Puranas

Purana (/pʊˈrɑːnə/; Sanskrit: पुराण, purāṇa; literally

meaning "ancient, old"[1]) is a vast genre of Indian literature
about a wide range of topics, particularly about legends and
other traditional lore.[2] The Puranas are known for the
intricate layers of symbolism depicted within their stories.
Composed originally in Sanskrit[3] and in other Indian
languages,[4][5] several of these texts are named after major
Hindu gods such as Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma, and Adi
Shakti.[6][7] The Puranic genre of literature is found in both
Hinduism and Jainism.[5]

The Puranic literature is encyclopedic,[1] and it includes

diverse topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, genealogies
of gods, goddesses, kings, heroes, sages, and demigods,
folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine, astronomy,
grammar, mineralogy, humor, love stories, as well as
theology and philosophy.[2][4][6] The content is highly
inconsistent across the Puranas, and each Purana has
survived in numerous manuscripts which are themselves
inconsistent.[5] The Hindu Maha Puranas are traditionally
attributed to "Vyasa", but many scholars considered them
likely the work of many authors over the centuries; in
contrast, most Jaina Puranas can be dated and their authors
assigned.[5]

There are 18 Mukhya Puranas (Major Puranas) and 18 Upa

Puranas (Minor Puranas),[8] with over 400,000 verses.[2]
The first versions of various Puranas were likely to have Purana manuscripts from 15th to 19th century
been composed between 3rd and 10th century CE.[9] The
Puranas do not enjoy the authority of a scripture in
Hinduism,[8] but are considered as Smritis.[10]

They have been influential in the Hindu culture, inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of
Hinduism.[11] Their role and value as sectarian religious texts and historical texts has been controversial
because all Puranas praise many gods and goddesses and "their sectarianism is far less clear cut" than
assumed, states Ludo Rocher.[12] The religious practices included in them are considered Vaidika
(congruent with Vedic literature), because they do not preach initiation into Tantra.[13] The Bhagavata
Purana has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is, in the opinion of
some, of non-dualistic tenor.[14][15] But, the dualistic school of Shriman Madhvacharya has a rich and
strong tradition of dualistic interpretation of the Bhagavata, starting from the Bhagavata Taatparya Nirnaya
of the Acharya himself and later, commentaries on the commentary. The Chaitanya school also rejects
outright any monistic interpretation of the purana. The Puranic literature wove with the Bhakti movement in
India, and both Dvaita and Advaita scholars have commented on the underlying Vedantic themes in the
Maha Puranas.[16]

Etymology
Douglas Harper states that the etymological origins of Puranas are from Sanskrit Puranah, literally
"ancient, former," from pura "formerly, before," cognate with Greek paros "before," pro "before," Avestan
paro "before," Old English fore, from Proto-Indo-European *pre-, from *per-."[17]

Origin
Vyasa, the narrator of the Mahabharata, is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas. The
ancient tradition suggests that originally there was but one Purana. Vishnu Purana (3.6.15) mentions that
Vyasa entrusted his Puranasamhita to his disciple Lomaharshana, who in turn imparted it to his
disciples,[note 1] three of whom compiled their own samhitas. These three, together with Lomaharshana's,
comprise the Mulasamhita, from which the later eighteen Puranas were derived.[18][19]

The term Purana appears in the Vedic texts. For example, Atharva Veda mentions Purana (in the singular)
in XI.7.24 and XV.6.10-11:[20]

"The rk and saman verses, the chandas, the Purana along with the Yajus formulae, all sprang
from the remainder of the sacrificial food, (as also) the demigods that resort to heaven. He
changed his place and went over to great direction, and Itihasa and Purana, gathas, verses in
praise of heroes followed in going over."

— Atharva Veda XV.6.10-11, [21]

Similarly, the Shatapatha Brahmana (XI.5.6.8) mentions Itihasapuranam (as one compound word) and
recommends that on the 9th day of Pariplava, the hotr priest should narrate some Purana because "the
Purana is the Veda, this it is" (XIII.4.3.13). However, states P.V. Kane, it is not certain whether these texts
suggested several works or single work with the term Purana.[22] The late Vedic text Taittiriya Aranyaka
(II.10) uses the term in the plural. Therefore, states Kane, that in the later Vedic period at least, the Puranas
referred to three or more texts, and that they were studied and recited.[22] In numerous passages the
Mahabharata mentions 'Purana' in both singular and plural forms. Moreover, it is not unlikely that, where
the singular 'Puranam' was employed in the texts, a class of works was meant.[22] Further, despite the
mention of the term Purana or Puranas in the Vedic texts, there is uncertainty about the contents of them
until the composition of the oldest Dharmashastra Apastamba Dharmasutra and Gautama Dharmasutra,
that mention Puranas resembling with the extant Puranas.[22]

Another early mention of the term 'Itihas-purana' is found in the Chandogya Upanishad (7.1.2), translated
by Patrick Olivelle as "the corpus of histories and ancient tales as the fifth Veda".[23][24][note 2] The
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad also refers to purana as the "fifth Veda".[26][27]

According to Thomas Coburn, Puranas and early extra-puranic texts attest to two traditions regarding their
origin, one proclaiming a divine origin as the breath of the Great Being, the other as a human named Vyasa
as the arranger of already existing material into eighteen Puranas. In the early references, states Coburn, the
term Purana occurs in singular unlike the later era which refers to a plural form presumably because they
had assumed their "multifarious form".[19]
According to the Indologists J. A. B. van Buitenen and Cornelia Dimmitt, the Puranas that have survived
into the modern era are ancient but represent "an amalgam of two somewhat different but never entirely
different separate oral literatures: the Brahmin tradition stemming from the reciters of the Vedas, and the
bardic poetry recited by Sutas that was handed down in Kshatriya circles".[28] The original Puranas comes
from the priestly roots while the later genealogies have the warrior and epic roots. These texts were
collected for the "second time between the fourth and sixth centuries CE under the rule of the Gupta kings",
a period of Hindu renaissance.[29] However, the editing and expansion of the Puranas did not stop after the
Gupta era, and the texts continued to "grow for another five hundred or a thousand years" and these were
preserved by priests who maintained Hindu pilgrimage sites and temples.[29] The core of Itihasa-Puranas,
states Klaus Klostermaier, may possibly go back to the seventh century BCE or even earlier.[30]

It is not possible to set a specific date for any Purana as a whole, states Ludo Rocher. He points out that
even for the better established and more coherent puranas such as Bhagavata and Vishnu, the dates
proposed by scholars continue to vary widely and endlessly.[18] The date of the production of the written
texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas.[31] They existed in an oral form before being written
down.[31] In the 19th century, F. E. Pargiter believed the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final
redaction of the Vedas.[32] Wendy Doniger, based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to
the various Puranas. She dates Markandeya Purana to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550 CE),
Matsya Purana to c. 250–500 CE, Vayu Purana to c. 350 CE, Harivamsa and Vishnu Purana to c. 450 CE,
Brahmanda Purana to c. 350–950 CE, Vamana Purana to c. 450–900 CE, Kurma Purana to c. 550–850
CE, and Linga Purana to c. 600–1000 CE.[9]

Texts

Mahapuranas

Of the many texts designated 'Puranas' the most important are the Mahāpurāṇas or the major Puranas.[8]
These are said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six, though they are not always
counted in the same way.In the Vishnu Purana Part 3 Section 6(21-24) the list of Mahapuranas is
mentioned. The Bhagavat Purana mentions the number of verses in each Purana in 12.13(4-9).
 Verses
S.No. Purana Name Comments
number

Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it
first of 18.[33] The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with
10,000 Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the Mahabharata. Includes
1 Brahma
verses mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics.
Describes holy places in Odisha, and weaves themes of Vishnu and
Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.[33]

A large compilation of diverse topics, it describes cosmology, the world

and nature of life from the perspective of Vishnu. It also discusses
festivals, numerous legends, geography of rivers and regions from
northwest India to Bengal to the kingdom of Tripura, major sages of India,
various Avatars of Vishnu and his cooperation with Shiva, a story of Rama-
55,000 Sita that is different from the Hindu epic Ramayana.[34] The north Indian
2 Padma
verses manuscripts of Padma Purana are very different from south Indian
versions, and the various recensions in both groups in different languages
(Devanagari and Bengali, for example) show major inconsistencies.[35] Like
the Skanda Purana, it is a detailed treatise on travel and pilgrimage
centers in India.[34][36]
One of the most studied and circulated Puranas, it also contains
genealogical details of various dynasties.[37] Better preserved after the
17th century, but exists in inconsistent versions, more ancient pre-15th
23,000
3 Vishnu century versions are very different from modern versions, with some
verses
versions discussing Buddhism and Jainism. Some chapters likely
composed in Kashmir and Punjab region of South Asia. A Vaishnavism
text, focused on Vishnu.[38]
The Shiva Purana is one of eighteen Purana genre of Sanskrit texts in
Hinduism, and part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily centers
around the Hindu god Shiva and goddess Parvati, but references and
reveres all gods.
24,000
4 Shiva
verses The Shiva Purana asserts that it once consisted of 100,000
verses set out in twelve samhitas (books), however the
Purana adds that it was abridged by sage Vyasa before being
taught to Romaharshana.

The most studied and popular of the Puranas,[14][39] telling of Vishnu's

Avatars, and of Vaishnavism. It contains genealogical details of various
18,000
5 Bhagavata dynasties.[37] Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical
verses
manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.[40] Influential and elaborated
during Bhakti movement.[41]
Also called Naradiya Purana. Discusses the four Vedas and the six
Vedangas. Dedicates one chapter each, from Chapters 92 to 109, to
summarize the other 17 Maha Puranas and itself. Lists major rivers of
25,000 India and places of pilgrimage, and a short tour guide for each. Includes
6 Narada
verses discussion of various philosophies, soteriology, planets, astronomy, myths
and characteristics of major deities including Vishnu, Shiva, Devi, Krishna,
Rama, Lakshmi and others.[42]
Describes Vindhya Range and western India. Probably composed in the
valleys of Narmada and Tapti rivers, in Maharashtra and Gujarat.[43]
9,000
7 Markandeya Named after sage Markandeya, a student of Brahma. Contains chapters on
verses
dharma and on Hindu epic Mahabharata.[44] The Purana includes Devi
Mahatmyam of Shaktism.
8 Agni 15,400 Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila (Bihar
verses and neighboring states), cultural history, politics, education system,
iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper
 causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water
distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra
(architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and
numerous other topics.[45]
The Bhavishya Purana (Bhaviṣya Purāṇa, lit. "Future Purana") is one of
the eighteen major works in the Purana genre of Hinduism, written in
Sanskrit.The title Bhavishya means "future" and implies it is a work that
14,500 contains prophecies regarding the future, however, the "prophecy" parts of
9 Bhavishya
verses the extant manuscripts are a modern era addition and hence not an integral
part of the Bhavishya Purana.Those sections of the surviving manuscripts
that are dated to be older, are partly borrowed from other Indian texts such
as Brihat Samhita and Shamba Purana.

It is related by Savarni to Narada, and centres around the greatness of

Krishna and Radha. In this, the story of Brahma-varaha is repeatedly
18,000
10 Brahmavaivarta told.[46] Notable for asserting that Krishna is the supreme reality and the
verses
gods Vishnu, Shiva, Brahma are incarnations of him.[47] Mentions
geography and rivers such as Ganga to Kaveri.
Discusses Lingam, symbol of Shiva, and origin of the universe as per
11,000
11 Linga Shaivism. It also contains many stories of Lingam, one of which entails
verses
how Agni Lingam solved a dispute between Vishnu and Brahma.

Primarily Vishnu-related worship manual, with large Mahatmya sections or

24,000 travel guide to Mathura and Nepal.[48] Presentation focuses on Varaha as
12 Varaha
verses incarnation of Narayana, but rarely uses the terms Krishna or
Vasudeva.[48] Many illustrations also involve Shiva and Durga.[49]
Describes the birth of Skanda (or Karthikeya), son of Shiva. The longest
Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous pilgrimage guide, containing
81,100 geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related legends,
13 Skanda
verses parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this
text.[50]

10,000
14 Vamana Describes North India, particularly Himalayan foothills region.
verses
17,000 Contains a combination of Vishnu and Shiva related legends, mythology,
15 Kurma
verses Tirtha (pilgrimage) and theology

An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[51] Narrates the story of Matsya, the

first of ten major Avatars of Vishnu. Likely composed in west India, by
14,000 people aware of geographical details of the Narmada river. Includes
16 Matsya
verses
legends about Brahma and Saraswati.[52] It also contains a controversial
genealogical details of various dynasties.[37]

An encyclopedia of diverse topics.[51] Primarily about Vishnu, but praises

all gods. Describes how Vishnu, Shiva and Brahma collaborate. Many
chapters are a dialogue between Vishnu and the bird-vehicle Garuda.
Cosmology, Describes cosmology, relationship between gods. Discusses
ethics, what are crimes, good versus evil, various schools of Hindu
philosophies, the theory of Yoga, the theory of "heaven and hell" with
"karma and rebirth", includes Upanishadic discussion of self-knowledge as
a means of moksha.[53] Includes chapters on rivers, geography of Bharat
19,000 (India) and other nations on earth, types of minerals and stones, testing
17 Garuda
verses methods for stones for their quality, various diseases and their symptoms,
various medicines, aphrodisiacs, prophylactics, Hindu calendar and its
basis, astronomy, moon, planets, astrology, architecture, building home,
essential features of a temple, rites of passage, virtues such as
compassion, charity and gift making, economy, thrift, duties of a king,
politics, state officials and their roles and how to appointment them, genre
of literature, rules of grammar, and other topics.[53] The final chapters
discuss how to practice Yoga (Samkhya and Advaita types), personal
development and the benefits of self-knowledge.[53]
 One of the earliest composed Puranas, it contains a controversial
genealogical details of various dynasties.[37] Includes Lalita
12,000
18 Brahmanda Sahasranamam, law codes, system of governance, administration,
verses
diplomacy, trade, ethics. Old manuscripts of Brahmanda Purana have been
found in the Hindu literature collections of Bali, Indonesia.[51][54]

In Shiva Purana – Uma Samhita mentioned following list of Mahapuranas:[55]

No. Purana

1 Brahma
2 Padma

3 Vishnu

4 Shiva

5 Devi Bhagavata[note 3]
6 Naradiya

7 Markandeya

8 Agneya
9 Bhavishya

10 Brahmavaivarta

11 Linga
12 Varaha

13 Skanda

14 Vamana
15 Kurma

16 Matsya
17 Garuda

18 Brahmanda

In Devi Bhagavata the Vayu Purana is mentioned instead of the Shiva Purana. The Mahapuranas have also
been classified based on a specific deity, although the texts are mixed and revere all gods and goddesses:

Brāhma:[35] Brahma Purana, Padma Purana

Surya:[35] Brahma Vaivarta Purana[note 4]

Agni:[35] Agni Purana[note 5]

Śaiva:[35] Shiva Purana, Linga Purana

Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Skanda Purana, Varaha Purana, Nāradeya Purana, Garuda
Purana, Vayu Purana, Varaha Purana,[note 6] Matsya Purana, Bhavishya
Vaiṣṇava:[35]
Purana,[note 7][note 7][note 6] Vāmana Purana,[note 7] Kūrma Purana,[note 7] Mārkandeya
Purana,[note 8] Brahmānda Purana

Śakta: Devi-Bhagavata Purana, Markandeya Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Skanda Purana

All major Puranas contain sections on Devi (goddesses) and Tantra; the six most significant of these are:
Markandeya Purana, Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Agni Purana and Padma
Purana.[61]

Upapurana

The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas

has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, "a
Mahapurana is well known, and that what is less well
known becomes an Upapurana".[62] Rocher states that
the distinction between Mahapurana and Upapurana is
ahistorical, there is little corroborating evidence that
either were more or less known, and that "the term
Mahapurana occurs rarely in Purana literature, and is
probably of late origin."[63]
The Goddess Durga Leading the Eight Matrikas in
The Upapuranas are eighteen in number, with Battle Against the Demon Raktabija, Folio from
disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in Devi Mahatmyam, Markandeya Purana.
that list of eighteen.

They include among –

1. Sanat-kumara
2. Narasimha
3. Brihan-naradiya
4. Siva-rahasya
5. Durvasa
6. Kapila
7. Vamana
8. Bhargava
9. Varuna
10. Kalika
11. Samba
12. Nandi
13. Surya
14. Parasara
15. Vasishtha
16. Ganesha
17. Mudgala
18. Hamsa

With only a few having been critically edited.[64][65]

The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to Ganesha.[66][67]

Skanda Purana
The Skanda Purana is the largest Purana with 81,000 verses,[68] named after deity Skanda, the son of Shiva
and Uma, and brother of deity Ganesha.[69] The mythological part of the text weaves the stories of Shiva
and Vishnu, along with Parvati, Rama, Krishna and other major gods in the Hindu pantheon.[68] In Chapter
1.8, it declares,

Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu.

— Skanda Purana, 1.8.20-21[70][71]

The Skanda Purana has received renewed scholarly interest ever since the late 20th-century discovery of a
Nepalese Skanda Purana manuscript dated to be from the early 9th century. This discovery established that
Skanda Purana existed by the 9th century. However, a comparison shows that the 9th-century document is
entirely different from versions of Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South Asia since the colonial
era.[72]

Content
Several Puranas, such as the Matsya Purana,[73] Devi
Bhagavata Purana list "five characteristics" or "five
signs" of a Purana.[2] These are called the Pancha
Lakshana ( pañcalakṣaṇa), and are topics covered by
a Purana:[2][74][75]

1. Sarga: cosmogony or the creation of the

world
2. Pratisarga: cosmogony and cosmology[76]
3. Vamśa: genealogy of the gods, sages and
kings[77] The Puranas include cosmos creation myths such
4. Manvañtara: cosmic cycles,[78] history of the as the Samudra Manthan (churning of the ocean).
world during the time of one patriarch It is represented in the Angkor Wat temple
complex of Cambodia, and at Bangkok airport,
5. Vamśānucaritam: Account of royal dynasties
Thailand (above).
dynasty, including the Suryavamshi and
Chandravamshi kings

A few Puranas, such as the most popular Bhagavata Purana, add five more characteristics to expand this list
to ten:[79]

1. Utaya: karmic links between the deities, sages, kings and the various living beings
2. Ishanukatha: tales about a god
3. Nirodha: finale, cessation
4. Mukti: moksha, spiritual liberation
5. Ashraya: refuge

These five or ten sections weave in biographies, myths, geography, medicine, astronomy, Hindu temples,
pilgrimage to distant real places, rites of passage, charity, ethics,[80] duties, rights, dharma, divine
intervention in cosmic and human affairs, love stories,[81] festivals, theosophy and philosophy.[2][4][6] The
Puranas link gods to men, both generally and in religious bhakti context.[79] Here the Puranic literature
follows a general pattern. It starts with introduction, a future devotee is described as ignorant about the god
yet curious, the devotee learns about the god and this begins the spiritual realization, the text then describes
instances of God's grace which begins to persuade and convert the devotee, the devotee then shows
devotion which is rewarded by the god, the reward is appreciated by the devotee and in return performs
actions to express further devotion.[79]

The Puranas, states Flood, document the rise of the theistic traditions such as those based on Vishnu, Shiva
and the goddess Devi and include respective mythology, pilgrimage to holy places, rituals and
genealogies.[82] The bulk of these texts in Flood's view were established by 500 CE, in the Gupta era
though amendments were made later. Along with inconsistencies, common ideas are found throughout the
corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon another so the corpus is best
viewed as a synchronous whole.[83] An example of similar stories woven across the Puranas, but in
different versions, include the lingabhava – the "apparition of the linga". The story features Brahma,
Vishnu, and Shiva, the three major deities of Hinduism, who get together, debate, and after various versions
of the story, in the end the glory of Shiva is established by the apparition of linga. This story, state
Bonnefoy, and Doniger, appears in Vayu Purana 1.55, Brahmanda Purana 1.26, Shiva Purana's Rudra
Samhita Sristi Khanda 15, Skanda Purana's chapters 1.3, 1.16 and 3.1, and other Puranas.[84]

The texts are in Sanskrit as well as regional languages,[4][5] and almost entirely in narrative metric
couplets.[1]

Symbolism and layers of meaning

The texts use ideas, concepts and even names that are symbolic.[84] The words can interpreted literally, and
at an axiological level.[85] The Vishnu Purana, for example, recites a myth where the names of the
characters are loaded with symbolism and axiological significance. The myth is as follows,

The progeny of Dharma by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddhá (devotion)
he had Kama (desire); by Lakshmí (wealth, prosperity), was born Darpa (pride); by Dhriti
(courage), the progeny was Niyama (precept); by Tusht́i (inner comfort), Santosha
(contentment); by Pusht́i (opulence), the progeny was Lobha (cupidity, greed); by Medhá
(wisdom, experience), Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriyá (hard work, labour), the progeny were
Dańd́a, Naya, and Vinaya (justice, politics, and education); by Buddhi (intellect), Bodha
(understanding); by Lajjá (shame, humility), Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu (body,
strength), Vyavasaya (perseverance). Shanti (peace) gave birth to Kshama (forgiveness); Siddhi
(excellence) to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti (glorious speech) gave birth to Yasha
(reputation). These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama (love, emotional fulfillment)
had baby Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight).

The wife of Adharma (vice, wrong, evil) was Hinsá (violence), on whom he begot a son Anrita
(falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had two sons, Bhaya
(fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Máyá (deceit) and Vedaná (torture),
who became their wives. The son of Bhaya (fear) and Máyá (deceit) was the destroyer of
living creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha (pain) was the offspring of Naraka (hell) and
Vedaná (torture). The children of Mrityu were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow),
Trishńa (greediness), and Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are
characterised as the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity,
without the faculty to procreate; they perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this
world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend perpetually to
influence its renovation: whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes endowed with mighty
power, and treading in the path of truth, as constantly contribute to its preservation.
 — Vishnu Purana, Chapter 7, Translated by Horace Hayman Wilson[86]

Puranas as a complement to the Vedas

The relation of the Puranas with Vedas has been debated by

scholars, some holding that there's no relationship, others
contending that they are identical.[89] The Puranic literature, stated
Max Muller, is independent, has changed often over its history, and
has little relation to the Vedic age or the Vedic literature.[90] In
contrast, Purana literature is evidently intended to serve as a
complement to the Vedas, states Vans Kennedy.[6]

Some scholars such as Govinda Das suggest that the Puranas claim
a link to the Vedas but in name only, not in substance. The link is
purely a mechanical one.[90] Scholars such as Viman Chandra
Bhattacharya and PV Kane state that the Puranas are a continuation
and development of the Vedas.[91] Sudhakar Malaviya and VG
Rahurkar state the connection is closer in that the Puranas are
companion texts to help understand and interpret the Vedas.[91][92] The mythology in the Puranas has
K.S. Ramaswami Sastri and Manilal N. Dvivedi reflect the third inspired many reliefs and sculptures
view which states that Puranas enable us to know the "true import found in Hindu temples.[87] The
of the ethos, philosophy, and religion of the Vedas".[93] legend behind the Krishna and Gopis
relief above is described in the
Barbara Holdrege questions the fifth Veda status of Itihasas (the
Bhagavata Purana.[88]
Hindu epics) and Puranas.[94][note 9] The Puranas, states V.S.
Agrawala, intend to "explicate, interpret, adapt" the metaphysical
truths in the Vedas.[19] In the general opinion, states Rocher, "the Puranas cannot be divorced from the
Vedas" though scholars provide different interpretations of the link between the two.[91] Scholars have
given the Bhagavata Purana as an example of the links and continuity of the Vedic content such as
providing an interpretation of the Gayatri mantra.[91]

Puranas as encyclopedias

The Puranas, states Kees Bolle, are best seen as "vast, often encyclopedic" works from ancient and
medieval India.[96] Some of them, such as the Agni Purana and Matsya Purana, cover all sorts of subjects,
dealing with – states Rocher – "anything and everything", from fiction to facts, from practical recipes to
abstract philosophy, from geographic Mahatmyas (travel guides)[97] to cosmetics, from festivals to
astronomy.[4][98] Like encyclopedias, they were updated to remain current with their times, by a process
called Upabrimhana.[99] However, some of the 36 major and minor Puranas are more focused handbooks,
such as the Skanda Purana, Padma Purana and Bhavishya Purana which deal primarily with Tirtha
Mahatmyas (pilgrimage travel guides),[97] while Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana focus more on
history, mythology and legends.[51]

Puranas as religious texts

The colonial era scholars of Puranas studied them primarily as religious texts, with Vans Kennedy declaring
in 1837, that any other use of these documents would be disappointing.[100] John Zephaniah Holwell, who
from 1732 onwards spent 30 years in India and was elected Fellow of the Royal Society in 1767, described
the Puranas as "18 books of divine words".[101] British officials and researchers such as Holwell, states Urs
App, were orientalist scholars who introduced a distorted picture of Indian literature and Puranas as "sacred
scriptures of India" in 1767. Holwell, states Urs App, "presented it as the opinion of knowledgeable
Indians; But it is abundantly clear that no knowledgeable Indian would ever have said anything remotely
similar".[101]

Modern scholarship doubts this 19th-century premise.[102] Ludo Rocher, for example, states,

I want to stress the fact that it would be irresponsible and highly misleading to speak of or
pretend to describe the religion of the Puranas.

— Ludo Rocher, The Puranas[100]

The study of Puranas as a religious text remains a controversial subject.[103] Some Indologists, in colonial
tradition of scholarship, treat the Puranic texts as scriptures or useful source of religious contents.[104] Other
scholars, such as Ronald Inden, consider this approach "essentialist and antihistorical" because the Purana
texts changed often over time and over distance, and the underlying presumption of they being religious
texts is that those changes are "Hinduism expressed by a religious leader or philosopher", or
"expressiveness of Hindu mind", or "society at large", when the texts and passages are literary works and
"individual geniuses of their authors".[105]

Jainism

The Jaina Puranas are like Hindu Puranas encyclopedic epics in style, and are considered as anuyogas
(expositions), but they are not considered Jain Agamas and do not have scripture or quasi-canonical status
in Jainism tradition.[5] They are best described, states John Cort, as post-scripture literary corpus based upon
themes found in Jain scriptures.[5]

Sectarian, pluralistic or monotheistic theme

Scholars have debated whether the Puranas should be categorized as sectarian, or non-partisan, or
monotheistic religious texts.[12][106] Different Puranas describe a number of stories where Brahma, Vishnu,
and Shiva compete for supremacy.[106] In some Puranas, such as Srimad Devi Bhagavatam, the Goddess
Devi joins the competition and ascends for the position of being Supreme. Further, most Puranas emphasize
legends around one who is either Shiva, or Vishnu, or Devi.[12] The texts thus appear to be sectarian.
However, states Edwin Bryant, while these legends sometimes appear to be partisan, they are merely
acknowledging the obvious question of whether one or the other is more important, more powerful. In the
final analysis, all Puranas weave their legends to celebrate pluralism, and accept the other two and all gods
in Hindu pantheon as personalized form but equivalent essence of the Ultimate Reality called
Brahman.[107][108] The Puranas are not spiritually partisan, states Bryant, but "accept and indeed extol the
transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too".[106]

[The Puranic text] merely affirm that the other deity is to be considered a derivative
manifestation of their respective deity, or in the case of Devi, the Shakti, or power of the male
divinity. The term monotheism, if applied to the Puranic tradition, needs to be understood in the
context of a supreme being, whether understood as Vishnu, Shiva or Devi, who can manifest
himself or herself as other supreme beings.

— Edwin Bryant, Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana[106]
Ludo Rocher, in his review of Puranas as sectarian texts, states, "even though the Puranas contain sectarian
materials, their sectarianism should not be interpreted as exclusivism in favor of one god to the detriment of
all others".[109]

Puranas as historical texts

Despite the diversity and wealth of manuscripts from ancient and medieval India that have survived into the
modern times, there is a paucity of historical data in them.[37] Neither the author name nor the year of their
composition were recorded or preserved, over the centuries, as the documents were copied from one
generation to another. This paucity tempted 19th-century scholars to use the Puranas as a source of
chronological and historical information about India or Hinduism.[37] This effort was, after some effort,
either summarily rejected by some scholars, or become controversial, because the Puranas include fables
and fiction, and the information within and across the Puranas was found to be inconsistent.[37]

In early 20th-century, some regional records were found to be more consistent, such as for the Hindu
dynasties in Telangana, Andhra Pradesh. Basham, as well as Kosambi, have questioned whether lack of
inconsistency is sufficient proof of reliability and historicity.[37] More recent scholarship has attempted to,
with limited success, states Ludo Rocher, use the Puranas for historical information in combination with
independent corroborating evidence, such as "epigraphy, archaeology, Buddhist literature, Jaina literature,
non-Puranic literature, Islamic records, and records preserved outside India by travelers to or from India in
medieval times such as in China, Myanmar and Indonesia".[110][111]

Manuscripts
The study of Puranas manuscripts has been
challenging because they are highly
inconsistent.[112][113] This is true for all Mahapuranas
and Upapuranas. [112] Most editions of Puranas, in use
particularly by Western scholars, are "based on one
manuscript or on a few manuscripts selected at An 11th-century Nepalese palm-leaf manuscript in
random", even though divergent manuscripts with the Sanskrit of Devimahatmya (Markandeya Purana).
same title exist. Scholars have long acknowledged the
existence of Purana manuscripts that "seem to differ
much from the printed edition", and it is unclear which one is accurate, and whether conclusions drawn
from the randomly or cherrypicked printed version were universal over geography or time.[112] This
problem is most severe with Purana manuscripts of the same title, but in regional languages such as Tamil,
Telugu, Bengali, and others which have largely been ignored.[112]

Modern scholarship noticed all these facts. It recognized that the extent of the genuine Agni
Purana was not the same at all times and in all places and that it varied with the difference in
time and locality. (...) This shows that the text of the Devi Purana was not the same everywhere
but differed considerably in different provinces. Yet, one failed to draw the logical conclusion:
besides the version or versions of Puranas that appear in our [surviving] manuscripts, and
fewer still in our [printed] editions, there have been numerous other versions, under the same
titles, but which either have remained unnoticed or have been irreparably lost.
 — Ludo Rocher, The Puranas[62][114]

Chronology

Newly discovered Puranas manuscripts from the medieval centuries have attracted scholarly attention and
the conclusion that the Puranic literature has gone through slow redaction and text corruption over time, as
well as sudden deletion of numerous chapters and its replacement with new content to an extent that the
currently circulating Puranas are entirely different from those that existed before 11th century, or 16th
century.[115]

For example, a newly discovered palm-leaf manuscript of Skanda Purana in Nepal has been dated to be
from 810 CE but is entirely different from versions of Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South
Asia since the colonial era.[72][115] Further discoveries of four more manuscripts, each different, suggest
that document has gone through major redactions twice, first likely before the 12th century, and the second
very large change sometime in the 15th-16th century for unknown reasons.[116] The different versions of
manuscripts of Skanda Purana suggest that "minor" redactions, interpolations, and corruption of the ideas in
the text over time.[116]

Rocher states that the date of the composition of each Purana remains a contested issue.[117][118] Dimmitt
and van Buitenen state that each of the Puranas manuscripts is encyclopedic in style, and it is difficult to
ascertain when, where, why and by whom these were written:[119]

As they exist today, the Puranas are stratified literature. Each titled work consists of material
that has grown by numerous accretions in successive historical eras. Thus no Purana has a
single date of composition. (...) It is as if they were libraries to which new volumes have been
continuously added, not necessarily at the end of the shelf, but randomly.

— Cornelia Dimmitt and J.A.B. van Buitenen, Classical Hindu Mythology: A Reader in
the Sanskrit Puranas[119]

Forgeries

Many of the extant manuscripts were written on palm leaf or copied during the British India colonial era,
some in the 19th century.[120][121] The scholarship on various Puranas, has suffered from frequent
forgeries, states Ludo Rocher, where liberties in the transmission of Puranas were normal and those who
copied older manuscripts replaced words or added new content to fit the theory that the colonial scholars
were keen on publishing.[120][121]

Translations

Horace Hayman Wilson published one of the earliest English translations of one version of the Vishnu
Purana in 1840.[122] The same manuscript, and Wilson's translation, was reinterpreted by Manmatha Nath
Dutt and published in 1896.[123] The All India Kashiraj Trust has published editions of the Puranas.[124]

Marinas Poullé (Mariyadas Pillai) published a French translation from a Tamil version of the Bhagavata
Purana in 1788, and this was widely distributed in Europe becoming an introduction to the 18th-century
Hindu culture and Hinduism to many Europeans during the colonial era. Poullé republished a different
translation of the same text as Le Bhagavata in 1795, from Pondicherry.[125] A copy of Poullé translation is
preserved in Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris.

Influence
The most significant influence of the Puranas genre of Indian
literature has been stated scholars and particularly Indian
scholars,[127] in "culture synthesis", in weaving and integrating the
diverse beliefs from ritualistic rites of passage to Vedantic
philosophy, from fictional legends to factual history, from individual
introspective yoga to social celebratory festivals, from temples to
pilgrimage, from one god to another, from goddesses to tantra, from
the old to the new.[128] These have been dynamic open texts,
composed socially, over time. This, states Greg Bailey, may have
allowed the Hindu culture to "preserve the old while constantly The Puranas have had a large
coming to terms with the new", and "if they are anything, they are cultural impact on Hindus, from
records of cultural adaptation and transformation" over the last festivals to diverse arts. Bharata
2,000 years.[127] natyam (above) is inspired in part by
Bhagavata Purana.[126]
The Puranic literature, suggests Khanna, influenced "acculturation
and accommodation" of a diversity of people, with different
languages and from different economic classes, across different kingdoms and traditions, catalyzing the
syncretic "cultural mosaic of Hinduism".[129] They helped influence cultural pluralism in India and are a
literary record thereof.[129]

Om Prakash states the Puranas served as an efficient medium for cultural exchange and popular education
in ancient and medieval India.[130] These texts adopted, explained, and integrated regional deities such as
Pashupata in Vayu Purana, Sattva in Vishnu Purana, Dattatreya in Markendeya Purana, Bhojakas in
Bhavishya Purana.[130] Further, states Prakash, they dedicated chapters to "secular subjects such as poetics,
dramaturgy, grammar, lexicography, astronomy, war, politics, architecture, geography and medicine as in
Agni Purana, perfumery and lapidary arts in Garuda Purana, painting, sculpture and other arts in
Vishnudharmottara Purana".[130]

Indian Arts

The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as
Bharata Natyam in south India[126] and Rasa Lila in northeast India,[131] plays and recitations.[132]

Festivals

The myths, lunar calendar schedule, rituals, and celebrations of major Hindu cultural festivities such as
Holi, Diwali and Durga Puja are in the Puranic literature.[133][134]

Notes
1. Six disciples: Sumati, Agnivarchaha, Mitrayu, Shamshapyana, Akritaverna and Savarni
2. The early Buddhist text (Sutta Nipata 3.7 describes the meeting between the Buddha and
Sela. It has been translated by Mills and Sujato as, "(...) the brahmin Sela was visiting
Āpaṇa. He was an expert in the three Vedas, with the etymologies, the rituals, the phonology
and word analysis, and fifthly the legendary histories".[25]
 3. According to Shiva Purana, Devi-Bhagavata Purana is the fifth purana mentioned as
Bhagavata Purana.[56]
4. This text underwent a near complete rewrite in or after 15th/16th century CE, and almost all
extant manuscripts are Vaishnava (Krishna) bhakti oriented.[57]
5. Like all Puranas, this text underwent extensive revisions and rewrite in its history; the extant
manuscripts are predominantly an encyclopedia, and so secular in its discussions of gods
and goddesses that scholars have classified as Smartism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism and
Shaivism Purana.[58]
6. Hazra includes this in Vaishnava category.[48]
7. This text is named after a Vishnu avatar, but extant manuscripts praise all gods and
goddesses equally with some versions focusing more on Shiva.[59]
8. This text includes the famous Devi-Mahatmya, one of the most important Goddess-related
text of the Shaktism tradition in Hinduism.[60]
9. There are only four Vedas in Hinduism. Several texts have been claimed to have the status
of the Fifth Veda in the Hindu tradition. For example, the Natya Shastra, a Sanskrit text on
the performing arts, is also so claimed.[95]

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Further reading
Mackenzie, C. Brown (1990). The Triumph of the Goddess – The Canonical Models and
Theological Visions of the DevI-BhAgavata PuraNa. State University of New York Press.
ISBN 0-7914-0363-7.
Singh, Nagendra Kumar (1997). Encyclopaedia of Hinduism. ISBN 81-7488-168-9.

External links
GRETIL (http://www.sub.uni-goettingen.de/ebene_1/fiindolo/gretil.htm#Pur) (uni-
goettingen.de)

Translations
Agni Purana (in English) (http://hdl.handle.net/2027/uc1.b4023049), Volume 2, MN Dutt
(Translator), Hathi Trust Archives
Vishnu Purana (http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/index.htm) H.H. Wilson
Vishnu Purana (https://archive.org/stream/Vishnupurana-English-MnDutt#page/n15/mode/2u
p), MN Dutt
Brahmanda Purana (https://archive.org/stream/BrahmandaPurana/BrahmandaPuI#page/n1/
mode/2up), GV Tagare

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