Ecofeminism

Ecofeminism is a branch of feminism and political ecology. Ecofeminist thinkers draw on the
concept of gender to analyse the relationships between humans and the natural world.[1] The
term was coined by the French writer Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la
Mort (1974).[2][3] Ecofeminist theory asserts a feminist perspective of Green politics that calls
for an egalitarian, collaborative society in which there is no one dominant group.[4] Today,
there are several branches of ecofeminism, with varying approaches and analyses, including
liberal ecofeminism, spiritual/cultural ecofeminism, and social/socialist ecofeminism (or
materialist ecofeminism).[4] Interpretations of ecofeminism and how it might be applied to
social thought include ecofeminist art, social justice and political philosophy, religion,
contemporary feminism, and poetry.

Ecofeminist analysis explores the connections between women and nature in culture,
economy, religion, politics, literature and iconography, and addresses the parallels between
the oppression of nature and the oppression of women. These parallels include but are not
limited to seeing women and nature as property, seeing men as the curators of culture and
women as the curators of nature, and how men dominate women and humans dominate
nature. Ecofeminism emphasizes that both women and nature must be respected.[5]

Though the scope of ecofeminist analysis is dynamic,[6] American author and ecofeminist
Charlene Spretnak has offered one way of categorizing ecofeminist work: 1) through the
study of political theory as well as history; 2) through the belief and study of nature-based
religions; 3) through environmentalism.[7]

Overview
While diverse ecofeminist perspectives have emerged from female activists and thinkers all
over the world, academic studies of ecofeminism have been dominated by North American
universities. Thus, in the 1993 essay entitled "Ecofeminism: Toward Global Justice and
Planetary Health" authors Greta Gaard and Lori Gruen outline what they call the "ecofeminist
framework". The essay provides a wealth of data and statistics in addition to outlining the
theoretical aspects of the ecofeminist critique. The framework described is intended to
establish ways of viewing and understanding our current global situations so that we can
better understand how we arrived at this point and what may be done to ameliorate the ills.

Building on the work of North American scholars Rosemary Ruether and Carolyn Merchant,
Gaard and Gruen argue that there are four sides to this framework:

1. The mechanistic materialist model of the universe that resulted from the scientific
revolution and the subsequent reduction of all things into mere resources to be
optimized, dead inert matter to be used.

2. The rise of patriarchal religions and their establishment of gender hierarchies along with
their denial of immanent divinity.

3. The self and other dualisms and the inherent power and domination ethic it entails.

4. Capitalism and its claimed intrinsic need for the exploitation, destruction and
instrumentalization of animals, earth and people for the sole purpose of creating wealth.

They hold that these four factors have brought us to what ecofeminists see as a "separation
between nature and culture" that is for them the root source of our planetary ills.[8]

Françoise d'Eaubonne

Ecofeminism developed out of anarcha-feminist concerns with abolishing all forms of

domination, while focusing on the oppressive nature of humanity's relationship to the natural
world.[9] According to Françoise d'Eaubonne in her book Le Féminisme ou la Mort (1974),
ecofeminism relates the oppression and domination of all marginalized groups (women,
people of color, children, the poor) to the oppression and domination of nature (animals, land,
water, air, etc.). In the book, the author argues that oppression, domination, exploitation, and
colonization from the Western patriarchal society has directly caused irreversible
environmental damage.[10] Françoise d'Eaubonne was an activist and organizer, and her
writing encouraged the eradication of all social injustice, not just injustice against women
and the environment.[10]

This tradition includes a number of influential texts including: Women and Nature (Susan
Griffin 1978), The Death of Nature (Carolyn Merchant 1980) and Gyn/Ecology (Mary Daly
1978). These texts helped to propel the association between domination by men of women
and the domination of culture over nature. From these texts feminist activism of the 1980s
linked ideas of ecology and the environment. Movements such as the National Toxics
Campaign, Mothers of East Los Angeles (MELA), and Native Americans for a Clean
Environment (NACE) were led by women devoted to issues of human health and
environmental justice.[11] Writings in this circle discussed ecofeminism drawing from Green
Party politics, peace movements, and direct action movements.[12]

Gendering Nature

Petra Kelly
Ecofeminist theory asserts that capitalism reflects only paternalistic and patriarchal values.
This notion implies that the effects of capitalism have not benefited women and has led to a
harmful split between nature and culture.[13] In the 1970s, early ecofeminists discussed that
the split can only be healed by the feminine instinct for nurture and holistic knowledge of
nature's processes.

Since then, several ecofeminist scholars have made the distinction that it is not because
women are female or "feminine" that they relate to nature, but because of their similar states
of oppression by the same male-dominant forces. The marginalization is evident in the
gendered language used to describe nature, such as "Mother Earth" or "Mother Nature", and
the animalized language used to describe women in degroratory terms.[14] Some discourses
link women specifically to the environment because of their traditional social role as a
nurturer and caregiver.[15] Ecofeminists following in this line of thought believe that these
connections are illustrated through the coherence of socially-labeled values associated with
'femininity' such as nurturing, which are present both among women and in nature.

Alternatively, ecofeminist and activist Vandana Shiva wrote that women have a special
connection to the environment through their daily interactions and that this connection has
been underestimated. According to Shiva, women in subsistence economies who produce
"wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and
ecological knowledge of nature's processes". She makes the point that "these alternative
modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not
recognized by the capitalist reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the
interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women's lives, work and knowledge with
the creation of wealth (23)".[16]  Shiva blames this failure on the Western patriarchal
perceptions of development and progress. According to Shiva, patriarchy has labeled women,
nature, and other groups not growing the economy as "unproductive".[17] Similarly, Australian
ecofeminist Ariel Salleh deepens this materialist ecofeminist approach in dialogue with green
politics, ecosocialism, genetic engineering and climate policy.

Concepts

Modern Science and Ecofeminism

In Ecofeminism (1993) authors Vandana Shiva and Maria Mies ponder modern science and
its acceptance as a universal and value-free system. They view the dominant stream of
modern science not as objective science but as a projection of Western men's values.[18] The
privilege of determining what is considered scientific knowledge and its usage has been
controlled by men, and for the most part of history restricted to men. Many examples exist,
including the medicalization of childbirth and the industrialization of plant reproduction.

A common claim within ecofeminist literature is that patriarchal structures justify their
dominance through binary opposition, these include but are not limited to: heaven/earth,
mind/body, male/female, human/animal, spirit/matter, culture/nature and white/non-white.
Oppression, according to them, is reinforced by assuming truth in these binaries, which
factuality they challenge, and instilling them as 'marvelous to behold' through what they
consider to be religious and scientific constructs.[19]

Vegetarian Ecofeminism

The application of ecofeminism to animal rights has established vegetarian ecofeminism,

which asserts that "omitting the oppression of animals from feminist and ecofeminist
analyses … is inconsistent with the activist and philosophical foundations of both feminism
(as a "movement to end all forms of oppression") and ecofeminism."[20] It puts into practice
"the personal is political", as many ecofeminists believe that "meat-eating is a form of
patriarchal domination…that suggests a link between male violence and a meat-based
diet."[20] During a 1995 interview with On the Issues, Carol J. Adams stated, "Manhood is
constructed in our culture in part by access to meat-eating and control of other bodies,
whether it's women or animals".[21] According to Adams, "We cannot work for justice and
challenge the oppression of nature without understanding that the most frequent way we
interact with nature is by eating animals".[21] Vegetarian ecofeminism combines sympathy
with the analysis of culture and politics to refine a system of ethics and action.[20]

Materialist Ecofeminism

The key activist-scholars in materialist ecofeminism are Maria Mies and Veronika Bennholdt-
Thomsen in Germany; Vandana Shiva in India; Ariel Salleh in Australia; Mary Mellor in the UK;
and Ana Isla in Peru. Materialist ecofeminism is not widely known in North America aside
from the journal collective at Capitalism Nature Socialism. A materialist view connects
institutions such as labor, power, and property as the source of domination over women and
nature. There are connections made between these subjects because of the values of
production and reproduction.[22] This dimension of ecofeminism may also be referred to as
"social feminism", "socialist ecofeminism", or "Marxist ecofeminism". According to Carolyn
Merchant, "Social ecofeminism advocates the liberation of women through overturning
economic and social hierarchies that turn all aspects of life into a market society that today
even invades the womb".[4] Ecofeminism in this sense seeks to eliminate social hierarchies
which favor the production of commodities (dominated by men) over biological and social
reproduction.

Spiritual Ecofeminism/Cultural Ecofeminism

Spiritual ecofeminism is another branch of ecofeminism, and it is popular among ecofeminist

authors such as Starhawk, Riane Eisler, and Carol J. Adams. Starhawk calls this an earth-
based spirituality, which recognizes that the Earth is alive, and that we are an interconnected
community.[23] Spiritual ecofeminism is not linked to one specific religion, but is centered
around values of caring, compassion, and non-violence.[24] Often, ecofeminists refer to more
ancient traditions, such as the worship of Gaia, the Goddess of nature and spirituality (also
known as Mother Earth).[24] Wicca and Paganism are particularly influential to spiritual
ecofeminism. Most Wicca covens demonstrate a deep respect for nature, a feminine outlook,
and an aim to establish strong community values.[25]

In her book Radical Ecology, Carolyn Merchant refers to spiritual ecofeminism as "cultural
ecofeminism". According to Merchant, cultural ecofeminism, "celebrates the relationship
between women and nature through the revival of ancient rituals centered on goddess
worship, the moon, animals, and the female reproductive system."[4] In this sense, cultural
ecofeminists tend to value intuition, an ethic of caring, and human-nature interrelationships.[4]

Environmental movements

Susan A. Mann, an eco-feminist and professor of sociological and feminist theory, considers
the roles women played in these activisms to be the starter for ecofeminism in later
centuries. Mann associates the beginning of ecofeminism not with feminists but with women
of different races and class backgrounds who made connections among gender, race, class,
and environmental issues. This ideal is upheld through the notion that in activist and theory
circles marginalized groups must be included in the discussion. In early environmental and
women's movements, issues of varying races and classes were often separated.[26]

Beginning in the late 20th century, women worked in efforts to protect wildlife, food, air and
water.[27] These efforts depended largely on new developments in the environmental
movement from influential writers, such as Henry David Thoreau, Aldo Leopold, John Muir,
and Rachel Carson.[28][29] Fundamental examples of women's efforts in the 20th century are
the books Silent Spring by Rachel Carson and Refuge by Terry Tempest Williams.

Ecofeminist author Karen Warren lists Aldo Leopold's essay "Land Ethic" (1949) as a
fundamental work to the ecofeminist conception, as Leopold was the first to pen an ethic for
the land which understands all non-human parts of that community (animals, plants, land, air,
water) as equal to and in a relationship with humans. This inclusive understanding of the
environment launched the modern preservation movement and illustrated how issues can be
viewed through a framework of caring.[10]

Women have participated in environmental movements, specifically preservation and

conservation beginning in the late nineteenth century and continuing into the early twentieth
century.[30]

Movements of the 1970s and 80s

In India, in the state of Uttarakhand in 1973, women took part in the Chipko movement to
protect forests from deforestation. Non-violent protest tactics were used to occupy trees so
that loggers could not cut them down.[10]

Wangari Maathai

In Kenya in 1977, the Green Belt Movement was initiated by environmental and political
activist Professor Wangari Maathai. It is a rural tree planting program led by women, which
Maathai designed to help prevent desertification in the area. The program created a 'green
belt' of at least 1,000 trees around villages, and gave participants the ability to take charge in
their communities. In later years, the Green Belt Movement was an advocate for informing
and empowering citizens through seminars for civic and environmental education, as well as
holding national leaders accountable for their actions and instilling agency in citizens.[31] The
work of the Green Belt Movement continues today.

In 1978 in New York, mother and environmentalist Lois Gibbs led her community in protest
after discovering that their entire neighborhood, Love Canal, was built on top of a toxic dump
site. The toxins in the ground were causing illness among children and reproductive issues
among women, as well as birth defects in babies born to pregnant women exposed to the
toxins. The Love Canal movement eventually led to the evacuation and relocation of nearly
800 families by the federal government.[32]

In 1980 and 1981, women like ecofeminist Ynestra King organized a peaceful protest at the
Pentagon. Women stood, hand in hand, demanding equal rights (including social, economic,
and reproductive rights) as well as an end to militaristic actions taken by the government and
exploitation of the community (people and the environment). This movement is known as the
Women's Pentagon Actions.[12]

In 1985, the Akwesasne Mother's Milk Project was launched by Katsi Cook. This study was
funded by the government, and investigated how the higher level of contaminants in water
near the Mohawk reservation impacted babies. It revealed that through breast milk, Mohawk
children were being exposed to 200% more toxins than children not on the reservation. Toxins
contaminate water all over the world, but due to environmental racism, certain marginalized
groups are exposed to a much higher amount.[33]

The Greening of Harlem Coalition is another example of an ecofeminist movement. In 1989,

Bernadette Cozart founded the coalition, which is responsible for many urban gardens
around Harlem. Cozart's goal is to turn vacant lots into community gardens.[34] This is
economically beneficial, and also provides a way for very urban communities to be in touch
with nature and each other. The majority of people interested in this project (as noted in
1990) were women. Through these gardens, they were able to participate in and become
leaders of their communities. Urban greening exists in other places as well. Beginning in
1994, a group of African-American women in Detroit have developed city gardens, and call
themselves the Gardening Angels. Similar garden movements have occurred globally.[35]

The development of vegetarian ecofeminism can be traced to the mid-80s and 90s, where it
first appeared in writing. However, the roots of a vegetarian ecofeminist view can be traced
back further by looking at sympathy for non-humans and counterculture movements of the
1960s and 1970s.[20] At the culmination of the decade ecofeminism had spread to both
coasts and articulated an intersectional analysis of women and the environment. Eventually,
challenging ideas of environmental classism and racism, resisting toxic dumping and other
threats to the impoverished.[36]
Vandana Shiva

Major critiques

Essentialism

In the 1980s and 1990s ecofeminism began to be heavily critiqued as 'essentialism'. The
critics believed ecofeminism to be reinforcing patriarchal dominance and norms.[22] Post
structural and third wave feminists argued that ecofeminism equated women with nature and
that this dichotomy grouped all women into one category enforcing the very societal norms
that feminism is trying to break. However the criticism was based on a category mistake
made by those who missed the emerging political critique of patriarchal ideology.

The ascribed essentialism appears in two main areas:

Ecofeminism demonstrates an adherence to the strict dichotomy, among others, between

men and women. Some critiques of ecofeminism note that the dichotomy between women
and men and nature and culture creates a dualism that is too stringent and focused on the
differences of women and men. In this sense, ecofeminism too strongly correlates the
social status of women with the social status of nature, rather than the non-essentialist
view that women along with nature have both feminine and masculine qualities, and that
just as feminine qualities have often been seen as less worthy, nature is also seen as
having lesser value than culture.[37]

Ecofeminism asserts a divergent view regarding participation in existing social structures.

As opposed to radical and liberation-based feminist movements, mainstream feminism is
tightly bound with hegemonic social status and strives to promote equality within the
existing social and political structure,[38] such as making it possible for women to occupy
positions of power in business, industry and politics, using direct involvement as the main
tactic for achieving pay equity and influence. In contrast, many ecofeminists oppose active
 engagement in these areas, as these are the very structures that the movement intends to
dismantle.[37]

Ecofeminist and author Noel Sturgeon says in an interview that what anti-essentialists are
critiquing is a strategy used to mobilize large and diverse groups of both theorists and
activists.[39] Additionally, according to ecofeminist and author Charlene Spretnak, modern
ecofeminism is concerned about a variety of issues, including reproductive technology, equal
pay and equal rights, toxic pollution, Third World development, and more.[7]

Ecofeminism as it propelled into the 21st century became aware of the criticisms, and in
response ecofeminists with a materialist lens began doing research and renaming the topic,
i.e. queer ecologies, global feminist environmental justice, and gender and the
environment.[36] The essentialism concern was mostly found among North American
academics. In Europe and the global South, class, race, gender and species dominations
were framed by more grounded materialist understandings.

Socialist Feminist Critiques

Social ecologist and feminist Janet Biehl has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much
on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual
conditions of women.[40] She has also stated that rather than being a forward-moving theory,
ecofeminism is an anti-progressive movement for women.[40] The ecofeminist believes that
women and nature have a strong bond because of their shared history of patriarchal
oppression; whereas, the socialist feminist focuses on gender roles in the political economy.
The socialist feminist may oppose the ecofeminist by arguing that women do not have an
intrinsic connection with nature; rather, that is a socially constructed narrative.[41]

Rosemary Radford Ruether also critiqued this focus on mysticism over work that focuses on
helping women, but argues that spirituality and activism can be combined effectively in
ecofeminism.[42]

Intersectionality

A. E. Kings comments on the relationship between ecofeminism and intersectionality, arguing

that the discipline is fundamentally intersectional given that it is built upon the idea that
patriarchal violence against women is connected to domination of nature. Simultaneously,
Kings warns against the presumption of intersectional thought as a natural component of
ecofeminism, so as not to disregard the distinctive academic contributions of intersectional
feminists.[43]
Feminist thought surrounding ecofeminism grew in some areas as it was criticized;
vegetarian ecofeminism contributed intersectional analysis; and ecofeminisms that analyzed
animal rights, labor rights and activisms as they could draw lines among oppressed groups.
To some, the inclusion of non-human animals also came to be viewed as essentialist.

Wild animal suffering

Catia Faria argues that the view held by ecofeminists that the largest source of harm to non-
human animals in the wild is patriarchal culture and that the conservation of nature and
natural processes is the best way to help these individuals is mistaken. She instead contends
that natural processes are a source of immense suffering for these animals and that we
should work towards alleviating the harms they experience, as well as eliminating patriarchal
sources of harm, such as hunting.[44]

Theorists

Judi Bari – Bari was a principal organizer of the Earth First! movement and experienced
sexist hostility.

Françoise d'Eaubonne – Called upon women to lead an ecological revolution in order to

save the planet. This entailed revolutionizing gender relations and human relations with the
natural world.[2]

Greta Gaard – Greta Gaard is an American ecofeminist scholar and activist. Her major
contributions to the field connect ideas of queer theory, vegetarianism, and animal
liberation. Her major theories include ecocriticism which works to include literary criticism
and composition to inform ecofeminism and other feminist theories to address a wider
range of social issues within ecofeminism. She is an ecological activist and leader in the
U.S. Green Party, and the Green Movement.[45]

Susan Griffin - A radical feminist philosopher, essayist and playwright particularly known
for her innovative, hybrid-form ecofeminist works. A Californian, she taught as an adjunct
professor at UC Berkeley as well as at Stanford University and California Institute of
Integral Studies.

Sallie McFague – A prominent ecofeminist theologian, McFague uses the metaphor of

God's body to represent the universe at large. This metaphor values inclusive, mutualistic
and interdependent relations amongst all things.[46]

Carolyn Merchant – Historian of science who taught at University of California, Berkeley for
many years. Her book The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution is
a classic ecofeminist text.

Mary Mellor – UK sociologist who moved to ecofeminist ideas from an interest in

cooperatives. Her books Breaking the Boundaries and Feminism and Ecology are grounded
in a materialist analysis.

Maria Mies – Mies is a German social critic who has been involved in feminist work
throughout Europe and India. She works particularly on the intersections of patriarchy,
poverty, and the environment on a local and global scale.[42]

Adrian Parr – A cultural and environmental theorist. She has published eight books and
numerous articles on environmental activism, feminist new materialism, and imagination.
Most notable is her trilogy – Hijacking Sustainability, The Wrath of Capital, and Birth of a
New Earth.

Val Plumwood – Val Plumwood, formerly Val Routley, was an Australian ecofeminist
intellectual and activist, who was prominent in the development of radical ecosophy from
the early 1970s through the remainder of the 20th century. In her work Feminism and the
Mastery of Nature she describes the relationship of mankind and the environment relating
to an eco-feminist ideology.[47]

Alicia Puleo – The author of several books and articles on ecofeminism and gender
inequality, Alicia Puleo has been characterized as "arguably Spain's most prominent
explicator-philosopher of the worldwide movement or theoretical orientation known as
ecofeminism."[48]

Rosemary Radford Ruether – Has written 36 books and over 600 articles exploring the
intersections of feminism, theology, and creation care.[49] Ruether was the first person to
connect the domination of the earth with the oppression of women.[50]

Ariel Salleh – Australian ecofeminist with a global perspective; a founding editor of the
journal Capitalism Nature Socialism; author of three books and some 200 articles
examining links with deep and social ecology, green politics and eco-socialism.

Vandana Shiva – Shiva is a scientist by training, prolific author and Indian ecofeminist
activist.[51] She was a participant in the Chipko movement of the 1970s, which used non-
violent activism to protest and prevent deforestation in the Garhwal Himalayas of
Uttarakhand, India, then in Uttar Pradesh. Her fight against genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) (together with the fights led by Rachel Carson against DDT and Erin Brockovich
against hexavalent chromium) has been described as an example of ecofeminist position.
[52]

Charlene Spretnak – Spretnak is an American writer largely known for her writing on
ecology, politics and spirituality. Through these writings Spretnak has become a prominent
 ecofeminist. She has written many books which discuss ecological issues in terms of
effects with social criticisms, including feminism. Spretnak's works had a major influence
in the development of the Green Party. She has also won awards based on her visions on
ecology and social issues as well as feminist thinking.[53]

Starhawk – An American writer and activist, Starhawk is known for her work in spiritualism
and ecofeminism. She advocates for social justice in issues surrounding nature and spirit.
These social justice issues fall under the scope of feminism and ecofeminism. She
believes in fighting oppression through intersectionality and the importance of spirituality,
eco consciousness and sexual and gender liberation.[54]

Vanessa Lemgruber – Lemgruber is a Brazilian lawyer, writer,[55] activist, and

ecofeminist.[56] She defends[57] the Doce river in Brazil and advocates for water quality and
zero waste movements.[58]

Douglas Vakoch – An American ecocritic whose edited volumes include Ecofeminism and
Rhetoric: Critical Perspectives on Sex, Technology, and Discourse (2011),[59] Feminist
Ecocriticism: Environment, Women, and Literature (2012),[60] Dystopias and Utopias on Earth
and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of Science Fiction (2021),[61] Ecofeminist Science Fiction:
International Perspectives on Gender, Ecology, and Literature (2021),[62] The Routledge
Handbook of Ecofeminism and Literature (2023),[63] (with Nicole Anae) Indian Feminist
Ecocriticism (2022),[64] and (with Sam Mickey) Ecofeminism in Dialogue (2018),[65] Literature
and Ecofeminism: Intersectional and International Voices (2018),[66] and Women and
Nature?: Beyond Dualism in Gender, Body, and Environment (2018).[67]

Karen Warren – Warren received her B.A. in philosophy from the University of Minnesota
(1970) and her Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts-Amherst in 1978. Before her
long tenure at Macalester College, which began in 1985, Warren was Professor of
Philosophy at St. Olaf College in the early 1980s. Warren was the Ecofeminist-Scholar-in-
Residence at Murdoch University in Australia.[1] In 2003, she served as an Oxford University
Round Table Scholar and as Women's Chair in Humanistic Studies at Marquette University
in 2004. She has spoken widely on environmental issues, feminism, critical thinking skills
and peace studies in many international locations including Buenos Aires, Gothenburg,
Helsinki, Oslo, Manitoba, Melbourne, Moscow, Perth, the U.N. Earth Summit in Rio de
Janeiro (1992), and San Jose.

Laura Wright — Wright proposed Vegan Studies as an academic discipline.

See also

Chipko movement
 Climate change and gender

Cottagecore

Critical Animal Studies

Deep ecology

Deep Green Resistance

Ecofeminist art

Green syndicalism

Intersectionality

List of ecofeminist authors

Queer ecology

Romanticism

Sexecology

Social ecology

Vegan studies

Vegetarian ecofeminism

Women and the environment through history

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3%95%C3%91&dchild=1&keywords=guia+ecofeminista&qid=1593658492&sr=8-1) .

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and discourse. New York: Berghahn Books. ISBN 9780857451873. OCLC 714734848 (https://www.wo
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Md.: Lexington Books. ISBN 9780739176825. OCLC 815941726 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8159
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61. Vakoch, Douglas A., ed. (2021). Dystopias and Utopias on Earth and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of
Science Fiction (https://www.routledge.com/Dystopias-and-Utopias-on-Earth-and-Beyond-Feminist-Ec
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Further reading

Key works

Ancient Futures: Learning from Ladakh, by Helena Norberg-Hodge

The Body of God by Sallie McFague

The Chalice & The Blade: Our History, Our Future, by Riane Eisler

The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution by Carolyn Merchant

Ecofeminism by Maria Mies and Vandana Shiva

Ecofeminism in Latin America by Mary Judith Ross

Ecofeminist Philosophy by Karen J. Warren

Environmental Culture by Val Plumwood

Feminism and the Mastery of Nature by Val Plumwood

 Gaia & God: An Ecofeminist Theology of Earth Healing by Rosemary Radford Ruether

Integrating Ecofeminism, Globalization, and World Religions by Rosemary Radford Ruether

Neither Man Nor Beast by Carol J. Adams

Refuge: An Unnatural History of Family and Place by Terry Tempest Williams

The Resurgence of the Real: Body, Nature, and Place in a Hypermodern World by Charlene
Spretnak

Sacred Longings: Ecofeminist theology and Globalization by Mary Grey

The Sexual Politics of Meat by Carol J. Adams

Silent Spring by Rachel Carson

The Spiral Dance by Starhawk

Staying Alive: Women, Ecology and Development by Vandana Shiva

Thinking Green! Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and Nonviolence by Petra Kelly

Tomorrow's Biodiversity by Vandana Shiva

Woman and Nature: The Roaring Inside Her by Susan Griffin

Breaking the Boundaries by Mary Mellor

Feminism and Ecology by Mary Mellor

Ecofeminism as Politics: nature, Marx, and the postmodern by Ariel Salleh

The Greening of Costa Rica by Ana Isla

Anthologies
Animals and Women: Feminist Theoretical Explorations, edited by Carol J. Adams and
Josephine Donovan

Dystopias and Utopias on Earth and Beyond: Feminist Ecocriticism of Science Fiction, edited
by Douglas A. Vakoch

Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature, edited by Greta Gaard

Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature, edited by Karen J. Warren with editorial assistance
from Nisvan Erkal

EcoFeminism & Globalization: exploring culture, context and religion, edited by Heather Eaton
& Lois Ann Lorentzen

Ecofeminism and Rhetoric: Critical Perspectives on Sex, Technology, and Discourse, edited by
Douglas A. Vakoch
 Ecofeminism and the Sacred, edited by Carol J. Adams

Ecofeminism in Dialogue, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch and Sam Mickey

Ecofeminist Science Fiction: International Perspectives on Gender, Ecology, and Literature,

edited by Douglas A. Vakoch

Eco-Sufficiency & Global Justice: Women write Political Ecology, edited by Ariel Salleh

Feminist Ecocriticism: Environment, Women, and Literature, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch

Indian Feminist Ecocriticism, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch and Nicole Anae

Literature and Ecofeminism: Intersectional and International Voices, edited by Douglas A.

Vakoch and Sam Mickey

The Politics of Women's Spirituality: Essays on the Rise of Spiritual Power within the Feminist
Movement, edited by Charlene Spretnak

Readings in Ecology and Feminist Theology, edited by Mary Heather MacKinnon and Moni
McIntyre

Reclaim the Earth, edited by Leonie Caldecott & Stephanie Leland

Reweaving the World: The Emergence of Ecofeminism, edited by Irene Diamond and Gloria
Feman Orenstein

The Routledge Handbook of Ecofeminism and Literature, edited by Douglas A. Vakoch

Women and Nature?: Beyond Dualism in Gender, Body, and Environment, edited by Douglas A.
Vakoch and Sam Mickey

Women Healing Earth: Third World Women on Ecology, Feminism, and Religion, edited by
Rosemary Radford Ruether

GUIA ECOFEMINISTA - mulheres, direito, ecologia, written by Vanessa Lemgruber edited by

Ape'Ku

Journal articles
Gaard, Greta Claire (2011). "Ecofeminism Revisited: Rejecting Essentialism and Re-Placing
Species in a Material Feminist Environmentalism". Feminist Formations. 23 (2): 26–53.
doi:10.1353/ff.2011.0017 (https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fff.2011.0017) . S2CID 145195744
(https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145195744) .

Huggan, Graham (2004). " "Greening" Postcolonialism: Ecocritical Perspectives". MFS

Modern Fiction Studies. 50 (3): 701–733. doi:10.1353/mfs.2004.0067 (https://doi.org/10.1
353%2Fmfs.2004.0067) . S2CID 143900488 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1
43900488) .
 Mack-Canty, Colleen (2004). "Third-Wave Feminism and the Need to Reweave the Nature/
Culture Duality". NWSA Journal. 16 (3): 154–179. doi:10.1353/nwsa.2004.0077 (https://doi.
org/10.1353%2Fnwsa.2004.0077) .

MacGregor, Sherilyn (2004). "From care to citizenship: Calling ecofeminism back to

politics". Ethics & the Environment. 9 (1): 56–84. doi:10.1353/een.2004.0007 (https://doi.or
g/10.1353%2Feen.2004.0007) . S2CID 144880391 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Corp
usID:144880391) .

Mallory, Chaone (2013). "Locating Ecofeminism in Encounters with Food and Place".
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 26 (1): 171–189. doi:10.1007/s10806-011-
9373-8 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10806-011-9373-8) . S2CID 144880945 (https://api.s
emanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144880945) .

Mann, Susan A. 2011. Pioneers of U.S. Ecofeminism and Environmental Justice, "Feminist
Formations" 23(2): 1-25.

Wildy, Jade (2012). "The Artistic Progressions of Ecofeminism: The Changing Focus of
Women in Environmental Art". International Journal of the Arts in Society. 6 (1): 53–65.
doi:10.18848/1833-1866/cgp/v06i01/35978 (https://doi.org/10.18848%2F1833-1866%2Fc
gp%2Fv06i01%2F35978) .

Salleh, Ariel (1984) 'From Feminism to Ecology', Social Alternatives (http://www.socialaltern

atives.com) , Vol. 4, No. 3, 8-12.

Salleh, Ariel (2019) 'Ecofeminist Sociology as a New Class Analysis (https://globaldialogu

e.isa-sociology.org/ecofeminist-sociology-as-a-new-class-analysis/) ' in Klaus Dorre and
Brigitte Aulenbacher (eds.), Global Dialogue, International Sociological Association
Newsletter: Vol. 9, No. 1.

Fiction
A Door Into Ocean by Joan Slonczewski

Always Coming Home by Ursula K. Le Guin

Buffalo Gals, Won't You Come Out Tonight by Ursula K. Le Guin

The Fifth Sacred Thing by Starhawk

The Gate to Women's Country by Sheri S. Tepper

The Holdfast Chronicles by Suzy McKee Charnas

Native Tongue by Suzette Haden Elgin

The Parable of the Sower by Octavia Butler

 Prodigal Summer by Barbara Kingsolver

Surfacing by Margaret Atwood

The Wanderground by Sally Miller Gearhart

Woman on the Edge of Time by Marge Piercy

The Kin of Ata are Waiting for You by Dorothy Bryant

Bear by Marian Engel

The Temple of My Familiar by Alice Walker

Sultana's Dream by Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain

Poetry
The Sea of Affliction (1987, reprinted 2010) by Rosemarie Rowley

External links

Ecofeminism: Toward global justice and planetary Wikiversity has learning

health (http://lgruen.faculty.wesleyan.edu/files/2011/0 resources about
Women's Studies
5/Gaard.pdf) Feminist Greta Gaard and Lori Gruen's
ecofeminist framework Wikimedia Commons has
media related to
Ecofeminism.
"An Ecology of Knowledge: Feminism, Ecology and the
Science and Religion Discourse" (https://web.archive.org/web/20061001140008/http://ww
w.metanexus.net/metanexus_online/show_article2.asp?id=2669) Metanexus Institute by
Lisa Stenmark

"Ecofeminism and the Democracy of Creation" (http://www.users.drew.edu/ckeller/Dark-Vi

be.pdf) by Catherine Keller (2005) ; cf. Carol P. Christ, "Ecofeminism", in Michel Weber
and Will Desmond (eds.), Handbook of Whiteheadian Process Thought (https://www.academ
ia.edu/279955/Handbook_of_Whiteheadian_Process_Thought) , Frankfurt / Lancaster,
ontos verlag, 2008, pp. 87–98.

"Toward a Queer Ecofeminism" (http://www.lespantheresroses.org/textes/ecology_toward

_a_queer_ecofeminism.pdf) by Greta Gaard

Feminism and ecology: the same struggle? – The shaping of ecofeminism (https://www.ca
dtm.org/Feminism-and-ecology-the-same-struggle-The-shaping-of-ecofeminism) by
Marijke Colle

Feminist Environmental Philosophy (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/feminism-environ

mental/) by Karen Warren
 What is Ecofeminism? (https://www.perlego.com/knowledge/study-guides/what-is-ecofem
inism/) Perlego Books

Retrieved from
"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Ecofeminism&oldid=1108341202"

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