INVITED
PAPER
Advances in Wind Energy
Technologies in the
Context of Smart Grid
Interconnection of large wind farms with the power grid can add a new degree of
control to the power system, according to the authors of this paper.
By Mietek Glinkowski, Senior Member IEEE , Jonathan Hou, and
Gary Rackliffe, Senior Member IEEE
ABSTRACT | Advances in technology at all levels of the power
system enable the integration of wind energy into the emerging
smart grid efficiently and reliably. This synergy works both
ways. A smart grid will allow connectivity of the wind turbines
as intermittent sources of energy, and the advanced wind
turbines with power electronics controls and other devices can
support a grid with reactive power and protect the equipment
during severe grid disturbances. Interconnection of large wind
farms with the power grid using such technologies as high-
voltage dc (HVDC) and SVC with Energy Storage can add a new
degree of control to the power system, mitigate the intermit-
tency of the wind energy production and the impact of elec-
trical disturbances.
KEYWORDS | Converters; high-voltage dc (HVDC); MV switch-
gear; power electronics; renewable energy; smart grid; wind
power; wind turbines
I. INTRODUCTION
This paper discusses advanced wind energy solutions
from the electrical perspective, both present and future,
from the smart controls and automation of the wind tur-
bines to the novel designs of large scale wind farms and
interconnections. The new technology of double-fed in-
Manuscript received May 3, 2010; revised September 29, 2010 and January 14, 2011;
accepted January 28, 2011. Date of current version May 17, 2011.
The authors are with ABB Inc., Raleigh, NC 27606 USA
(e-mail: Mietek.glinkowski@us.abb.com).
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/JPROC.2011.2112630
0018-9219/$26.00  2011 IEEE
duction generators and permanent magnet generators
allows for a wide range of controlling both real and reac-
tive power outputs due to changing power system condi-
tions and wind resources. More efficient power electronic
drives based on the pulsewidth modulation (PWM)
technology have become almost standard components of
wind project designs. The challenge of remote locations of
wind farms and the trend to go off-shore with large wind
parks is being met with the application of thyristor-based
high-voltage dc (HVDC) and transistor-based HVDC inter-
connections, allowing for better controllability and utili-
zation of wind energy. These technologies improve
stability within the grid and provide the ride-through
capability during external faults and severe voltage sags.
There is more work to be done in the area of wind
power energy system delivery. New technology solutions
are being investigated and implemented, particularly in
the area of power interconnection and wind farm protec-
tion and control. This paper illustrates some examples of
what the future might bring and how these technological
advances will contribute to a power system that enables
more wind power energy to be delivered in a more effi-
cient, reliable, and smarter way.
II. SMART GRID
The electric power industry is undergoing a transformation
that will drive gradual, long-term change in the processes
and infrastructure for generating, transmitting and
distributing power. This change will incorporate renew-
able generation, new T&D technologies, increased levels of
automation and control, and upgraded sensors, analytics,
data, and information to enable more reliable, efficient,
and secure power.
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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid
Table 1 On the Road to SMART Grid
At a high level, smart grid investments will make the
power grid:
1) adaptive with less reliance on operators to respond
to changing conditions;
2) predictive by capturing phasor measurements for
wide-area situational awareness and applying op-
erational data to equipment maintenance prac-
tices and improving the identification of potential
outages;
3) integrated with real-time communications and
control functions;
4) interactive between customers, grid networks and
power markets;
5) optimized to maximize reliability, availability,
efficiency, and economic performance;
6) secure from attack and naturally occurring
disruptions.
Utilities appear to be making smart grid investments in
phases. Transmission investments are typically based on
projects following demonstration of need to meet system
reliability and capacity requirements. Smart grid trans-
mission investments can incorporate power electronics for
HVDC and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS)
applications. Advanced monitoring and control technolo-
gies, such as phasor measurements, and the integration of
this information to SCADA/EMS and operations systems
are a current focus of the U.S. Department of Energy
(DOE) and utilities [14].
For distribution investments, the initial phase is to get
core information technology (IT) systems in place, and
many utilities are implementing advanced metering infra-
structure (AMI) to engage customers and to provide timely
data on power consumption and distributed energy re-
sources. In parallel, utilities are making investments in
distribution grid management to deliver reliability through
fault detection, isolation, and restoration (FDIR) using
distribution management systems (DMS), distribution
1084 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011
SCADA, communications to substations and down feeders,
and substation and distribution automation with control-
lable devices. Distribution grid management also delivers
efficiency with Volt/Var optimization (VVO) to minimize
feeder losses and to reduce feeder peak demand [17].
The next phase of investment is to continue the devel-
opment of distribution grid management to include state
estimation and real-time analysis to manage the grid with
demand response programs, distributed generation and
energy storage, and plug-in electric vehicles. These inter-
related technologies will require coordinated modeling,
simulation, and analysis system to achieve the benefits of a
smarter grid.
Another focus of the smart grid is to leverage the dis-
tribution grid management and transmission SCADA/EMS
systems to manage the interconnection of wind generation
and other renewable generation. As shown in Table 1, a
shift in the nation’s generation mix from centralized to a
combination of centralized and distributed with substan-
tial renewable resources is being implemented. Supported
by tax credits, the development of wind energy is expected
to rapidly grow. This growth will create operating chal-
lenges from the variability of wind generation and will
require a smarter grid.
I II . WIND ENERGY IN THE CONTEXT OF
SMART GRI D
Most of the developments in a smart grid have often been
identified with its one aspect, smart meters, since they are
the most tangible to the common public, i.e., customers
purchasing the energy. Smart grids promise not only better
electricity service and a more reliable power system, but
also a cleaner environment and lower cost of power [6]–
[12]. Renewable energy, such as wind and solar, are often
viewed as more expensive alternatives of generating elec-
tricity but good for the environment. However, these views
 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid
do not include the long term benefits of the cleaner re-
newable energy sources.
The wind energy in the context of smart grid becomes
important due to primarily three factors: economic, envi-
ronmental, and maturity.
The economy of wind energy is still an ongoing debate.
As the wind industry is still in its early stage, the econo-
mics are not as optimized as they should be. Although the
Bfuel[ is free, the wind projects come at a cost that is still
on the border line with conventional energy sources. Tax
credits (PTC-production tax credits and ITC-investment
tax credits) are still needed to move many projects for-
ward. The scale of wind penetration and the cost asso-
ciated with the need of grid reinforcement due to the
added wind generation are all influencing the economics.
In several national studies [13] the estimated cost for grid
reinforcement due to wind energy is analyzed. Fig. 1 illus-
trates the findings for several European countries. Clearly,
higher degrees of wind energy penetration drive higher
costs of grid reinforcement to support this amount of new
energy. The cost ranges from 50–100 Euro/kW of wind
power for 10%–25% penetration to almost 270 Euro/kW
for penetrations of more than 50%. The latter case
(from Denmark studies) requires an additional com-
ment. The high number comes with the assumption of
allocating 40% of total grid reinforcement cost to wind
power. A second Denmark study, however, indicates only
80 Euro/kW at 55% of penetration when only the
additional 2250 MW of off-shore wind is to be connected
to the grid.
The United States studies appear to suggest that the
cost of grid reinforcement due to the addition of wind is
not much dependant on the degree of penetration. Dollars
per kilowatt ($/kW) stays flat with increasing wind
penetration.
The coming years will clearly see more commerciali-
zation, higher volume productions and therefore lower
prices of wind energy projects, especially from larger
projects (economy of scale). The other important factor of
economics is improved security of the power supply. A
more secure system will be lower in cost.
Fig. 1. Estimated cost for grid reinforcement due to wind power for
different degree of wind energy penetration [13].
Fig. 2. Example of two weeks of typical summer Idaho Power load from
calendar year 2000 and wind generation. Top curve-load profile,
bottom curves-wind generation [1].
The environmental aspect of wind energy is clear. No
pollution and minimal environmental impact (birds, noise,
and aesthetics) make wind one of the most suitable choices
of renewable portfolio.
The maturity of the wind technology is also important.
It is clearly the most mature and the most utility-scale
ready alternative from all the renewable energy solutions.
Wind turbines of 1.5–3.0 MW are almost standard and
new products on the market target the range of up to 10–
20 MW [15], [16].
One of the criticisms of wind energy is its variability
and therefore poor predictability over time. Indeed, the
wind is variable and often predictions of wind are depen-
dent on the prediction of weather patterns and therefore
are good only for about 48–72 hours. But the loads are also
very variable (Fig. 2).
So, if a smart grid was able to optimize the fluctuations
in the wind and match them with the load, constantly
adjusting the distribution of the load to the wind farms
able to produce power, the penetration of the wind in the
system could increase.
There is also a challenge of the backup generation.
Again, the wind variability requires that back-up genera-
tion be provided when wind energy is not available. In the
extreme, 1 : 1 backup reserve would be required (1 MW of
back-up for every 1 MW of wind energy). However, smart
utilization of different wind farms in different locations
and matching them to the load could reduce the need for
backup to the much lower level. Reference [13] provides
an excellent overview of the required reserves due to wind
power.
In Fig. 3, all case studies confirm that higher wind
penetration will need higher degree of backup reserves.
The numbers vary from 1%–2% to around 18% reserve.
One should also notice that the degree of reserve is
strongly influenced by the variability of wind. For 1-hour
variability, the degree of reserve could be around 1%, i.e.,
almost 1/5 of the required reserves of 5% if 4-h variability
is considered. For the Germany, Minnesota, and California
cases, 24-h wind uncertainty has been taken into account.
This rather wide range of reserve estimates comes from
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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid
Fig. 3. Increase in reserve requirement for increasing wind
penetration [13].
several factors, like the start-up and ramp-up times of
different reserves (fossil, hydro, nuclear, gas turbine, etc.)
as well as the flexibility of the grid itself to handle the
power shifts and changing load flows. This second aspect
relates to the need for a smart grid.
The other aspect of variability is energy storage. Pre-
sently commercial, utility scale energy storage is available
only in the form of the pumped-storage hydro, where
water is discharged during the peak load (day hours) and
pumped up to the upper reservoir at light load (at night).
This technology is limited to areas where both land and
water are abundantly available. Battery energy storage has
been making good inroads into commercialization and the
first systems are beginning to show up in utility trials [18].
As to the predictability of wind energy, two factors are
the most noticeable. First, the predictability itself is much
better now, thanks to the advances of the meteorological
sciences. The certainty ratings for Wind Power Class of 3
and higher as shown in Fig. 4 indicate that in areas where
wind is the most attractive solution (central states of the
United States), the certainty rating is high, mostly between
Fig. 4. Wind certainty rating for the WPC of 3 and higher [2].
1086 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011
3 and 4 [20]. Second, a smart grid will be more adaptive
and interactive, so it can better adapt to the changing wind
conditions at different wind farms in real time with a much
shorter response time than the existing systems.
Besides the midcentral states of the United States,
where wind resources are abundant, the off-shore coastal
areas are receiving growing attention. These wind re-
sources are often close to the load centers on the east and
west coasts, and the surface turbulences are much lower
due to no obstacles like buildings, mountains, trees, etc.
The technological challenge to be solved is underwater
connectivity and the harsh, corrosive environment of
the sea.
All these factors demonstrate that a smart grid can and
should easily and efficiently embrace growing wind energy
production sites [9]. Moreover, a smart grid can have a
significant, although indirect impact (of up to 5%) on re-
ducing the CO2 emissions by supporting penetration of
renewable wind and solar generation (25% renewable
portfolio standard, RPS) [12].
Energy efficiency and renewable energy such as wind
are also intertwined in a different relation within the smart
grid vision. Since energy efficiency is sometimes called the
fifth fuel of electricity, it, as well as the wind energy, has to
be accommodated by the smart grid. Therefore both the
energy efficiency and renewable resources demand a grid
that has much more sophisticated and flexible function-
ality, the ability to send and receive power in all directions,
aggregation of the renewables (wind) to lower the impact
of their variability, transfer of loads and generation sources
to better optimize the transmission and distribution sys-
tem, better measure, monitor, curtail load (if necessary),
and control of the flow of energy [6].
The advanced technologies available today and in the
near future will play a major role in wind energy penetra-
tion. These new technologies are described in the follow-
ing sections from the component, equipment and product
levels to the advanced solutions for grid connectivity and at
the power system level.
I V. TURB INE LEVEL
SOLUTIONS VI NT E L LI GE N T
WIND CONVERTERS
The wind turbine is at the heart of every wind energy
project. To maximize efficiency, all modern turbines are
variable speed. Therefore, their generators, be it double-
fed induction generators (DFIG) or variable speed per-
manent magnet (PM) synchronous machines, turn at
asynchronous speed. To produce electrical energy at
50/60 Hz at an optimum operating point of the machine,
the DFIG uses a partial converter to supply the rotor with
the variable frequency [21]. The PM machines need full-
scale converters. For growing off-shore applications where
low-maintenance is of critical importance, PM machines
are the preferred choice. Large power ratings of 5 MW or
 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid
Fig. 5. Concept of PM generator with full-scale converter at
medium voltage.
higher are best realized by higher voltages to limit the
rated current. Full load converters tend to be very efficient
at partial load operations, characteristics that will be do-
minating the wind turbines for most of their life (average
turbine capacity factor is 30–35%). All of these factors
combined, off-shore application, partial load efficiency,
high rated power, and low maintenance requirements call
for medium voltage (MV) full-scale converters that can tie
directly to the grid (see Fig. 5). This approach has several
advantages, including lower continuous current, easier
usage of MV switchgear and fewer transformation steps to
connect to the transmission network [22].
As with any power electronics (PE) converters, the
selection and design are guided by three objectives: relia-
bility, efficiency, and cost. The result is often a PE system
based on proven industrial solutions for large scale indus-
trial machines.
One such example is based on a simple, modular struc-
ture based on the PEBB (Power Electronics Building Block).
These PEBBs result in compact design and are based on
high-power semiconductors, IGCT (Integrated GateV
Commutated Thyristors). The complete converter of 5 MW
can fit inside the turbine tower with the water cooling,
grid filters, and generator filters, as shown in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6. Full-scale PE converter rated 5 MW installed inside the
wind tower [4].
The converters consist of three sub-systems: PEBBs,
control system, and mechanics. The four-quadrant, three-
level converter topology combines two NPC (neutral
point connected) phases for high power density. A basic
circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 7. More details are
provided in Appendix AVBehavior of the Full Scale MV
Converter.
The control subsystem is connected with fiber optic
(FO) cables to reduce the EMC interference and the entire
system is condensation- and vibration-proof for harsh wind
turbine off-shore environments.
In normal operation of the four-quadrant, three-level
converter, two IGCTs in each phase are always in the
blocking state. This allows the operation of the dc link in
the middle at twice the dc voltage of a two-level converter
with the same components. Also, the current ripples are
much lower (four times) which reduces the torque ripples
to the generator and its gearbox and shaft.
Fig. 8 and Table 2 summarize the different functions
and technical parameters that a modern MV power elec-
tronic converter (as in Fig. 7) can exhibit. Many of the
functionalities are very relevant to Smart Grid and com-
plementary to the Smart Grid objectives- no inrush, ride
through, harmonic cancellation, remote monitoring and
diagnostics and others. The limited space of this paper
precludes more detailed treatment of these individual
functions. See Appendix A for more detailed behavior of
the system.
In recent years more transmission system operators
require the wind generating plants to ride-through the
severe network faults and to support the system with re-
active power (var). In the United States, FERC has imple-
mented Order 661 and 661-A. RTOs and ISOs (for
example, MISO, CAISO, PJM, ISO-NE, SPP, and NYISO)
are required to create wind interconnection criteria for
the low-voltage ride-through requirement [23]. Although
different operators have different specific requirements,
the modern turbines and their converters have to be able
in principle to operate successfully during and after the
system faults and supply up to full (rated) reactive power.
In the example, this is accomplished by the VLU (Voltage
Limiter UnitVbrake chopper) that can dissipate active
power during faults and still provide the safe and
continuing operation of the wind turbine generator (see
Fig. 9).
The current waveforms from the generator (bottom
curves) and the generator output voltage (second curve
from the bottom) are steady during the collapse of voltage
from the grid side (top curve). No disturbance or
transients are experienced leaving the generator free of
electrical and mechanical (torque) stresses.
Reactive power compensation, power factor improve-
ment, and dynamic var support become more important
than ever due to the continuing efforts to improve the
voltage profile, power quality, and to reduce power losses.
Smart grids will require the energy sources, like wind
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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

Fig. 7. Basic diagram of the full-scale, four-quadrant, three-level wind-power converter [4].

turbines to provide them with full var management,
from leading to lagging power factors, dynamically, with
fast response times. Fig. 10 illustrates just one example
of the dynamic response of the PE converter to a system
voltage disturbance resulting in voltage dip to 18% last-
ing 0.2 s.
One can see from Fig. 10 that the converter is capable
of delivering 5 MW and 2.5 Mvar of power during normal
condition; it rides through the voltage disturbance for
approximately 0.2 s, and then recovers quickly to normal
conditions generating P and Q as desired.
For another case study of the LV RT (ride through)
testing of a LV wind power converter, see Appendix BV
Low Voltage Ride-Through Testing of Wind Power Gene-
rator Converters [30].
V. MV SW ITCHGEAR I NSI DE THE T OWER
Wind farms, or wind plants as they are sometimes called,
require many components and systems to produce and
deliver power. Many of these components and products
are often taken for granted, as they have existed elsewhere
in the power systems for many years. However, the
unique characteristics of wind energy and wind turbines
demand some different approaches. For example, medium
voltage (MV) switchgear, which is used to protect MV
systems from faults and interruptions, in wind turbine
applications has to meet additional constraintsVnamely,
fitting through the narrow door of the wind tower. Wind
towers have narrow door openings not to compromise
the mechanical strength and rigidity of the entire tower
construction. The switchgear, which would be too

Fig. 8. Functions of the full scale converter as in Fig. 7 for wind turbine applications relevant to Smart Grid. LVFRTVLow Voltage Fault
Ride Through.

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 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

Table 2 Technical Data of the MV Converter Shown in Fig. 7

cumbersome and too expensive to be placed outside, has to One example of such switchgear is a SF6 insulated,
go inside the tower, typically at its bottom platform. In vacuum-breaker based panel with 420 mm width (see
addition, in case of servicing or future replacement, the Fig. 11).
same equipment has to be able to be taken out of the
tower. Considering that the typical wind farm medium
voltage rating is 36/38 kV (IEC/ANSI), the design chal- VI . GRID INTERCONNECTION
lenge is to reduce the width (and often the height) of the SOLUTI ONS
MV switchgear cubicle without compromising the dielec-
There are fundamentally two ways of interconnecting
tric clearances necessary for this voltage rating. The equip-
wind farms to the power grid, ac and dc. Each has its
ment must also provide the highest level of safety for the
special characteristics, unique advantages, and limitations.
operating personnel by providing arc-resistant construc-
From the smart grid point of view, both have advanced
tion against arc-flash and internal arcing [27].
technologies that are utilized to maximize the wind energy

Fig. 10. Active (top, blue) and reactive (bottom, red) power from
the PE converter during the voltage dip to 18%. Positive reactive
Fig. 9. VLU operation during severe system fault; ride-through. power corresponds to over-excitation.

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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid
Fig. 11. MV (36 kV) switchgear being installed through the
wind tower door.
production and to maintain or even improve the grid
reliability and stability.
A. AC Wind Interconnection Solution
The interconnection of wind generation for land
installations is typically based on an ac substation located
near the wind generators to step up the voltage from the
wind farm collector system to a transmission level voltage.
Under optimal conditions, a transmission line is located
near the wind generation and the substation is connected
directly to the transmission line or a short overhead trans-
mission line extension is used to connect the wind gene-
ration to the grid. Because of the cost of transmission lines,
the difficulty in obtaining transmission rights-of-way, and
the time required for siting and permitting, close access to
transmission can be as important as the wind levels when
developing wind generation.
In Europe, a massive amount of wind generation is
planned with a significant portion located offshore. Locat-
ing wind generation offshore does increase the cost of the
generation equipment, installation costs, and maintenance
costs because of the environment. Offshore wind gener-
ation also changes the transmission grid interconnection
and requires high voltage (HV) cables to transmit the
power from the wind generation collector system to the
on-shore grid. HV cables may also be required for onshore
applications if the right-of-way for an overhead line is not
available.
The system to interconnect the offshore wind gener-
ation to the grid also requires the local collector grid, but
the interconnection system is more complex. The local
collector system now consists of MV subsea cables that
feed the wind generation to a substation mounted on an
1090 Proceedings of the IEEE | Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011
Fig. 12. Subsea cable transmission connecting offshore wind farm
with onshore power grid.
offshore platform. This substation raises the voltage for the
subsea cable transmission that feeds an onshore substation
(see Fig. 12).
The onshore substation is a transmission switching
station and may include transformers if the local trans-
mission grid voltage differs from the cable. Finally, reac-
tive compensation for var support is typically located
within the onshore substation to provide voltage support
which may be required for transmission grid stabilization
because of the variability of the wind generation.
In many wind farm installations solid dielectric cables
have emerged as the preferred technology choice for HV
transmission and offer the following advantages:
• absence of insulating fluids eliminates the risk of
accidental release of hazardous materials and
substances into the environment;
• lower maintenance costs (solid dielectric cables
are virtually maintenance free);
• cable capacitance per mile and phase is less than
60% of the capacitance of fluid filled cables;
• ability to splice cables in discontinuous shifts
(important characteristic when cable circuits are
installed in public roads since it permits temporary
suspension of splicing during morning and after-
noon rush hour traffic).
• cables are suitable for direct burial in open
trenches at a lower overall installation cost than
using concrete encased duct bank systems;
• fiber-optic control and communication cables can
be embedded in the cable.
Example of a solid dielectric cable technology is shown
in Fig. 13. Use of fiber-optic control and communication
cable is worth noticing as it is a technology trend to sim-
plify the system architecture and reduce the number of
individual components by introducing new multifunc-
tional products.
However, ac cables have technical limitations for HV
transmission applications over long distances as follows.
• Charging currents in ac cables consume capacity
cumulatively with distance. For example, 40 km of
 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

Fig. 13. Solid dielectric submarine cable design up to 230 kV ac.

Conductor material: Copper, Conductor screen material: Conductive
PE, Insulation type/material: Dry cured triple extruded XLPE, Fig. 14. HVDC converter station [5].
Insulation screen: Conductive PE, Longitudinal water seal: Swelling
tapes, Metallic sheath material: Lead alloy, Inner sheath material:
Conductive PE, Assembling: Polymeric profiles, Cable core binder:
Polymeric tape, Bedding: Impregnated tape, Armor material: 100 km or more), HVDC presents an attractive alternative
Galvanized steel, Outer serving material: Polypropylene yarn. [24], [28]. DC cables can be used with voltage source
converters (VSC) that are built with power transistors,
rather than thyristors, connected in series to provide the
voltage rating required. Fig. 14 illustrates a typical con-
345-kV XLPE cable requires approximately 600 A
verter station with its dc valves, ac and dc switchyards,
of charging current. This also generates so many
filters and cooling systems.
vars that large power transfer becomes impractical.
The heart of the system is the two-level bridge with
• Capacity rating for the HV cable diminishes with
mid-point grounded capacitors (Fig. 15). This design pro-
distance which limits the maximum practical
vides low ground currents at both substations (converters)
distance of ac underground and submarine trans-
and assures good dynamic operation of the interconnec-
mission circuits.
tion. This low ground current maybe even more important
• Technical feasibility of HV ac cables and this ca-
for the sea level environment of off-shore wind farms.
pacity limitation as a function of cable length will
The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) based
impact the evaluation and consideration of under-
valves are controlled by PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
ground and submarine HV ac cable systems.
controls that can synthesize the power frequency sinusoi-
dal waveform with fast, almost instantaneous response.
B. HVDC Interconnection for Off-Shore Installations This technology combination enables full control of
As explained earlier more and more emphasis in the power inputs and outputs both in active and reactive
wind industry is being placed on off-shore farms due to
their proximity to load centers, more steady winds, and
less aesthetic impact. However, typically the off-shore
installations will require more new electrical infrastruc-
ture per MW than on-shore. The equipment has to be more
robust due to the harsh sea environment and its availability
has to be higher due to the higher cost of servicing and
weather dependent access to the turbines. In addition, the
spacing of large off-shore turbines could reach 0.5 km or
more. These requirements demand higher technology
solutions. The individual turbines are connected at the
36-kV voltage level via underwater cables but the con-
nection to the shore might require HVDC rather than an
ac solution. For longer distances to the wind farm (50– Fig. 15. HVDC VSC bridge with mid-point grounded capacitors.

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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

domains. The result is a fully adjustable amplitude, phase

angle, and frequency of the voltage. The use of IGBTs is
also advantageous in the network restoration or at start up
of the off-shore wind farm. An off-shore converter station
can be started in the frequency mode and when the ac
side of the voltage is ramped up and stabilized, the
individual wind turbines can be automatically connected
to it.
Full, independent control of active (P) and reactive (Q)
powers in each converter station plays an important role in
optimal operations and therefore smart utilization of the
off-shore wind farm. Active power can be dialed and
changed from full-rated import to full-rated export in-
stantly as long as both converters have the same command.
If the converters did not have the same active power
throughput, it would result in accumulating the active Fig. 16. Example of hourly breakdown of renewable energy
resources illustrating the variable nature of wind and solar [3].
(real) power in the voltage of the dc link, quickly charging
them beyond their rated limits. Reactive power, on the
other hand, can be dialed at will independently at each
station. Again, this is important for operability of the variable energies require reserves that would be available
HVDC-VSC-based wind farm so it can meet the Q require- when the variable one is not. Wind experts estimate that as
ments of the wind turbines on one side and still support or a minimum 5%–18% [13], and as an extreme 80% of re-
absorb the reactive power from the system side [26]. serves, are required to back up the wind farms. This is
It is worth mentioning the characteristics of the HVDC where energy storage could substantially reduce the need
VSC-based system at abnormal system conditions. Fault for the reserve power. Electrical energy storage has been a
ride-through (voltage collapse) has already been men- challenge for decades, although the recent focus on energy
tioned in Section IV. The HVDC converters can also re- storage using thermal and mechanical storage and new
spond to the frequency changes on both sides of the dc battery chemistries show promise.
link. If a system-side frequency is dropping, the power In the previous sections, the need for control of active
output of the converters can be increased to counteract it. and reactive power has also been outlined with the ad-
Future possibilities of the technology go even further. vanced technologies of wind turbine converters and HVDC.
One can envision that with full control of the HVDC VSC- A combination of dynamic control of P and Q as well as
based converters, the wind farm can operate at a variable the energy storage for variable generation of power is yet
frequencyVcorresponding to the variable rotor speeds and another technological advance that would be utilized more
variable windsVwhile the grid-side converter is fully syn- in the context of smart grid. Fig. 17 illustrates a funda-
chronized with the constant system frequency of the mental concept of a SVC (Static Var Compensator) com-
power system. This would enhance the efficiency of the bined with the battery energy storage.
wind power conversion even further. Another technolog- Connection to the power grid is accomplished by a
ically smart proposition may be to design the wind farm power transformer and a series reactor. The VSC converts
entirely for dc operation, simplify the conversion equip- ac to dc. In a conventional SVC the dc side is supplied by a
ment within the individual turbines, and transport it as dc capacitor, in this case two capacitors with a grounded mid
to the converter station on the grid side. point. In the combination (called SVC-VSC with Energy
Storage) batteries are in parallel to the capacitors. There is
VI I. SUPPORT OF THE GRID
OPE RAT IONVWIND SVC WITH
ENE RGY S T ORAGE
The variable nature of the solar and wind renewable ener-
gy is unquestionable. Fig. 16 shows an example of the
hourly breakdown of renewable energy resources in
California [3] with clearly variable contributions of wind
and solar.
With such challenges a smart grid should be able not
only to accommodate these resources for strategic environ-
mental reasons, but also take advantage of these energies
to the maximum extend possible. Conventionally, the Fig. 17. Concept of SVC with battery energy storage.

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 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

Table 3 Typical Rating of SVC-VSC With Energy Storage

Another advantage of the SVC with Energy Storage is

active harmonic filtering. SVC can inject a harmonic
current into the grid with such a magnitude as to cancel
the harmonic component of the system voltage. Typical
Fig. 18. Operational regimes of the SVC with Energy Storage.
U1-system voltage at the bus, U2- voltage at the VSC terminals.
ratings of the SVC-VSC with Energy Storage are listed in
Table 3.

a technological synergy of these two solutions. Both

battery storage and SVC operate on the same power VI II . CONCLUSION
electronics converter [25]. Batteries provide the active The growing demand for wind energy will continue its
power support and the capacitors provide the reactive growth path fueled by the production tax credit and in-
power support (either consuming or injecting vars into the vestment tax credit in the United States. The demand of
system). The VSC, as in the case of the HVDC before, is renewable energy is further supported by the renewable
based on IGBTs, and the energy storage uses Li-ion battery portfolio standard (RPS) required by regulators. Additional
technology. legislation in climate changes and energy bills support
The active power requirement is determined by the
rating and duration of the energy needed for variable sup-
port of the grid where the reactive power is determined by
the system voltage and current of the SVC. By controlling
the voltage magnitude and the phase angle across the
reactor in Fig. 17 the reactive and the real power, respec-
tively, to and from the system can be adjusted. The re-
sultant functionality can be illustrated in Fig. 18 where all
four quadrants of energy (þ=  P and þ=  Q) can be
covered.
Clearly, the battery energy storage is not limitless and
every injection of energy into the network has to be fol-
lowed by the recharging period as shown in Fig. 19. But
here again comes the advantage of the combined solution:
the converter acts as a battery charger so there is no need
for additional devices.

Fig. 20. Simulated test of 3 phase fault with the voltage collapse
of 30%. (i) grid voltages, (ii) phase currents, (iii) active and
Fig. 19. Typical cycles of battery energy storage. reactive power output of the converter.

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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

increasing the production of wind energy sources in the

United States.
Advanced wind energy technology, paired with com-
mercially available grid management systems, power elec-
tronics, enhanced medium voltage switchgears for wind
farm application, grid interconnection solutions, cable
technologies, and SVCs with Energy Storage can enable an
efficient, reliable and environmentally-friendly smarter
grid operation. A cost effective wind energy production
and delivery system can be implemented with a systematic
approach and end-to-end design. These enhancements
result in a smart grid that is an adaptive, integrated, and
optimized electricity generation and delivery system,
benefiting both consumers and the eco system. h

APPENDIX A
BEHAVIOR OF THE FULL SCALE MV
CONVERTER FOR WIND POWER [29]
The following graphs illustrate the behavior of the full
scale MV converter shown earlier in Fig. 7 for a 5-MW
wind turbine.
Fig. 20 details a symmetrical, 200 ms, 3 phase fault,
where the voltage measured at the interconnection of the
converter to the MV grid dips down to 0.70 pu. The active

Fig. 22. Grid voltages (i), phase currents (ii), and active and
reactive power (iii), for the case of 50% unbalanced fault.

power drops to about 40% as a result of the fault with the

Fig. 21. Grid voltages, phase currents, and active and reactive
powers for the fault with voltage dip to 18%.
reactive power supporting the fault with about 3.5 Mvar
after the initial drop to around 1 Mvar. Fig. 21 shows a
more severe fault case, where the interconnection voltage
drops to 18% (82% collapse). The fault duration is again
200 ms.
In this case, after the initial collapse the currents start
recovering to almost the pre-fault values feeding mainly
the fault impedance. However, with the severely reduced
grid voltage, the power output of the converter (both active
and reactive) is rather low. After the fault has been cleared
(at about 6.58 s), both powers start their recovery to their
respective prefault values of 5 MW and 2.5 Mvar.
The next two figures present the results of the unba-
lanced, two-phase (phase-to-phase) faults. Fig. 22 corre-
sponds to a 50% voltage dip with the remaining voltage of
the third phase unaffected. Fig. 23 describes the case of a
75% voltage dip to 25%. In the case of a 50% drop, the
active power drops but only to about 1.5 MW whereas the
reactive power after the initial dip recovers to about
3.5 Mvar. In the case of a 75% drop in Fig. 23 (more severe
fault), the active power falls to almost zero with the
reactive power maintaining the output of about 2.5 Mvar.
As before, all the faults were of 200 ms duration.

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 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

Fig. 25. Case of the zero voltage ride-through test of a 2.3 MW full wind
power converter with a step-up transformer. Rms values of the
fundamental voltages and currents.

of the PE converter with the step-up transformer 0.69 kV/

21 kV.
Fig. 24 shows a test set up. Z2 represents the fault
impedance.
A 2.3-MW low-voltage (LV), liquid-cooled full con-
verter drive is subjected to the most severe 3-phase fault
with zero impedance Z2. In this case, the MV side

Fig. 23. Two phase fault with the voltage drop to 0.25pu.
(i) voltages, (ii) currents, (iii) power outputs.

APPENDIX B
LOW-VOLTAGE RIDE-THROUGH
TESTING OF WIND POWER
GENERATOR CONVERTERS [30]
Ride-through fault testing becomes part of the process
of design, and commissioning of the wind turbine systems.
The testing of the low-voltage ride-through of such tur-
bines has been recently standardized in IEC 61400-21. Such
testing can be now performed in the factory to shorten
the commissioning time, on-site performance verifica-
tion, and grid certification. The following case study illus-
trates the results of testing the turbine system consisting Fig. 26. Active and reactive rms currents during a 500 ms
solid bolted fault on the MV side if the transformer.

Fig. 24. Test set-up for a low voltage ride through according to Fig. 27. Waveforms of the phase currents on the medium voltage
IEC 61400-21. WT- wind turbine. Sk-system. side of the transformer (fault current).

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Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

transformer terminal voltages are bolted to ground and the
LV side voltage is determined only by the transformer
impedance.
Fig. 25 shows the rms values of the fundamental
(50 Hz) voltages and currents on both sides of the trans-
former. Fault duration is 500 ms. Fig. 26 shows the corre-
sponding active and reactive rms currents.
Behavior of this turbine converter can now be under-
stood. When the voltages collapse to near zero, limited
only by the transformer impedance, the phase currents
remain almost at 1.0 pu value with just a small transient at
the inception of the short circuit. Since the fault in pre-
dominantly inductive (inductance of the transformer) the
active current drops to 0.2 pu whereas the reactive cur-
rent jumps up to 1.05 pu supporting the fault. After the
removal of the short circuit the active power begins to
recover at a rate of about 1.6 pu/s and the reactive power
drops to the pre-fault value almost immediately. This be-
havior is confirmed in Fig. 27 where the actual waveforms
of the currents on the fault side of the transformer are
illustrated. Note the fault starts at t ¼ 500 ms and is
interrupted at t ¼ 1000 ms. The ramp-up illustrates the
recovery of the active power after clearing. More testing
and case studies can also be found in [31].

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 Glinkowski et al.: Advances in Wind Energy Technologies in the Context of Smart Grid

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mietek Glinkowski (Senior Member, IEEE) grad-
uated from Poznan Polytechnic, Poland, in 1981 in
telecommunication science and from Rensselaer
Polytechnic Institute (RPI), Troy, NY, with M.Eng.
and Ph.D. degrees in electric power engineering in
1985 and 1989, respectively.
He holds seven U.S. Patents and is an author or
coauthor of over 50 technical papers and book
chapters.
Dr. Glinkowski has been a Fulbright Scholar
and a Professor of Electric Power Engineering at RPI. In 1997, he joined
ABB Inc. He has held the variety of positions within ABB, most recently as
a Director of Technology. He is a member of Switchgear Committee, New
York Academy of Sciences, Sigma Xi Research Society, SEP (Polish Society
of Electrical Engineers), CIGRE and the Current Zero Club. He is a
registered Professional Engineer in the state of New York and he acts as a
U.S. National Committee representative to CIGRE Study Committee A3
(HV Equipment).
Gary Rackliffe (Senior Member, IEEE) received
the B.Sci. and M.Eng. degrees in electric power
engineering from Rensselaer Polytechnic Insti-
tute, Troy, NY. He also received the MBA degree
from Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA.
He was appointed to Vice President of Smart
Grids North America at ABB Inc., beginning in May
2009. He leads ABB’s Smart Grid initiative in North
America, including business development, strate-
gic partnerships, and ABB’s marketing and prod-
uct strategies. He has over 25 years of industry experience in both
transmission and distribution and has worked for ABB for 17 years in
Raleigh, NC. He is the coauthor of a book on T&D planning, and has
published several technical papers.
Dr. Rackliffe is a member of the GridWise Smart Grid Implementation
Committee, a member of the DistribuTECH advisory committee, and is a
Registered Professional Engineer in the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.

Jonathan Hou received the Bachelor and Master

degrees in energy technology, energy manage-
ment and computer science from Rochester
Institute of Technology and New York Institute of
Technology.
He is an Executive Consultant providing ser-
vices in Smart Grid Solutions and Asset Data
Management at ABB. He has 20 years of various
industry experiences in smart grid, asset manage-
ment, real-time system, AMI/AMR, energy supply
and demand side management.

Vol. 99, No. 6, June 2011 | Proceedings of the IEEE 1097