station » Better understanding of voice transmissions BFO stands for Beat Frequency Oscillator. Sometimes this position is labeled CW, the abbreviation for Carrier Wave. The BFO circuit imposes a tone onto the carrier wave signal to make it audible to the pilot, enabling identification of the NDB signal, ‘The emission characteristics determine the position of the BFO switch: Tuning Identification NON A1A ON oN NON A2A ON OFF For NON A2A, the BFO is on for tuning in order to check the integrity of the incoming signal by providing an uninterrupted tone for an uninterrupted carrier signal Once the station has been properly tuned and identified, switch the Mode Selector back to ADF. This is important, as no bearing information shows unless the switch is in the ADF position. When a pilot selects BFO or ANT, some ADFs automatically defautt to the 180° position, while others remain on the lest bearing computed. Never leave the mode selector in ANT or BFO position if navigating using the ADF. 36 Radio NavigationNon Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding Chapter 3 In order to avoid the dangers of this problem, NDBs transmitting on A2A are identifiable with the mode selector in the ADF position, so it becomes possible to avoid the ANT position. There is no failure flag on an ADF receiver or indicator. The only way to be sure that the instrument is receiving a valid signal from the NDB is to continuously monitor the station's identification, Each NDB is identifiable by a two or three lettered Morse code identification signal, transmitted together with its normal signal and known as its IDENT. When tuning an NDB it is absolutely essential o correctly identify the facility before using it TEST SWITCH Ifthe unit has a test switch, pressing it swings the indicator needle. If the needle does not swing, this indicates the unit is not working properly. If the needle swings, but does not retum to its previous position, the signal is too weak to be used for navigation. If it swings and returns to its previous position, the system is working properly and the received signal is good, BEARING INDICATORS Bearings to the station display on an indicator consisting of a bearing scale (calibrated in degrees) and a pointer. There are four types of bearing scale with varying degrees of sophistication. They are: The fixed card ‘The manually rotatable card The radio magnetic indicator (RMI) ‘The fixed card indicator, or relative bearing indicator (RB) vvvy This manual discusses only two systems, the RBI and the RMI RELATIVE BEARING INDICATOR (RBI) ‘The bearing displayed on a fixed card indicator is a relative bearing; thus the name Relative Bearing Indicator (RBI). Since the card is fixed, zero is always at the top and 180° always at the bottom. AA relative bearing is always measured clockwise from the nose of the aircraft. In the diagram above, the needle is pointing to 100°. This means that the station is 100° to the right of the aircraft nose. Radio Navigation 37Chapter 3. Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding In the diagram below the relative bearing is 340°. The NDB is 340° right of the nose. ‘Amore convenient way of expressing this is that the station is 20° left of the nose. Itis sometimes convenient to describe the beering of the NDB in relation to the NOSE or TAIL of the aircraft. Since the card is fixed, the indicated relative bearing must be combined with the magnetic heading of the aircraft in order to obtain the magnetic bearing to the station (QDM). If the result of this addition exceeds 360°, it is necessary to subtract 360° from the result in order to obtain @ meaningful bearing. Example: ‘Assume for the diagram above that the aircraft is heading 230°M The bearing to the NDB is: 230° + 340° = 570° Because this is more than 360, itis necessary to subtract 360 from 570 = 210° The QDM is 210". ‘This means the QDR is 030°. The magnetic bearing of the aircraft from the station, the QDR, is the reciprocal of the QDM. A Quicker way to determine the QDM is to mentally superimpose the RBI needie onto the directional gyro. This is not very accurate, but itis a good double check for calculations. Visualise the QDR as the tail of the needle when it is mentally transferred from the RBI onto the directional gyro indicator. 38 Radio NavigationNon Direetional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding Chapter 3 RADIO MAGNETIC INDICATOR (RMI) This combines the Relative Bearing Indicator and Remote Indicating Gyro Compass into a single instrument, with the compass card being aligned automatically with Magnetic North. In the diagram below: ‘The heading is 332°M. ‘The VOR or ADF can be indicated by either pointer depending upon the switching ‘The QDM is continuously indicated by the arrow head of the pointer. ‘The QDR is continuously indicated under the tail vyyvy This is now the most common type of presentation. If the double pointer represents the ADF then the QDM is 300° and the QDR is 120° DIRECT WAVE LIMITATIONS The Direct Wave follows the line of sight. Its range can be determinad using the line of sight formula. In most cases, the direct wave range is considerably less than that of the Ground Wave. Height may become significant when itis desirable to receive the direct wave, to minimise the risk of ADF error, when flying in mountainous areas, or when using coastal NDBs. Radio Navigation 39Chapter 3 ‘Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding SKY WAVE LIMITATIONS nt, 8 ‘Skip Distance ‘At some frequencies there will be a gap in coverage between the ground wave and the first return of the sky wave. The ground wave coverage might extend out to 300 miles, while the first sky wave returns at 1000 miles. The name for this gap is the dead space. The exact length of the dead space depends on frequency and the state of ionisation of the atmosphere. At frequencies in the lower MF and the LF bands, intense ionisation by day attenuates (absorbs) RF signals and no sky wave return is noticeable. By night, the ionisation levels fall and returning sky waves can be detected. NIGHT EFFECT At short range (30 to 80 miles), the sky waves mix with the ground wave signal (there is no dead space). Because the retuming sky waves travel over a different path, they have a different phase from the ground wave. This has the effect of suppressing or displacing the aerial null signal, in a random manner. The needie on the RMI or RBI wanders. This effect is at its most variable during twilight at dusk and dawn, A further effect occurs due to the design of the loop aerial system. The loop uses a vertically polarised signal. As the radio wave travels through the ionosphere, the vertical polarisation changes as the wave refracts back toward the Earth, so the retuming wave has @ horizontal polarisation component. ‘A.curtent is now induced in the horizontal members of the loop: > The horizontal member AB, and > The two smaller feeds to the bottom of the aerial A B 1] The resultant current flow further degrades the null position and an accurate reading is impossible, 3-10 Radio Navigation‘Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding Chapter 3 ‘At longer ranges, the sky wave signal becomes progressively stronger. lonospheric refraction ‘may cause the plane of polarisation of the signal to shift randomly. This can cause the random introduction of a horizontally polarised component into the loop aerial, which causes displacement Of the null signal. In summary, the airbome ADF is designed and optimised for use in conjunction with the more predictable ground wave signal from the selected NDB. ERRORS OF THE ADF The ADF bearing is subject to a number of error sources including any or all ofthe following. QUADRANTAL ERROR The metal components of the aeroplane’s structure behave as an aerial. They absorb signals at all frequencies, but more readily so at frequencies in the MF band. Once absorbed, these then re~ radiate as weak signals but, being close to the ADF aerial, are strong enough to detect. ‘The effect of this signal is to displace the measured null toward the major electrical axis of the aeroplane creating an error that is maximum on relative bearings 045°, 135°, 225°, 315° (the ‘quadrantals). Calibration and electro-mechanical compensation at installation minimises this error. pmo aat DIP (BANK) ERROR During turns, the horizontal member of the loop aerial detects a signal. This causes displacement of the null and the display of a short-term erroneous bearing. Radio Navigation 311Chapter 3 Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding COASTAL REFRACTION ‘When flying over the sea and using a land based beacon, the changes in propagation properties of the signal as it passes from land to sea causes displacement of the wave front. This results in a bearing error. OtaBIo WANE nbteaTeD Bearine) NOREFRACTION Coastal refraction errors may be minimised by any or all of the following: > Donot use beacons unless they are situated on islands or neer to the coast. > fusing an inland NDB, only use beatings at or near 90° to the coast > Remember that coastal refraction decreases as height increases. MULTIPATH SIGNALS ‘When flying in mountainous regions, signals may refract (bend) around and/or reflect from mountains. Such multipath signals may affect the ADF, making the bearings unreliable. 312 Radio Navigation‘Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding Chapter 3 NOISE The definition of noise is any signal detected at the receiver other than the desired signal. Man Made Noise Each published NDB has an associated published range. If use of that NDB is restricted to that range, the desired signal is protected from the harmful interference of ground waves from other known transmitters on the same or adjacent frequencies. Remember that, from sunset to sunrise, sky wave propagation of signals in the LF and MF bands is possible. This causes the signal to noise ratio to decrease and results in errors as null displacement occurs, usually randomly. Another localised source of man-made noise is overhead power cables. Many of these cables carry not only electrical power but also modulated signals used by the power companies for communication. These modulated signals radiate from the power cables and create mini NDBs. Such emissions are monitored but, in some states, monitoring may not occur. The rule is use with extreme caution if unsure. Lightning ‘There are an average of 44 000 thunderstorms over the Earth's surface in every 24 hour period and more than half of these occur over or near land surfaces within 30° latitude of ‘the Equator. Each thunderstorm generates electro-magnetic signals and these radiate in all directions from that storm, When flying near one of these storms, the aircraft's ADF detects the signal and the bearing indication may well defiect toward that storm. Such noise levels are normally quite low, but they do increase under the following conditions: > In temperate latitudes during the summer » As one moves toward the tropics > Atnight as a result of sky wave propagation Charged Water Droplets Water droplets held in a cloud have an electric charge. As an aircraft flies through the cloud, the water droplets that contact the aircraft discharge on the metal surface. The collective effort of the water droplet discharge can distort and blur the polar diagram ‘enough to displace the null position. Noise effects are indicated by: > Random wandering of the bearing indication > Using the audio output and noting audible signals such as voice/music/static If noise effect is suspected, only use the published NDBs when well within the notified range. The aircraft could be at half the published range before finding a reliable signal. Radio Navigation 343Chapter 3 Non Directional Beacons and Automatic Direction Finding SYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION Where two or more beacons are transmitting on the same frequency, the measured bearing becomes the resultant of the two received signals. ‘As long as the NDB is used within its promulgated range, the effects of synchronous transmission should be a minimum. PROMULGATED RANGE Most NDBs are given a daytime-only protection range where the unwanted signals are limited to +5°. Outside this range the error increases. The propagation conditions at night also increase the bearing errors. ABSENCE OF FAILURE WARNING There is no visible indication to the user that there is a system failure ACCURACY When used within the published range by day, the ADF should give @ bearing accuracy within # 6° 344 Radio Navigation