UNDERSTANDING CULTURE, SOCIETY, AND POLITICS

LESSON 1: NATURE, GOALS AND PERSPECTIVES OF ANTHROPOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY AND

POLITICAL SCIENCE

ANTHROPOLOGY

People are really different. Our socio-economic background, political and cultural behavior and
phenomenon vary. As the old saying goes, there are different strokes for different folks. Society across
the globe are very different.
As a species, we are social beings who live out our lives in the company of other humans. We organize
ourselves into various kinds of social groupings, such as nomadic bands, villages, cities, and
countries, in which we work, trade, play, reproduce, and interact in many other ways. Unlike other
species, we combine socialization with deliberate changes in social behavior and organization over
time.
Consequently, the patterns of human society differ from place to place and era to era and across
cultures, making the social world a very complex and dynamic environment.
In this module, you are going to articulate observations on human cultural variation, social
differences, social change, and political identities; design a life of a person based from social, cultural
and political context; and appreciate the activity by describing a successful person.

What is Anthropology?
Anthropology is the study of what makes us human. Anthropologists take a broad approach to
understanding the many different aspects of the human experience, which we call holism. They
consider the past, through archaeology, to see how human groups lived hundreds or thousands of
years ago and what was important to them. They consider what makes up our biological bodies and
genetics, as well as our bones, diet, and health. Anthropologists also compare humans with other
animals (most often, other primates like monkeys and chimpanzees) to see what we have in common
with them and what makes us unique. Even though nearly all humans need the same things to
survive, like food, water, and companionship, the ways people meet these needs can be very different.
Cultural variation refers to the differences in social behaviors that different cultures exhibit around
the world. What may be considered good etiquette in one culture may be considered bad etiquette in
another. There are many differences between the various cultures across the planet. These differences
include the way people interact, what they wear and what they eat. Many cultural differences can be
explained by the environment and resources of the region.
Anthropology is the comprehensive study of human development, culture, and change throughout
the world, past and present. The comprehensiveness of anthropology stems from its emphasis on
context, reflected in the perspectives offered by the discipline’s four fields.

Fields of Anthropology
1. Biological Anthropology
Biological (or physical) anthropologists carry out systematic studies of the non-cultural aspects of
humans and near-humans. Non-cultural refers to all of those biological characteristics that are
genetically inherited in contrast to learned. Near-human is a category that includes monkeys, apes,
and the other primates as well as our fossil ancestors. The primary interest of most biological
anthropologists today is human evolution--they want to learn how our ancestors changed through
time to become what we are today. Biological anthropologists also are interested in understanding
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the mechanisms of evolution and genetic inheritance as well as human variation and adaptations to
different environmental stresses, such as those found at high altitudes and in environments that have
temperature extremes.

2. Cultural Anthropology
Cultural (or socio-cultural) anthropologists are interested in learning about the cultural aspects of
human societies all over the world. They usually focus their research on such things as the social
and political organizations, marriage patterns and kinship systems, subsistence and economic
patterns, and religious beliefs of different societies. Most cultural anthropologists study contemporary
societies rather than ancient ones.

3. Linguistic Anthropology
Linguistic anthropologists study the human communication process. They focus their research on
understanding such phenomena as the physiology of speech, the structure and function of languages,
social and cultural influences on speech and writing, nonverbal communication, how languages
developed over time, and how they differ from each other.

4. Archaeology
Archaeologists are interested in recovering the prehistory and early history of societies and their
cultures. They systematically uncover the evidence by excavating, dating, and analyzing the material
remains left by people in the past. Archaeologists are essentially detectives who search through many
thousands of pieces of fragmentary pots and other artifacts as well as environmental data in order to
reconstruct ancient life ways. In a sense, this makes archaeology the cultural anthropology of the
past. Archaeology is also related to biological anthropology in its use of the same methods in
excavating and analyzing human skeletal remains found in archaeological sites.

SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the study of human social relationships and institutions. Sociology’s subject
matter is diverse, ranging from crime to religion, from the family to the state, from the divisions of
race and social class to the shared beliefs of a common culture, and from social stability to radical
change in whole societies. Unifying the study of these diverse subjects of study is sociology’s purpose
of understanding how human action and consciousness both shape and are shaped by surrounding
cultural and social structures.
The differences among the individuals on the basis of social characteristics and qualities are
known as social differences. Social differences are the complex differences and they include class,
race, culture, age, ability, sex etc. Social differences can create discrimination among the individuals
on the basis of their social characteristics. For example, if in a society, individuals with high status
are given more respect and importance as compare to the poor or homeless people then it is a social
difference. Social differences can create a lot of problems in a society because discrimination always
result in inequality, inferiority complex and other social problems.

Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and human groups. It focuses primarily on
the influence of social relationships upon people’s attitudes and behavior and on how societies are
established and change. Hence, social institutions are the major spheres of social life or societal
subsystems, organized to meet human needs. Social stratification is a system by which a society
ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. The 3 commonly recognized systems of stratification are
estate, caste and class.
As such “sociology in this context is a science which attempts the interpretative under-standing
of social action in order to arrive at a casual explanation of its causes and effects.” Sociology studies
the functioning of a society focusing on its development and structure.

What is the purpose of Sociology?

Sociology is a vast area of study, with hundreds of officially recognized sub fields which
examine human thought, actions, structures, and systems. Virtually every type and purpose of
human thought and activity and action is studied in one field of sociology or another. Human action
and thought are on one side of the equation. The cultural and social structures that people have
around them are on the other side of the equation. Sociology’s purpose is to understand how the
cultural and social structures shape
human action and thought; and, conversely, how human action and thought shape cultural and
social structures.

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 The purpose of sociology is to study at all levels of human thought and activity, from the
individual and personal level to the global level. Human thought about race, romance, friend, family
or foe is studied at the interpersonal level, where the surrounding social structure, family structure,
community and legal system shape their beliefs and attitudes, and eventually determine what is and
is not allowed under the law. Furthermore, sociology can be to study in order to classify, quantify,
identify, and perform functions that are very anthropological in their construct in observing societies
in the whole.
Finally, the ultimate purpose of Sociology is to formulate a discipline of thought and
methodology that leads to objective, comprehensive, effective, honest, and critical thinking when
observing and describing human thought, interaction, systems, structures, and action.

Dynamics of Culture in the goals of Anthropology and Sociology

Culture is dynamic and thus complex. Culture is fluid rather than static, which means that
culture changes all the time, every day, in subtle and tangible ways. Because humans communicate
and express their cultural systems in a variety of ways, it can be hard to pinpoint exactly what cultural
dynamics are at play.
Anthropology is the study of humans and the ways they live. Sociology studies the ways groups
of people interact with each other and how their behavior is influenced by social structures, categories
(rage, gender, sexuality), and institutions.
While both fields study human behavior, the debate between anthropology versus sociology is
a matter of perspectives. Anthropology examines culture more at the micro-level of the individual,
which the anthropologist generally takes as an example of the larger culture. In addition,
anthropology hones in on the cultural specificities of a given group or community. Sociology, on the
other hand, tends to look at the bigger picture, often studying institutions (educational, political,
religious), organizations, political movements, and the power relations of different groups with each
other.

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Political science is that branch of the social sciences that studies the state, politics, and
government. Political Science deals extensively with the analysis of political systems, the theoretical
and practical applications to politics, and the examination of political behavior. The Greek thinker,
Aristotle, defined political science as the study of the state. Many political scientists view themselves
as being engaged in fleshing out the connections between political events and conditions, and by this
understanding they hope to construct a system of general principles that posit the way the world of
politics works.
Political science is not a standalone field and it intersects many other branches like sociology,
economics, history, anthropology, public policy among others. Political scientists are much sought
after these days because of the changing landscape of politics across the world and since the society
wants to understand how the political world works, they need someone to explain the nuances of the
political economy. Any casual perusal of the newspapers and the television channels reveals that
political scientists are at the forefront of debates and discussions for their knowledge and expertise.

Scope of Political Science

The scope of political science is vast and experts have divided the field of political science into
five sub-disciplines that are political theory, public administration, comparative politics, international
relations, and public law. The study of the matters concerning the allocation and distribution as well
as the transfer of power is one of the main preoccupations of political scientists. The success or
otherwise of the governance structures is gauged by political scientists who examine the multifaceted
and multi-layered factors at work that contribute to good or bad governance. The scope of the political
scientists has now been broadened to include the realm of the study of the democratic elections across
the world. In other words, with the explosion in the political systems all over the world, political
scientists, and their scope of study has been considerably enhanced.

The Importance of Political Science

The importance of political science lies in the fact that all of us live within political systems
and we are affected by the changes in the global political economy. With the advent of globalization,
there has been a concomitant rise in the interest taken by the people of the world in understanding
the political systems of other countries. Hence, political scientists become valued and important as
they provide the lens through which we can understand the global political economy.
Political ideology

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 A political ideology is a set of ideas, beliefs, values, and opinions, exhibiting a recurring pattern,
that competes deliberately as well as unintentionally over providing plans of action for public policy
making in an attempt to justify, explain, contest, or change the social and political arrangements and
processes of a political community. The concept of ideology is subject to partly incompatible
conceptual interpretations. The Marxist tradition views it pejoratively as distorted consciousness,
reflecting an exploitative material reality, that can be overcome through unmasking; or, more recently,
as a fictitious narrative necessary to maintaining the social order. Non-Marxist approaches split into
three perspectives.
The first sees ideology as abstract, closed and doctrinaire, largely impervious to empirical
evidence and superimposed on a society.
The second sees ideology as a series of empirically ascertainable attitudes towards political issues
that can be explored by means of behavioral methods.
The third views ideologies as indispensable mapping devices of cultural symbols and political
concepts that constitute a crucial resource for understanding and shaping sociopolitical life. They
compete over the ‘correct’ and legitimate meanings of political words and ideas, and by means of that
control, over the high ground of politics.

Types of Political ideologies and styles of Government

1. Absolutism- System where the rulers have unlimited control.
2. Anarchism- Society without government, laws, police or other authority. A system of self-control.
3. Aristocracy- The privilege of social class whose members possess a disproportionately
large percentage of society's wealth, prestige and political influence.
4. Autocracy- Supreme political power is in the hands of one person whose decisions are
unregulated.
5. Communism- Extreme left-wing ideology based on the revolutionary socialist
teachings of Marx. Collective ownership and a planned economy. Each should work to
their capability and receive according to their needs.
6. Conservatism- Governmental system where the existing institutions are maintained,
emphasising free-enterprise and minimal governmental intervention.
7. Democracy- Government by the people, usually through elected representatives.
8. Dictatorship- Government by a single person with absolute control over the resources of
the state.

LESSON 2: CHANGES IN CULTURE AND SOCIETY

What is Culture?
The Center for Advance Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further, defining culture
as shared patterns of behaviors and interactions, cognitive constructs and understanding that are
learned by socialization. Thus, it can be seen as the growth of the group’s identity fostered by social
patterns unique to the group.
The word "culture" derives from a French term, derived from the Latin "colere," which means
to tend to the earth and grow, or cultivation and nurture. It shares its etymology with several other
words related to actively fostering growth.
Culture is a term that refers to a large and diverse set of mostly intangible aspects of social
life. According to sociologists, culture consists of the values, beliefs, systems of language,
communication, and practices that people share and that can be used to define them as a collective.
Culture also includes the material objects that are common to that group or society.

What is Cultural Change?

Society strives its continuity and existence according to the environmental conditions of its
surrounding. People have been descending from generation to generation with the addition of new
ideas and objects. This dynamic process of society enhances culture with refreshment and for every
generation a new culture than for the previous. A stagnant society is dead but there is none today
how so primitive it may be. Technological developments and social changes in the form of ‘evolution’
and ‘progress’ of any rate exist there as the adjustment factors change them according to the
environmental conditions. Hence the societies and cultures are undergoing changes with a continued
process.

Definitions of Cultural Change

Following are the some of the definitions by renowned sociologists.
1. Horton & Hunt: “changes in the culture of society is called cultural change.”
2. Kingsley Davis: “cultural changes embarrasses Occurring in any branch of culture including, art,
science, technology, philosophy etc. as well as changes in the forms and rules of social organization.”

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3. David Dressler and Donald Caens: “It is the modification or discontinuance of existing ‘tried’ and
‘tested’ procedures transmitted to us from the culture of the past, as well as the introduction of new
procedures.”

Culture changes through developments in technology, political belief and religious ideas.
External encounters with diverse societies and environmental factors also change cultural beliefs.
Cultural change sometimes causes a backlash from those with more traditional social views.
Cultural change occurs due to the diffusion of ideas from one society to another. Examples of
this include the emergence of the Buddhist religion in China, and the exportation of American culture
through Hollywood television and films. Cultural change also occurs through syncretism, or when
ideas from different cultures mix.

Sources of Cultural Change

1. Discovery- It is a new perception of an aspect of reality that already exists.
2. Invention- It is the combination or new use of existing knowledge to produce something that
did not exist before.
3. Diffusion- It is the spreading of cultural traits from group to another group.
4. Acculturation. It is cultural modification of an individual, group, or people by adapting to or
borrowing traits from another culture.
5. Assimilation. It is the process of combination of two cultures in to one culture with comprising
cultural traits.

Viewing culture in terms of patterns and configurations

Cultural traits
The concept of culture embraces the culture of mankind. An understanding of human culture is
facilitated, however, by analysing "the complex whole" into component parts or categories. In
somewhat the same sense that the atom has been regarded as the unit of matter, the cell as the unit
of life, so the culture trait is generally regarded as the unit of culture. A trait may be an object (knife),
a way of doing something (weaving), a belief (in spirits), or an attitude (the so-called horror of incest).
But, within the category of culture, each trait is related to other traits. A distinguishable and relatively
self-contained cluster of traits is conventionally called a culture complex. The association of traits in
a complex may be of a functional and mechanical nature, such as horse, saddle, bridle, quirt, and
the like, or it may lie in conceptional or emotional associations, such as the acts and attitudes involved
in seclusion in a menstrual hut or retrieving a heart that has been stolen by witches.

Cultural areas
The relationship between an actual culture and its habitat is always an intimate one, and therefore
one finds a close correlation between kind of habitat and type of culture. This results in the concept
of culture area. This conception goes back at least as far as the early 19th century, but it was first
brought into prominence by the U.S. anthropologist Clark Wissler in The American Indian (1917) and
Man and Culture (1923). He divided the Indian cultures (as they were in the latter half of the 19th
century) into geographic cultural regions: the Caribou area of northern Canada; the Northwest coast,
characterized by the use of salmon and cedar; the Great Plains, where tribes hunted bison with the
horse; the Pueblo area of the Southwest; and so on. Others later distinguished culture areas in other
continents.

Cultural types
Appreciation of the relationship between culture and topographic area suggests the concept of culture
type, such as hunting and gathering or a special way of hunting--for example, the use of the horse in
bison hunting in the Plains or the method of hunting of sea mammals among the Eskimo; pastoral
cultures centred upon sheep, cattle, reindeer, and so on; and horticulture (with digging stick and hoe)
and agriculture (with ox-drawn plow). Less common are trading cultures such as are found in
Melanesia or specialized production of some object for trade, such as pottery, bronze axes, or salt, as
was the case in Luzon. (See primitive culture.)
Configuration and pattern, especially the latter, are concepts closely related to culture area and
culture type. All of them have one thing in common; they view culture not in terms of its individual
components, or traits, but as meaningful organizations of traits: areas, occupations, configurations
(art, mathematics, physics), or patterns (in which psychological factors are the bases of organization).
Clark Wissler's "universal culture pattern" was a recognition of the fact that actual cultures possess
the same general categories: language, art, social organization, religion, technology, and so on.

Viewing culture in terms of institutional structure and functions

Social organization
A sociocultural system presents itself under two aspects: structure and function. As culture evolves,
sociocultural systems (like biologic systems) become more differentiated structurally and more
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specialized functionally, proceeding from the simple to the complex. Systems on the lowest stage of
development have only two significant kinds of parts: the local territorial group and the family. There
is a corresponding minimum of specialization, limited, with but few exceptions, to division of function,
or labour, along sex lines and to division between children and adults. The exceptions are headmen
and shamans; they are special organs, so to speak, in the body politic. The headman is a mechanism
of social integration, direction, and control, expressing, however, the consensus of the band. The
shaman, though a self-appointed priest or magician, is also an instrument of society; he may be
regarded as the first specialist in the history of human society.

Economic systems
Division of labour along occupational lines is rare, although not wholly lacking, in preliterate
societies--despite a widespread notion that one member of a tribe specializes in making arrows, which
he exchanges for moccasins made by another specialist. Occupational groupings were virtually
lacking in all cultural systems of aboriginal North America, for example. Guilds of metalworkers are
found in some African tribes and specialists in canoe making and tattooing existed in Polynesia. But
it is not until the transition from preliterate society, based upon ties of kinship, to civil society, based
upon property relations and territorial distinctions (the state), that division of labour along
occupational lines becomes extensive. On this level there are found many kinds of specialists:
metalworkers, scribes, astrologers, soldiers, dancers, musicians, alchemists, prostitutes, eunuchs,
and so forth.
One of the most important, as well as characteristic, features of the economic life of preliterate
societies, as contrasted with modern civilizations, is this: no individual and no class or group in tribal
society was denied access to the resources of nature; all were free to exploit them. This is, of course,
in sharp contrast to civil society in which private ownership by some, or a class, is the means of
excluding others--slaves, serfs, a proletariat--from the exploitation and enjoyment of the resources of
nature. It is this freedom of access, the freedom to exploit and to enjoy the resources of nature that
has given primitive society its characteristics of freedom and equality. And, being based upon kinship
ties, it had fraternity as well.

Education
In the human species individuals are equipped with fewer instincts than is the case in many
nonhuman species. And, as already noted, they are born cultureless. Therefore, an infant Homo
sapiens must learn a very great deal and acquire a vast number of conditioned reflexes and habit
patterns in order to live effectively, not only in society but in a particular kind of sociocultural system,
be it Tibetan, Eskimo, or French. This process, taken as a whole, is called socialization (occasionally,
enculturation) --the making of a social being out of one that was at birth wholly individualistic and
egoistic.
Education in its broadest sense may properly be regarded as the process by which the culture
of a sociocultural system is impressed or imposed upon the plastic, receptive infant. It is this process
that makes continuity of culture possible. Education, formal and informal, is the specific means of
socialization. By informal education is meant the way a child learns to adapt his behaviour to that of
others, to be like others, to become a member of a group. By formal education is meant the intentional
and systematic effort to affect the behaviour of others by transmitting elements of culture to them, be
it knowledge or belief, patterns of behaviour, or ideals and values. These attempts may be overt or
covert. The teacher may make his purpose apparent, even emphatic, to the learner. But much
education is affected in an unobtrusive way, without teacher or learner being aware that culture is
being transmitted. Thus, in myths and tales, certain characters are presented as heroes or villains;
certain traits are extolled, others are deplored or denounced. The impressionable child acquires ideals
and values, an image of the good or the bad.

Religion and belief

Man's oldest philosophy is animism, the doctrine that everything is alive and possesses mental
faculties like those possessed by man: desire, will, purpose, anger, love, and the like. This philosophy
results from man's projection of his own self, his psyche, into other things and beings, inanimate and
living, without being aware of this projection.
"A belief in spirits is," according to Edward Burnett Tylor, "the minimum definition of religion."
Some later students, however, made the same claim for a belief in impersonal, supernatural power,
or mana (manitou, orenda, and so on). In any case, these two elements of religion are virtually
worldwide and undoubtedly representing a very early stage in the development of religion. In some
cultures, spirits are virtually innumerable, but, in the course of time, the more important spirits
become gods. Thus, there has been a tendency toward monotheism in the history of religion. The
German Roman Catholic priest and anthropologist Father Wilhelm Schmidt argued not only that
some primitive peoples believe in a Supreme Being, but that monotheism was characteristic of the
earliest and simplest cultures. Schmidt's thesis, however, has been severely criticized by other
ethnologists. Also, as Tylor pointed out many years ago, the Supreme Being of some very primitive

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peoples is an originator god, or a philosophical explanatory device, accountable only for the existence
and structure of the world; after his work was completed, he had no further significance; he was not
worshiped and played no part in the daily lives of the people.

Custom and law

Sociocultural systems, like other kinds of systems, must have means of self- regulation and
control to persist and function. In human society these means are numerous and varied. The kinship
organization specifies reciprocal and correlative rights, duties, and obligations of one class of relatives
to another. Codes of ethics govern the relationship of the individual to the well-being of society. Codes
of etiquette regulate class structure by requiring individuals to conform to their respective classes.
Custom is a general term that embraces all these mechanisms of regulation and control and even
more. Custom is the name given to uniformities in sociocultural systems. Uniformities are important
because they make anticipation and prediction possible; without them, orderly conduct of social life
would not be possible. Custom, therefore, is a means of social regulation and control, of effecting
compliance with itself to render effective conduct of social life possible.

Why Is Culture Important to Society?

Culture is important to society because culture is constructed by society. A person cannot
understand one without the other because one shapes the other, the way people interact with one
another and perceive their environment is all part of culture.
Culture reflects the inner workings of an individual society. For example, culture helps to
define social situations, so people understand how to behave based on that society's cultural norms.
Say, when an individual goes to a dinner party in the United States, it is customary to bring a host
or hostess a gift. Culture also defines values, influences personality development and influences
career choices. If culture did not define values, or what is considered right and wrong within the
society, then there would be social discord and the society would fail.
Society could not function without cultural norms that assist in governing behaviour and
values, and culture could not exist without societal influences to create it. Culture must coexist
with humans in order to exist in an organized manner. It is important to note that culture can, and
does, change over time as societal norms change, but the members of that society govern that
change so the individual members of the society have a level of control over the culture.
Differences do set us apart, but we often forget that we are all human, and our culture is much
more representative of our differing environment than truly different people. Understanding and
accepting other cultures is about keeping your mind open and learning, and you will find a little
knowledge is all it takes to truly broaden your horizons.
Aspects of culture
Culture influences viewpoints, rules, and institutions in a global society. It is a way of life
shared by a group of people, including their ideas and traditions and reflect the values and beliefs of
groups in different ways. There are 8 aspects of culture namely: Art, Music, Language, Food, Daily
Life, Government, Clothing and Religion.

LESSON 3: CULTURAL RELATIVISM

What is cultural relativism?

According to Khan Academy (2020), cultural relativism refers to not judging a culture to
our own standards of what is right or wrong, strange or normal. Instead, we should try to
understand cultural practices of other groups in its own cultural context.
For example, in the Philippines, instead of thinking, “Fried grasshoppers (tipaklong) are
disgusting!” one should instead ask, “Why do some cultures eat fried insects?” You may learn
that fried grasshoppers are full of protein.
In addition, cultural relativism wrongly claims that each culture has its own distinct but
equally valid mode of perception, thought, and choice. Cultural relativism, the opposite of the
idea that moral truth is universal and objective, contends there is no such thing as absolute right
and wrong. There is only right and wrong as specified by the moral code of each society. Within
a particular society, a standard of right and wrong can be inviolate. Cultural relativism maintains
that man’s opinion within a given culture defines what is right and wrong. (Younkins, 2000)
Relativism: A Brief History of an Old Idea
The English term “relativism” came into usage only in the 19th Century. John Grote was
probably the first to employ it when in Exploratio Philosophica (1865) he wrote:

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The notion of the mask over the face of nature is…. what I have called “relativism”. If “the face of
nature” is reality, then the mask over it, which is what theory gives us, is so much deception, and
that is what relativism really comes to. (Grote 1865: I.xi, 229).
Its German counterpart, “Relativismus”, has a longer history. Wilhelm Traugott Krug, who
succeeded Kant in the University of Königsberg in his philosophical lexicon, defines it as:
“the assumption that everything which we experience and think (the self, the idea of reason,
truth, morality, religion etc.) is only something relative, and therefore has no essential endurance
and no universal validity. (Krug 2010 [1838]: 224)”
Although the term “relativism” is of recent coinage, doctrines and positions, with some of
the hallmarks of contemporary relativism, date back to the very beginnings of Western
philosophy. Protagoras of Abdera (c. 490–420 BC) is often considered the first overt champion of
relativism, and his dictum:
“Man (anthrôpos) is the measure (metron) of all things (chrêmatôn), of the things which are, that
they are, and of the things which are not, that they are not (tôn men ontôn hôs esti, tôn de mê
ontôn hôs ouk estin) (from Plato’s Theaetetus 152a 2–4)”
its first battle-cry. According to Plato, Protagoras thought:
“Each thing appears (phainesthai) to me, so it is for me, and as it appears to you, so it is for
you—you and I each being a man. (Theaetetus 152a 6–8)”
Examples of Cultural Relativism
1. Here in the Philippines, premarital sex is morally unacceptable. If go to another country,
teenagers want to lose their virginity at a young age.

2. Here in the Philippines, we do not cease to debate on the moral acceptability of contraceptives.
In another country, abortion is perfectly normal, more so the use of artificial contraceptives.

3. One society makes any prohibitions on women; while another society allows women to have
equal opportunities and obligations as men.

What is the importance of cultural relativism?

(Adapted from Michael Kilman, 2017)
Cultural Relativism is one of those topics that is entirely misunderstood by many people.
Cultural Relativism is a tool, a suspense of your own personal viewpoints and cultural bias
temporarily to try to understand the conditions of a particular cultural practice or problem. If we
want to understand something (This is especially true of very contentious things) then we have
to approach it with as fresh and objective a mind as possible. That doesn’t mean you can’t have
judgments of the topic, but it means putting those judgments in check to see things more clearly.

Some important points:

1. Cultural Relativism does not mean anything a culture or group of people believe is
true

A good example of this is flat earthers1. Just because someone believes this to be true,
doesn’t make it so. We have endless evidence against their claims. However, if you wanted to
understand how the flat earthers came to believe this point, you would temporarily put aside
your own views and evidence for a moment and try to examine their claim from their point of
view. This can also be valuable in debunking some of their claims in the long term. By learning
to speak their ‘language’ we can open lines of communication that are more productive, and
hopefully get them out of their insane beliefs.
2. Cultural Relativism does not mean that anything a culture does is good or moral.
This is one of the ones that confuse people. Some people might claim that we can never
understand something because it’s ‘cultural’. Not so. There are certain beliefs and practices
that are objectively harmful. But this is where someone, who has never studied anthropology,
might not understand that kinship/marriage patterns don’t actually contain any real morality
outside of culture. For example, there is nothing objectively wrong with a woman practices
polyandry (she has several husbands), such as is practiced in some parts of the Himalayas.
Cultural relativism teaches us that, marriage patterns are cultural options, not objective
truth. We can also examine the history of our own (I am American) cultural relationships to
marriage and see these things have changed over time. However, it’s pretty easy to say that a
group of people who kill their neighboring tribes for the purpose of cannibalism is wrong. We can
all easily agree that murder is a bad thing across culture. An anthropologist in this circumstance
Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa
would use cultural relativism (one of the three main aspects of the anthropological lens) to
understand why a tribe engages in this practice and how it relates to their worldview. An applied
anthropologist would take it one step forward and perhaps use that cultural knowledge to try
and put an end to the harm that is being created by the practice.

3. Cultural Relativism doesn’t mean that cultures can’t be compared

There is sometimes a strange notion that there are no commonalities between cultures. It
is true that there are very few universals across all human experience, but there are definitely
some core things that humans all do, most of which relate to survival and continuity. But even
in practices that are entirely different, we can find comparison as a useful tool for understanding
ideas and points of view. But again, cultural relativism is about putting aside our preconceptions
and having an experience that is less tainted by our past knowledge and experience. This is
especially powerful and useful when problem solving in other cultures or even our own.
Cultural Relativism is important to anthropology and one of the things that makes
anthropology unique because it is a tool, a method for attempting to see things from a multiplicity
of viewpoints so as to better understand them. This is one of the reasons why those trained in
cultural anthropology are often great problem solvers for complex issues. We are able to put
ourselves aside for a moment and explore something that would make most people
uncomfortable.

LESSON 4: SOCIO- CULTURAL EVOLUTION

Symbols are the basis of culture. A symbol is an object, word, or action that stands for something
else with no natural relationship that is culturally defined. Everything one does throughout their life
is based and organized through cultural symbolism. Symbolism is when something represents
abstract ideas or concepts. Symbols mean different things to different people, which is why it is
impossible to hypothesize how a specific culture will symbolize something. Some symbols are gained
from experience, while others are gained from culture. One of the most common cultural symbols is
language. For example, the letters of an alphabet symbolize the sounds of a specific spoken language.
Cultural Symbols are a physical manifestation that signifies the ideology of a particular
culture or that merely has meaning within a culture. Cultural symbols don't have to be actual symbols
or signs; they can also be gestures such as handshakes and hand signals. Additionally, the same
symbol can mean different things in different cultures. Americans should be careful in Greece, for
example. The thumbs up, which symbolizes that everything is great in American culture, is just like
giving the middle finger in Greek culture.
Social Symbols are relating to human society and its modes of organization: social classes;
social problems or a social issue. A symbol that something people want to have or do because they
think other people will respect or admire them for it such as education, occupation, marital status,
accomplishments, or other factors.
Political Symbols are symbolism that is used to represent a political standpoint. The
symbolism can occur in various media including banners, acronyms, pictures, flags, mottos, and
countless more. For example, Red flags have traditionally been flown by socialists, left-wing radicals,
and communist groups to represent the "blood of the workers". Black flags have traditionally been
flown by anarchism, and left-wing radicals to represent the absence of all oppressive structures. A
combination of the two colors in a black flag represents social anarchism, such as anarchist
communism and anarcho syndicalism.
Economic Symbols are symbols used in production, distribution, and consumption of goods
and services like currency, market, labor, demands and other economic activities.

What is sociocultural evolution?

Sociocultural evolution are theories of cultural and social evolution that describe how cultures and
societies change over time. Sociocultural evolution is "the process by which structural reorganization
is affected through time, eventually producing a form or structure which is qualitatively different from
the ancestral form. Sociologist Gerhard Lenski (1924–) defined societies in terms of their technological
sophistication. As a society advances, so does its use of technology.
Sociologists have classified the different types of societies into six categories, each of which possesses
their own unique characteristics:

Earliest Societies

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa

 Hunting and gathering societies are the earliest form of society. The members survive
primarily by hunting, trapping, fishing, and gathering edible plants. The majority of the members'
time is spent looking for and gathering food. A hunting and gathering society have five characteristics:
1. Family is the society's primary institution. Family determines the distribution of food and how to
socialize children.
2. These societies are small compared to the others. They generally have less than 50 members.
3. Hunting and gathering societies are nomadic, which means that they move constantly in order to
find food and water.
4. Members of hunting and gathering societies are mutually dependent upon each other.
5. Although there is an equal division of labor among the members of hunting and gathering societies,
there is a division of labor based on sex. Men are typically responsible for hunting, and women are
typically gatherers.

Pastoral societies rely on the domestication of animals as a resource for survival. Pastoral
groups were able to breed livestock for food, clothing, and transportation, and they created a surplus
of goods. Herding, or pastoral, societies remained nomadic because they were forced to follow their
animals to fresh feeding grounds.
Horticultural societies formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions allowed them to
grow stable crops. They were similar to hunter-gatherers in that they largely depended on the
environment for survival, but since they didn’t have to abandon their location to follow resources,
they were able to start permanent settlements. This created more stability and more material goods
and became the basis for the first revolution in human survival.
Agricultural societies relied on permanent tools for survival. Farmers learned to rotate the
types of crops grown on their fields and to reuse waste products such as fertilizer, which led to better
harvests and bigger surpluses of food. New tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal,
human settlements grew into towns and cities, and particularly bountiful regions became centers of
trade and commerce.
This is also the age in which people had the time and comfort to engage in more contemplative and
thoughtful activities, such as music, poetry, and philosophy. This period became referred to as the
“dawn of civilization” by some because of the development of leisure and humanities. Craftspeople
were able to support themselves through the production of creative, decorative, or thought-provoking
aesthetic objects and writings.
As resources became more plentiful, social classes became more divisive. Those who had more
resources could afford better living and developed into a class of nobility. Difference in social standing
between men and women increased. As cities expanded, ownership and preservation of resources
became a pressing concern.
Feudal. These societies contained a strict hierarchical system of power based around land
ownership and protection. The nobility, known as lords, placed vassals in charge of pieces of land. In
return for the resources that the land provided, vassals promised to fight for their lords.

Post-Industrial Society
Information societies. sometimes known as postindustrial or digital societies, are a recent
development. Information societies are based on the production of information and services.
Digital technology is the steam engine of information societies, and computer moguls such as
Steve Jobs and Bill Gates are its John D. Rockefellers and Cornelius Vanderbilts. Since the economy
of information societies is driven by knowledge and not material goods, power lies with those in charge
of storing and distributing information. Members of a postindustrial society are likely to be employed
as sellers of services—software programmers or business consultants, for example—instead of
producers of goods. Social classes are divided by access to education, since without technical skills,
people in an information society lack the means for success.
These individual pieces of land, known as fiefdoms, were cultivated by the lower class. In return for
maintaining the land, peasants were guaranteed a place to live and protection from outside enemies.
Power was handed down through family lines, with peasant families serving lords for generations and
generations. Ultimately, the social and economic system of feudalism failed and was replaced by
capitalism and the technological advances of the industrial era.

Industrial Society. In the eighteenth century, Europe experienced a dramatic rise in

technological invention, ushering in an era known as the Industrial Revolution. What made this
period remarkable was the number of new inventions that influenced people’s daily lives. Within a
generation, tasks that had until this point required months of labor became achievable in a matter of
days.
Steam power began appearing everywhere. Instead of paying artisans to painstakingly spin
wool and weave it into cloth, people turned to textile mills that produced fabric quickly at a better
price and often with better quality. Rather than planting and harvesting fields by hand, farmers were
Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa
able to purchase mechanical seeders and threshing machines that caused agricultural productivity
to soar. Products such as paper and glass became available to the average person, and the quality
and accessibility of education and health care soared. Gas lights allowed increased visibility in the
dark, and towns and cities developed a nightlife.
The significance of Cultural, Social, Political and Economic Symbols and Practices
Cultural practices are the manifestation of a culture or sub-culture, especially concerning the
traditional and customary practices of a particular ethnic or other cultural group. It plays an
important role for a civilization and character of its citizens and society. It helps in striking the balance
with Mother Nature, conservation of natural resources and respecting each other. The examples of
cultural practices are religious and spiritual practices, medical treatment practices, forms of artistic
expression, culinary practices, housing and construction and childcare practices.
Social Practices refer to everyday practices and the way these are typically and habitually
performed in a society. It shapes everyday life and are familiar to all members of the community, even
if not everybody participates in them. They are relevant to community and help reinforce a sense of
identity and continuity with the past.
Economic system or practices are the means by which societies distribute resources and
trade goods and services. They are used to control the five factors of production, including: labor,
capital, entrepreneurs, physical and information resources.
Political practices is a set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups,
or other forms of power relations to individual such as the distributions of resources.

LESSON 5: BECOMING A MEMBER OF SOCIETY

What is the context of socialization?
The context of socialization is like the theatre or stage in which socialization occurs. Social context
includes culture, language, and social structures such as the class, ethnic, and gender hierarchies
of a society. Context also includes social and historical events, power and control in social life, and
the people and institutions with which individuals come in contact in the course of their socialization.
Socialization occurs within biological, psychological, and social contexts. Each of these offers
possibilities and limitations that may influence socialization.

1. The Biological Context

Biological features are regularly suggested as sources of human behavior. Sociobiologists suggest that
some human capacities may be "wired into" our biological makeup. For example, even newborn babies
seem to strive for maximum social interaction. They move their heads back and forth in burrowing or
"rooting" motions looking for milk; they have powerful, grasping fingers that cling tightly to other
human fingers or bodies; and they move so as to maximize body contact with their caregivers. These
facts suggest that infants are born wanting human contact.

2. The Psychological Context

Emotional States and the Unconscious
The primary factor in the psychological context of socialization is the psychological state of the
person being socialized. Psychological states include feelings such as fear, anger, grief, love, and
happiness or a sense of emotional deprivation. Strongly feeling one or more of these emotions might
very well inhibit or promote socialization of a particular kind. Fear may make it difficult for young
children to be socialized in school, whereas people in love may leant very quickly what makes their
loved ones happy. Emotions can also influence how individuals perceive the content of socialization,
whether in becoming a member of a family group or a religious sect. Knowing something about the
feelings of the people involved (the psychological context) helps explain the results of the socialization
process.
Cognitive Development Theories
A number of psychologists emphasize the series of stages through which humans progress.
Although emotional concerns can be involved, these theorists focus on cognitive (intellectual)
development, which occurs in a systematic, universal sequence through a series of stages. The most
influential theorist of intellectual development was the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget. A sharp
observer of children's development, Piaget stressed that children need to master the skills and
operations of one stage of intellectual development before they are able to learn something at the next
stage.
Social contexts influence individual development. Culture exists before the socialization of new
members begins. Parents, for example, do not need to decide alone what they arc going to teach their
children, since much of what they will pass along they have themselves learned through socialization.

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa

Besides culture, individuals are affected by social and historical events and by a number of
individuals who actively try to socialize them.
Social and Historical Events
Major social and historical events can be a force in socializing an entire generation. Those
suffering greater deprivation depended less on formal education for their life achievements and more
on effort and accomplishment outside of education. Their health as adults tended to be affected
negatively by their economic hardships. Finally, they tended to value marriage and family more highly
as a result of their economic deprivation (Elder, 1974). Thus individuals who live in extraordinary
times appear to be influenced by the historical events around them.

3. Social Position as Part of the Context

Your family's social class, economic position, and ethnic background--as well as your gender-
-can affect the ways in which you will be socialized. People in more advantageous positions tend to
develop higher self-evaluations. As a result, they feel justified in having more resources. Similarly,
those in less desired positions tend to have lower self-evaluations and may feel that their lower status
is deserved (Della Fave, 1980).
Political structure may also be related to socialization practices. Autocratic states tend to have
more "severe" socialization, show clear power and deference relationships, and stress obedience
(Stephens, 1963).

What is Socialization?
Have you ever entered in your classroom wearing a crown or an evening gown? Or, did you
ever expect your teacher to do his/her laundry in front of the class? Funny isn’t it? Unless a person
is put in his mind, he/she could never do such strange actions. Most of us who are conscious of the
patterns of behaviour and code of dressing in the society, would not dare act as such. How do we
learn the appropriate ways of behaving in our society?
What are the significant factors involved in the process of learning? Sociologists have tries to
answer these questions by examining the various factors involved of socialization.
Socialization is the lifelong social experience by which people develop their human potential
and learn culture. Unlike other living species, whose behavior is mostly or entirely set by biology,
humans need social experience to learn their culture and to survive. Social experience is also the
foundation of personality, a person’s fairly consistent patterns of acting, thinking and feeling
(Macionis 2012: 102).
Socialization is a central process in social life. Its importance has been noted by sociologists for a long
time, but their image of it has shifted over the last hundred years.
Another term for socialization is enculturation.

Values, norms, status, and roles

Socialization is also defined as the process of preparing members for membership in a given
group in society. Through socialization, individuals learn the norms and values of their society. Values
are culturally defined standards that people use to decide what is desirable, good, and beautiful and
that serve as broad guidelines for social living. Norms are the rules and expectations by which a
society guides the behaviour of its members.
Socialization prepares individuals to occupy statuses and roles (Macionis 2012: 127–128).
Status refers a social position that a person holds. An ascribed status is a social position a person
receives at birth or takes on involuntarily later in life. Examples of ascribed statuses include being a
daughter, a Filipino, a teenager, or a widower. Achieved status refers to a social position a person
takes on voluntarily that reflects personal ability and effort. Achieved statuses include honors
student, athlete, nurse, software writer, and thief. Role refers to behavior expected of someone who
holds a particular status.

Concept of Socialization
Following are the socialism theories focused on how the self, as product of socialization, is
formed by famous researchers.
Freud’s model of personality. Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) combined basic needs and the influence
of society into a model of personality with three parts: id, ego, and superego. The id represents the
human being’s basic drives, or biological and physical needs which are unconscious and demand
immediate satisfaction. In the human personality, the superego refers to the cultural values and
norms internalized by an individual. Society, through its values and norms, opposes the self-centered

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa

id. The ego is, thus, a person’s conscious efforts to balance innate pleasure-seeking drives (id) with
the demands of society (superego).
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. From his studies of human cognition, or how people
think and understand. Jean Piaget (1896–1980) identified four stages of cognitive development. Stage
one is the sensorimotor stage (first two years of life), the level of human development at which
individuals know the world only through the five senses. Stage two is the preoperational stage (about
age two to seven) at which individuals first use language and other symbols. Stage three is concrete
operational stage (between the ages of seven and eleven) at which individuals first see causal
connections in their surroundings. The last stage is the formal operational stage (about age twelve)
at which individuals think abstractly and critically.
Mead’s theory of the social self. George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) For Mead, the self is a part of
our personality and includes self-awareness and self-image. It is the product of social experience, and
is not guided by biological drives (see Freud) or biological maturation (see Piaget). According to Mead,
the key to developing the self is learning to take the role of the other. Infants can do this only through
imitation and, without understanding underlying intentions, have no self. As children learn to use
language and other symbols, the self emerges in the form of play. Play involves assuming roles
modeled on significant others, or people, such as parents, who have special importance for
socialization. Then, children learn to take the roles of several others at once, and move from simple
play with one other to complex games involving many others. The final stage in the development of
the self is when children are able to not only take the role of specific people in just one situation, but
that of many others in different situations. Mead used the term generalized other to refer to
widespread cultural norms and values we use as references in evaluating ourselves.
Cooley’s Looking-glass Self. Charles Horton Cooley (1864–1929) used the phrase looking-glass self
to mean a self-image based on how we think others see us. As we interact with others, the people
around us become a mirror (an object that people used to call a “looking glass”) in which we can see
ourselves. What we think of ourselves, then, depends on how we think others see us. For example, if
we think others see us as clever, we will think of ourselves in the same way. But if we feel they think
of us as clumsy, then that is how we will see ourselves.
Gender role socialization
Sex refers to the biological characteristics distinguishing male and female (Macionis 2012: 169). Sex
is based on chromosomes, anatomy, hormones, reproductive systems, and other physiological
components.
Gender refers to those social, cultural, and psychological traits linked to males and females through
particular social contexts. Sex makes us male or female; gender makes us masculine or feminine. All
the major agents of socialization—family, peer groups, schools, and the mass media—reinforce
cultural definitions of what is feminine and masculine. (Dionisio 1992: 1-2; Macionis 2012: 170).

Agents of Socialization
Family is the first agent of socialization. Mothers and fathers, siblings and grandparents, plus
members of an extended family, all teach a child what he or she needs to know. For example, they
show the child how to use objects (such as clothes, computers, eating utensils, books, bikes); how to
relate to others (some as “family,” others as “friends,” still others as “strangers” or “teachers” or
“neighbors”); and how the world works (what is “real” and what is “imagined”). As you are aware,
either from your own experience as a child or from your role in helping to raise one, socialization
includes teaching and learning about an unending array of objects and ideas.
Keep in mind, however, that families do not socialize children in a vacuum. Many social factors affect
the way a family raises its children. For example, we can use sociological imagination to recognize
that individual behaviors are affected by the historical period in which they take place. Sixty years
ago, it would not have been considered especially strict for a father to hit his son with a wooden spoon
or a belt if he misbehaved, but today that same action might be considered child abuse.
Sociologists recognize that race, social class, religion, and other societal factors play an important
role in socialization. For example, poor families usually emphasize obedience and conformity when
raising their children, while wealthy families emphasize judgment and creativity (National Opinion
Research Center 2008). This may occur because working-class parents have less education and more
repetitive-task jobs for which it is helpful to be able to follow rules and conform. Wealthy parents tend
to have better educations and often work in managerial positions or careers that require creative
problem solving, so they teach their children behaviors that are beneficial in these positions. This
means children are effectively socialized and raised to take the types of jobs their parents already
have, thus reproducing the class system (Kohn 1977). Likewise, children are socialized to abide by
gender norms, perceptions of race, and class-related behaviors.
Schools
Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa
The next important agent of childhood socialization is the school. Of course, the official purpose of
school is to transfer subject knowledge and teach life skills, such as following directions and meeting
deadlines. But, students don't just learn from the academic curriculum prepared by teachers and
school administrators. In school, we also learn social skills through our interactions with teachers,
staff, and other students. For example, we learn the importance of obeying authority and that to be
successful, we must learn to be quiet, to wait, and sometimes to act interested even when we're not.
Peer Groups
A peer group is made up of people who are similar in age and social status and who share interests.
Peer group socialization begins in the earliest years, such as when kids on a playground teach younger
children the norms about taking turns, the rules of a game, or how to shoot a basket. As children
grow into teenagers, this process continues. Peer groups are important to adolescents in a new way,
as they begin to develop an identity separate from their parents and exert independence. Additionally,
peer groups provide their own opportunities for socialization since kids usually engage in different
types of activities with their peers than they do with their families. Peer groups provide adolescents’
first major socialization experience outside the realm of their families. Interestingly, studies have
shown that although friendships rank high in adolescents’ priorities, this is balanced by parental
influence.
Mass Media
Mass media distribute impersonal information to a wide audience, via television, newspapers, radio,
and the Internet. With the average person spending over four hours a day in front of the television
(and children averaging even more screen time), media greatly influences social norms (Roberts,
Foehr, and Rideout 2005). People learn about objects of material culture (like new technology and
transportation options), as well as nonmaterial culture—what is true (beliefs), what is important
(values), and what is expected (norms).
Results are the outcome of socialization and refer to the way a person thinks and behaves after
undergoing this process. For example, with small children, socialization tends to focus on control of
biological and emotional impulses, such as drinking from a cup rather than from a bottle or asking
permission before picking something up. As children mature, the results of socialization include
knowing how to wait their turn, obey rules, or organize their days around a school or work schedule.
We can see the results of socialization in just about everything, from men shaving their faces to
women shaving their legs and armpits.

LESSON 5: FORMS AND FUNCTIONS OF SOCIAL ORGANIZATION

Concepts of Social Group and Social Organization

Homans (1950) defines a group as collection of two or more persons who are in social interaction,
who are guided by similar norms, values, and expectations, and who maintain a stable pattern of
relations over a period of time.
Donald Light (1984) defines a group as set of individuals who identify and interact with one another
in a structured way based on shared values and goals.
Social group is a unit of interacting personalities with interdependence of roles and statuses existing
between and among themselves. It is a collection of people who interact with each other in accordance
with the position they occupy in the society.
On the other hand, social organization refers to a type of collectivity established for the pursuit of
the specific aims or goals, characterized by a formal structure of rules, authority relations, a division
of labor and limited membership or admission (Jarry, D. 1995).
Fundamentally, society with a group of individuals called a social group. A social group exists when
at least two people are in contact and commonly stimulating and reacting with each other through
language both verbal and non-verbal. This shared between inter-stimulation and reaction between at
least two people and groups is referred to as social interaction.
When interaction persists often enough, a pattern of a social relation exists which is reciprocal in
nature that is, the behavior of the interactants derives its meaning from his relation to the other
person or persons involved. Examples of social relations are husband and wife, mother and daughter,
teacher and students, employer and employee, and so on.
This reciprocal social relation also results to the development of social status and a corresponding
social role. A social status is a collection of rights and duties that goes with a position in a group. A
status may be ascribed or achieved. An ascribed status is the status by virtue of one’s birth. He does
not have a choice or decision on the matter such as his sex, age, gender, kinship, religion or
nationality at birth.

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa

An achieved status, on the other hand, is where an individual may acquire by virtue of his own
efforts, use of intelligence and skills, choice, or through some stroke of good fortune. This can be
through marriage, occupation, profession, education, financial acumen, industry or lotto winning.
The pattern of behavior that accompanies a status is a social role. Every person inhabits a number
of statuses and plays the corresponding varied roles at different stages of his life and to the different
social groups to which he belongs and depending upon which social relationship is effect at any
particular time. Example a child can play the role of son or daughter in a father-son or father-
daughter relationship in the family at home or play the role of a student in a teacher-student
relationship in his or her school group. Later on, when he or she is matured enough he can play the
role of husband or wife in a husband-wife relationship or play the role of an employee in an employer-
employee relationship in his or her workplace.
Characteristics of Social Group
The basis of grouping can be numerous, but the division of the population based on their age, sex,
income and profession can provide various types of social groups.
The 12 Most Important Characteristics of Social Group is listed below:
1. Given number of Individual
A social group consists of a given number of individuals. Without a number of individuals, no social
group can be formed. Two or more than that individual are necessary to form a group. This number
may vary. These individuals belong to the group as members of the group and are considered as unit
of the group.
2. Reciprocal Relations
There exist reciprocal relations among the members of a social group. These reciprocal relations
among the members are the basis or foundation of social group without which social group cannot
be formed. The members must interact or inter-related with each other.
3.Common Goals
It is another important characteristic of a social group. The aims, objectives and ideals of the members
are common. For the fulfilment of these common goals social groups are formed. Here individual
interests are sacrificed for group interests.
4. Sense of unity and solidarity
Members of a social group are always tied by a sense of unity and bond of solidarity, common goals
and mutual relations strengthens this bond of unity and solidarity. This creates loyalty and sympathy
among the members of social group.
5. A strong sense of awe-feeling
Members of a social group is characterized by a strong sense of awe-feeling. This we- feeling fosters
co-operation among members. Because of this we- feeling the members identify themselves with the
group and consider others as outsiders.
6. Group Norms
Every social group has its own, regulations and norms which the members are supposed to follow.
With the help of these rules and norms the group exercises control over its members. These norms
may be written or unwritten. Any violation of group norms is followed by punishment. The group
norms maintain unity and integrity in the group.
7. Similar Behavior
Members of a social group show similar behavior. As the interests, ideals and values of a group are
common hence its members behave in a similar manner. This similar behavior helps in the
achievement of common goals.
8. Awareness
Members of a social group are aware about the membership which distinguishes them from others.
This is perhaps due to ‘the consciousness of kind’ as opined by Giddings.
9. Group Control:
Social group exercises some sort of control over its members and over their activities. This control
may be direct or indirect. Of course, group exercises control only over non-conformists or deviants.
10. Social groups may be permanent or temporary in nature. There are permanent groups likes family
and temporary groups like crowd, mob etc.
11. Social groups are dynamic in nature. It is not static. It responds to different changes. The nature
of change may be slow or rapid but it is bound to occur.
12. Social groups have established patterns.

TYPES OF SOCIAL GROUPS

1. According to Social Ties

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa

a. Primary Group
• The most fundamental unit of human society
• A long and lasting group whose members have intimate, personal continuous face-to-face
relationships.
• Characterized by strong ties of love and affection.
• The do’s and don’ts of behavior are learned here.
Examples: families, gangs, cliques, play groups, friendship groups

b. Secondary Groups
• Groups with which the individual comes in contact later in life.
• Characterized by impersonal, business-like, contractual, formal and casual relationship.
• Usually large in size, not very enduring and with limited relationships.
• People need other people for the satisfaction of their complex needs.

Examples: industrial workers, business associates, faculty staff, company employees

2. According to Self-identification
a. In-group
• A social unit in which individuals feel home and with which they identify.

b. Out-group
• A social unit to which individuals do not belong due to differences in certain social categories and
with which they do not identify.

c. Reference group or psychological group

• Groups to which we consciously or unconsciously refer when we try to evaluate our own life
situations and behavior, but to which we do not necessarily belong.
• It serves a comparison function.
• It has a normative function.

3. According to Purpose
a. Special interest groups
• Groups which are organized to meet the special interest of the member
b. Task Group
• Group assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be done by one person.
c. Influence or pressure groups.
• Group organized to support or influence social actions

4. According to geographical location and degree or quality relationship

a. Gemeinschaft
• A social system in which most relationship is personal or traditional.
• It is a community of intimate, private and exclusive living and familism.
• Culture is homogenous and traditional.
b. Gesselschaft
• A social system in which most relationships are impersonal, formal, contractual or bargain-like.
• Relationship is individualistic, business-like, secondary and rationalized.
• Culture is heterogenous and more advanced.

5. According to form of organization

a. Formal groups
• Social organization
• Deliberately formed, and their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined.
• Their goals are clearly stated and the division of labor is based on member’s ability or merit.
• Have a certain type of administrative structure called “bureaucracy”.

Bureaucracy

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa

•A hierarchical arrangement in large-scale formal organizations in which parts of the organization are
ordered in the manner of a pyramid based on a division of function and authority. (Weber, M. 1965)
• Formal, rationally organized social structure.
Weber (1965) identified the following characteristics in a bureaucracy:
1. Positions and offices are clearly defined.
2. The hierarchical arrangements of authority, rights and obligations are specifically drawn and clear-
cut.
3. The personnel are selected on the basis of technical or professional qualification and expert training
and competence through competitive examination.
4. Definite rules govern official behavior.
5. Security of tenure and the pursuit of a career with promotion in the hierarchy are assured.

b. Informal groups.
• Arises spontaneously out of the interactions of two or more persons.
• It is unplanned
• Has no explicit rules for membership, and does not have specific objectives to be attained.
• It has the characteristics of primary groups and members are bound by emotions and sentiments.

Reference: SLM: DepEd- SOCCSKSARGEN Region Teacher: Leo Mark C. Tagupa