International Conference on Renewable Energies and Power Quality

European Association for the Development of Renewable Energies, (ICREPQ’10)

Environment and Power Quality (EA4EPQ) Granada (Spain), 23th to 25th March, 2010

Power Quality aspects of Smart Grids

Math H.J. Bollen1, 2, Jin Zhong3, Francisc Zavoda4, Jan Meyer5 Alex McEachern6, and Felipe Córcoles López7
1
STRI AB, 771 80 Ludvika, Sweden
2
Luleå University of Technology, 931 87 Skellefteå, Sweden
3
The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
4
IREQ (Research Institute of Hydro-Québec), Québec, Canada
5
Technische Universität Dresden, Dresden, Germany
6
Power standards labs, San Francisco, USA
7
Politechnical University of Catalonia, Barcelona, Spain.

a result of the new technologies applied in power

Abstract. This paper gives an overview of the smart grids
developments, seen from a power-quality viewpoint; describes
the main relations between smart grids and power quality, and
goes into some detail for some of the aspects. Different types of
real and virtual energy storage are distinguished. Power-quality
monitoring in the smart grid is discussed in detail. Further
aspects discussed in the paper are: emission by new devices;
interference between devices and power-line communication;
allocation of emission limits; improving voltage quality;
immunity of devices; and weakening of the transmission grid.
Although the smart grid brings many new power-quality
challenges, these should not result in the introduction of
unnecessary barriers against the introduction of new
technology.
Key words
Smart grids; power quality, storage, power-quality
monitoring, distribution automation, harmonics.
1 Introduction
There is at the moment no consistent definition of “a
smart grid” or “the smart grid”. Different people use
different definitions, and the definitions develop with
time. In this paper, we will simply limit ourselves to a
description, and not worry about a precise definition. The
term “smart grid” refers to a way of operating the power
system using communication technology, power
electronic technologies, and storage technologies to
balance production and consumption at all levels, i.e.
from inside of the customer premises all the way up to
the highest voltage levels [1][2]. An alternative way of
defining the concept is as the set of technologies,
whatever they may be, that are needed to allow new types
of production and new types of consumption to be
integrated in the electric power system
The concept of “smart grid” was started from a number
of the technology innovations in the power industry. It is
systems, including renewable energy sources generation,
distributed generation, and the latest information and
communication technology.
With the (technical and regulatory) developments of
renewable energy generation technologies, the
penetration level of especially wind power has becomes
very high in some parts of the system. Similar
developments are expected for solar power and domestic
combined heat and power. However, the increase in
intermittent, non-predictable and non-dispatchable
energy generation puts highest requirements on power
balance control, from primary control through
operational planning. The traditional control and
communication system needs to be improved to
accommodate for a high penetration of renewable energy
sources.
The term “microgrid” is used to describe a customer-
owned installation containing generation as well as
consumption, where there is a large controllability of the
exchange of power between the microgrid and the rest of
the grid [3]. Such microgrids provide the possibilities of
load-shifting and peak-shaving through demand side
management. Consumers could use the electricity from
their own sources or even sell electricity to the grid
during the peaking periods, hence increase the energy
efficiency and defer the investments in transmission and
distribution networks. To perform demand response in a
most efficient way, the market and system operation
conditions need to be known. Smart meters / advanced
metering infrastructure (AMI) and two-way
communication technologies can provide consumers and
operators the information for decision making.
The automation system of the traditional power system is
still based on the design and operation of the system as it
was decades ago. The latest developments in information
and communication technologies have only found very
limited implementation in the power system automation.
One of the objectives of smart grid is to update the power
system automation (including transmission, distribution,
substation, individual feeders and even individual
customers) using the latest technology.
Besides technology innovations, another important
reason for smart grid is to improve the services in power
supply to consumers. Through AMI (also known as
“smart meters”), consumers are no longer passive
consumers. They can monitor their own voltage and
power and manage their energy consumption for example
based on the electricity prices. Feedback on consumption
is also seen as an important tool for energy saving.
2 Balancing Production and Consumption
Any amount of production or consumption can be
connected at any location in the power system provided
the difference between these two remains within a certain
band. The unbalance between production and
consumption at a certain location is provided by the
transfer capacity from the rest of the system. The
situation can be more complicated in meshed systems,
but this is the basic rule.
Traditionally, production capacity and consumption
demand have been seen as independent of each other. So
the traditional grid has been designed to cope with the
maximum amount of production, and also with the
maximum amount of consumption. This approach sets
hard limits on both production and consumption.
A “smart grid” that can control, or influence, both
production and consumption would allow more of both to
be integrated into the power system.
To accomplish this goal, communication technology may
be order to inform or encourage changes in production
(i.e. generator units) and consumption (i.e. customers or
devices). Most published studies propose some kind of
market mechanism to maintain balance between
production and consumption, but more direct methods are
also possible, with either the network operator or an
independent entity taking control.
Different methods are available to balance consumption
and production while at the same time optimizing energy
efficiency, reliability and/or power quality.

Physical energy storage, for example in the form of
batteries or pumped-storage hydro. Such storage
could be owned and operator by a customer (an end-
user or a generator company), owned by a customer
and operated by the network operator, or owned and
operated by the network operator.

Virtual energy storage, by shifting of energy
consumption to a later or earlier moment in time.
Charging of car batteries is often mentioned, but this
method of virtual storage can also be used for
cooling or heating loads. It is important to realize
that this approach does not result in energy saving,
but in more efficient use of the generation facilities
and the power system transport capacity. The total
energy consumption may be reduced somewhat, for
example by reduced losses, reduced average
temperatures with heating systems (increased with
cooling ), and the ability to use more efficient forms
of energy, but these are minor effects and they
should not be seen as the main reason for introducing
the new technology.

Load shedding, where load is removed from the
system when all other methods fail. This method is
available now but is rarely used in most countries.
Accepting the occasional small amount of load
shedding may, in some cases save large investments
in the power system. (In some developing countries,
uncontrolled and inadvertent load shedding often
occurs automatically during grid or generator
overload, but this is a poor example of load
shedding, and hopefully only a temporary situation.)
Under-frequency load shedding, as used in almost all
systems, can be seen as an extreme case of reserve
capacity in the form of load shedding. This is not the
kind of application that is normally considered in the
discussion on smart grids.

Curtailment of production: For renewable sources
like sun and wind, the primary energy is usually
transformed into electricity whenever it is available.
But if generation exceeds consumption, renewable
sources may be turned off, or curtailed. The term
“spilled wind” is sometimes used to express this
concept.

Shifting of production: for sources like natural gas
(for combined-heat-and-power) or hydro power, the
primary energy source can be temporarily stored,
then used at a later time. Not using the primary
energy sources will make it available at a later time.
3 Power quality
In the ongoing discussions about smart grids, power
quality has to become an important aspect and should not
be neglected. An adequate power quality guarantees the
necessary compatibility between all equipment connected
to the grid. It is therefore an important issue for the
successful and efficient operation of existing as well as
future grids. However power quality issues should not
form an unnecessary barrier against the development of
smart grids or the introduction of renewable sources of
energy. The “smart” properties of future grids should
rather be a challenge for new approaches in an efficient
management of power quality. Especially the advanced
communication technologies can establish new ways for
selective power quality management.
Power quality covers two groups of disturbances:
variations and events [4]. While variations are
continuously measured and evaluated, events occur in
general unpredictable and require a trigger action to be
measured. Important variations (cf. EN 50160) are: slow
voltage changes, harmonics, flicker and unbalance.
Important events are rapid voltage changes, dips, swells
and interruptions.
The actual power quality (i.e. the disturbance levels)
results from the interaction between the network and the
connected equipment (cf. Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 main influences on power quality.
All three areas are expected to see significant changes in
the future. This means that power quality issues will also
change with the consecutive development of future grids.
The following comments shall give some examples for
possible future developments in power quality. Further
expected developments are also discussed in Section 5.
a) Generating equipment
The penetration of microgeneration (typically defined as
generation with a rated power of less than 16 A per
phase) in the low-voltage networks is expected to
increase continuously. In domestic installations this will
be mainly single phase equipment based on self-
commutating inverters with switching frequencies in the
range of several kHz. Emissions in the range of low order
harmonics can usually be neglected. The emissions shift
into the range of higher frequencies, possibly between 2
and 9 kHz, where a serious discussion is needed on the
choice of appropriate limits. We will come back to this in
Section 5.1.
Furthermore micro-generation equipment will often be
connected single-phase. This could increase the negative-
sequence and zero-sequence voltage in the low-voltage
grid. In weak distribution networks, existing limits could
be exceeded rather quickly. Reconsidering the limits for
negative-sequence voltages and introducing limits for
zero-sequence voltage could be possible needed.
b) Consumer equipment
The introduction of new and more efficient technologies
is the main driver for changes in consumer equipment.
One widely-discussed example is the change from
incandescent lamps to energy saving lamps. Compact
fluorescent lamps are at the moment the main
replacement for incandescent lamps, but they are
probably only an intermediate step before the LED-
technique will become widely accepted. Seen from the
network, each of the new lamp technologies results in the
replacement of a resistive load by a rectifier load. The
fundamental current is reduced significantly whereas the
harmonic currents are increased. High penetration
together with high coincidence of operation may lead to
an increase of low order harmonics. Several network
operators fear an increase of especially the fifth harmonic
voltage above the compatibility levels. Discussion is
ongoing in IEC working groups about the need for
additional emission requirements on new types of
lighting of low wattage. The same would hold for other
improved (energy-efficient drives) or new (photovoltaics,
battery chargers for electric and hybrid cars) equipment.
As mentioned before, such limits should however not
result in unnecessary barriers against the introduction of
new equipment. Alternative paths, like an increase of the
compatibility levels for some higher harmonics, should at
least be considered.
c) Distribution network
The short-circuit power is an important factor in power
quality management. Under constant emission a higher
short circuit power results in a better voltage quality.
Today the short-circuit power is mainly determined by
the upstream network. In the IEC electromagnetic-
compatibility standards standards a reference impedance
(cf. IEC 60725) is used as a link between compatibility
levels (voltages) and emission limits (currents). In future
grids with high penetration of generation significant
differing supply scenarios may be possible, from supply
by a strong upstream network to an islanded (self-
balanced) operation. This may lead to a significantly
higher variability in short circuit power than today. Thus
the approach based on fixed reference impedances may
be inadequate or the use of high emitting loads may only
be acceptable for certain operational states of the network
or only in conjunction with power quality conditioners
(owned by a customer, by the network operator, or by a
third party).
Due to the continuous decrease of resistive loads
providing damping stability issues may become
important for low-voltage networks too. In conjunction
with increasing capacitive load (the EMC filters of
electronic equipment) resonance points with decreasing
resonant frequencies as well as lower damping can
appear.
4 Power-quality monitoring
Growing service quality expectations and reduced
possibilities for grid enforcements make advanced
distribution automation (ADA) an increasingly necessary
development for network operators and the next large
step in the evolution of the power systems to smart grids.
The management of the distribution system is mainly
based on the information collected from the power flows
by an integrated monitoring system. This enables real-
time monitoring of grid conditions for the power system
operators. It also enables automatic reconfiguration of the
network to optimize the power delivery efficiency and to
reduce the extent and duration of interruptions. The basic
part of the monitoring system infrastructure is based on
sensors, transducers, intelligent electronic devices (IED)
and (revenue) meters collecting information throughout
the distribution system.
A number of network operators have already proposed
that the smart grid of the future should include:

Network monitoring to improve reliability,

Equipment monitoring to improve maintenance,

Product (power) monitoring to improve PQ.
In order to achieve these goals, the actual distribution
system infrastructure (especially meters and remotely
controlled IEDs) should be used to gather as much
information as possible related to network, equipment
and product (i.e. power quality and reliability) to improve
the distribution system overall performance.
Among the most important ADA operating systems, that
a smart grid will include, it can be mentioned:

Volt & var control (VVC),

Fault location (FL),

Network reconfiguration or self-healing.
Network operators with an ambitious energy efficiency
program have focused on two targets:

Capacitor banks installation,

Voltage control.
There is also another important goal: to reduce the
duration of interruptions. To answer to these challenges,
pilot projects are being conducted on conservation
voltage reduction and fault location based on power
quality related measurements provided by IEDs and
revenue meters.
The VVC system requires a permanent monitoring of the
voltage magnitude (averaged over 1 to 5 min) at the end
of the distribution feeder and the installation of switched
capacitor banks. Besides that, the monitoring allows the
detection of power quality disturbances such as long-
duration undervoltages and overvoltages, and voltage and
current unbalance.
Basically, the voltage regulation system at the substation
is replaced with an intelligent system that uses network
measurements to maintain a voltage magnitude for all
customers within the acceptable upper and lower limits.
The VVC system also analyzes the reactive-power
requirements of the network and orders the switching of
capacitor banks when required.
An important goal is to prevent potential power quality
problems due to the switching operations of capacitor
banks (with rating up to 1.2 Mvar). [13].
Another goal was to evaluate the joint impact of the VVC
system and voltage dips occurring on the grid. The results
of the study indicate that the impact can be quantified by
two effects:

Increasing number of shallow voltage dips is
expected. Voltage reduction from 2 to 4% is
obtained due to VVC system. Added to this is the
voltage drop due to the fault: drops of 6 to 10% (not
counted as dips) become drops of 10 to 12% (which
are counted as dips).

Equipment malfunctioning or tripping: the joint
contribution of the VVC system and the disturbance
brings the residual voltage level below a critical
threshold, around 70% of the nominal voltage for
many devices.
Fault location is based either on a voltage drop fault
location technique that uses waveforms from distributed
power quality measurements along the feeder or on a
fault current technique based on the measurement of the
fault current at the substation. According to [14] the
average error in locating the fault with the first technique
was less than 2%, in terms of the average main feeder
length. An accurate fault-location technique results in a
significant reduction in the duration of (especially) the
longer interruptions. The information collected by the
fault-location system can also be used for calculating dip
related statistics and help to better understand the grid
behaviour [15].
The third application, network reconfiguration or self
healing, is based either on local intelligence (belonging to
major distribution equipment controllers) or on decisions
taken at the power system control centre, which remotely
controls and operates the equipment used for network
reconfiguration (reclosers and switches).
The impact of these applications on the distribution
network and its customers is permanently evaluated.
The infrastructure belonging to ADA systems can be
shared by a power-quality monitoring system capable of
real time monitoring.
Depending on the type of ADA application or system, the
monitoring can be done either at low-voltage or at
medium-voltage level. In the first case monitoring
devices may belong to an Advanced Metering
Infrastructure (AMI) and in the second case they may
belong to the distribution major equipment itself (i.e.
controllers) (see Fig. 2) [16].
Distribution Automation Flow of Information
New Technologies
• T
• T • T
• T
• T
DATA Applications Business needs
(How?) (Why?)
(Using what?)
Voltage
Voltage Control
Energy Efficiency
Optimised Load Flow
Fault Current
Load Current
Fault Location
Reliability
Distributed Resources
Faulty Equipment
Temperature
Number of Operations
Power Quality Evaluation
Power Quality
Customer Satisfaction
…
Alarms
…
Fig. 2. Distribution Automation flow of information
The smart grid will allow a continuous power-quality
monitoring that will not improve directly the voltage
quality but will detect quality problems helping to
mitigate them.
5 Different Power-Quality Issues
5.1 Emission by new devices
When smart grids are introduced, we expect growth both
in production at lower voltage levels (distributed
generation) and in new types of consumption (for
example, charging stations for electric vehicles, expanded
high-speed railways, etc.). . Some of these new types of
consumption will emit power-quality disturbances, for
example harmonic emission. Preliminary studies have
shown that harmonic emission due to distributed
generation is rather limited. Most existing end-user
equipment (computer, television, lamps, etc) emit almost
exclusively at the lower odd integer harmonics (3, 5, 7, 9
etc), but there are indications that modern devices
including certain types of distributed generators emit a
broadband spectrum [6][7][8][9][12]. Using the standard
methods of grouping into harmonic and interharmonic
groups and subgroups below 2 kHz will result in high
levels for even harmonics and interharmonics. For
frequencies above 2 kHz high levels have been observed
for the 200-Hz groups. An example is shown in Fig. 3:
the spectrum of the emission by a group of three full-
power converter wind turbines, where 1 A is about 1% of
the rated current.
0.5
0.4
Current (A)
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
10 20 30 40
Harmonic Order
Fig. 3. Spectrum of the current for a group of three wind
turbines: 95% values of the harmonic and interharmonic
subgroups. The three colours and symbols refer to the three
phases.
The emission is low over the whole spectrum, being at
most 0.5% of the nominal current. The combination of a
number of discrete components at the characteristic
harmonics (5 and 7, 11 and 13, 17 and 19, etc) together
with a broadband spectrum over a wide frequency range,
is also being emitted by other equipment like energy-
efficient drives, microgenerators, and photo-voltaic
installations. The levels are not always as low as for the
example shown here. The existing compatibility levels
are very low for some frequencies, as low as 0.2%.
Harmonic resonances are more common at these higher
frequencies so that any reference impedance for linking
emission limits to compatibility levels should be set
rather high. Keeping strict to existing compatibility limits
and existing methods of setting emission limits could put
excessive demands on new equipment.
The measurement of these low levels of harmonics at
higher frequencies will be more difficult than for the
existing situation with higher levels and lower
frequencies. This might require the development of new
measurement techniques including a closer look at the
frequency response of existing instrument transformers.
The presence of emission at higher frequencies than
before also calls for better insight in the source
impedance at these frequencies: at the point of
connection with the grid as well as at the terminals of the
emitting equipment.
5.2 Interference between devices and power-
line-communication
Smart grids will depend to a large extent on the ability to
communicate between devices, customers, distributed
generators, and the grid operator. Many types of
communication channels are possible. Power-line
communication might seem an obvious choice due to its
easy availability, but choosing power-line
communication could introduce new disturbances in the
power system, resulting in a further reduction in power
quality. Depending on the frequency chosen for power-
line communication, it may also result in radiated
disturbances, possibly interfering with radio broadcasting
and communication.
It is also true that modern devices can interfere with
power-line-communication, either by creating a high
disturbance level at the frequency chosen for power-line
communication, or by creating a low-impedance path,
effectively shorting out the power-line communication
signal. The latter seems to be the primary challenge to
power-line communication today [11].
So far, there have been no reports of widespread
interference with sensitive equipment caused by power-
line-communication, but its increased use calls for a
detailed study.
5.3 Allocation of Emission Limits
When connecting a new customer to the power system,
an assessment is typically made of the amount of
emission that would be acceptable from this customer
without resulting in unacceptable levels of voltage
disturbance for other customers. For each new customer a
so-called emission limit is allocated. The total amount of
acceptable voltage distortion is divided over all existing
and future customers. This assumes however that it is
known how many customers will be connected in the
future [17].
With smart grids, the amount of consumption will have
no limit provided it is matched by a similar growth in
production. This continued growth in both production
and consumption could lead to the harmonic voltage
distortion becoming unacceptably high. Also the number
of switching actions will keep on increasing and might
reach unacceptable values. One may say that production
and consumption are in balance at the power-system
frequency, but not at harmonic frequencies.
Another way of looking at this is that the system strength
is no longer determined by the maximum amount of
consumption and/or production connected downstream,
but by the total amount of harmonic emission coming
from downstream equipment. This will require a different
way of planning the distribution network.
5.4 Improving Voltage Quality
One aim of smart grids is to improve the performance of
the power system (or to prevent deterioration) without the
need for large investments in lines, cables, transformers,
etc.
From a customer viewpoint, the improvements can be in
terms of reliability, voltage quality or price. All other
improvements (e.g. in loading of cables or transformers,
protection coordination, operational security, efficiency)
are secondary to the customer.
Improvements in reliability and price are discussed in
detail in several other papers and beyond the scope of this
paper. The only voltage-quality improvement expected to
be made by smart grids in the near future would be a
reduction in longer-term voltage-magnitude variations. In
theory, both undervoltages and overvoltages might be
mitigated by keeping the correct local balance between
production and consumption [18][19]. For rural
networks, overvoltages and undervoltages are the main
limitation for increasing consumption and production.
These networks should therefore be addressed first.
The same balance between “production” and
“consumption” can in theory also be used for the control
of harmonic voltages. When the harmonic voltage
becomes too large, either an emitting source could be
turned off, or a harmonic filter could be turned on, or a
device could be turned on that emits in opposite phase
(the difference between these solutions is actually not
always easy to see). Smart grid communication and
control techniques, similar to those used to balance
consumption and production (including market rules),
could be set up to reduce harmonic emissions. This could
be a solution for the growing harmonic emission with
growing amounts of production and consumption.
Microgrids with islanding capability can, in theory,
mitigate voltage dips by going very quickly from grid-
connected operation to island operation.
The presence of generator units close to the loads allows
the use of these units in maintaining the voltage during a
fault in the grid.
5.5 Immunity of devices
Simultaneous tripping of many distributed generators due
to a voltage-quality disturbance (like a voltage dip) is the
subject of active discussion [5][10]. This problem is far
from solved. As a smart grid attempts to maintain a
balance between production and consumption, mass
tripping of consumption could have similar adverse
consequences. This should be further investigated.
5.6 Weakening of the transmission grid
The increased use of distributed generation and of large
windparks will result in a reduction of the amount of
conventional generation connected to the transmission
system. The fault level will consequently be reduced, and
power-quality disturbances will spread further. This will
worsen voltage dips, fast voltage fluctuations (flicker)
and harmonics. The severity of this has been studied for
voltage dips. The conclusion from the study is that even
with 20% wind power there is no significant increase in
the number of voltage dips due to faults in the
transmission system [20].
6 Conclusions
The new technology associated with smart grids offers
the opportunity to improve the quality and reliability as
experience by the customers. It will however also result
in the increase of disturbance levels in several cases and
thereby introduce a number of new challenges. But these
new challenges should definitely not be used as
arguments against the development of smart grids.
However they should attract attention to the importance
of power quality for the successful and reliable operation
of smart grids. New developments need new approaches
and perspectives from all parties involved (network
operators, equipment manufacturers, customers,
regulators, standardization bodies, and others).
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