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Kardameshvara (Kashi) temple, a Religious Heritage from India: Sacred

Landscape, Architectural Designs and Perspectives. Sthāpatyam
Article · October 2018
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Singh and Jaiswal (2018) Kardameshvara. Sthapatyam, Indian Jl. Archt. & Allied Scs, 4 (4): ca pp. 181-204. 181
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[520.18]. Singh, Rana P.B. and Jaiswal, Sonali (2018), Kardameshvara (Kashi) temple, a Religious
Heritage from India: Sacred Landscape, Architectural Designs and Perspectives. Sthāpatyam,
Indian Journal of Architecture & Allied Sciences (ISSN: 2349-2368, RNI NO. DELBIL/
2014/56060), Vol. 4 (4), Oct.-Dec.: pp. 181- 204 [Our ref. Pdf. 520.18].
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Prof. Rana P.B. Singh and Ar Ms Sonali Jaiswal

ACLA- Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea)
eM: ranapbs@gmail.com ; eM: sonalijaiswal013@gmail.com
Kardameshvara (Kashi) temple, a Religious Heritage

from India: Sacred Landscape, Architectural Designs
and Perspectives
Prof. Rana P.B. Singh and Ar Ms Sonali Jaiswal

PhD, FJF, FIFS, FAAI, FACLA, ‘Ganga Ratna’ M. Architecture (Conservation, SPA)
Former Professor & Head, Dept. of Geography, School of Planning & Architecture, Bhopal
Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi Email: sonalijaiswal013@gmail.com
Email: ranapbs@gmail.com
* Respectively, they are President and Member of the Asian Cultural Landscape Association,
ACLA (SNU Seoul, Korea). https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers
Abstract. Banaras (Varanasi), known as the cultural capital of India, enriched by more than three
thousand temples; most of them eulogised in the puranic literature and are linked by the pilgrimage
routes. Among several of such pilgrimage routes Panchakroshi is the most popular and well
documented too. This route is divided into five parts symbolised with night halt stations; the first one
is Kardameshvara, recording continuity since CE 10th century. This is the only surviving and
functional temple with architectural grandeur and cultural expression with variety of images, viz.
Hindus, Tantrics, Jains, Primordial, and auxiliaries. Notable heritage values of images are described
and their landscape links are explained. The architectural and landscape characteristics, heritage
values and related festivities make the temple of Kardameshvara as an example of mosaicness of
culture and heritages (tangible, intangible, mixed). Taking in view the inclusive heritage development
on the line of cultural sustainability, selected attributes are documented in terms of architecture and
the surrounding landscapes. It is expected that this will help in preparation of overall development
plan where heritage be taken as basic resource.
Keywords: sacred landscape, symbolism, pilgrimage path, architectural design, religious heritage.
1. The Multiple Territorial Layers and the Routes around Varanasi

Through the centuries, Hindu devotees have engaged in pilgrimage travel to find what is timeless and
eternal in an attempt to renew themselves physically and spiritually. As well, pilgrims also share a
bond with those pilgrims who have walked the pilgrim’s path in the past through replicating their
sacred journey (Bielo 2016). As such, pilgrimage in Hindu religious tradition is a process of gaining
access to the “way”, or going from a mundane state to a state of transcendence through engagement
with the spirit of sacred places and pathway pilgrims engage with the “spirit of place” (genius loci),
where faith is increased, regulated, constantly revived rituals performed along the way and at sacred
destinations (cf. Singh 2009a: 76).
Varanasi is first and foremost a sacred city. Its design is such that its signs, symbols, and
invisible meanings correlate with a sacred geometry and territorial organisation that reflects the city’s
cosmological significance. Varanasi can be considered a “cosmocised sacred city”, in that the city acts
as the centre of various cosmic axes that together represent the universe (Singh 1994). More
specifically, the centre of this sacred geometry is the Shiva temple of Madhyameshvara, the “Lord of
the Centre”, on the north bank of the Mandakini Tirtha (Eck 1982: 42), which, in Hindu cosmology, is
surrounded by a mythic territory or sacred field (khestra) referred to as the Kashi Mandala
(“mandala”, i.e. “circle”) (cf. Singh and Rana 2002: 161-162).
Fig. 1. Kashi Mandala, showing three outer pilgrimage circuits delineated by routes.
Source: Singh, Rana P.B., 1987, op. cit., p. 155, © the author; reprinted with permission.
As seen in Figure 1, concentric circles spread outward from the Shiva temple, each circle
representing various levels of the cosmos (Singh 1987: 151-157, Singh and Rana 2016: 5). The largest
concentric circle at the edge of the sacred field, referred to as the Brihata Panchakroshi, represents the
outer limit of the universe (mandala). Within this outer limit are five yatras, which corresponds to the
number five and is associated with the god Shiva, who is the patron deity of Varanasi (Singh and
Rana 2016: 5). The Chaurashikroshi Yatra used to follow this outer circle for pilgrims that wished to
circumambulate the sacred territory. However, during the past few centuries, the popularity of this
circuit has declined, and those pilgrimage that want to participate in a slightly shorter pilgrimage route
follow the present-day path of Panchakroshi Yatra (i.e., laghu, or “the shorter one”). At smaller scales
there are other pilgrimage paths that circumambulate the city of Varanasi proper, although not
concentric circles, including the Nagar Pradakshina Yatra, which travels around the outer part of the
city, the Avimukta Yatra, travels around the inner city of Varanasi, where Lord Shiva is said to be
always present, and the Antargriha Yatra, which circles the core or the “inner sanctum” of Varanasi.
Each yatra has a number of shrines or sites that people visit as a part of their pilgrimage, and never
cross paths with each other (Singh 1994).
As noted in Table 1, these five yatras are correlated in Hindu cosmology at the mesocosm
level (the terrestrial world) with various elements at the macrocosmic (the celestial world) and
microcosmic (the phenomenal world/realm of consciousness) levels or cosmic manifestations. At the
macrocosmic level, each sacred route is represented by one of the five elements in Hindu cosmology,
which also relate to the five human senses (e.g., sky/hear, earth/smell, air/feel, water/taste, fire/see),
and at the microcosmic level with five aspects of the human body. As well, these pilgrimage route are
also correlated with five types of transcendental power and the five koshas or ‘sheaths’ (see Table 1).
According to Hindu mythology, the correlations between the different these koshas are an archetypal
manifestation of the interconnectedness between the divine and the human realms, which can be
perceived and expressed as the true form of natural existence (cf. Eck 1982: 30, also Eck 1986).
These five sacred journey routes are identified by the respective boundaries in a series and
never crossing one another, and are connoted as the five koshas, the ‘sheaths’. That is how kosha as
are analogous to the five gross elements of organism according to Hindu mythology and also “with
human being where the outermost (annamaya /food-made) kosha being the material body and the
innermost (anadamaya /bliss-made) kosha being the subtle body” (Eck 1986: 46). By this archetypal
manifestation the interconnectedness between the divine and the human realms can be perceived and
expressed into the true form of natural existence (cf. Eck 1982: 30). The five sacred territories are
further explained as the symbol of “gross elements” (mahabhotas) and compared with the
corresponding body symbols, transcendental power and the sheaths (Table 1).
Table 1. Kashi (Varanasi): Five Layers of Sacred Territories in Varanasi.

-- Macrocosm: Mesocosm: Microcosm: Transcendental Sheath
Nature element Sacred route Part of body power (Chakra)
1 Sky Chaurashikroshi Head Consciousness Food
2 Earth Panchakroshi Legs Action Mind
3 Air Nagar Pradakshina Face Cognition Breath
4 Water Avimukta Blood Wisdom Intellect
5 Fire Antargriha Heart Bliss Bliss
(Source: Singh and Rana 2018: 170).
Like the human body the Kashi Mandala is the Brahmanda (the cosmos) who illumines the
world and dwells inside the citadel of the above mentioned five koshas, the world within. This way
the pilgrimage journey completes the macrocosmic journey in the form of microcosmos. This reflects
that “man tries to integrate multifaceted nature in terms of the intuitively known unity of his body.
This perception of and analogy between human anatomy and the physiognomy of the earth is
widespread” (Tuan 1997: 89). Thus, “the cosmos in its entirety can become a hierophany” (Eliade
1959: 12). The revelation of hierophany gets initiated and finally completed at a fixed centre, i.e.
Jnanavapi (“Well of the Wisdom”), the source of the primordial water from where life begins. In
terms of area and time the coverage from higher to lower territories descends, however the intensity
of the power of revelation follows the reverse tendency. This dialectics of shrinking universe and
expanding force reflect the idea of creation and existence from the opposite forces. This is being
operated by the drama of divine forces (maya /or lila) which while developing in complexity,
converges into simplicity and resulting to an order. This metaphor is comparable to Shiva’s dance
symbolising cosmic cycle of creation and destruction as the basis of all existence (cf. Capra, 1991:
242).
For each of these pilgrimages, pilgrims travel to the Vishveshvara (Shiva) temple and visit the
Jnanavapi, a sacred well that was supposedly dug by Lord Shiva himself, which well serves as the
‘centre’ or axis mundi of Varanasi. Pilgrims engage in an initiation ritual by “taking the vow”
(sankalpa lena), and once they have completed their pilgrimage circuit they perform the ritual of
“getting release from the vow” (sankalpa chhodana). The symbolic behaviour of expansion (journey)
and merger (returning), and the rituals performed at the sites or shrines along the pilgrimage path (the
process of doing) complete a sacramental cycle, where one begins the cherishing transformation of
life. This sacred centre where pilgrimages begin and end is the symbol of coincidential oppositorium,
expressed by the zero, or a ‘dot’, on pilgrimage route maps, and further denotes an unlimited entity, or
the productive point of potentiality. In a more philosophical context, “this central point shows a
mediation on the paradox of the maximum potential contained within an irreducible minimum”
(Lannoy 1971: 344).
2. The Panchakroshi Pilgrimage

The path of the Panchakroshi Yatra runs through holy territory (kshetra) that represents sacred
macrocosmos space; between the culturally conceived outer edge of the universe (i.e.,
Chaurashikroshi) and the microcosmic world, or the area surrounding the Vishveshvara temple. Based
on ecological concepts, the Panchakroshi Kshetra can be likened to a developed kingdom, allowing
the fulfilment of Hinduism’s potentials for ordering a community, to be called as “climax
communities” as suggested by Levy (1990: 28). As noted on Figure 1, the radial point of the cosmic
territory is the shrine of Dehli Vinayaka with the distance between the centre and the radial point
being 5 krosha (i.e., 11 miles or 17.6 km; see Singh 1987: 155, also Fig. 2).
According to prescribed and conventionally accepted rules, pilgrims that participate in the
Panchakroshi Yatra have to complete the pilgrimage over a period of six-days, staying overnight at
five “halt stations” where there are 44 dharmashalas (or pilgrims’ rest houses) for pilgrims to choose
from. Of the total 108 shrines and images attached to this route, 56 are associated with Shiva, 11 with
Vinayakas (Ganesha), and 10 with the Shiva’s assistants (see Figure 2). By the turn of the 16th
century, the Panchakroshi Yatra grew in popularity, and a good number of legend books are written.
For example, a Marathi treatise, titled the Guru Charitra (41.265-315), dated 1538 CE, describes in
detail the various elements of this pilgrimage. Later, the famous devotional-poet Tulasi (1497-1623
CE) eulogised this pilgrimage route and the attached divine images (cf. Singh 2004: 118).
3. Motivation and Faith

Many pilgrims strongly feel that the Panchakroshi Yatra (PY) provides relief from all types of sins.
According to Pt. Kedar Nath Vyas (b. 1932→ ), a priest authority on pilgrimage assisting the group,
by the performance of the PY pilgrims get relief even from such greatest sin like killing a Brahmin, or
a cow. Moreover, only after PY a person is expedient for doing Avimuikta and Antargiha Yatras.
With the completion of the latter two a person can get special place in the Shiva’s mythological realm,
ultimately leading to be part of Himself (Singh and Rana 2016: 9).
The motivations for pilgrimage are complex. Schmidt (2009) classifies them into several
types: devotional, healing, obligatory or socially required, ritual cycle – whether related to the
calendar of stages of human life or ‘wandering’ – freeform. Bhardwaj suggests that pilgrimages to
the highest level shrines are made more for spiritual gains while pilgrimages to lower level shrines
tended to seek more material goals (Bhardwaj 1973). Respecting this, Singh and Haigh (2015: 785)
propose a typology of five classes arrayed as a spectrum. At the one extreme are: (1) Tourists –
those who are there to see the sights, take a picture, buy a souvenir, eat some food… but who have no
major spiritual or emotional engagement with the sacred messages of the site; in fact, they are less in
number. (2) Pilgrims of Duty – people who travel to the sacred not necessarily through belief but out
of respect to their Social Dharma. It is something they must do and be seen to be doing by their
community, and also to follow on the tradition. Their pilgrimage is not especially spiritual, but it is
expected of them, it is a display of social conformity. (3) Pilgrims of Need – Spiritual Supplicants –
people who travel on a pilgrimage in order to gain some result in the material world, and also to
celebrate the ‘thanks giving’ for the fulfillment of their vows (called as manautis). They are believers
- but their mind is troubled by rough weather in the ocean of material life. (4) Pilgrims of Hope –
Spiritual Tourists are those who seek spiritual uplift from association with the Supreme, they have
spiritual goals and seek things that are mainly outside the mundane world, but they are part-timers.
Most of such journeys are organized by some monastic group or religious trust. They access the
liminal mainly to leaven otherwise worldly lives. And, (5) Pilgrims of Union – true Spiritual Seekers
for who all experience is a spiritual journey, who follow moksha dharma, a path that seeks escape
from the material world and the Hindu cycle of rebirth. Of course no one can find a tight-
compartment for any of the group. Covering all these types, Panchakroshi Yatra is the most popular in
terms of high frequency, big celebration, and intensity of involvement.
Fig. 2. Varanasi: Panchakroshi Yatra Circuit linking 108 sacred sites.

Source: Singh, Rana P.B., 1987, op. cit., p. 156, © the author; reprinted with permission.
4. The first halt (vāsa-sthān): Kardameshvara and its Sacredscapes

Arriving at the village Kandwa, the first night halt, the pilgrims first visit to the main temple of
Kardameshvara, followed with five other auxiliary shrines and sacred sites (numbering 22 to 27 in the
sequence of Panchakroshi Yatra; cf. Fig. 2). This lingam is said to be installed by sage Kardama
‘Prajapati’ (Fig. 3a), who was one of the progenitors of life and assumed to be son of Brahma, and the
father of the founder of Samkhya philosophy Kapila of late Vedic period, ca the 6th century BCE.
This image is inscribed in a thick red stone (shilapatta) and placed at a corner outside of the main
structure; this is similar to that of several such identical images on the Panchakroshi route denoting
other sages of the local folk tradition. At the fifth night halt, Kapiladhara lying about 12km northeast
from Kardameshvara, together with other temples, images, and shrines, there also exists an image of
Kapila (Fig. 3b). The linear axis linking these two sites, associated with father (Kardama) and son
(Kapila) delineate the western axis of the main sacred city, while eastern edge is demarcated by the
Ganga river.
The Kardameshvara linga is unusually more inclined towards flatness and the vulva is a separate
part, perhaps indicating its primordial image and may be the one of the earliest forms (Fig. 4). Some
suggests that this linga represents the highest state of communion of the male and female power. At
the edge of the vulva, the copper cover shows flames or lotus petals, numbering 108. The temple is
predominated by Shiva images, nevertheless it consists of images of Vishnu, Devi, Ganesha, Surya
and even Jain image. Archaeological evidences indicate the tradition of building temples in Banaras
since at least from the Gupta period, CE 4th – 6th centuries (cf. Agrawala 1949, and 1965: 269-270,
Giri et al. 2003: 11).
Fig. 3a. Image of sage Kardama, the father, Fig. 3b. Image of sage Kapila, the son,
(photograph by Rana P.B. Singh, 2015). (photograph by Rana P.B. Singh, 2017).
In the inner sanctum are images of Ganesha, Parvati and Hanuman, considered to be later
additions. According to KR (10: 29) the worship of Kardameshvara (Fig. 4) is to be performed by
offering five grains, i.e. barley, paddy rice, wheat, mung (green lentils), urd (black lentils) as well as
white sesame (Gengnagel 2011: 39), ad adding bilva (Aegle marmelos, wood apple) leaves and holy
basil (tulasi, Ocimum tenuiflorum sanctum). However, the majority of pilgrims offer the paddy rice,
bilva leaves, hemp flower dhatura (Datura stramonium) and the holy water of Ganga. Before this
ceremony one has to take bath in the Kardama Kunda/Tirtha and vision to Kardama Kupa (Singh
2002: 83-89).
Fig. 4. Kardameshvara Lingam (sketch and photograph by Rana P.B. Singh, 2013).
There are images of mother Parvati, Ganesha and Hanuman in the inner sanctum of the temple.
Somehow the divine house of Panchayatana (Surya, Ganesha, Parvati, Vishnu and Shiva) is not
conceived here (see Fig. 12); of course these images are existing in the outer walls or nearby attached
shrine of Virupaksha. Outside but still close to the temple is a wrestling site where every morning
villagers practice the Indian style of wrestling. In an attached shrine there is an image of Hanuman,
considered to be a form of Shiva’s power.
According to ritual instruction, offering a mixture of seven grain, including the un-husked rice is
prescribed. The notion of seven grains (e.g. wheat, barley, small and big millets, varieties of lentils,
raw-rice) symbolises the seven archetypal number referring to the seven days in the week and seven
sheaths (chakras) in the body (Singh 2002: 134, also Singh, Ptatibha 2004: 101). That’s how the
seven grains together makes a channel for linking human body (micro-cosmos) to the divine image
(meso-cosmos), and ultimately through rituals one can perceive and receive the deeper feeling of the
celestial energy (macro-cosmos).
5a. Brahma 5b. Nataraja Shiva 5c. Vishvarupa Vishnu

(Photography by Rana P.B. Singh, 2017)
In the southern wall the Uma Maheshvara pose of Shiva in the three niches shows the divine
couple’s love and are comparable to images in Khajuraho (cf. Tripathi 1962-63: 4), while Yogeshvara
form at the base of the triangle represents Shiva as the lord of Yoga. Being dominance of Shaivism,
various forms of Shiva are shown, including in the yoga-posture, cosmic dancer, Andhakari-
Gajantaka/ Andhakasuramardana, Maheshvara (Har-Gauri), and Ardhanarishvara (‘androgen’) (cf.

Giri, et al. 2003: 15). In the western wall the trinity of Hindu pantheon is shown by the images of
Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma (Fig. 5 a, b, and c, cf. Tiwari and Srivastava 2013-14: 168) – all are
depicted with their carriers, respectively the Garuda (Bird-man), Nandi (bull) and Hamsa (swan)
(Singh, Pratibha 2004: 101). Shiva is shown as divine dancer (Nateshvara) who wants to complete
the cosmic cycle by making disorder; this dance is called as tandava, the dance pose among the 108
that completes the cycle of cosmic rhythm; here the rosary is imbalanced, showing disorder (Fig. 5b).
At the beginning of the new cosmic cycle, or for the ordered running of rhythms and seasons Shiva
performs a blissful dance, called lasya. The image of Vishnu in the niche shows him as the “Vishva
Purusha”, the supreme overseer of the cosmos represented by the images of divinities all around Him
(Fig. 5 c). The uniqueness of the temple is “the absence of Ashtadikpalas (guardians of the eight
directions) figures on the temple corner walls which was an indispensible feature of north Indian
temples (Tiwari and Srivastava 2013-14: 171).
In the northern wall there is an image of Mahishasuramardini, the form of goddess who killed
the buffalo-demon; this is one of the very popular depictions of puranic story and also described in
the Hindu Tantras. Near by to it, Shiva is shown as killer of the demon Andhaka (‘blind’), called
Andhakasuramardan Shiva, or Andhakari-Gajantaka – the demon who was born as unwanted child of
Shiva and had finally killed by him. A similar image of huge size is in the museum at Sarnath. The
image represents Shiva spearing his adversary, Tripura or Andhaka on his trident that he holds with
one left and one right hand. There are also images of Kishna’s brother Balarama and his wife Revati.
Balarama carries plough on his shoulder, and Revati carries a water pot; thus together they represent
the farming culture. The image of sage Kardama (Fig. 3a) in the posture of meditation is in the large
niche outside the door of the temple. On the right, on the side-wall, is also a statue of Devahuti Mata,
mother of Kapila; locally people call her a ‘ganika’ (female assistant). At the main doorways, at both
sides are river goddesses; perhaps representing the Ganga and the Yamuna and assisting divinities, of
course dilapidated and unclear.
On the platform in the west, close to the water pool, is a stone slab containing two human
figures (Fig. 6). Sitting in the right is the Guru or a Yogi performing meditation in appropriately
manner using rosary in one of his hands and the holy book in the other hand. Next to him, in the left,
is the disciple (shisya), engaged in preparation of bhang, the cannabis intoxicant. These two figures
show the dual views of life, called yoga (spiritual pleasure) and bhoga (worldly enjoyment). Lannoy
(2002: 189) describes this statue as symbol of lifeworld in Banaras, what is referred as masti; he said
“Masti is not cynical, it doesn’t send up the serious side of sanctity, but in a way that is inimitably
Hindu, it makes sure there is always room in religious matters for a sense of humour. Masti is genial
and tolerant in its commitment to a carefree way of life”.
Fig. 6. The Guru and Shisya (teacher and the disciple) image, attached to the main temple
(photograph by Rana P.B. Singh).
4.1. Kardama Kunda/ Tirtha (no. 23 on the PY-route)

Here pilgrims sprinkle water on themselves from the Kardama Kunda, a majestic rectangular water
pool. In mid 18th century Queen Rani Bhavani (1716-1795) of Nator Estate (Bengal) constructed this
massive pond at the old site in ca 1751-1757 (Tripathi 1963: 1, also Singh 2002: 87). After the death
of her husband King Ramakant Rai (1699-1748), the Queen controlled the estate, however adopted
life like a religious lady. That is how she performed a pilgrimage to Banaras and stayed there during
1752-1758. During her six years of stay the Queen has patronised constructions of many water pools
(kundas), including the four on the Panchakroshi route at Kandwa, Bhimachandi, Sonatalab, and
Kapiladhara, and renovations and construction of several temples. She has also built water pools at
Lata Bhairava, Omkareshvara, Matsyodari (Machchhodari) and Kurukshetra.
Presently, the majority of pilgrims touches the water and sprinkles a few drops upon their
bodies as an abbreviation of a holy dip. By this act they escape the polluted water of the tank as it has
dark green colour from stagnation of water. In Hinduism bathing in the river or tank is mandatory as a
ritually purifying act before entering a temple (Jay 1991:106). For most people good health and
healing are also important, therefore some do not strictly follow the rule and regulations. There are six
auxiliary holy sites and shrines around the main temple Kardameshvara (Fig. 4).
4.2. Kardama Kupa (no. 24 on PY-route)

From the main temple towards Virupaksha is the holy deep round well, Kardama Kupa, protected by
small roofing, of which water is used in oblation. Devout Hindus see their reflection in the water of
this well and narrates that their life is safe.
4.3. Somanatheshvara (no. 25 on the PY-route)

After a short walk, in the right-hand side in an old flat-shaped room exists the image of
Somanatheshvara, the Shiva representing his form at Somanath in Gujarat, western India. The stone
inscription at the footstep reads that “Referring to Kashi Rahasya (chapter 10), in the Panchakroshi
pilgrimage, salute to the Somanatheshvara. By the inspiration of Dvarakanatha Dubey, a disciple of
Goraji, a resident of Bundi, in Samvata 1948 (CE 1891) this is built”. The same inscription is found at
Yaksheshvara (no. 43 on the PY-route).
Fig. 7a. Virupaksha shrine, west of the main temple. 7b. Surya, facing the main temple.
4.4. Virupaksha Linga (no. 26 on the PY-route)

About 20m south of the Nilakantheshvara is the Virupaksha Lingam in a small open shrine with a
roof (Fig. 7a), referring to one of Shiva’s assistants (gana). On the western part of the platform there
is a panel consisting of images of Fish, Tortoise, Boar, Man-Lion, and Dwarf, the Five avataras
(incarnations) of Vishnu (Fig. 8). Weathering and carelessness have damaged the images badly,
however by careful watching one can understand. In the eastern part of this structure lies the image of
Surya (Fig. 7b), a representative of master craft of the Gahadavala period, where Surya is shown as
representative of Vishnu.
Fig. 8. The Five Avataras of Vishnu (photograph by Rana P.B. Singh, 2017).
4.5. Nilakantheshvara (no. 27 on the PY-route)

This image represents the puranic story of Shiva who drunk the blue-poison that came from churning
the ocean by gods and demons. By his meditative power Shiva blocked the flow of poison in his
throat which resulted to make his throat blue, thus the name Nilakantheshvara. According to the folk
tradition after marriage the family provides a miniature decorative cot with pieces of cloths and hangs
inside the temple. Villagers believe that the mother goddess, Parvati will come to meet Shiva in the
late night and take rest on the cot provided, thus they together bless the newly married couple for
prosperity and happy married life.
Pilgrims take shelter for the first night in any of the ten dharmashalas lining the eastern side
of compound. These are maintained by religious trusts, and there is no charge to stay at them. All
dharmashalas are on the left-hand side, since this is the profane space use for daily activities of life. A
dharmashala mostly consists of a single storey with a terrace roof built around a courtyard. The street
side of a dharmashala usually has only one entrance, sometimes decorated, and several platforms for
pilgrimage activities. In the centre there is a square platform on which there is often a small shrine.
During stay in night pilgrims sing religious songs and hear katha (stories from the religious texts)
narrated by the local priest sitting at the raised platform there. Rituals include fire-sacrifice, feeding
Brahmins, and offerings to ancestors who provide relief from the debts of divine beings, and parents
(KR 10.31).
After completing worship in the temples and shrines, pilgrims take shelter in the dharmashala
where they prepare the evening food. Later, pilgrims listen to religious stories from mythological texts
narrated by the local priests. As a token of appreciation, they will give a donation (dakshina) in cash
and in kind (grains) to the priest. The priests are not always well versed in the scriptures and the
religious stories. Thus, some priests may simply tell entertaining stories which are not necessarily
grounded in scriptural mythology. In addition, with the increasing pace of materialism that is growing
in India, some priests are also asking for better donations.
Late evening the pilgrims finally take rest. Early in the morning, after taking a bath, they again
pay a visit to Kardameshvara and associated shrines. The morning prayer symbolises thanksgiving as
well as a request for having a blissful journey. After passing their overnight stays, next day pilgrims
continue the journey with the prayer to the main deity there. Before leaving the first over-night stop at
Kardameshvara, pilgrims take sacred bath in the Kardama Kunda as mark of purification rite, and
then they pray Kardameshvara:
O Kardamesha! O Mahadeva!
The Revered one!
Among the Kashi’s dwellers;
O Great Divinity !
Provide me the strength
For puja and your vision
Again and again. ……… KR 10.32
After passing first night halt at Kandwa, the second day journey starts with bath in the Kardama
Kunda, followed by puja (worship) in the temple of Kardameshvara. Travelling about 16 km from
Kardameshvara, pilgrims reach Bhimachandi, the 2nd night halt. The place is named after the form of
goddess.
5. Architectural Expression along the Panchakroshi Pilgrimage route

The Panchakroshi Yatra/Parikrama (PY) begins from the old city of Varanasi where the urban fabric
is so closely packed that the scale of shrines is not more that 6-10 metres. This holy parikrama starts
from the Manikarnika Ghat and moves southwardly through the other ghats and narrow lanes attached
to it. Interestingly, there are a few shrines accommodated within the houses. Many of such examples
are the addition of residences to the temple property; this is an example of heritage contestation.
Therefore, once the yatra gets started and reaches to the Asi Sangameshvara, the changing character
of old fabric can be observed. From Asi Sangmeshvara, the yatra proceeds to Kandwa village where
the Kardameshvara temple marks the first halt of the Panchakroshi Parikrama. It is interesting to
notice that pilgrims come across a temple of huge scale and size which is situated near a large kunda
and has a place to relax overnight in the dharmashala (pilgrims’ rest house). When pilgrims move
further from Kardameshvara to succeeding halting place, i.e. Bhimachandi, they cover other shrines
on the route which are smaller in size and are situated in the attached villages. The route, passes
through lush green countryside, is rich with water bodies such as kundas, talabs, hrida, and wells (of
course, many of them are extinct); most of these are used for various ritual purposes.
At Bhimachandi (the 2nd halt), the main temple has a domical roof structure and the
associated temple of Gandheshvara, is associated with a kunda, named Gandharva Sagar, which is a
shekhri style temple seems to be of the CE 18th century through as characterized by its architecture
and materials used.
The defined route from 2nd to 3rd halts is the longest (23km) and also consist of maximum
number of shrines (28, numbering 53-80 on the PY-route), therefore, the maximum number of resting
places along with man-made water bodies can be observed while moving from Bhimachandi to
Rameshvara Temple. There are many kundas, temples, wells and resting places along the route that
were built by the landlords, kings and queens of Banaras and other areas. The typical character here is
the domical roof structure, shekhari temples, kunda architecture, wells and intricate carvings.
Rameshvara temple is situated on the bank of river Varana which is also accessible through the ghats.
The scale of temple and number of dharmashalas decreases while moving from Rameshvara to
Shivpur, the 4th halt. Shivpur is situated at the outskirt of the old city of Banaras, where pilgrims can
take shelter commonly with their relatives/friends or known houses, or further proceed to the village
Tarana, 4-km eastward, and pass the night near a temple in the open ground with a huge tank, and a
primary school. Here, the number of dharmashalas are only 4 (one of them has already been
converted into a school, and most of them are partially encroached upon).
From the old narrow streets of Shivpur pilgrims go to the last stoppage, Kapiladhara where the
typical setting of halts can be observed, with a huge temple, kunda, dharmashalas and wells. The
whole cluster of heritage structures is interrelated like a complex net. Pilgrims take rest in the
dharmashala and by morning they take a holy dip in the kunda, or oblation with the holy water,
followed with offering the prayer to Kapileshvara (Vrishabhadhvajeshvara) temple (Fig. 9). The
setting of the parikrama route is mostly in the villages that depict its strong character and adds the
essence to it. However, there is need to maintain and conserve the historicity of urban fabric while
maintaining the sustainable balance with new developments.
Finally, the yatra gets completed by returning back to the same place in the old city where it
got started with initiation of sankalp lena (vow-taking) and get release, i.e. the sankalp chhodana
(releasing the vow), both at Jnanavapi and Vishvanatha Temple (Singh 2002: 136-137). This way
pilgrims cover almost major ghats and experience the serene beauty of Kashi Kshetra, being part of
interaction with tangible and intangible heritages, every time with new and deep experiences,
challenges and art of adjustability. This helps them to pass through realization (anubhava) to
revelation (anubhuti), which ultimately results to soul healing.
Fig. 9. Kardameshvara temple: Overview (photograph by Rana P.B. Singh, 2013).

6. Kardameshvara temple and sacred environs: Architectural feature

The Kardameshvara temple (Fig. 9) presents an example of successive layers of growth, beginning
from 9th-10th to 13th centuries, of course the major portions was built in the 12th century CE by the
Gahadavala kings based on old fragments and after passage of time during 18th century major
repairing were made, including the shikhara-tower and mandapa (Sukul 1977: 241, Gutschow 2006:
246, also Motichandra 1963: 372). According to Havell (1905: 192), there was already a temple in
rough form long before the Muslim invasion, and the existing one represents a mosaic of different
iconographic forms like Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, primordial and animistic too (Havell 1905: 193).
However, Sherring (1868: 178) opines that this temple presents the finest specimen of sculpture, but
he thinks no temple in the region is older than 200-300 years; unfortunately he was biased and wrong!
In the southern part of platform there are fragments of the ancient shrine which consisted of the
images of divine dancers, musicians, snakes, and mythical beasts; these figures date back to 9th-10th
century. During the period of Gahadavala dynasty (12th century) most of the upper parts were built.
This is the only surviving temple after Mughal invasions during the 16th-17th centuries; its locality in
the then forest-clad area and a considerable distance from the city area had saved it from destruction.
However, since then additions and modifications have been made (Tripathi 1962-63: 1). Since then
additions and modifications have been made. Tripathi (1962-63: 1) narrated that “Though the temple
lacks the impetus of volume of the developed Kalinga temples and sculptural wealth and vertical
upsurge of the Chandela monuments, it is important for the study of the gradual decline of the temple
architecture in Northern India. It represents the last phase of the building activity in ancient India and
provides us, probably, with one of the last links of the long history of the north Indian temple
architecture”. It is noted that “two of the ardhamandapa (porch) pillars in the Kardameshvara temple
have inscriptions which are roughly assignable to the CE 14th – 15th centuries and tend to show that
mostly old materials was reused in the later restoration of the ardhamandapa” (Tripathi 1962-63: 8).
The temple is comparable to the Chandela temple of Khajuraho, particularly the Duladeo Shiva
temple of CE 12th century (Tiwari and Srivastava 2013-14: 166).
Among the five stoppages (halt stations, vasa-sthan) on the Panchakroshi route, the
Kardameshvara halt possesses the unique features, mythology and narrative values; this temple
presents an example of successive layers of growth, beginning from CE 9th-10th century to 15th
century. The temple seems to be built in layers of constructions where ardhamandapa (half-pavilion)
is a later addition followed with the shrine of sage Kardam. In fact, this is the oldest living temple in
Varanasi that maintained existence, continuity and functions during at least 1500 years.
Tripathi (1962-63: 1) has described this temple: “The temple is pancharatha on the plan as well
as in elevation. On plan it consists of square garbhagriha, antarala and a rectangular ardhamandapa.
In elevation, it shows pitha of two mouldings, high moulded basement (adhishthana), central wall
portion (mandovara) with sculptured niches, cornice mouldings (varandika) and shikhara with
amalaka and other crowning elements”.
The Kardam Kunda attached to the temple is the largest within the city, and is a part of the
channel of Asi river. Asi river get originated from the overflow of lowlands of Lathiya village (1.8km
west from Kandwa), which further get linked in the water bodies like Kandwa Pokhra and Kardam
Kunda, and flows through the channel of Asi river. However, the connection of water bodies has been
lost in passage of time that caused the loss of the river, and its convergence into a sewerage drain
(nala); that is how the river is known as Asi Nala.
Apart from temple and kunda, there are other important heritage structures like Chatris (canopy)
around the kunda, dharmashala (pilgrims’ rest houses), wells, historic houses, sacred trees and
grooves, and the pilgrimage path. The heritage resources in this area are being marked in Figure 10.
Figure 10. Kardameshvara Temple and Environs: Heritage Resource Map (source: Jaiswal 2018: 33).
The spatial and cultural characteristics of heritage components of Kardameshvara and

environs are detailed out in Table 1, emphasizing the details of its year of construction, main use,
architectural style, materials used, addition/alteration, its state of protection and ownership status. All
the seven heritage components, smaller and bigger, both tangible and intangible, sacred and
supporting profane, become active at different degrees and scale during the pilgrimage and other
religious festivities. Thus, all together there emerged a ‘complex whole’ where each component has
double roles to play – the one in its own way (distinctiveness), and together with other the common
role (generality).
Table 1. List of Heritage Components at Kardameshvara and Environs

Temple Kund Dharmashala Well Pilgrimage Historic and Natural water
Route Vernacular body
building
COMPONENT
PERIOD OF CE 10th- CE 18th CE 18th CE 18th-20th First mentioned CE 20th Part of Asi
CONSTRUC- 18th in 16th C text. River
TION Revived in 18th
Century
MAIN USE Religious Religious Residential/ Only some For movement Residential Previously
Resting are in use by and used for fishing
place for local people connectivity and for growing
pilgrims living there. water chestnut.
ARCHITEC- Pancharat Steps all Courtyard Circular Narrow lane Elements Natural edge
TURAL ha style sides, Planning and wells with with one side like but connected
STYLE and Two slopping open platform and dharmashala decorative to the kunda
Shekhri entrance Veranda connecting and the other brackets, via brick line
Temple Chatries at steps. side kunda. niches, structure.
the corners sculptures
and a chatri are used
over and mud
slopping houses can
entrance. be seen.
MATERIALS Chunar Chunar Chunar Chunar Cobbled stone Wooden Soil deposits,
USED Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone, Sandstone, flooring on Brackets, and vegetation.
Lakhori bricks, primary road Mud house
bricks, lime mortar and and brick on with tin roof
mortar. wood in edge on and old
some wells. secondary setting.
road.
ADDITION/ Insensitive Stones on Addition of Addition of Encroach- Extension in Encroachment
ALTERA- Additions the floor walls and pipeline, ments structure. in catchment
TION surface by platform by hand pump area.
tourism cement and shade.
department mortar, and
& boundary modern
wall. bricks
STATE OF Protected Unprotec-ted Unprotected Unprotected Unprotected Unprotected Unprotected.
PROTECTION On lease.
OWNERSHIP Under Part of public Taken care Part of public Part of public Part of Part of public
STATUS State Land by a trust land and land public land land
Archaeo- attached to
logy dharmashala
(Source: Jaiswal 2018: 63).
The salient architectural characteristics of the Kardameshvara Temple are given in Table 2
(for visuality of architectural design in the southern part see Fig. 11), taking into account the issues of
approach, history, construction, architectural style, infrastructure, exterior, materials used, level of
protection, and overall description.
Table 2. Architectural description of Kardameshvara Temple.

Approach The temple can be approached through Panchakroshi path via kunda or
the secondary road.
History Temple has been built into phases, starting from the CE 12th century but
has the sculptural evidences and fragments of Gupta period.
Constructed by Constructed in 3 phases: the CE 9th-10th Centuries, 12th Century: Period
of Gahadavala Rulers; later several additions.
Architecture Style Shekhari Temple, Pancharatha plan, Ardhamandapa and temple of sage
Kardam and store area was added in later phases.
Infrastructure Interior of the temple has modern addition of a fan unit and electric
bulbs.
Exterior Sculptures of different Hindu deities seen on the exterior facades on all
four sides.
Interior A plain wall covered with tiles. Images of Parvati, Ganesh, and
Hanuman, are in the Garbhagriha (‘inner sanctum’). The main door is in
the east and the ceiling is simple.
Materials used Chunar sandstone found in the nearby area of Varanasi city; addition of
tiles and marble on the flooring and walls; use of brass metal on the door
and inside.
Level of protection Protected by the State Archaeology (Uttar Pradesh)
Description The temple is on the platform that has steps leading to kunda from three
sides and one side (west) leading to the secondary street.
(Source: Jaiswal 2018: 37).
The inner sanctum is spread into square grid of 12ft x 12ft (3.66 x 3.66m) from the outside,
while the inner area covers 8ft 8” x 8ft 6” (2.64 x 2.60m) standing by the four cardinal pilasters. The
entrance gate to Kardameshvara is 3ft 5” (1.04m) in width and 6ft (1.83m) in height and represents
trishakha (trio-branch) variety and decorated in usual style. The first shakha is decorated with
meandering creeper (patralata), and the second shakha (stambhashakha) shows pratalata decoration
on its central facet and two vertical rows of conventional flowers on the sides. The third shakha also
shows two divisions, decorated with lotus petals designs and vertical rows of four petalled flowers
alternating circular and diamond shapes (Tripathi 1962-63: 1-2).
Fig. 11. South-facing elevation of Kardameshvara, grid size = 1m x 1m (source: Jaiswal 2018: 19,
modified and elaborated after Yadava 2010: 13)
The orientation of temple is not perfectly fitting into directional symmetry with reference to
bounded space represented by four directional steps that makes the lease rectangle; in fact, it is tilted
towards the south. In the background of this pattern the symmetry of kunda is also distorted to a
certain extinct (Fig. 12).
Fig. 12. Basic ground plan of Kardameshvara temple (after Jaiswal 2018, compare Gutschow 2006:
246) – 1. Kardameshvara Linga, 2. Parvati, 3. Hanuman, 4. Sita-Rama, and 5. Sage Kardama.
Fig. 13 a (upper) Site Section through Chatri (canopy), kunda, and street.
Fig. 13 b (lower) Photo documentation of the Chatri structures around the kunda (source a & b:
Jaiswal 2018: 20)
The longitudinal section between the sacred platform of Kardama Kupa in the west and
dharmashala (No. 5th) in the east reveals a particular design of high-low-high landscape, representing
two platforms and the kunda in-between (Fig. 13a). This could be compared with the visuality of
architecture represented with five chatris (canopies) interlinking the heritage attributes in the four
cardinal points, including one distinct chatri existing on the small bridge connected to the kunda (Fig.
13b). Unfortunately, due to lack of awakening and carefulness to maintain the heritage, two of the
chatris are encroached by the local people. The other chatris are also not in a proper condition and
facing problem of negligence.
Kardam Kunda. The size of the kunda is approximately 86m x 145m is rectangular in shape. There
are nine steps in total that leads pilgrim to the edge of the kunda. A kunda has never been a single
entity and therefore, possess a complete character of water architecture with other chatri structures
around it. In this case, there are four corner chatri structures and one over a bridge connecting part of
a kunda. However, these structures are being neglected nowadays causing the loss of the wholeness of
such religious cultural heritage site.
The unique relationships of historic man-made structures along the kunds are used for
pilgrimage activities by the devout Hindus, as illustrated with various domestic and pilgrimage
performances, of course predominated by the folk traditions. These are the examples of interfacing
tangible and intangible heritages that evolved in the past, maintained and continued in the passage of
time while keeping the traditions and giving pace to modernity. However, there are stories of
carelessness and negligence.
Dharmashala. There are ten dharmashalas (pilgrims’ rest houses), all lying in the left of the main
road (Fig. 14). These dharmashalas are meant for yatra purpose primarily, however during the off
season used for various purposes by the local people. The basic structure of a dharmashala “consists
of a single story with a terrace roof built around a courtyard. They are built with pillars supporting
lintels and covering slabs; there are no vaults. The four outer walls are generally without windows, the
only openings being small ventilation holes. ..... A corridor leads from the entrance to the courtyard
which is at a much lower level. In the centre, there is a square platform on which there is sometimes a
small shrine. A gutter cut into the slabs around the edge collects washing water and rain water which
then flows to some garden. There are also small platforms on which the pilgrims prepare their meals,
Food is basically boiled rice without oil, cooked on a dung fire and served in earthenware pots which
are thrown away after use” (Couté and Léger 1989: 62). This is illustrated with a dharmashala (No. 2,
Fig. 15).
Fig. 14. Kardameshvara and environs: bird’s eye view, and the dharmashalas (drawn by Jaiswal
2018).
Fig. 15. Kardameshvara: Ground Plan of Dharmashala No. 2 (source: Jaiswal 2018: 21).
The covered area around the courtyard is “generally deeper on the south side as the opening is
towards the north and thus cooler. Floors slope towards the courtyard; there are small niches and pegs
on the walls for the pilgrims’ clothes and luggage. With the exception of the panelled doors to the
corner rooms which can be padlocked, there are no permanent partitions. However privacy can be
protected with pieces of cloth and ropes slung between wall pegs and pillars” (ibid.: 62).
The bird’s eye view (Fig. 14) of the site shows the current setting of the area where the
heritage components are interconnected and the Kardameshvara temple that serves as the axis. The
temple is well connected from all the sides through paths. However, since the recent past site has least
visual connectivity on the eastern side.
7. Towards end: Perspectives appraised, Prospects Realised and Sustainability to

be evolved
The idea of ‘cultural infrastructure’ broadly refers to cultural envelop that includes the heritage
attributes, associated cultural landscapes, the socio-cultural activities and all such interrelated
functions that make the place attachment alive, functional through regularity, integrity and constantly
making and re-making for sustainable future. Kardameshvara temple and environs possesses all such
attributes, processes and historical continuity of maintaining the aliveness of cultural infrastructure,
yet not conceived and used in the overall historic urban development and promotion of cultural
tourism of Banaras region.
On the 10-criteria scale of UNESCO World Heritage enlisting, Kardameshvara temple
satisfies, several of them but to be projected only within regional context, like (i) representing a
masterpiece of human creative genius that maintain continuity and aliveness, (ii) exhibiting an
important interchange of human values, over a span of time or within Indian cultural realm, on
developments in successive architecture layering and landscape design; (iii) bearing a unique or at
least exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition interlinking Hinduism, Buddhism, Tantrism,
primordial and animistic religion, thus producing a mosaicness of cultural product; (iv) presenting an
outstanding example of a type of building, architectural ensemble and landscape that illustrates
interlinking stages of cultural growth through evolution, growth, maintenance and continuity while
absorbing all sorts of transformations; (v) being outstanding example of a traditional human
settlement, represented vernacular houses, mixed land-uses, and human interaction with the
environment and maintenance of ecological sustainability; (vi) directly being tangibly and intangibly
associated with events of living traditions, with belief systems of pilgrimages, ritual and related
religious festivities; and (vii) of course it does not contain any superlative natural phenomena or areas
of exceptional natural beauty, however it possesses aesthetic beauty in terms of iconography and
sculptures. The last three criteria are not implacable in the study case, like (viii) being distinct
example of cultural landscape, the temple and environs neither presenting an outstanding example
representing major stages of earth’s history, nor any geological processes; (ix) not representing
example of on-going ecological and biological processes; and (x) not representing any natural
habitats for in-situ conservation of biological diversity. Unfortunately, mostly due to lack of political
will, prioritising, and lack of public awareness and participation the dossier for Varanasi has not yet
been prepared.
Being a living repository of many cultural ensembles and heritages (tangible and intangible)
and attributes of cultural landscapes (pilgrimage activities and sacredscapes), Kardameshvara temple
and environs could be taken as a model area where cultural economy to be strengthened through
cultural and heritage tourism, especially pilgrimage-tourism. Place is considered as the crucible
element of ‘space-and-function’ of cultural and economic interactions, and at the other end, cultural
identity and economic order condense out to emerge as the monopoly power of place. Hence, it is
important to recognize the symbiotic inter-relationships between place, culture, and economy so as to
protect the spatial root to cultural-economic aspects (Scott 1997). As indicated in figure 16, place
plays a very important role in the dynamics of reciprocation between culture-creativity and economics
(Evans 2009, also Saha and Sen 2016). A recent study of Varanasi by Saha and Sen (2016) has
already established the importance of the role of place in shaping the geography of cultural and
creative economic clusters with enhanced clarity. The linkages among spatiality of time, temporality
of space, sacrality of space and further their counter networking with spirit of placefulness would
open a new site of pilgrimage-tourism and spirituality; Kardameshvara consists of all such
potentialities.
Fig. 16. Triad of symbiotic relationship between place, culture, and economy; after Evans (2009).
Heritage is the mirror of mankind’s growth, progress and prospects; it is very important that it
should be preserved as symbol of our cultural existence. One has to remember that modern way of life
and science, and ancient wisdom and its messages can work together to help in searching a
harmonious and peaceful path of mankind’s integration with landscapes. In order that this heritage
become a resource for development, it needs to be first documented, then protected, maintained and
finally utilized according to specific heritage guidelines and legislations; the present study presents
such an example. Only then, combined with an increased citizens’ awareness and participation, will
policy efforts and interventions become sustainable – environmentally, socially and culturally (cf.
Singh 2011: 251). It is felt that the existing legislative and administrative framework in India is
grossly inadequate for conservation, preservation and maintenance of cultural-heritage landscapes,

and also there is lack of a system that maintains close ties with the stakeholders (cf. Singh and Rana
2018 a: 179).
Think cosmically, see globally, behave regionally, and act locally but insightfully. This is an
appeal for cosmic vision, global humanism, and Self-realization on the path towards SDGs Target
11.4 in making holy-heritage cities vibrant and liveable centre of global harmony, spiritual
awakening, peace and deeper understanding (see Singh 2017: 33).
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Singh, Rana P.B. (2004), Cultural Landscape and the Lifeworld. The Literary Images of Banaras.
Pilgrimage & Cosmology Series: 7. Varanasi: Indica Books.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2009a), Geographical Thoughts in India: Snapshots and Visions for the 21st
Century. Planet Earth & Cultural Understanding Series, Pub. 2. Newcastle upon Tyne UK:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2009 b), Kashi Kshetra: Pilgrimage Circuits of the Panchakroshi and Antargriha
Yatras; in his, Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage City. Planet Earth & Cultural
Understanding Series, Pub. 3. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Newcastle upon Tyne UK: pp.
269-302.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2011), Varanasi, India’s Cultural Heritage City: Contestation, Conservation &
Planning; in, Rana P.B. Singh (ed.) Heritagescapes and Cultural Landscapes (Planet Earth &
Cultural Understanding Series, Pub. 6). New Delhi: Shubhi Publs., pp. 205-254.
Singh, Rana P.B. (2017), Appraising the Indian Cultural Landscape: Envisioning Ecological
Cosmology in the 21st Century. North Eastern Geographer (Gauhati University, Guwahati,
India), vol. 39 (no. 1-2), 2016-17: pp. 20-35.
Singh Rana P.B. and Haigh, Martin J. (2015), Hindu Pilgrimages: The Contemporary Scene; in
Stanley D. Brunn (ed.) The Changing World Religion Map, CWRM: (vol. II) Sacred Places,
Identities, Practices and Politics. Dordrecht/ New York: Springer Science + Business Media
B.V.: pp. 783-801.
Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. (2002), Banaras Region. A Spiritual & Cultural Guide.
Pilgrimage and Cosmology Series, Pub. 1. Indica Books, Varanasi. 2nd Ed. 2006.
Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. (2016), Kashi and Cosmos: Spatial Manifestation and Five
Pilgrimage Journeys of Banaras. International Journal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage
(IJRTP, ISSN 2009-7379, an online, open-Access, peer reviewed journal; Dublin Institute of
Technology, Ireland); vol. 4 (vi), September [article 5]: pp. 1-15.
Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. (2018a), Kashi and Cosmos, India: Pilgrimage Circuit of the
Panchakroshi Yatra; in, Daniel Olsen and Anna Trono (eds.) Religious Pilgrimage Routes and
Trails: Sustainable Development and Management. Wallingford, Oxon: CABI Publishers: pp.
167 - 179.
Singh, Rana P.B. and Rana, Pravin S. (2018b), Panchakroshi Yatra, the Cosmic (Pilgrimage) Circuit
of Varanasi: Evaluating the World Heritage. Online publication in Sawdust.Online (Mumbai),
https://sawdust.online (June 26): pp. 1-22. https://www.sawdust.online/expert-
speak/panchakroshi-yatra-cosmic-circuit-of-varanasi-rana-p-b-singh-pravin-s-rana/
Sukul, Kubernath (1977), Glory of Varanasi (Varanasi Vaibhav), in Hindi. Patna: Bihar Rastrabhasha
Parishad.
Tiwari, M.N.P. and Srivastava, Anand Prakash (2013-14), Oldest Surviving Kardamesvara Temple of
Varanasi (Study in Uniqueness, Placement and Iconography). Prajna, Journal of Banaras
Hindu University, vol. 59 (2): pp. 166-171.
Tripathi, L.K. (1962-63), The Kardameshvara temple at Kandwa, Varanasi . Bharati, Bulletin of the
College of Indology, (B.H.U., Varanasi), No. 6 (pt. 1): pp. 137-156.
Tuan, Yi-Fu (1977), Space and Place. London: Edward Arnold.
Yadav, Subhash C. [collated, ed.] (2010), Kardameśvara Temple, Kandava, Varanasi. Lucknow: U.P.
State Archaeology Department.
NOTE: our (Singh, et al.) papers are available at https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
The authors
Prof. Rana P.B. Singh, [b. 15 Dec. 1950]

MA, PhD, FJF, FAAI, FIFS, FACLA, ‘Ganga Ratna’, ‘Koshal Ratna’
President, ACLA- Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea), 2018-20.
Former Professor (spel. Cultural Landscapes & Heritage Studies) & Head (2013-16), Dept. of
Geography, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, UP 221005, India.
Mobile: (+091)-9838119474. Email: ranapbs@gmail.com
§ Rana Singh is researching in the fields of heritage and sacred city planning, especially cultural and
sacred landscapes, pilgrimage routes and temples, heritagescapes and settlement systems in Varanasi
region and north India since over last four decades as promoter, collaborator and organiser; and also
did field studies in Japan, Italy, Sweden, and Korea. On these topics he lectured at many centres in all
parts of the world as visiting faculty and special invitee. His publications include 300 papers and 41
books on these subjects, including Banaras, Making of India’s Heritage City (2009), Sacred
Geography of Goddesses in South Asia (2010), and Hindu Tradition of Pilgrimage: Sacred Space and
System (2013). See, web: https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers
Ar Ms Sonali Jaiswal, [b. 18 Dec. 1991]

B.Arch. (DIT Dehradun, 2015), M.Arch. (Conservation, SPA Bhopal, 2018)
Email: sonalijaiswal013@gmail.com
She is a member of ACLA- Asian Cultural Landscape Association (SNU Seoul, Korea), and is a
practicing architect living in Varanasi. Her M.Arch. dissertation was on Conservation and
Management Plan for Kardam Kund and Surrounding, Varanasi (2018, SPA Bhopal). Most of her
research work is on Banaras and its ancient temples and the environs and the diminishing art forms of
the city. She has also worked as an architect on a few HRIDAY projects under Planner India (a
consultant for INTACH). She has been actively participated in the social and cultural activities
happening in the city. She has voluntarily served in the 19th General Assembly ICOMOS and its
Scientific Symposium ‘Heritage and Democracy’: 12-15 December 2017, New Delhi. Her interests
cover Architecture research work, Heritage Conservation, Cultural Landscape, Adaptive Reuse,
Sustainable Architecture, Project Management, and Graphic Design. She has also worked with CRCI,
New Delhi as an intern. She has been awarded for some of the art competitions. She has credit to
publish a research paper (2018).
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Kardameshvara (Kashi) temple, a Religious Heritage from India: Sacred

Article · October 2018

Rana P.B. Singh Sonali Jaiswal

Understanding Place & Envisioning the Cosmos View project

Heritage Studies and Conservation, & Cultural Landscapes View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Submitted: 5 July 2018.

Prof. Rana P.B. Singh and Ar Ms Sonali Jaiswal

Kardameshvara (Kashi) temple, a Religious Heritage

Prof. Rana P.B. Singh and Ar Ms Sonali Jaiswal

1. The Multiple Territorial Layers and the Routes around Varanasi

Table 1. Kashi (Varanasi): Five Layers of Sacred Territories in Varanasi.

2. The Panchakroshi Pilgrimage

3. Motivation and Faith

Fig. 2. Varanasi: Panchakroshi Yatra Circuit linking 108 sacred sites.

4. The first halt (vāsa-sthān): Kardameshvara and its Sacredscapes

5a. Brahma 5b. Nataraja Shiva 5c. Vishvarupa Vishnu

Gajantaka/ Andhakasuramardana, Maheshvara (Har-Gauri), and Ardhanarishvara (‘androgen’) (cf.

4.1. Kardama Kunda/ Tirtha (no. 23 on the PY-route)

4.2. Kardama Kupa (no. 24 on PY-route)

4.3. Somanatheshvara (no. 25 on the PY-route)

4.4. Virupaksha Linga (no. 26 on the PY-route)

4.5. Nilakantheshvara (no. 27 on the PY-route)

5. Architectural Expression along the Panchakroshi Pilgrimage route

Fig. 9. Kardameshvara temple: Overview (photograph by Rana P.B. Singh, 2013).

6. Kardameshvara temple and sacred environs: Architectural feature

The spatial and cultural characteristics of heritage components of Kardameshvara and

Table 1. List of Heritage Components at Kardameshvara and Environs

(Source: Jaiswal 2018: 63).

Table 2. Architectural description of Kardameshvara Temple.

7. Towards end: Perspectives appraised, Prospects Realised and Sustainability to

grossly inadequate for conservation, preservation and maintenance of cultural-heritage landscapes,

Motichand (1962/1985), History of Kashi (Kashi ka Itihas), in Hindi. Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya

NOTE: our (Singh, et al.) papers are available at https://banaras.academia.edu/RanaPBSINGH/Papers

Prof. Rana P.B. Singh, [b. 15 Dec. 1950]

Ar Ms Sonali Jaiswal, [b. 18 Dec. 1991]

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