Sankara (788-820 A.D.) is the main proponent of (advaita) vedanta school.

His three major commentaries are on Brahmasutras, Upanishads and the

Bhagavad-Gita based on which he exposed his own system of Absolute idealism
(Advaita-vada).

The word Vedanta literally means the end (not in temporal sense, but in the sense of
culmination) of the Vedas which are the most ancient scriptural texts of the Hindus.

The idea is that this school of philosophy represents the highest culmination of the
philosophic thought of the Vedic sages.

The most fundamental doctrine of Vedanta is the thesis that there is a single principle
which underlies the infinite variety of forms that manifest themselves in the universe.

Shankara emphasized monism. According to Advaita there is no duality. One and

many, infinite and finite, the subject and the object etc. are the limitation of
consciousness that cannot comprehend the Brahman due to ignorance or Avidya.

Basic Concepts of Vedanta

Brahman - Brahman is infinite, omnipresent, omnipotent, incorporeal, impersonal

transcendent reality; that is the divine ground for all Being. Brahman is beyond the
senses. He is the purest Knowledge and illuminates like the source of light. Brahman
is the Truth, Knowledge and Endless. Brahman is free from any kind of differences or
differentiation.
There is no language to describe Brahman, it is like ‘neti, neti’, ‘not this, not this.’
Brahman is self–existent. He is described as ‘Sachidananda’ – meaning Sat infinite
truth, cit infinite Consciousness, ananda infinite Bliss. Ekamevadvitiyam, it is one
without a second.

Vedanta philosophy holds that Brahman is the One, the Whole and only reality. Other
than Brahman everything else, including the Universe, material objects and individual
are false. There is no separation or distinction between Brahman and others in the
Universe.

The Vedic sages speculated about the nature of Brahman. In one of the most
beautiful, poetic hymns of the Vedas called the Nasadiya Siikta, it was suggested
that at the beginning of existence, there may have been neither Being nor
Nothingness, neither death nor immortality, neither days nor nights-in other words, no
dualities or distinctions which enable us to tell one object from another. Why the
original, single entity manifests itself in multifarious forms may remain forever a
mystery.

When one achieves the highest state of consciousness - the turiya state, one
experiences that one’s soul becomes one with everything else.
Sankara distinguishes Brahman as Higher Brahman and Lower Brahman in his major
Commentaries. According to him the Higher Brahman is understood only by
knowledge (Vidya), He is free from attachment, names and forms; He is Nirguna
Brahman; this understanding brings about Liberation.

Saguna Brahman or God according to Sankara is Lower Brahman; he says that this
Brahman is viewed from the aspects of ignorance (Avidya). Arguing further, Sankara
asks when The Higher Brahman is the Absolute AND that The Lower Brahman is the
cause of diversity.

Atman

Atman is interpreted as breath, soul, the principle of life and sensation. Atman is
described as the eternal core of the personality which survives after death and
transmigrates to a new life or is released from the bond of existence. Advaita
Vedanta understands Atman not as a part of Brahman that ultimately dissolves into
Brahman, but as the whole of Brahman or the cosmic principle itself. it is highlighted
that Brahman = Atman OR Aham brahmasmi, I am Brahman, this Atman is Brahman.

Atman is only one and unique. It is like the same moon that appears as several
moons on its reflections on the surface of the water covered with bubbles; Atman
appears as different Atman in different bodies. Atman is the silent witness of all the
life happenings and free from and beyond sin and merit. It is incorporeal and
independent.
Although the Atman, like the Brahman itself, is not finite, it becomes associated with
a finite jiva as a result of avidya or ignorance.

It is claimed that one realizes the identity of the individual Self with that of the
Brahman or Universal Self (paramatman) in a superior state of consciousness called
Nirvikalpa Samadhi.

Jiva

jiva is a living being with a body and senses. It arises out of the reflection of Atman
and the false belief or avidya (ignorance) that it is different and unique on its own.
Each jiva feels that he has his own, unique and distinct Atman called jivatman. The
concept of jiva is true on a pragmatic level. In the transcendental level, the Atman is
equal to Brahman.
The Vedantic term jIva, which literally means "life" or a "living being," is the closest
equivalent to the modern concept of an individual organism. In some respects, it is
similar to the psychological concept of personality. The core of the jiva is the Atman
or the Self which, as noted, is essentially identical to the Brahman.

Avidya

Sankara calls ignorance as superimposition. Knowledge is possible only when the

mind is cleared from doubts and apprehensions. As long as there is no transparency,
learning becomes ignorance (avidya).
The general tendency is to superimpose the qualities of the object on its subject and
vice versa. Although only the Brahman or seat of consciousness is real we
misidentify with our bodily self, mind, memory etc. all of which are objects, not
subjects. Sankara identifies such superimposition as the result of avidya (ignorance).
The only way to overcome ignorance is to thrive by Vidya (knowledge).

Maya

Avidya creates the world of Maya or name and form whereby the Brahman can be
seen as the material world of separate forms. Maya has two functions; one is to ‘hide’
Brahman from ordinary human perception, and the other is to present the material
world in its place. Maya itself is said to be indescribable, though it may be said that
sense data entering ones awareness via the five senses are Maya.
Maya conditions Brahman and then it is Isvara. Maya is his power or energy (sakti).
Maya is not an independent principle; it is dependent on Isvara.
Both avidya and Maya are temporary.

Avidya is naturally removed by its opposite Vidya (knowledge). Knowing needs

intention and depends on the agent.

Knowledge is gained by personal perseverance to know the Truth. The truth is

realized at two levels:

● one is to study the great Scripture with the guidance of a Teacher (guru) and

● The second level is to examine one’s ‘miss’ interpretation of things and

situations. The self examination starts with the questioning of one’s own
understanding of the present and the previous experiences; one has to
examine the reasons for the false interpretation and realize the ‘higher’
knowledge governed by nothing but the truth:

For example a false understanding of a rope as a snake is removed when one

receives the information that it is a rope.

According to Vedanta false cognition occurs as a result of superimposition

The knowledge of one object is superimposed on the other because of fear, failure of
the senses to apprehend accurately. Clarity in understanding brings about Truth. The
truth is the knowledge.

Knowledge is believed to be of two distinct kinds:

The first type, called ​para vidya​, is obtained in the experience (anubhava) of the
identity of the Atman with the Brahman in the state of Nirvikalpa samadhi. This is the
highest form of knowledge. Here one transcends the knower-known distinction which
is necessarily implied in the ordinary concept of knowledge. While it is considered the
ultimate form of "knowledge," its scope is restricted to the domain of the absolute.
The second type of knowledge, called ​apara vidya​, refers to the knowledge of the
phenomenal world. In this domain, we deal with the world extended in space and
time (desa, kala), and governed by the principle of causality (nimitta).

Sankara makes a distinction between the gross body (sthula sarira) and the subtle
body. The latter includes the five sense organs, the five motor organs, and an "inner
instrument" (antahkarana). The inner instrument, in turn, is said to be composed of
the following four components:

1. The mind (manas), which manifests itself in the form of the processes of doubting
and decision making, and in the processes of analysis and synthesis of ideas, or in
other words, the processes of cognitive differentiation and integration.

2. The intellect (buddhi), which is involved in determining a course of action

(niscayatmika), willing, and the like. - determination, motivation
3. The ego (ahamkara) as it manifests in self-awareness and also in self-seeking,
conceit, and so on.
4. The psyche (citta), which is involved in remembering or in the storage of the traces
left behind by past actions and experiences.

Vedanta uses the concept of vrtti in much the same way as Yoga and ascribes it to
the manas rather than the citta.

The following are the ​four states of consciousness according to Vedanta:

Wakefulness/ Gagrti - In the wakeful state, the gross as well as the subtle aspects
of the body remain active. The jiva is continually involved in the enjoyment of the
objects of pleasure such as flowers, relationships etc. The orientation of
consciousness during the wakeful state is external oriented/ extraspective/ outward
bound" (bahil)prajna) since it is directed toward external objects for the sake of
enjoyment.

Dream (svapna) - The dream state is believed to be an intermediary state between

wakefulness and deep sleep, somewhat like a "twilight zone" between daylight and
the darkness at night. Here the gross body as well as the senses are at rest; the
connection of the jIva with the external world is cut off, but the subtle body is still
active. The intellect (buddhi) assumes the role of the experiencer and the doer, and
"creates" various dream objects for its own experience of enjoyment or suffering. The
Atman remains inactive during dream states, as he does in all other states. The
individual "sees" in darkness, as it were, and this is made possible by the
self-luminous character of the Atman.

Dreams have illusory nature. The dream objects metraphormize into other objects,
and time also does not operate like waking time.
Deep sleep - ​deep  sleep  state  is  characterised  by  an  ​absence  of  any  particular 
experience.  One  can  validly  experience  an  absence  of  something.  Hence  deep 
sleep  is  that  state  in  which:  (a)  I  do  not  know  anything  (i.e.  because  there  is  an 
absence of any particular experience); ​(b) ​I sleep happily (everyone enjoys a deep, 
restful,  worry  free  sleep.  My  identity  with  all my everyday problems is temporarily 
dormant in deep sleep). 
 

"Fourth" state (turiya) - The word turiya literally means "the fourth" and is
commonly used by Vedantists to refer to the trance state of Nirvikalpa Samadhi. It is
characterized by bliss, joy.

Turiya samadhi states it does not last long, and soon the cycle of wakefulness and
sleep (occasionally interrupted by dreams) is resumed after the termination of the
samadhi state. But once the state of Nirvikalpa samadhi is attained, one does not
remain the same person after its termination. In Vedanta it is claimed that the knower
of Brahman becomes Brahman. The individual no longer identifies himself with
various "narrow" definitions of the self which he may have acquired since childhood.
He no longer pursues narrowly selfish goals and hence does not experience either
elation due to success in attaining them, or despair due to failure. The self-realized
individual does not identify himself with any particular group, and hence stands
above pride and prejudice. In brief, such a person becomes saintly in his attitude and
behavior, manifesting the ideal human condition called sthitaprajya (characterized by
equanimity, tranquility, etc.).

Fourth State of Consciousness is not exclusive; it is accessible to anyone

irrespective of his station in life or caste.

The Means of Attaining Superior States of Being

Vedantists suggest the following four basic means for its attainment:
1. The first means involves the correct ​discrimination between the everlasting and
the impermanent. The Brahman is to be recognized as the only permanent form of
existence; the phenomenal world is impermanent. This would imply that one must
learn to identify oneself as the everlasting Atman and not identify oneself with the
body which is impermanent. It would also mean that one begins to realize that there
is some lasting form of happiness different from the worldly gains of wealth and
power, which are as transient as the pleasures that they can bring. Striving for the
more permanent is a necessary precondition for the journey to liberation.

2. The second means involves maintaining an attitude of detachment. More

specifically, it means that one refrains from hankering for enjoyments expected either
in this world or in the existence after death. It should be possible to maintain an at-'
titude of detachment when most forms of enjoyment are recognized to be temporary
at best.

3. ​Acquisition of the following six virtues​ is the third means:

 ● controlling the mind so as to rest it steadily on one's objective (sarna),
● withdrawing the senses from the objects of their pleasure (dama),
● preventing the mind from modifying itself as it becomes modified when
controlled by the external objects (uparati),
● enduring hardships and pain without lamenting or becoming anxious (titik~a),
● adopting an attitude of conviction that the theory explained by the scriptures
and the directions provided by the teacher (guru) are the correct means for
the knowledge of Reality (sraddha), and
● the firm resting of the mind on the formless Brahman without indulging the
mind (samadhana).

4. The fourth means is the ​cultivation of an intense desire for liberation ​from the
bonds created by egoism and ignorance.

Self
The self refers to three different things in Vedanta philosophy.

First, self refers to Brahman, the Supreme Self, which as we designate it is the Self.
The person is thus, in Advaita view, a curious combination of both reality and
appearance. Insofar as the Ātman constitutes the ground, the person is real; but in its
phenomenal aspect with its stream of experience, the individual is mere appearance.

Second, it refers to sākṣin, the witnessing self. It is witness consciousness. not

encumbered by the mind and the embodied consciousness in jīva. The sākṣin is not
a product of experience, but is presupposed by it. It is the continuing witness of the
changing mental life of the embodied being.

Third, there is the empirical self, the jīva.

In Advaita, the jīva is conceived as being encased and covered at different levels by
kośas (sheaths).
● annamaya-kośa (representing the body and the material nourishment it
needs). The first kośa refers to the gross body.
● prāṇamayakośa (the life sustaining vital breath),
● manomaya-kośa (the mental processing system), knowledge processing
principles. Manomaya-kośa relates to the manas
● vijñānamaya-kośa (the discriminating and individuating
intellect),vijñānamaya-kośa refers to the functions of ahaṁkāra and buddhi in
the mind.
● ānandamaya-kośa (the surround of happiness and bliss). Anadamaya-kośa,
is the state of bliss that the jīva seeks and strives for.

The phenomenal consciousness as it manifests in our mental states, according to

Śaṅkara, is directed toward one object or another, whereas consciousness-as-such,
the Supreme Consciousness, is pure and objectless. In other words, it is
nonintentional. The ātman within us is the transcendental subject, “Self,” whereas the
self of the manifest experience is the empirical subject, “me.” The latter is subject to
change, unlike the changeless transcendental Self (paramātman). The Ātman is pure
cognition; the empirical self is seen as an agency actively engaged, striving toward
one end or another.

The jīva is essentially an agent of all activities. Its agency dwells in the upādhis, the
limitations imposed by buddhi (mind). The jīva is a product of imagination and is
capable of further imagination.

Jīva is seen as distinct and different from sākṣin (witness consciousness). Whereas
the jīva goes through the illusory experiences enacted by the mind, sākṣin is a mere
witness. The essential difference between the two appears to be that the mind
(antaḥkaraṇa) is the attribute of individual consciousness (jīva), whereas it is merely
a limitation (upādhi) of witness consciousness (sākṣin). We thus find that
consciousness is equated with the self.