SIGN LANGUAGE AND SECOND-LANGUAGE TEACHING

Author(s): John W. Cross

Source: Sign Language Studies , FALL 1977, No. 16 (FALL 1977), pp. 269-282
Published by: Gallaudet University Press

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26203242

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SLS 16 (1977), 269-28-2
© William C. Stokoe

SIGN LANGUAGE AND SECOND-LANGUAGE TEACHING

John W. Cross

This paper results from a research project undertaken

during July and August of 1975 , in the Professional Intern
ship Program at the National Technical Institute for the Deaf
(NTID), Rochester, New York. As a professional from another
field (post-secondary French teaching), I was learning about
the field of deaf education and about American Sign Language
(ASL or Sign). In return I undertook to examine the theory and
practice of teaching ASL to non-signers, as all aspects of
second-language teaching relate to that enterprise.
In the NTID program, interns had approximately fifteen
hours per week of intensive training with signs in a class
room setting (eight students, one teacher, and one native
signer assistant). In class I was able to evaluate the teach
ing activities and the learning experience from the perspective
of a student. As part of my participation, I made recommen
dations at the end of the period to the Manual Communication
staff of NTID1 s Office of Professional Development, toward
the improvement of their part of the program.
The Office of Professional Development serves adults
(interns and new members of the staff) ranging in age from the
early 20's through the 50's, so that my background in college
language teaching was appropriate to the task. On the basis
of direct experience as an intern, and of a review of the
literature on second-language teaching,my report outlined cur
rent theories and practices of second-language teaching, sug
gested possible applications of second-language theories and
practices to the teaching of Sign, and detailed my personal
reactions as an experienced second-language teacher learning
a new language, of signs.

269

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 270 Sign Language Studies 16

The report to NTID is by no means a detailed plan for

the development and implementation of a training program in
Sign, but it may have some value as an introductory work for
native signers and other teachers of Sign. In the hope that
such persons outside NTID might benefit from such an intro
duction, the report in revised form is offered here.

Theory and practice in It must be stated clearly

second language teaching, at the outset that a study
of second-language teach
ing theories and practices cannot hope to supply definitive an
swers to the question of how best to teach a sign language.
This for several reasons, but chief among them is the very
clear failure of language teachers and theorists in second lan
guage teaching to establish one best procedure or set of pro
cedures for teaching a spoken second language. The aim here
will be to identify and describe briefly several of the current
approaches to the question of teaching a second language effec
tively. It will be obvious in comparing these approaches and
reading the source materials that a wide diversity of opinion
exists among linguists, biologists, psychologists, teachers,
and students as to what second-language teaching should be
and how it can best take place.
Current theories of second-language learning and teaching
have all been known in their general form since the end of the
nineteenth century. The fortunes of one or another approach to
the problem have waxed and waned with events, and with per
sonalities in the field. Recently, linguist Karl Diller (1971) has
tried to make sense of a rather confused history of the subject.
Using Chomsky's terminology, Diller asserts that all the theo
retical arguments of second-language acquisition, and all the
practical teaching applications of them, can be classified either
under the empiricist approach of structural linguistics, or under
the rationalist approach to language learning. Diller traces this
dual history of second-language teaching very neatly and pre
sents the case for each side.

Since 1958, the date of the National Defense Education Act,

the vast majority of second-language classes taught in a formal
academic setting — i.e. public and private elementary and
secondary schools, colleges, and universities — has attempted
to implement an approach known as "audiolingual", in contrast
to the "reading and translation" approach. The audiolingual
approach incorporates techniques inspired by research in applied
linguistics, and it stresses the learning of speaking and listening

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 Cross 271

skills in the student. The prime contribution to language teaching

of descriptive linguistics has been the use of mimicry-memori
zation (mim-mem) techniques and pattern drill exercises. These
are discussed by Diller in a general way.
A representative theoretical second-language teaching
text is Teaching French (Politzer 1965), which sets forth the
elements of applied linguistic techniques and the basic audio
lingual approach; its topics:

Philosophy of audio-lingual approach 5

Psychological aspects of language learning 21
Learning pattern perception/habit formation 23
Use of French as stimulus for French 34
Types of drills, transform , expand, replace 35
Language lab / individual learning 46
Phonemics, minimal pairs, allophones 60

Pattern Drills in Language Teaching (Etmekjian 1966)

gives an exhaustive treatment of pattern drills and their many
possibilities:

Kinds of pattern drills 7

Basic principles of P-D construction 22
Functions of the pattern drill 31
Drills 37-140

A second approach, current in certain classroom settings

in United States language teaching but more so abroad and in
professional operations such as those of Berlitz, is the "direct
method". Here the use of a rigid course text is reduced or
eliminated. The student-teacher ratio often is one-to-one; the
communication is immediately and only in the "target language",
at least by the teacher. This program is very intensive in the
case of Berlitz, involving many consecutive contact hours. A
modified version of the direct method in many parts of the world
is taught by the Alliance Française, which organization publishes
its own set of graded texts and makes them available to the
general public. The direct method is an outgrowth of the "natural
method", which says that the target language is best learned as
the mother tongue was learned; i.e. by prolonged exposure and
imitation. The time necessary for production of language habits
by the natural method is obviously considerable. It is generally
difficult, because of the commercial nature of the Berlitz enter
prise, to learn about their version of the direct method without

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 272 Sign Language Studies 16

taking a Berlitz course. However, an article describing the

Berlitz Method was published in 1955 by Stieglitz, director
of the Berlitz School in Seattle. Some of the characteristics
of the method are: It is primarily concerned with linguistic,
rather than cultural or other, matters. It is a complete lan
guage teaching system. It "endeavors to train the student to
accept the simplification of thought and expression unavoid
able whenever a language other than the vernacular is used. "
It requires native instructors. Stieglitz divides his article
inta these seven sections:

Objectives
Vocabulary selection
The Direct Principle (Use only the target language)
The organizing principle (Gradually introduce pre
selected vocabulary and grammar)
Key examples for sentence development
Drill devices (graded questions)
Textbooks (supplementary; not useful for learning
about the method)

An application of the direct method to regular high

school teaching was accomplished by de Sauzé (1959) in
the school system of Clevland.
As Diller observes, the audio-lingual method and the
direct method represent in teaching practice the theories of
the structuralist and the rationalist schools of linguistics
respectively. Most of the second-language teaching now
being done in the United States can be encompassed in one
or another of these two categories. Several other approaches,
which so far remain at a level of limited acceptance or appli
cation, will next be discussed.
A third second-language teaching approach is repre
sented principally by one man, Gattegno, and bears the name
he coined, "The Silent Way" (1963). Gattegno argues very
persuasively for "less teaching and more learning" in the
language classroom. He expects his student to progress by
self-correction; the role of the teacher is reduced to that of
a guide and reference source. In live demonstrations, for
example, he uses as materials only a box of colored rods, a
poipter, and a chart of the letters and letter-combinations
of the target language. With these materials, he can, without
speaking a word but through much patient gesturing, succeed

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 Cross 273

in directing a novice student through a beginning lesson in a

new language. More generally, his comments on language
learning are well presented in these three sections: The
"spirit of a language," its melody, breathing, functional
vocabulary; the development of inner criteria in the student
(18-31). Expectations of the teacher; manner of student
progress; learner decisions as to repetition of material (77
79). The basic procedures that implement this philosophy
of language teaching (33-74). While Gattegno's theories have
not had a major impact on mass-consumption language prog
rams, certain aspects of them are brought to bear in practical
form in some individualized teaching programs.
A fourth approach, also practiced on a limited scale,
is the tutorial method. It presupposes the existence of a
detailed, systematic, carefully graded instructional manual.
An adequately constructed manual will allow untrained native
speakers of the target language, and even recent graduates
of the tutorial program, to put new students through the
course of study in a one-to-one teaching situation. This is
possible when each of the carefully graded lessons supplies
complete directions and all the necessary linguistic mater
ial to the tutor. The '.tutorial approach, then, is in fact a
programmed course of instruction, with what would be the
function of a tape recorder or film viewer carried out in it
bv the tutor.

One textbook designed for the tutorial approach is

Beginning English: A Professional Guide for the Lay Tutor
(Harrison & Guymon 1975). It is intended for use by Chris
tian missionaries among natives of South Seas islands, and
has a 26-page introduction, giving all necessary instruc
tions to the tutor), and some 260 pages of units of study.
Many of the ideas of Gattegno are utilized in the Harrison
& Guymon text, especially the reduced role of the teacher,
but with emphasis on written materials. Both the Gattegno
"silent way" and the tutorial approach are very highly struc
tured.
A fifth approach, and one touched on in the discussion
above, is the programmed, or self-instructional method.
Self-instruction in a second language is as ancient an idea as
language itself. The literature on modern self-instruction
based on Skinnerian principles (i.e. since 1954) is volumin
ous, and many attempts have been made to make such pro
grams commercially available. These modern programs

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 274 Sign Language Studies 16

combine printed materials with audio tapes, records, and

either printed or photographic visuals. John Carroll (1963a)
has supplied a Primer of Programmed Instruction in Foreign
Language Teaching, with these two parts: (1) The history of
programmed instruction; a description and source list of
materials and texts; research on programmed instruction.
(2) Programmed instruction for teaching second languages.
NTID's New Staff and Professional Intern Program incor
porates videotape lessons on fingerspelling and signing in
which materials currently used to supplement classroom
activity and provide outside practice could be adapted to
self-instructional use. The videotape recorder-player seems
to be the logical medium for self-instructional sign programs.

One last approach will be mentioned here, although it

is so far strictly in the theoretical-experimental stages. Its
author terms it "The total response approach to second-lan
guage learning" (Asher 1969). The operative theory is that
only listening should be attempted at the beginning of learn
ing a second language, so that as with the mother tongue,
other skills, speaking, reading, and writing, will follow.
The procedure involves commands to which the student res
ponds with physical action. Asher compares his method with
the audio-lingual method to the latter's disadvantage (13ff).
Test results showing adults dramatically outperforming
children (15ff) suggest that the method may be useful in the
context of staff and professional second-language learning.
Asher's approach also incorporates elements of Gattegno's
thinking about second-language acquisition, viz. self-cor
rection and peer correction by the students. To my knowledge
no formal application of Asher's findings has been made.

Applying S-L theories to teaching of Sign. Within a large

and complex
institution like NTID, several rationales for the teaching of
sign language may be perceived by the several divisions and
departments. Sign Language is an accepted educational med
ium in an institution that subscribes to the philosophy of
education of the deaf individual through total communication;
the term "Sign Language", however, does not refer to a single
well-defined system. Rather, as Woodward (1973) points out,
one can with justification speak of a Sign Language continuum.
At one end of the continuum is the natural language of the deaf,
American Sign Language, with its various regional and socio

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 Cross 275

economic dialects, e.g. Ameslan described by Fant (1975);

and at the other end are new, contrived ways of rendering
English manually, e.g. Seeing Essential English, and Sign
ing Exact English. The communicative variety known as
signed English falls at about the middle of this continuum —
signed English attempting to represent standard English
grammar and orthography while respecting the conceptual
value of the sign vocabulary. Instruction in Sign at NTID
focuses on signed English. The argument is that, with con
stant exposure to standard English (by the teacher's well
formed English sentences represented in signs for words),
the student will benefit by gaining English language skills.
Nevertheless, for the teacher at least a partial knowledge
of natural language, e.g. Ameslan, is desirable to make
possible communication with some students, as well as to
give hearing persons at NTID greater access to the world of
their deaf clientele.
At first glance, this conflict appears like the conflict
between formalists who insist on teaching a spoken second
language as used by its most careful speakers, and the con
versationalists who insist that the man in the street knows
best. But this analogy is misleading. Most variations between
the formal and the conversational forms of spoken languages
are in vocabulary and pronunciation. The main body of stan
dard syntax is unquestionably accepted by teachers of both
persuasions. The implications are deeper for teachers of
Sign. If the goal of Sign instruction were to teach Ameslan
or another dialect used among the deaf only, then techniques
of presenting syntax and morphology would have to be given
greater prominence in the courses. When the goal is signing
English, whose syntax and morphology are those of standard
English, the principal concerns or instruction are to teach
vocabulary and motor skills (fluent fingerspelling and signing),
and skill in visual reception; additionally, juncture, stress,
and expression (see Stokoe 1972) can be discussed and
drilled. Some of the techniques, methods, and skills of im
portance to the second-language teacher presenting grammar
may not have any application to the teaching of signed
English.

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 276 Sign Language Studies 16

Sign and the audio-lingual, applied linguistics approach.

The spirit of the audio-lingual strategy may serve well in the

presentation of sign vocabulary; stress is on learning items
in context rather than from lists. One common tactic is the
applied linguistics approach, in which students must read
through or memorize conversational material containing new
vocabulary; this is already in use at NTID. Material for fur
ther exploitation of dialogue exercises can be found in almost
any recent beginning second language textbook. Politzer and
Diller list good examples of textbooks for this and other ap
proaches in their bibliographies. The presentation of idioms,
substitution drills, negative transfer, positive transfer, and
interference, described by Politzer and Etmekjian also fits
into this kind of approach.
The applied linguistics approach may also be useful in
identification and formation of signs; Stokoe (I960, 1965 , 1972)
offers in his discussion of the phonological structure of signs
a justification of the application of contrastive drill techniques
as advocated by Politzer to the teaching of signs. (Fant1 s first
text, Say it with Hands, utilized the early phonological, or
cherological, analysis as a basis for vocabulary presentation.)
An example of a minimally contrasting pair of signs would be
those meaning 'famous' and 'succeed'. Of the three aspects
of manual signs — hand, action, location — these two signs
contrast by the minimal difference of only one feature, the
direction of the motion which constitutes the action. Also in
this approach, the sign equivalents of suprasegmentals might
be dealt with in drills like those used in the audio-lingual
method. Finally, the strategies behind the calculated use of
the target language to conduct the class might be studied by
teachers of Sign with profit (see Politzer).

The direct method. The direct method can provide an outline

of procedures for selecting and grading
the material to be presented. The techniques of teaching ex
clusively in the target language and of total immersion in the
target language are more easily realized and more effective in
a program like that of New Staff Training at NTID than in
classes following a regular academic schedule.

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 Cross 277

The "Silent Way". The general philosophy of Gattegno's strat

egy of beginning with limited vocabulary
to develop a feeling for structure and rhythm seem unsuited to
the purposes of a teaching program such as that of NTID, but
Gattegno's conviction that "less teaching and more learning"
is the most successful approach may be studied with profit;
likewise his perceptions of what mastery of a language entails.

The tutorial approach. The tutorial approach presumes a very

systematic arrangement of materials,
and the effort necessary to arrive at such a systematization
would in itself be highly useful. Also the tutors in a rigidly
controlled program are not as dependent as are traditional
teachers on special skills and special knowledge of the mater
ial to be taught. Students in such a program, working on a
one-to-one relation with tutors, could move at their own pace.

The programmed approach. The videotape machinery makes

possible the preparation of self
instructional courses through which individual students can
move at their own pace. Vocabulary, fingerspelling, supra
segmentals, and the formation of signs all lend themselves to
programmed visual presentation. At least this is so for learning
to receive signs; teachers could use the time freed by such a
program to coach expressive signing.

The total physical response approach. By giving an adult

learner an opportun
ity in the early stages of his study of sign language for achie
ving measurable success in the mastery of receptive skills,
this sort of positive reinforcement should stand him in good
stead when he is confronted with the possibly greater difficul
ties of expressive signing.

Conclusions. Contrary to my expectations, the experience of

learning a sign language is essentially the same
in nature as the experience of learning a second spoken lan
guage. Recognition of the referent behind the sign is equally
important in both learning situations. In fingerspelling, seeing
the whole word rather than the individual letters — both in
sending and receiving — is equivalent to hearing a whole unit
of thought rather than individual sounds. Mastery of signing
and fingerspelling would seem, then, to be primarily an intel

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 278 Sign Language Studies 16

lectual accomplishment, requiring more than the physical feats

of manipulation and visual discrimination. One very striking
point of contrast lies in the different rate that expressive and
receptive skills are developed in spoken and signed second
language learning. Students of spoken languages progress more
quickly in acquiring receptive skills than in acquiring expres
sive skills; at any given point in their studies, they will nor
mally be able to understand spoken or written materials more
easily and accurately than they will be able to speak or write
in the target language. Just the reverse is true for students of
signed English: They learn to produce signs and to fingerspell
words more rapidly than they learn to receive and understand
them from a fingerspeller or signer — this comes about of course
because they are not learning the grammar of a new language
so much as learning manual actions to substitute for their own
expression of their own utterances in their own, not a target,
language. All this may be of some consequence in the appli
cation of Asher's total physical response approach to the
teaching of Sign.
It is true that the usual new staff member or intern at
NTID is an exceptionally motivated, and probably exception
ally capable student when compared to the mass of second
language learners in high school and college classes. The
immanent necessity of communicating by signs in order to
teach or otherwise serve a deaf student population, the human
itarian impulse to open communication with and better under
stand a neglected minority group, the likelihood of previous
experience with second-language study and of good success
in some sort of learning endeavor, the opportunity for putting
newly acquired skills into practice — all these make for a
verv positive attitude in the NTID sign learner.
The present Manual Communication staff in the NTID
Office of Professional Development may or may not be a typical
one. It is a fairly heterogeneous mix of hearing and deaf,
trained and untrained language teachers. Most of them have
in common a complete absence of formal training in language
teaching methodology (as I presume do the majority of sign
language teachers elsewhere). I see them as bright, capable,
and personable, with considerable success already as language
teachers and with the potential to do excellent work in this
area. I saw many examples of techniques and approaches that
I would hope to find in any well-trained, talented second
language teacher; e.g. a sense of pace in the classroom, an

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 Cross 279

ability to elicit correct production of a sign and to give positive

reinforcement, the immediate identification of specific difficulty
and solution based on a close analysis of learning problems,
the obviation of difficulties.
There were also moments at which I felt a certain time
period, or a presentation, technique, or approach was not
used to fullest advantage; in these cases efficient use of
time and material could be increased by increased sophis
tication on the part of the teacher. For hearing teachers, this
would be largely exposure to tested classroom methods of
second-language teaching; for native signers, it would also
be necessary to develop an analytical awareness of the nature
of their language and of the specific problems encountered
by beginning (hearing) students. Many colleges and univer
sities offer courses devoted to language teaching methodology
and materials. I know of none designed specifically for the
teacher of a sign language.
The first order of business for any program in teaching
Sign ought to be to establish well-defined goals and pro
cedures for itself. This should be done by consultation among
members of the teaching staff, with the participation of someone
trained in second-language methodology (taking into account,
where appropriate, the material outlined above). Experimen
tation is advisable to determine whether and how these second
language approaches lend themselves to Sign teaching. In
1975, the program at NTID included the use of dialogues,
individual tutoring, videotape for reception practice, and
video and audio tapes for expression practice, all of which
are useful techniques offering the possibility for further
refinement. I perceive the development of good receptive
skills to be the most critical problem in preparing students
for successful communication with the deaf signer. The
problem is one of recognition first of individual signs and
letters (of the manual alphabet); this suggests the need for
training in identification of handshapes, actions, and lo
cations, to be followed by increasingly rapid drills to build
pace and awareness of suprasegmentals. Establishing such
learning objectives, and discovering also the way to accom
plish them is, I believe, the current need of most programs
in the teaching of sign language.

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 280 Sign Language Studies 16

Finally, it is my conviction that the task of teaching

Sign to hearing persons is fundamentally identical to that of
teaching second languages in general. This being so, the'field
of second-language learning should have much to offer teachers
of Sign. The benefits to be derived from an examination of
second-language teaching are. not necessarily instantaneous,
however. The field can only offer suggestions as to useful pro
cedures, methods, and theories, all of which must be investi
gated and developed by the designers and teachers of Sign
programs themselves. This is the challenge which faces the
teacher of sign languages, just as it still faces all teachers
of second languages.

REFERENCES CITED
&
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF SE COND-LANGUAGE TEACHING

Allen, E. , & R. Vallette

1972 Modem Language Classroom Techniques: A
Handbook (N.Y., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich).

Asher, James J.
1964 Vision and Audition in Language Learning, Percep
tual and Motor Skills, Monogr. Suppl. 1 (19).

1969 The Total Physical Response Approach to Second

Language Learning, Modern Language Journal 53t, 3-17.

Boyd-Bowman, Peter
1973 Self-Instructional Language Programs, Occasional
Publication 20 (State University of New York).

Brooks, Nelson
1964 Language and Language Learning, 2e (N.Y. , Harcourt).

Carroll, JohnB.
1953 The Study of Language (Cambridge, MA, Harvard).

1963a A Primer of Programmed Instruction in Foreign Lan

guage Teaching, International Review of Applied
Linguistics 1, 115-141.

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 Cross 281

Carroll, John B.
1963b Research in Teaching Foreign Languages, in
Handbook on Research in Teaching, ed. Gage
(Chicago, Rand McNally).

Childers, J. Wesley
1964 Foreign Language Teaching (New York, Center
for Applied Research in Education),

De Sauzé, Emile B.
1959 The Cleveland Plan for the Teaching of Modern
Languages, rev. ed. (Philadelphia, Winston).

Diller, Karl C.
1971 Generative Grammar, Structural Linguistics, and
Language Teaching (Rowley, MA. Newbury House).

Etmekjian, James
1966 Pattern Drills in Language Teaching (N.Y., NYU Press).

Fant, Louie J., Jr.

1964 Say it with Hands (National Association of the Deaf).
(first edition, Washington, DC; rev. Silver Spring, MD).

1975 Ameslan, Gallaudet Today 5 (2, Winter 1974-75), 1-6.

Gattegno, Caleb
1963 Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools. The Silent
Way (Reading, GB, Educational Explorers, Limited).

Grittner, F., & F.. Laieike

1973 Individualized Lanugage Instruction (Skokie, IL,
National Textbook Co.).

Lange, Dale (ed.)

1970 Britannica Review of Foreign Language Education,
vols. 2 & 3 (Chicago, Encyclopedia Britannica).

Mackey, William
1965 Language Teaching Analysis (Bloomington, Indiana UP).

Melaragno, Ralph
1976 Tutoring with Students (Englewood Cliffs, Ed. Tech. Publ.),

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 282 Sign Language Studies 16

Pimsleur, Paul
1966 Testing in Foreign Language Learning: 1 Language
Aptitude, in Trends in Language Teaching, Valdman
ed. (New York, McGrawHill).

Politzer, Robert
1965 Teaching French: An Introduction to Applied Lin
guistics (New York, Blaisdell).

Rivers, Wilga
1964 The Psychologist and the Foreign Language Teacher
(Chicago, University of Chicago Press).

Stokoe, William C.
1960 Sign Language Structure, Studies in Linguistics:
Occasional Papers 8.
1972 Semiotics & Human Sign Languages (The Hague,Mouton).
1965 A Dictionary of American Sign Language on Linguistic
Principles (with D.C.Casterline & C.G.Croneberg)
(2e, Silver Spring, MD, Linstok Press, 1976).

Stieglitz, Gerhard J.
1955 The Berlitz Method, Modern Language Journal 39
300-310.

Valdman, Albert (ed.)

1966 Trends in Language Teaching (New York, McGraw-Hill).

Von Harrison, G, & Guymon

1975 Beginning English. A Professional Guide for the Lay
Tutor (2e, Salt Lake City, Brigham Young University).

Woodward, James C., Jr.

1973 Language Continuum, A Different Point of View,
Sign Language Studies 2, 81-83.

John W. Cross is an assistant professor in the Foreign Language

Department of the State University of New York College at
Potsdam, New York.

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