Tr chapter 1 we suggested that successful instruction should include the following four phases. 1. Information is presented or skills are modeled. 2. The learner is guided through initial use of the information or skills. 3. The learner practices for retention and fluency. 4, Learning is assessed. Tutorial programs aim to satisfy the first two phases and usually do not engage in ex- tended practice or assessment of learning. Some tutorials do not even guide the learner through the information, but only present it. However, we contend that a good tutorial should include both presentation and guidance, whereas extended practice and assess- ment are the domain of other methodologies. Figure 4.1 shows the structure and sequence of a typical tutorial. It begins with an introductory section that informs the leamer of the purpose and nature of the program. Afier that, a cycle begins. Information is presented and elaborated. The leamer must an- swer a question. The program judges the response to assess comprehension or skill, and the leamer is given feedback to improve comprehension and future performance. At the end of each iteration, the program makes a sequencing decision to determine what in- formation should be treated during the next iteration. The cycle continues until the pro- gram is terminated by either the learner or the program. At that point, which we call the closing, there may be a summary and closing remarks. Although not every tutorial en- gages in all these activities, most effective ones include these or similar components. ‘The previous chapter discussed the instructional factors common across the differ- ent methodologies, such 2s presentation and user-control methods. This and following chapters discuss factors specific to each methodology or exceptions to the general con- siderations that are necessitated for particular methodologies. The instructional factorsINTRODUGTORY SECTION PRESENT ‘QUESTION AND wrorwation |] Agsponse CSTE ‘The General Structure and Feepsackon |_¢ | Judoe Sequence of 2 Tutorial RENEDIATION RESPONSE Pena A ctosiIna that are particularly relevant to tutorial instruction may be organized into the following categories: ———_— «© Introduction of the tutorial ~ | = Questions and responses \ = Judgment of responses i Feedback about responses \ = Remediation Organization and sequence of program segments Learner control in tutorials #@ Introduction of the Tutorial Chapter 3 discussed tile pages and directions. Specific to tutorial programs are the fac- tors of presenting objectives. stimulating prior knowledge. and pretesting Presentation of Objectives Following the title page is frequently a statement of the objectives for the prograin (see Figure 4.2), The behaviorist school of psychology, which spawped the Instructional Sys- tems Design (ISD) model of instructional development, encourages the use of behavioral objectives (Mager, 1962). Although many programs inform the learner of objectives in purely behavioral form, not all adhere to this practice. The following are examples of be- havioral objectives. , = After this lesson, you will be able to multiply two-digit numbers, = At the end of this lesson, you will be able to state the causes of the Civil War, This lesson will teach you to determine whether a painting is of the Classic, Im- pressionist, or Modern period.Such objectives are characterized by indicating what the learner will be able to do, say, ‘or write at the completion of the program. The action words multiply, state, and delermine label these statements as behavioral. A more complete behavioral objective includes = A statement of conditions under which the behavior should occur = A description of the behavior = A ctiterion for acceptable performance For example. the first objective above would be restated: When presented with twenty 2-digit multiplication problems, you will be able to solve at least eighteen correctly in twenty minutes. Some cducators have discouraged the use of behavioral objectives (Atkin, 1968) or believe they should be used in conjunction with other forms of objectives. The follow- ing are nonbehavioral objectives, like those in Figure 4.2. = After this lesson you will understand the events tha! led up to the Civil War. = You will lean to distinguish and appreciate paintings of different periods. A major objection to behavioral objectives is that they focus attention exclusively on goals statcd in the objectives. The use of nonbehavioral objectives, it is argued, can en- hance both intentional and incidental learning from a program, Other objections are that behavioral objectives are hard to read, especially at the beginning of a program, and that they are difficult to write for some subjects. Although evidence reveals that presenting objectives, whether behavioral or not, en- hances learning and satisfaction, not all tutorials do so. A good reason for omitting them is when learners are very young and not likely to comprehend them. However, in most cases objectives are omitted because of oversight. Even when objectives are not provided for learners, it may be useful to provide them in a printed document for instructors, Objectives can serve another important function, that of motivating leamers. As dis- cussed in Chapter 2, Keller and Suzuki (1988) maintain that four functions enhance mo- tivation: attention, relevance, confidence, and satisfaction. Well-written objectives can demonstrate the relevance of material to the leamer. A tutorial should have a concise and accurate statement of objectives or goals, not necessarily in behavioral form. They should be stated in terms that leamers can understand and should motivate learners by demonstrating relevance to their needs. The major exception to this recommendation is for young leamers, especially nonreaders using programs that are primarily pictorial.