e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087

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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical

Engineering, Electronics and Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/prime

New-age condition monitoring of on-load tap changing transformers in

distributed energy systems for Industry 4.0
R. Raja Singh a, *, Ghanishtha Bhatti b, D. Saravanan c
a
Associate Professor, Department of Energy and Power Electronics, Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India
b
Postgraduate Student, Electrical Engg., Mathematics and Computer Sci., Delft University of Technology, Netherlands
c
Electrical Engineer, Trane Technologies, Thermoking, TC-Bangalore, Karnataka, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Sustainability is a core focus of modern advancements in energy and power systems. Citing the significance of on-
On-load tap changing transformer load tap changing transformers (OLTCTs) in distributed energy systems, researchers and industries have studied
Condition monitoring various smart wireless technologies through which their performance and possible failure might be monitored.
Internet of things
This study aims to provide a critical outlook on the operation of OLTCTs and on the various implementations of
Distributed energy systems
Digital twin technology
IoT that have shown potential in smart condition monitoring of OLTCTs. To the knowledge of the authors, this is
Industry 4.0 the first extensive study focusing on the amalgamation of conventional OLTCTs with new-age smart wireless
frameworks that allow optimized operation and maintenance. The major finding of this article is to identify and
exemplify the advancement possibilities of OLTCT in distributed energy systems. The authors aim to pinpoint
current hotspots of development in the OLTCT and condition monitoring domain, as well as nascent areas which
are likely to be the focus of research in the future to circumvent current gaps in this domain. As we progress
towards Industry 4.0, such hybrid frameworks shall become the new norm and hence this study is a significant
foundation for researchers looking to further advance development in this domain. Initially, the work builds a
panoramic view of distributed energy systems with a distinct understanding of the specific role of OLTCTs within
this assembly. Following this, a discussion is undertaken about the sensory and actuation systems required to
make OLTCTs compatible with modern monitoring systems. Finally, the study concludes with the envisioned
future of IoT-based condition monitoring of OLTCTs and their challenges.

Introduction
Distributed generation (DG) is often confused with renewable energy
systems even though they are starkly different. Distributed generation is
described as a form of energy generation that contributes to the reli­
ability of energy output while also providing a high-quality supply with
no power quality concerns [1]. Traditional DG system implementations
necessitate a new era of distributed energy systems (DES) which allows
consumers to optimize their existing energy setups through local gen­
eration, management at the demand side, and off-site supply. Distrib­
uted energy systems are defined as an array of generation, transmission,
distribution, energy monitoring, and control solutions [2]. DES pose
various inherent benefits such as reduction in energy cost, lowering
carbon footprint, and promotion of energy efficiency [3,4]. Critics may
question the requirement of DES considering the alternative of using
solely renewable energy sources. However, the major distinction and
merit in DES come from the stability provided by multiple sources which
may individually experience downtime [5,6]. Multi-energy resources
(MERs) have the capacity of decreasing losses in energy distribution and
increasing the utilization of renewable energy resources available [7,8].
The basic hierarchical structure of MER-DES consists of energy
production, energy conversion and energy storage operations [9–11].
The DG paradigm presents a commercial utility by promoting smart
distribution and storage, a market-compatible approach for peak
power-saving, and the inclusion of small investors [12–14]. However, to
gather the merits of this architecture various computational models
must be adopted, comprising of a pre-processing, design, and
post-processing stage. These computational models serve as an in-situ
automated energy management system (EMS) for the overall frame­
work [15–17]. To maintain stable operation from the perspective of
distributed generation, the undulation of voltage and reactive power
under islanded and grid mode operation must be at the centre of

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: rrajasingh@gmail.com (R.R. Singh).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.prime.2022.100087
Received 12 January 2022; Received in revised form 25 August 2022; Accepted 28 October 2022
Available online 30 October 2022
2772-6711/© 2022 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
R.R. Singh et al.
analysis. The reactive power reserve wanes when the voltage of the
generator declines to maintain the output voltage [18,19]. Controlling
generator voltage presciently with dedicated devices such as an on-load
tap changer is a smart approach to distribute reserve reactive power and
prevent the system from devastating outages. Studies show a positive
correlation between the penetration of renewable power and the oper­
ation of tap-changing transformers, thus making them the ideal choice
for utilizing reactive power reserves in DG systems [20,21]. Among the
various control methods [22], two methods are commonly adapted for
power system voltage regulation. The first is injecting reactive power,
which is an indirect method of regulating voltage by injecting or
reducing reactive power. The second is transformer regulation, which
refers to the direct reshaping of the transformer ratio to vary the sec­
ondary voltage). In the latter, it is found that some of the low-tension
windings are ‘tapped out’ and integrated with a switching mechanism
commonly known as a tap changer that can control the amount of the
transformer windings available to the circuit [23,24]. This topology
varies the primary and secondary side ratio of the transformer, which in
turn produces a commensurate change in output voltage. Due to the
versatility and robust nature of this mechanism, various domains
requiring high power operation utilize on-load tap changing trans­
formers, which are covered in detail in the following sub-section.
Significance of on-load tap changing transformers
In modern power distribution systems, voltage regulation and sta­
bility are considered to be prime factors in heavy load applications.
Furthermore, in the case that multiple DG sources are connected across
the load, the on-load tap changing transformer (OLTCT) allows opera­
tion at the maximum power point [25]. With renewable energy re­
sources, there are often peak times when the DG source produces excess
energy with respect to the system’s energy demand[6]. In such a case
bi-directional system flow is needed so that power flow can be reversed
to reduce the voltage stress on the feeder. Such flexible flow is
compatible with OLTCTs thus making them the ideal bridging devices
for networks including vehicle-to-grid (V2G) that are becoming more
popular with electric vehicle consumers [26,27]. The conventional to­
pology for a DES with OLTCT integration is illustrated in Fig. 1. Addi­
tionally, some of the merits of OLTCTs that make them suitable and
popular in DES are as follows [28–32]:
Fig. 1. The architecture of OLTCT integrated distributed energy system.
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
• There is no leakage and parasitic impedance in components of
OLTCT.
• Tap switches conduct bidirectional currents but not bidirectional
voltages.
• With individual tap switches, up to 2% compensation can be
supplied.
• There is no need for de-energizing during the tap change process.
• The on-load tap changer can be used as a generator, interconnection
unit, or consumer-load unit.
• Renewable energy integrated systems, grid systems, decentralized
control systems, and huge dispersed producing systems are just a few
of the applications for on-load tap changers.
The historical large-scale shift from mechanical no-load tap changers
to electromechanical on-load tap changers (OLTC) is a fairly recent
phenomenon owing to the low-cost implementation available for the
former [33]. The advancements in high current and voltage threshold
capacities of power electronic components have given rise to two
separate tap changer topologies namely electronic switching of me­
chanical tap changers and fully electronic tap changers [34–36]. To
optimize power loss reduction, the OLTC is generally found on the high
voltage side of the system. However, this invariably results in exposure
of the OLTC to high dielectric voltage strains. As a result of this and the
fact that electronic switching mechanisms need to be located outside the
transformer tank for modularity and convenience of replacement, the
dielectric threshold of the insulation in OLTCs is a crucial design
constraint. Even following the widespread utilization of OLTCs, the high
implementation costs for using them in medium to low voltage distri­
bution systems continue to be an issue for industries. Furthermore, the
commutation process of the taps in OLTCs often causes arcing and
carbonization of the contact as well as gradual wane in the quality of the
insulation oil [37]. These processes require continuous maintenance and
can cause catastrophic damage to the OLTC and connected equipment if
not monitored.
Integrating Intelligent Monitoring Technology with OLTCTs
The onset of the intelligent technology era necessitates re-
envisioning and adapting even core machinery such as transformers.
The integration of advanced control systems, cloud-based
R.R. Singh et al.
communication, and smart failure detection into standard transformer
systems gives rise to the phenomena of smart transformers (ST) and
smart OLTCTs [38,39]. With these smart devices, it is possible to
adaptively control the switching on of loads in order to maintain the
optimal energy cost to demand-response balance ratio for both tradi­
tional and modern power plants [40]. From the industrial point of view,
smart transformers can be facilitators for dispensing ancillary services.
De Carne et al. [41] propose a droop control mechanism for building a
smart transformer system by integrating overload control into the
transformer using embedded voltage and frequency controllers. With a
concurrent objective, Wang et al. [42] develop a smart transformer with
cloud-based monitoring enabled by a general packet radio service
communication module which builds an IoT network between the
transformer and the central database. The acquired data of this smart
transformer is then utilized in a custom-built fault detection deep
learning architecture. Various studies have also highlighted the inte­
gration of smart technologies with OLTCTs in particular. Bahadornejad
et al. [43] showcase the integration of automatic tap changer control
with OLTCTs by embedding a programmable logic controller (PLC) with
the transformer. This controller is then interlocked with signals from
other intelligent electronics to coordinate the operations and improve
system stability. The author in [44] explicates automatic voltage control
in OLTCs by diverting the sensory signals to an onboard microcontroller
which then can intelligently control the tap windings via coupled power
electronic devices. On the other hand, Xie et al. [45] renovate the
software architecture which runs in real-time with an OLTCT and per­
forms coordinated voltage regulation. Similarly, Liang et al. [46]
construe an integrated software approach to detect mechanical faults in
OLTCs using sensor fusion with convolutional neural networks.
This survey has outlined all the functional components of condition
monitoring for OLTCTs. In addition, the main design concerns and limits
are explored for creating a reliable system, including common faults,
sensor technology, and detection of the machine defects. This will act as
a guideline for developers trying to create a complete system meeting
the requirements of contemporary condition monitoring. The major
prospects provided by the Internet of Things to establish workable
frameworks within the domain of online condition monitoring are out­
lined, together with the typical methods to carry them out. The paper
reviews developing wireless technologies for OLTCT condition moni­
toring as well as recent innovative models created by academics and
scientists in the field of IoT systems. This study seeks to be a thorough
resource for nascent researchers and power system engineers to inte­
grate the benefits of new-age condition monitoring and become a step­
ping stone to an era of intelligent, clean, and sustainable energy systems
by thoroughly exploring this topic.
The sections of this article are organized as follows, beginning with a
brief introduction of on-load tap changing transformers, as well as their
significance and use in distributed energy systems. Section 2 focuses on
the different components of an on-load tap changing transformer,
including their switching principles, mathematical models, selection
restrictions, and extensive classification. Section 3 discusses the causes
of OLTCT failure and strategies for their identification. The topologies of
condition monitoring are discussed in Section 4 along with their unique
implementation methodologies. Section 5 presents the potential of using
new-age technologies like IoT, digital twin technology, and wireless
sensor networks in the OLTCT condition monitoring paradigm. Section 6
discusses the future trends and prospects of OLTCT in distributed energy
system and finally, section 7 concludes with a look into the prospects of
the domain and the impact it can have on industrial sustainability.
An in-depth view of on-load tap changing transformers
Since their conception over 90 years ago, on-load tap changers
(OLTCs) are responsible for fulfilling the need for optimal distribution
and control in industrial process transformers [47]. OLTCTs are partic­
ularly intriguing in their ability to vary transformer ratio under loaded
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
conditions either by phase-shifting or voltage regulation without inter­
rupting or halting the system’s operation. In the field of voltage regu­
lation, power transformers with above 10 MVA ratings are incorporated
with OLTCs as a standard operating procedure. [48]. It is the norm to use
a diverter switch and a selector switch for the tapping of transformer
voltage in OLTCTs [47,49]. The structure of the OLTC, highlighting its
major components, is shown in Fig. 2. There exist two classifications of
OLTCTs which are germane towards optimizing specific loads. Namely,
these are the reactor and resistor classes of OLTCTs. The resistor type
OLTCT is a rapid switching apparatus and is easier to acquire
commercially. Contrarily, reactor type OLTCTs are slower operating
switches in which impedance averts short circuits in the tapped segment.
Switching and control of OLTCTs
In essence, the principle of operation of an OLTCT is the addition or
subtraction of steps from the winding, either on the primary or sec­
ondary side, to change the ratio of the transformer. This is sometimes
referred to as the “make-before-break” contact concept [50]. The step
voltage taps in the range of 0.8% to 2.5% of the transformer’s rated
voltage [51]. Selector switches and change-over selectors are largely
dependent upon the specific winding arrangements. To this end, another
important function in an OLTCT is to provide breaks or to transfer load
current [47,52,53]. The major features of the OLTC are those that
directly contribute to the switching process namely the selector switch,
reactor, diverter switch, and vacuum switch [54]. The selector switch is
the central control mechanism for making or breaking the current dur­
ing the process of tap changing. It is an essential aspect of tap changing
that the load current must not be interrupted. As a result of this, there is
a brief period in the process where different voltage taps are spanned
out. These characteristic mandates the use of reactors in OLTCs. Re­
actors are essentially inductors utilized to temporarily wax the selector
circuit impedance which curtails the current flowing due to the transient
voltage difference. The diverter switch is utilized in the circuit to
effectively isolate certain portions of the selector’s arm to propagate the
tap changing process. Finally, the vacuum switch provides the function
of a circuit breaker and isolator in the tap changer.
The switching operation of tap changers in most OLTCTs is
controlled by using an automatic voltage control relay (AVCR). In
AVCRs the voltage tolerance can be manipulated via adaptive control
frameworks, which provide commands to the switching mechanism and
ensure voltage stability irrespective of the load variations [55]. AVCRs
play a vital role in controlling the tap changer by manipulating the tap
position when the voltage on the secondary does not remain in the
required range [56]. Therefore, the desired voltage margin level should
be chosen for the secondary side and be set in the voltage specification.
While setting this, the user must maintain some margin for error which
can overcome situations when the secondary voltage arrives exactly at
the nominal voltage preset. Furthermore, such systems should have an
embedded time delay function to be able to avoid the short time frame
voltage excursions, otherwise, the tap changers have to continue cor­
recting them iteratively for temporary load changes which may occur for
durations in the order of milliseconds. AVCRs are also used for other
techniques such as load drop compensation in which feedback is sent to
perform the same operations as mentioned above [57]. Generally,
AVCRs are integrated with OLTCTs in the 11kV to 33kV ranges [58].
Some of the prominent control system topologies used in industries [56]
for OLTCT voltage control are summarized in Table 1.
There is also a series of new approaches have been proposed by re­
searchers including automatic compensation voltage control (ACVC),
coordinated control, and fuzzy logic control. The automatic compensa­
tion voltage control (ACVC) strategy focuses on voltage control in OLTCs
through an AVC relay with the line drop compensation (LDC) technique.
Gao and Redfern [63] propose an early rendition of this methodology
with OLTCs and provide merit for its use in smart metering systems and
smart condition monitoring. Coordinated control refers to the
R.R. Singh et al.
Fig. 2. Elements of On-load tap changer, retrieved from ABB™.
synchronized voltage regulation using OLTCs and reactive power
compensation (RPC) with a higher voltage dead band for the OLTCs as
compared with RPC. Salih and Chen [25] achieve results showing great
prospects in the domain of OLTC voltage regulation through this method
by integrating state estimation algorithms. Fuzzy logic handles data or
knowledge stemming from computer perception or intelligence, which is
inherently ambiguous, indistinct, partly true, and without clear-cut
margins [64]. With respect to OLTCTs, various researchers have
attempted to optimize control strategy through fuzzy logic controllers
(FLC). A prime exemplar of this strategy is proposed by Choukri et al.
[65] who build a fuzzy logic controller scheme to stabilize voltage in
OLTCs, to curtail fluctuations caused by over or under voltage faults. A
concurrent objective is undertaken by Kasztenny et al. [66] in building
an FLC, which also focuses on its deployment onto a contemporary
programmable logic controller (PLC). Madzonga et al. [67] extend
controller utilization to transformers operating in parallel with disparate
specifications. This model uses the Mandami fuzzy logic rules to develop
a bus voltage regulation controller which reduces tapping operations
required for the desired level. In addition to these individual novel
control methods, researchers also suggest hybrid approaches which
combine two or more of the above-mentioned topologies [68–70].
Selection constraints and classifications of tap changing transformers
The classification of OLTCTs has been delineated based on several
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
categories in literature. Each of these classifications presents a design
constraint for engineers when choosing the ideal OLTCT for a particular
application domain. A summary of this classification hierarchy is high­
lighted in Fig. 3. There can of course be several more classifications for
tap changing transformers, however, these are less relevant to the scope
of this study. Each of the classifications is then delineated as follows:
Based on tap changer
A tap changing winding is a variable linkage across a power trans­
former circuit that allows a step-wise selection of a specific number
of turns. This effectively creates a dynamic turn ratio in the trans­
former allowing the regulation of discrete voltage output. Automated
and manual strategies are usually employed for tap selection [48,49,
71–73].
(i) No-Load Tap changer (NLTC) or De-energized Tap Changer
(DETC): As can be deduced from its etymology, the NLTC needs
the transformer to be de-energized during the tap change process.
As the distinct taps have varying voltage levels, the two con­
nections cannot be made simultaneously, as this would short-
circuit several turns in the winding and produce excessive
circulating current. This type of tap changer is employed in low
voltage and low power transformers.
R.R. Singh et al.
Table 1
Voltage control strategies for OLTCT.
Control Technologies Description
Load tap changer-based The voltage in typical distribution systems
voltage control. which do not include renewables follows a
decreasing trend as it approaches the end of
the feeder. To this end, the load tap changer
must be configured to maintain the feeder-
end voltage above the minimum allowed
voltage while also ensuring that the sender
voltage is below the maximum threshold.
This strategy operates at the assumption
that the voltage is one per unit at the feeder
end.
Voltage control with line Under normal operating circumstances,
drop compensation OLTCs are equipped with line drop
compensation functions to manipulate the
voltage level occurring in a remote
location. Aside from monitoring the voltage
level at the terminals of the transformer,
this strategy also measures the current on
the secondary. This parameter is utilized to
model the voltage drop with respect to
feeder impedance occurring with the
terminals and the load. To maintain
optimal voltage at the load point, the line
impedance is varied to increase voltage
level at the terminals.
Grading Time This scheme operates on the principle of
sustaining a shorter delay during
initialization for upstream controllers than
the downstream controllers. This is to
ensure that the operations occurring in the
upstream are prioritized, which
consequently allows the upstream
transformer to complete tasks before the
downstream one can reach the desired
voltage. This workflow is essential because
if the opposite flow of events was
undertaken the transformers in question
may conflict with each other’s operation
causing instability to develop in the system.
Source drop Another method of creating an adaptive
compensation voltage-time grading is by computing the
regulation voltage by the impedance of the
feeder and the source current in relation to
the downstream transformer and the
upstream transformer. Consequently, the
AVCR located downstream uses this data
for initializing correction during voltage
disturbances. The downstream AVCR
compares the obtained value to the dead
band range and if it lies beyond this range
the AVCR remains idle up till the upstream
transformer completes its voltage
restoration. This complete topology is
referred to as source drop compensation.
Pre-emptive tap changer In addition to utilizing grading time, this
method utilizes transient time which refers
to the time which must pass any voltage
restoration tasks that can be allowed to
begin. The AVCR in this case instructs the
OLTC to change taps after the transient
time has elapsed after which the delay
period is rebooted so that the tap change
process can be undertaken once the grading
time has advanced.
(ii) On-Load Tap changer (OLTC): This type of tap changer is mostly
employed in large power transformers. The turn ratio of these
transformers is changed while delivering the load to regulate the
system voltage. They are usually categorized as mechanical,
electronically assisted or fully electronic. They are designed to
avoid creating high circulating points using a diverter switch and
effectively overcome open or short-circuited taps. Insulating
e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
transformer oil or SF6 can be used as an agent to reduce high
arcing at the contacts.
(Ref, (iii) Mechanical tap changers: Tap changers of this type shift from one
Year) tap to the previous tap and not to the next one. It is a slow
[59] operating device and step-by-step changes in mechanical tap
changers compared to switching in electronic tap changers.
(iv) Thyristor-assisted tap changers: This class of tap changers utilize
thyristors to temporarily circumvent the on-load current as the
primary contacts switch between taps. This effectively curtails
arcing in the contacts, hence prolonging service life and reducing
required maintenance.
(v) Solid-state tap changers: This class is more germane for smaller-
scale power transformer systems. Here, thyristors are primarily
[60] utilized to switch the load current, and additionally to re-route
the steady-state load current ad interim.
Based on switching capacity
As mentioned previously, one of the major issues in using electronic
OLTCs is the arcing behavior which often leads to premature degrada­
tion of the transformer. To mitigate or at least reduce the impact of this
issue, an appropriate insulating switching medium and capacity must be
decided. This media serves to quench the arcing behavior and insulate
the transformer body [47,74,75].
(i) Oil-type OLTCs: The on-load tap changer is submerged in the
[61] transformer’s oil where the make-or-break action of switching
contacts is conducted in the oil itself. This method can be used for
various types of voltages and power ratings. The design of “oil
type” OLTCs depend on the arc-quenching behavior of switching
contacts and the insulation properties of oil in transformers.
(ii) Vacuum-type OLTCs: Contrary to conventional approaches,
electrical arc quenching is undertaken in a vacuum instead of in
oil. This has a significant contribution towards waning wear and
making contacts more durable. Additionally, there is limited
scope for insulating medium contamination via arcing in a vac­
uum relative to its oil counterpart.
[62]
Based on arrangements of tap windings
The arrangement of tap windings is also an important design
consideration in tap-changing transformers. A major factor in the design
of the tap windings depends on the permissible copper loss of the system
as well as whether the system can afford to be habitually disconnected
from the main windings. Several superior systems exist that effectively
tackle these trade-offs, but may not be appropriate for smaller-scale and
lower-rated systems due to the inherent cost constraint [47,76,77].
(i) Linear arrangement: The turn ratio can be changed from the
tapped turns which are in series with the main winding. Anyone
[62]
tap position can be the rated position. Linear arrangement on
power transformer can regulate the voltage ranges up to 20%.
(ii) Single coarse change-over selector: In a coarse change-over
selector the tap winding is either affixed or deducted from the
coarse tapping windings. While doing this, the tap winding
breaks from the main windings. This type of change-over
selector has the advantage as there will be lower copper loss
in the lower position of effective turns. However, this advantage
is fulfilled after the higher demand for insulation material as it
makes large turns of windings.
(iii) Multiple coarse change-over selectors: The multiple coarse
change-over selectors have multiple levels of over-regulation
ranges. This type of coarse change-over selector is only
needed for industrial process transformers.
(iv) Single reversing change-over selector: The regulation range of
this selector can be increased twofold or reduced when the
aggregate taps from tap windings are added or subtracted. After
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R.R. Singh et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087

Fig. 3. Classifications of tap changing transformers.

this, the tap windings are disconnected from the main windings.
Table 2
There will be greater copper loss in this mechanism when in the
Parameters selection of OLTCTs.
condition with the least overall turns. The neutral position or
mid-position will be the rated position. With the help of a tap Tap Changer Winding Consideration Factor Operational Information
Property
selector or arcing tap switch, this reversal of tap positions can be
done. • Breaking • Insulation level to the ground • Rated step voltage (Ui)
(v) Double reversing change-over selector: The operation of a capacity • MVA rating • Rated current (Iu)
• Overload • Tap winding configuration • Rated step capacity, Pst =
double reversing change-over selector is the same as a single potential (for wye, delta or single- Ui x Iu can determine a
reversing change-over selector but the former avoids the • Contact life phase connection) suitable tap changer.
disconnection of tap windings from main windings during the • Short-circuit • Lightning impulse and power • OLTC class
change-over process. current. frequency voltage of internal • Number of poles
insulation. • Tap selector physical size
• Voltage rating and range of • Insulation level
Based on locations of the tapped portion of windings regulation. • Linkage topology
• Service tap position options. • The nominal voltage level
For transformers having star-connected tap winding, the taps are of OLTC
provided at the neutral end of the high voltage winding. Whereas, in
delta-connected systems, the specific position of the tapped portion
prioritizes the most needed parameter by the application domain can be
is decided by the required rated voltage of the power system [47].
deduced and selected [78–80].
(i) Three Pole Line-End Arrangement: All three phases are insulated
Maintenance of OLTCTs
by connecting one of the windings to another phase.
(ii) One and Two Pole Line-End Arrangement: Only two phases are
In OLTCTs the frequency must be maintained within tolerable limits,
insulated by connecting one phase to the second phase.
which is dependent on diverter switch conditions [81]. Transformer
(iii) Three Pole Mid-Winding Arrangement: The phases have a mid-
maintenance must be carried out on a cyclic basis due to the unavoidable
winding arrangement on their phase as it can reduce the stress
presence of high frequencies during the tap changing process [82,83].
of the phase-phase arrangement.
During maintenance inspection, care must be taken in breaking the
(iv) Tap windings at the neutral end: Delta-connected windings of two
circulating current as it must not exceed the load current. The main
winding transformers are connected at the neutral end.
internal moving parts of the transformer are the tap selector and diverter
switch. The behavior of the tap selector decides the tap configuration for
As delineated above, there are several classifications within the
the diverter switch to which it should transfer load current. The diverter
paradigm of tap-changing transformers. The selection of the germane
switch operates fundamentally by breaking the load currents. Therefore,
transformer for a particular industrial application is crucial to the long-
the inspection of the tap selector switch is requisite. In the case of the
term success of the DES as a whole. To this end, some key parameters
older variety of tap changers, only contacts are generally replaced
must be carefully considered during the selection of OLTC (presented in
whereas in modern tap changers contact replacement is only undertaken
Table 2). From these performance indexes, a configuration that
in rare conditions depending on the characteristics of tap changers [84,

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85]. To get an accurate estimation of the remaining machine life, the Table 3
operational parameters of contacts must be recorded during inspection OLTCT’s component and failure causes.
[52,86]. The transformer can act as an open-circuited resistor and be (Ref, Year) Component Failure causes
checked for continuity which gives results on contact wear conditions
[92] Bushings: • Wrinkled paper, moisture ingress and
[87]. Tap change failures normally occur due to driving shifts in a large • Condenser core delaminating of paper.
percentage for which radial and axial wear are inspected from drive­ • Oil • Moisture, contamination and thermal
shafts and gearboxes [88,89]. A deposit of carbon accumulates in the • Conductor degradation.
diverter switches due to this small amount of current which is trans­ • Internal • Circulating currents in cracks in the
porcelain surface conductor.
ferred to the oil for each tap change [90]. Replacement of cooling oil or • Taps • Ageing, partial discharges in the
transformer oil after preset intervals is, therefore, a must for continued • External insulation.
high performance and to reduce the usage of solvents. Hence, to operate porcelain surface • Shorted electrode, grounded tap
and control the selector switch accurately, it is necessary to detect the ungrounded.
• Surface discharges, contamination.
change in oil composition and inappropriate circulation of current with
[93,94] Current • Shorted turns.
suitable sensing mechanisms [91]. This condition monitoring maintains Transformer • Phase displacement and Burden-
the machine’s performance and extends its useful life while also giving dependent current ratio.
prescient warning signs which can reduce the repair and maintenance • Excessive residual magnetism.
costs by deploying a condition-based maintenance schedule. The [87,95,96] Core • Floating core ground and residual
magnetism.
following subsections describe some of the detectable ageing faults in • Shorted core laminates.
various sub-assemblies of OLTCTs that form the considerations for • Mechanical deformation.
developing a condition monitoring system. [97] Windings • Strand to strand short-circuits.
• Short-circuit to ground.
• Open circuits in parallel strands.
OLTC failures and causes
• Contact problems, open circuits.
• Short circuits between windings or
Being a component with various constituent electrical and mechan­ turns.
ical parts, the OLTCT is prone to various types of failures and break­ [98,99] Insulation • Contamination of insulation fluids,
downs. Electromagnetic breakdowns generally occur in the windings, ageing, moisture.
• Partial discharges.
core, tap changer, and current transformers due to a diverse array of • Moisture in solid insulation.
faults such as open and short-circuiting, residual magnetism, and phase [100,101, Tap changer • High resistance connections, shorted
displacement. Another prominent breakdown is seen in the mechanical 100,101] turns or open circuit
framework of the leads, driving mechanism, and the core generally due • Contact problems with diverter switch,
selector switch or reversing switch.
to deformative forces, broken linkages, and contact breakaways. As
• Contact problems in DETC.
insulation medium is an essential part of OLTCTs, designers and oper­ [102] Leads • Mechanical deformation.
ators must also take into account chemical contamination and break­ • Contact problems.
downs. These issues generally affect the bushings and insulation of the [97,103,104], Drive mechanism • Motor failure, worn gears, Weak
OLTCT and can adversely impact the safety and performance of the springs, broken linkage.
• AC supply failure, Geneva wheel
equipment as a whole. The major components where failure can occur adjustment, and Defective brake.
and the reasons for the component failure are highlighted in Table 3. • Binding of contacts, mechanical defect,
binding of contacts.
Fault Identification in OLTCTs [105–107, Insulation oil • Overheating.
105–107] • Arcing.
• Moisture contamination.
In 2018, the condition monitoring market generated 1.92 billion [108] Oil pump filtration • Plugged filter.
dollars and industrial analysts forecast that this number should reach system • Electrical failures in the oil pump.
2.45 billion dollars by 2023 [109]. Condition monitoring involves data
collection and data acquisition of electrical equipment employing arti­
ficial sensory mechanisms. Condition monitoring, an evolution of pro­ module such as a remote terminal unit is available at the transformer
active and predictive maintenance, emphasizes the detection of side which transmits and receives information through bilateral cloud
parameters or functions that are deviating from their boundary condi­ interfacing [124]. This monitoring and data acquisition is facilitated by
tions in which the machine has a larger chance of experiencing failure relaying data wirelessly through either long or short-distance commu­
[110,111]. In the case of power transformers, online condition moni­ nication protocols. For large-scale satellite communication, internet
toring aids in achieving improved performance and prolonged service protocol and fibre optic connectivity are preferred, whereas for shorter
[112]. Through the process of monitoring OLTCTs, operating costs can distances Wi-Fi, ZigBee, and Bluetooth-enabled devices are utilized
be reduced by deviating from the conventional maintenance procedure. [125,126]. On completion of the monitoring stage, diagnostics are
Monitoring systems can have greater gains such as flexibility which al­ conducted. These diagnostics are provisioned by IoT (Internet of Things)
lows monitoring capabilities to be extended not only to newer trans­ which establishes a mutual interconnection between both the user and
formers but also to transformers that have been functional for a long node or “thing” [127]. To make the system both reliable and efficient it
time [113–115]. The acquired insights from monitoring can aid in pre­ is paramount that the real-time decisions are iteratively updated from
dictive maintenance before any major failures take place [116,117]. To the incoming analyzed data.
keep track of functional parameters, monitoring systems generally
employ an embedded software interface [118,119]. The monitoring Sensors and signal conditioning circuits
system may be further improved using an extensive embedded system as
a modular approach, that consists of sensors, A/D converters, and a In OLTCs, it is considered best practice to monitor tap changing
microcontroller for data processing and transmission [120,121]. The positions, motor drive power, bushing parameters, multi-gas-in-oil,
placement of the primary sensors used for OLTCT monitoring is visual­ airflow, current, voltage, winding temperature, and vibration. The
ized in Fig. 4 [122,123]. sensors required for the measurement of these disparate analogue sig­
The most important feature of condition monitoring is analyzing the nals are generally manufactured with robust design for their utilization
parts or component characteristics regularly. The system’s embedded in rugged industrial environments. The uses and monitoring processes

7
R.R. Singh et al.
Fig. 4. Sensory mechanisms embedded into OLTC Transformers.
facilitated by the sensors in OLTCT systems are summarized in Table 4.
While the operating procedures and entities of these sensors are unique,
it is often essential to streamline their processing with single or multiple
compact processors. This kind of parallel data acquisition and process­
ing forms the basis of modern industrial embedded system research.
Various industrial research has pursued the design and implementation
of optimized embedded systems that either synthesize data acquisition
for a particular sensory system in OLTCs or the entire OLTC sensory
mechanism [128–130].
Condition monitoring of on-load tap changing transformer
In the age of Industry 4.0, condition monitoring has various merits
like activity tracing, the extended life span of machinery, increased
machine reliability, extended operational hours of the machine,
improved efficiency and so on [131–143]. These condition monitoring
systems are generally either offline or online frameworks. The offline
monitoring system is also known as a periodic monitoring system [144].
On the other side, an online monitoring system is called a continual
monitoring system, i.e., the collection of accurate data while the trans­
former is in its operational state [145–147]. The differences and work­
flow of these disparate monitoring strategies are delineated in Fig. 5. It is
evident from this figure that the major facet of online monitoring
methods is the provision of interruption-free diagnostics. Continuous
remote data collection is also possible through this scheme, while offline
methods cannot provide the same robust data flow. On the other hand,
the offline methodology is more tolerant towards packet loss, data cor­
ruption, or lack of wireless connectivity at the site. This can be partic­
ularly useful for certain measurements as covered in the following
subsection.
Offline condition monitoring
Offline condition monitoring as a general rule is utilized for hierar­
chically lower value machinery where scanning at scheduled intervals is
sufficient for monitoring machine health. Common utilization of this
methodology is seen in vibration studies of industrial machines when
occasionally monitoring the signal will suffice for lower priority ma­
chines, and also with oil composition studies where oil can be sent
periodically to an external facility for analysis [148–150]. In the latter
case, it may also be feasible in some industries to carry out on-site tests
using portable sampling machines which can indicate basic health
measurements such as viscosity and water levels [151–153]. Further­
more, certain kits offer the possibility of minimum intervention periodic
testing for wear metals, nitration, oxidation, and additive depletion.
Researchers cite that the feasibility and acceptance of such tests are
decreasing with passing time [154,155].
In the specific case study of offline OLTC condition monitoring, the
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
techniques are commonly focused on resistance measurement [156].
These methods are substantial in the detection of OLTC switch contact’s
surface condition [157]. However, this resistance measurement cannot
be performed in the on-load condition therefore it may not be a suitable
method for conducting the test in short intervals [158]. Majorly two
categories of resistance measurement exist, namely static and dynamic
resistance measurement.
(i) Static Resistance Measurement (SRM) [159,160] computes the
contact resistance of an OLTC in its stagnant state. Measuring
contact resistance through this technique can provide insight into
a variety of metrics such as possible thin film formation, coking
and switch contact surface deformities. The resultant resistance
commonly incorporates the impedance of transformer winding
and bushing.
(ii) Dynamic Resistance Measurement (DRM) [84,161,162] is un­
dertaken during the dynamic or mobile state of the OLTC. As it
can assess both transitional and stationery resistance during the
transitory phase of tap positions, the DRM approach can be uti­
lized to compile all pertinent resistance of switches (including
diverter switch contact, tap selector contact, main switch, and
transition switch) and switching impedances.
Other sensors in offline condition monitoring of OLTCs measure
parameters such as temperature, voltage, current, power, tap position,
gas-in-oil content, oil humidity, and so forth. However, the monitoring
and analysis of these parameters has been streamlined and revolution­
ized by the emergence of online condition monitoring, as explained in
the next sub-section.
Online condition monitoring
As opposed to its offline counterpart, online condition monitoring
requires continuous and real-time measurement of machine properties
as well as seamless wireless transmission of sensor data to cloud-based
data logging systems [163–167]. These systems are generally compat­
ible with real-time alert frameworks [168,169]. Upon optimal place­
ment of sensor systems onto the machine in question, they can be
interlinked to the remote data collection and analysis hub through
wireless interfacing. Condition monitoring systems for any complex
machine must utilize diverse sensor arrays for data acquisition, and as a
result, these types of systems can provide a comprehensive profile of the
machine at any given instant in time [170–172]. There are several
inherent advantages of online condition monitoring systems for OLTCs
such as flexibility and convenience. These systems may consist of dis­
solved gas analysis, temperature monitoring, vibration analysis, motor
power surveillance, and shaft angle measurement [173,174]. Hence, it is
evident that OLTC online condition monitoring systems require the
R.R. Singh et al. e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087

Table 4 Table 4 (continued )

Monitoring parameters and sensors of OLTCTs. Sl. No.( Monitoring Description Sensor model
Sl. No.( Monitoring Description Sensor model Fig. 4) parameters
Fig. 4) parameters
loose windings, loose
S1 Top oil temperature The average oil MMT 318 transformer core parts,
temperature and tank loose conditions, or
outlet oil temperature shield problems.
are measured. Top oil S11 Operating To monitor the direction VKV021, DE-39,
temperature is defined conditions of fans of rotation of fans and NEMA-4
as the mean of the tank and pumps. pumps. Operates by
outlet oil temperature sensing the operating
and the oil pocket regions of pumps and
temperature. fans, the collected data
Ambient Senses current air keeps them operating in
temperature temperature within the optimal region.
transformer tank. S12 Oil level in Operates by Ultrasonic sensors,
Moisture in oil Observes the dissolved compensator and transmitting and pneumatic sensors,
moisture content in oil tap changer tank. receiving signals the oil conductive and
and prevent depth can be found. The mechanical sensors.
contamination of signal is varied
lubricant oil according to the type of
S2 Load voltage The voltage sensor Potential sensor used.
Dielectric strength measures the potential transformer, PC-
3000 Vac 50 Hz difference between two 3160
between Primary points of an electrical amalgamation of various sensor data along with wireless interfaces. This
and Secondary. circuit where it is is an ideal case scenario to integrate with an IoT network, which would
connected across the
allow efficient data logging. Furthermore, it may open doors to smart
component.
S3 Load current. Current sensors ACS756xCB wireless control mechanisms for OLTCs and add a new dimension to the
generate a signal industrial phenomena of portable machine diagnostics [175–178]. As a
proportional to the result of this, various studies have been performed to validate the
current in a wire, it may implementation of IoT with OLTCT condition monitoring systems,
be an analogue or
digital output
which have been explicated in detail in the forthcoming subsections.
S4 Gas-in-oil content. It is the ratio of the HYDROCAL 1005
volume of the gas Internet of Things
present to the volume of Internet of things (IoT) is a vision encompassing automobiles,
oil at standard quality.
physical objects, electronic devices and other non-living gadgets. The
S5 Tap changing Detects selected TPT194
positions position of variable turn objects in this paradigm are implanted with actuators, sensors, software,
ratio of transformers and electronic items to communicate and exchange data via stipulated
placed on high voltage protocols using an internet gateway [179–181]. In its essence, IoT em­
windings in discrete beds certain aspects of the physical world into computer-friendly sys­
steps.
S6 Oil pressure of Monitors pressure that SEN-1039, Type
tems to pave the way for implementing other intelligent architectures
bushing. keeps oil on the moving BAU and BAU-HVCT [182–184]. The “things” or nodes in IoT are interconnected through
parts of a transformer. private or public internet protocol (IP) networks where parameters can
The oil pressure in be sensed, conveyed, and further propagated. It achieves smart re­
bushings has a
organizations, online monitoring, event records, cloud-based system
measuring range from
-100 kPa to +400 kPa upgrades, and administration [185]. The significant merits of IoT
with an accuracy of 1% include energy efficiency, reliability, speed, accuracy and security
at 1 kPa resolution. [186]. Some of the features and constituent principles of the IoT para­
S7 Motor drive power The major motive of an EM-151B, L298 digm are shown in Fig. 6. Though the architecture provides many boons,
electric drive system for
a motor is to actuate the
it has an extensive hardware and software requirement profile including
linked on-load tap- microprocessors, microcontrollers, GPS, Wi-Fi, 2G, 3G, 4G, GPRS, GSM,
changer to a higher or RFID, and Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs). IoT is grouped as one
lower tap of a operation in which the contextual information should enable, acquire,
transformer.
and improve security [187]. IoT architecture illustrates stability, scal­
S8 Oil humidity It continuously LDH100
monitors the oil and air ability, and modularity when communicating as a dynamic network
in the transformer tank. [188]. IoT has often been characterized as having four layers of imple­
S9 Winding It indicates the LM 235 mentation: sensor layer/smart device, network and gateway layer, data
temperature. temperature at HV and service/connectivity layer, and application layer. The first layer pro­
LV windings
distinguished by their
vides the nodes with their suite of sensory devices [189,190].
dielectric strength and A sensor allows machines/things to communicate by converting the
protects against measured signal to a computer-readable or digital format. They typically
excessive temperature use lower power and use a low data rate for connectivity [191]. The
S10 OLTCs vibration Vibration should be 2 Vibration switch
second layer is the transport medium in the IoT paradigm. Different
times line frequency and SW-420
multiples of 2 times line protocols serve to provide high-speed transactional services and
frequency. Vibrations context-aware applications which are needed to work simultaneously
occur when there are [125]. The third layer is a data service section in which the data is
bad bearings on oil processed and polished through analytics, modelling, and management
cooling pumps or fans,
services [192]. The data collected can be split into the form of events or
emergency data. This data is stored and managed via either in-memory

9
R.R. Singh et al.
Fig. 5. Online and offline condition monitoring systems workflow.
analytics or streaming analytics mechanisms [193,194]. Further, the
data has a management section that handles and streamlines the infor­
mation based on data flow. This section reduces redundant data which in
turn reduces the risk of data leaks and boosts security. After this, data
filtering is undertaken, which terminates unnecessary data and extracts
application-relevant features. At last, cybersecurity frameworks inte­
grated with the system protect the data from unauthorized access [195,
196]. The last layer is the application layer which chooses the relevant
application to customize the data for. It covers domains like agriculture,
automation, automobiles, transportation, factory, healthcare, tourism,
smart cities, and lifestyle [197]. Hence, IoT achieves automation,
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
analysis, and integration by following these architectural procedures.
This methodology provides various benefits including enhanced user
interaction, optimization of architecture, fewer by-products, and
improved data acquisition [198]. However, it has its pitfalls as well
which include security bottlenecks, reduced flexibility, compliance is­
sues with existing standards, interoperability, privacy concerns,
complexity, and increased device-level energy consumption [199–201].
Wireless technologies in IoT
The evolving wireless technologies such as Low Power Wide Area
Networks (LPWAN) are continuing to get attention from researchers and
R.R. Singh et al.
Fig. 6. An Overview of the Internet of Things.
industries globally [202–205]. The LPWAN includes Sigfox, LoRa and
NB-IoT (Narrowband IoT). These topologies are forecasted to have a
significant contribution to advancing IoT for numerous domains.
(i) NB-IoT is intended for transceiving relatively small volumes of
packets (in the order of 101-102 bytes per day) by lower data
acquisition rate nodes. Comparable to Sigfox and LoRa, NB-IoT is
also a message-centred service. However, it can be contrasted
with the former models by its rapid modulation and high simul­
taneous data-carrying capacity [206–209].
(ii) LoRa is defined to be a radio modulation strategy or a technique
of influencing radio waves using chirped multi-symbol format
encryption. This methodology effectively boosts the sensitivity of
the receiver and reduces the bit error rate (BER) in cheaper ICs.
This also implies that the available range can be substantially
extended in lower communication rate setups by utilizing LoRa
relative to alternate topologies in the same price bracket
[210–212].
(iii) Sigfox is a bespoke solution for lower outturn IoT and machine-
to-machine networks. It resembles cellular type modules that
facilitate distant nodes to establish a connection via ultra-narrow
band (UNB) communication [213].
Implementation strategies for Conventional IoT networks
The monitoring and controlling of on-load tap changers are per­
formed by IoT using controller modules and wireless interfaces. These
architectures include both hardware and software co-design. This sec­
tion serves as a blueprint for the implementation of a fully functioning
IoT system that can be deployed to facilitate condition monitoring.
(i) Controllers
Industrial process machines mainly work on PLCs and SCADA based
systems. PLCs are equipped with numerous sensors, electronic safety
guards, and connectors. They are a class of digital processors with in­
dustrial significance as they are designed for the robust control of as­
sembly lines and industrial robots [214]. In industrial processes, PLCs
are the preferred controllers due to their modular assembly, easier re­
pairs, lower power consumption, robust construction, and superior
computational capability. PLCs, such as CD600 and AH500, have also
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
been actively integrated with IoT systems. This configuration has been a
trailblazer for the conception of Industrial IoT (IIoT) [215]. The PLCs in
IoT networks are generally supplied by the switched-mode power supply
and communicate through embedded wireless modules or RS485
connections.
In IoT Alf-Egil Bogen Vegard Wollan RISC (AVR) controllers, popu­
larly known by the Arduino Development Board series, play a substan­
tial role in data communication [216–218]. Compared to other tools,
AVR development boards provide additional merit in interaction with
objects, working with sensors due to inexpensive interfacing capability,
cross-platform compatibility, simple and clear programming environ­
ment, open-source, and extensible in hardware and software [219,220].
As previously noted, LoRa is a wireless protocol that can send data to
long ranges with relatively lower data rates [221–224]. It is also
commercially available as LoRa controller shield which is a low-power
transceiver. This shield is suitable for most wireless sensor network
applications and follows the standards compatible with such networks.
It has a sensitivity of -148dbm with low current consumption and fea­
tures relatively higher interference immunity [225,226]. Its specifica­
tions include an embedded temperature measurement facility, a battery
monitoring system, superior blocking immunity, 300 kbps maximum
programmable bit rate, and a consolidated synthesizer having a reso­
lution of 61 Hz [227]. The LoRa gateway supports a wide range of
communication protocols and can connect to the internet seamlessly
using LoRaWAN technology [228]. It uses unlicensed radio spectrum
bands which are bi-directionally secure, provide accurate localization,
and allow quick setup of public or private networks.
(i) Communication and Architecture Design
In remote condition monitoring of the industrial machines, the so­
lution must reach processing time in the order of milliseconds or mi­
croseconds as the machines are in continuous operation [229,230].
Furthermore, there are hundreds of machines connected to a single
sensor node that require the frequent transfer of monitoring data. The
main characteristics of a quality condition monitoring system are
network accessibility, enormous data interpretation, security, safety,
adaptability connections, interconnectivity, and compatibility with
standards. The IoT architecture required to support such condition
monitoring systems is detailed below.
R.R. Singh et al.
a) Component or Sensing layer: This is the base layer for the condi­
tion monitoring through IoT in which sensors are embedded [197,
231]. This hardware level makes the interconnection akin to
real-time processing in terms of measuring physical behaviors.
Before the connection, microcontroller-operated devices are used to
process the data by signal conditioning and ADC. The communica­
tion hardware devices used are PLCs, gateways, serial peripheral
interfaces (SPI), System-on-Chip (SoC) devices, routers, mini­
computers, development boards, development kits, preconfigured
hardware kits, and Modbus [232–234].
b) Network or Interface Layer: From the device layer these signals are
transmitted to sensor nodes through a diverse set of datalink pro­
tocols such as short-range for low and high bandwidth, long-range
for low and high bandwidth, and tethered [235,236]. The metrics
of the wireless protocols have been visualized in Fig. 7. The
communication protocols used for IoT and their utilization range are
summarized in Table 5.
c) Data Management Service Layer: This service layer helps the data
to be stored, accessed, exchanged and communicated between the
communication layer and application layer. It acts as a bridge be­
tween many heterogeneous devices to communicate in real-time
applications [237,238]. The major feature of the data management
service layer is data collection, data storage, and data processing.
After receiving data from the network layer, it can be stored for data
cleaning, data reduction, data analysis, and data mining. These
processes aid in the removal of unwanted data and provide essential
information with much higher security so that the risk of accidental
leakage is reduced. Based on the design, they are classified as
event-based, service-oriented, application-specific, data­
base-oriented, and semantic.
d) Application Layer: At the end of the data cycle, data is transmitted
from the data management to the data application layers [239,240].
The cloud network data is transferred to authenticated applications
to monitor it after it has been encrypted through cryptographic
methods [189,241]. As a result, the database of a specific industrial
machine (OLTCT) can be monitored and controlled remotely by
authorized administrators.
IoT in on-load tap changing transformers
Tap changing transformers integrated with IoT provide intelligent
Fig. 7. Metrics of the wireless protocols used in IoT.
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
Table 5
Wired and wireless network layer IoT protocols.
Communication level Communication devices & protocols
Short-range for low IrDA, ANT, Insteon, EnOcean, Rubee, Dash7, RFID,
bandwidth Miwi, Z-Wave [242–246]
Short-range for high WiFi, Zigbee, LiFi, wHART, KNX, Bluetooth/BTLE,
bandwidth ISA100, 5G [247–250].
Long-range for low Weightless, Lora, Sigfox, LTE-M [251,252].
bandwidth
Long-range for high GSM(2G), CDMA(3G), LTE(4G), Wimax, [253,254].
bandwidth
Tethered ModBus, X10, Homeplug, HDplc, HomePNA, UPB,
Ethernet [255,256].
Session protocols MQTT, CoAP, DDS, XMPP, AMQP, HTTP, FTP, Telnet
[257,258]
Network/Transport IPv4, IPv6, 6LoWPAN, RPL [259].
protocols
condition monitoring and diagnostics using sensors or smart devices
[260–263]. They facilitate monitoring and recording key parameters
and communicate them using wireless protocols programmed into the
system’s architecture. If these condition monitoring parameters exceed a
predefined threshold, then alerts or messages will be delivered via the
cloud-interfaced web application [260,264]. This is a two-way
communication and abnormalities that occur on OLTCT are subject to
real-time troubleshooting thereby increasing the useful lifetime of the
equipment [265–268]. Combining the power systems with IoT makes
the system dynamic, therefore, achieving greater stability, connectivity,
and safety even though erratic changes cannot be avoided altogether.
Through Fig. 8 we can visualize the pipeline for IoT-based online
monitoring systems. Majorly, this workflow follows from establishing a
wireless connection to the machine for monitoring in a continuously
polling fashion. Once a reliable connection is established sensor mea­
surements are collected and run through either deterministic or proba­
bilistic thresholds after feature extraction. In the condition that the
thresholding logic is violated a danger alert is issued by the system that
notifies the operator and can shut off the system using an active trip
relay.
Proposed recent methodologies for IoT in OLTCT condition monitoring
IoT-based condition monitoring has become a frontrunner in
emerging industrial technologies due to the increasing need for
R.R. Singh et al.
Fig. 8. Systems flowchart for an IoT-based online monitoring system.
sustainability and smart process control in Industry 4.0. This has led to
myriads of research into the efficient deployment of this paradigm.
Many of these research studies have focused exclusively on the con­
struction of an IoT-powered condition monitoring system for OLTCTs.
Yaman and Bicen [269] demonstrate an implementation of this archi­
tecture by deploying a service life estimation method based on
IEEE-C57.91-2011 (OLTCT ageing standard). This model is powered by
a low-cost hardware setup, an open-source IoT data logger (Thing­
Speak), and a cloud-based alert providing API (PushingBox) thus making
the process feasible and cost-effective. A similar system is developed by
S. Pathania [270], again using the ThingSpeak platform for data logging
of the IoT sensor array which continuously measures winding temper­
ature, harmonic load current, voltage unbalance, and power factor. This
model further optimizes the architecture by using a hybrid amalgam­
ation of online and offline monitoring to provide an accurate panoramic
transformer health index. A more sophisticated framework is developed
by A. J. Vaz [271] by utilizing secure and high-speed Ethernet LAN for
building an embedded IoT monitoring system that detects zero-crossing
of voltage and current in power transformers. The authors of [272]
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
achieve a concurrent objective by utilizing GSM-based communication
and an SMS alert system for IoT-synchronized monitoring of distribution
transformers. Praveen and Murthy [273] extend the application of this
paradigm by utilizing a PIC controller-based cloud interfaced IoT system
to enable a model predictive control mechanism for OLTCs. Uniquely,
the system synthesizes sensor data with arc duration to enable a model
predictive controller. This fully utilizes the ability of the IoT system for
bidirectional communication which enables monitoring and also effec­
tive feedback-based control. To maximize the functionality of this ar­
chitecture Zhang et al. [274] integrate the IoT-based transformer
monitoring system with ensemble machine learning algorithms and
stack denoising autoencoders to generate smart health insights.
Adaptations and sister technologies of IoT for OLTCT condition monitoring
While IoT itself showcases a myriad of prospects in the paradigm of
condition monitoring, various technologies have stemmed from IoT
which have the potential to make an impact on modern condition
monitoring and maintenance systems. Various researchers have not only
R.R. Singh et al.
proposed these methods but also actively implemented them in the
domain of OLTCs. One such recent cutting-edge development is Digital
Twin Technology (DTT). This technology plays a significant role in
providing a panoptic reflection of a physical entity in the digital or
virtual workspace [186]. An overview of a digital twin powered online
condition monitoring system for use in OLTCTs is visualized in Fig. 9.
Institute for Systems and Computer Engineering, Technology and Sci­
ence is considered one of the trailblazers of this concept with their power
transformer digital twin which can accurately depict the transformer’s
behavior at various stages of its life allowing for life accelerated testing
and predictive maintenance [275]. Moutis and Mousavi [276] upscale
this concept and deploy a highly accurate model of the medium-voltage
side of a power transformer. This model not only reflects the perfor­
mance of its real-life counterpart but is also unaffected by the asym­
metrical loading. Another novel power transformer digital model is
developed by Yang et al. [277] but used predominantly for state eval­
uation, which is an in-demand analysis technique for industrial ma­
chines. Nguyen et al. [278] propose a bird-eye view digital twin model
which encapsulates the behavior of a distributed energy system utilizing
power hardware-in-the-loop to build a contemporaneous interconnected
model.
Another novel and significant adaptation in the domain of IoT con­
dition monitoring is the Wireless Sensor Network (WSN). A WSN in­
volves using compact, inexpensive, lower-rated power sensor nodes
installed in an area to observe and analyse numerous parameters of the
machine or its surroundings [279]. WSNs are considered to be the third
wave of emergent wireless technologies which provide higher quality
data than a single sensor could [280]. As a result, this architecture has
been utilized to improve the accuracy of condition monitoring in
OLTCTs and power transformers as a whole (Fig. 10). Liu et al. [281]
propose the construction of an online monitoring and fault diagnosis
system using data obtained via an embedded WSN and processed
through empirical mode decomposition as well as Fast Fourier trans­
form. The authors of [282] increase the scope of this technology by
incorporating it in a high-voltage transformer substation with a hierar­
chical clustering WSN. Nikolic et al. [283] showcase the unique capa­
bility of low-consumption WSNs to provide cloud-connected continued
operation with limited battery replacement. Analogous to [278], a
panoramic utilization of WSNs for monitoring power transformer sub­
stations is described by Grilo et al. [284]. The network developed in this
study is further optimized by the inclusion of SCADA infrastructure to
enhance security through a centralized protection platform.
Fig. 9. Digital Twins in the online monitoring of OLTCTs.
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e-Prime - Advances in Electrical Engineering, Electronics and Energy 2 (2022) 100087
Future trends and prospects of OLTCT in distributed energy
system
So far the current development and facets of OLTCTs have been
discussed from various perspectives. However, the scope for future
research in developing OLTCTs and fusing them with the latest cutting-
edge technologies is extensive. While there are numerous possibilities to
explore and research gaps to fill, the authors of this study believe that
the following technological domains will become prominent for future
works in OLTCT development.
a) Digital Twin Technology: As mentioned in Section 5, researchers are
already actively incorporating DT into their conventional OLTCT
systems. As digital modelling becomes the new norm in testing and
continued maintenance, the use of DT is sure to dominate future
industrial setups. A key feature that would benefit current OLTCT
systems is the use of lifetime estimation. The use of digital twins can
provide cost-efficient dynamic lifetime estimation without the use of
large amounts of sensory hardware [186]. Another foreseeable
application of DT in OLTCTs is for realising fault diagnostic systems
and possibly the emergence of fault-tolerant OLTCTs through active
methods. This utilisation of DTs has already been proposed by re­
searchers in standard transformer setups [285].
b) Intelligent Peak Load Prediction: Similar to the case of conventional
power transformers, OLTCTs also have their service limits which are
intrinsically tied to the peak load they are subject to. This means that
users cannot fully rely on these machines without powerful load
forecasting methods that could help decide how long they can be
commissioned and also evaluate their monetary cost-effectiveness.
Research on peak load forecasting using neural networks and ma­
chine learning models still focuses mainly on conventional power
transformers [286]. However, as the industry adopts OLTCTs to a
larger extent the transfer of these methods customised towards
OLTCTs is likely to be observed.
c) AI-OLTCTs: There has been a multitude of ways proposed to deter­
mine the health index of transformers as well as OLTCTs, however,
most do not take into account the data uncertainty of these compu­
tations. Using artificial intelligence the problem can be combatted as
these methods allow for highly accurate health indices while taking
into account probabilistic data uncertainty. This method has been
used to develop the so-called “AI-Transformer” with accuracies up to
97.3% [287]. Future use of these methods for OLTCTs can bridge the
same gap in prediction uncertainty for health index computation.
R.R. Singh et al.
Fig. 10. Wireless sensor networks in online monitoring systems.
Conclusion
Being accustomed to non-renewable generation, the leap toward
sustainable energy systems is far from simple for the power industry.
However, policymakers and industrial conglomerates have begun to
strongly incentivize sustainable development. A key component within
the paradigm of distributed generation is the on-load tap changing
transformer. This machine, like many other conventional power system
components, is in severe need of integration with newer technology as
we approach the era of Industry 4.0. Furthermore, to provide uninter­
rupted supply, safe generation, and condition-based maintenance, real-
time monitoring of OLTCs is not just becoming a norm but also a ne­
cessity. To this end, researchers have begun exploring the conjunction of
IoT technologies to build foundational frameworks for cloud-based
condition monitoring of OLTCTs. This survey has delineated all the
functional aspects of an online condition monitoring system for OLTCTs,
beginning with an overview of the OLTC mechanism and concluding
with the scope of cutting-edge technologies to enhance the present
condition monitoring methodologies. Additionally, the paper sifts
through the major design considerations and constraints for developing
such a system including common faults, sensor technology, and identi­
fication of the machine faults. This shall serve as a blueprint for future
developers and researchers looking to build a comprehensive system
fulfilling the criterion of modern condition monitoring. Within the on­
line condition monitoring domain, the significant opportunities pre­
sented by the Internet of Things to deploy feasible frameworks are
delineated along with the common strategies to implement them.
Finally, the paper reviews recent novel models developed by researchers
and scientists in the domain of IoT systems as well emerging wireless
technologies for OLTCT condition monitoring. By covering this domain
in-depth, this study aims to be a comprehensive resource for budding
researchers and power system engineers to assimilate the merits of new-
age condition monitoring and become a stepping stone to an era of
smart, clean, and sustainable energy systems.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
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Dr. R. Raja Singh received B. Tech. in Electrical Engineering
from Pondicherry University, India, M. E in Power Electronics
and Drives from Anna University, India and Ph.D. in Electrical
Drives from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Roorkee, India
in 2004, 2008 and 2017 respectively. He has more than 12
years of teaching experience in India and Tanzania, as well as,
5 years of research experience at IIT Roorkee, India. At present,
he is working as an Associate Professor in the department of
Energy and Power Electronics, Vellore Institute of Technology
(VIT) Vellore, India. His research includes, IoT, wind energy
conversion system, multilevel power converter drives for
renewable energy applications, power quality control, starting
transient and fault analysis on industrial drives, electrical vehicles system, smart metering
system. Also, he has developed various energy efficient control strategies for industrial
drives. He has published many research papers in various journals and conferences of
international repute.
R.R. Singh et al.
Ms. Ghanishtha Bhatti received her undergraduate degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Vellore Institute of
Technology in 2021. She is currently pursuing a MSc.
Embedded Systems (with specialisation in control systems)
from Technische Universiteit Delft.Her domains of study and
research interest include mobile robotics, intelligent control
systems, and innovative computational techniques. She is a
budding researcher having published articles and reviews in
internationally reputed journals.
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Mr. D. Saravanan received his B. Tech degree in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering from Panimalar Engineering College in
2017. He recived his M. Tech degree in Power Electronics and
Drives from Vellore Institute of Technology in 2019. Currently
he is working as a Electrical Engineer in Trane Technologies,
Thermoking, ETC-Bangalore, Karnataka, India. His domains of
study and research interest include electric vehicle system,
battery thermal management and innovative technologies. He
is a budding researcher having published articles and reviews
in internationally reputed journals.