Human Behavior in Organization

CHAPTER 6: COMMUNICATION

A. Communication is a requirement for survival and growth not only for people but also
organizations. Communication may be defined as the transfer of information including feelings, and ideas,
from one person to another. (Medina, 2011) Communication is a process which aims to transfer and
implement the meaning of symbols from one person, group or organization to another. (Martires, 2006) 
 
B. The communication Process 
Communication is a two-way process in which a sender reaches a receiver with a message. There
are six components of an effective communication. They are the following: 
 
1. A communication source or sender 
2. A message 
3. A channel 
4. A receiver 
5. Feedback 
6. The environment 
 
b.1. Kinds of communication flow 
a. Downward Communication means that the message flows from top to bottom,
from higher to lower authority. 
b. Upward Communication is the opposite of the upward communication. The
group below feels free to initiate and suggest new programs and projects to the top
management. 
c. Horizontal Communication is a communication across rather than along the
formal chain of command. Individuals communicate with others who are on the same
level. 
 
To know more about the communication process, click the link below and read 8.2 Understanding
Communication 
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-organizational-behavior-v1.1/s12-
communication.html 
 
C. Basic methods of Interpersonal Communication 
People in organization transfer meaning between and among each other using any or all of the three
basic methods which consist of the following: 
1. Verbal Communication 
2. Written Communication 
3. Non-verbal Communication 
 
(Note: to better understand the basic methods of Interpersonal Communication, a copy of modified
handouts will be provided thru the class messenger group chat) 

D. Basic Goals of Effective Communication 

Effective communication is indeed a way to attain certain goals which consist of the following: 
1. To gain goodwill 
2. To inquire 
3. To inform 
4. To persuade 
 
E. Barriers to Communication 
1. Filtering 
2. Selective perception 
 3. Information overload 
4. Emotions 
5. Language 
6. Communication apprehension 
7. Absence of feedback 
8. Lack of credibility of the sender 

CHAPTER 7: ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT AND NEGOTIATION

According to the book of Medina (2011), Conflict in the workplace is inevitable, and when it
happens, there is always that great tendency for it to disrupt the flow of productive activities in the
organization. 
Conflict is a process that involves people disagreeing. Researchers have noted that conflict is like
the common cold. Everyone knows what it is, but understanding its causes and how to treat it is much
more challenging. (Wall, J. A., & Callister, R. R. (1995).  

A. The Nature of Conflict 

Conflict in organizations may be defined as any situation in which incompatible goals, attitudes,
emotions, or behaviors lead to disagreement or opposition between two or more parties. 
Conflict may be constructive or destructive 
1. Constructive Conflict is a healthy, constructive disagreement between two or
more people.  
2. Destructive conflict is an unhealthy, destructive disagreement between two or
more people. 
 
Source: Medina, Roberto G. (2011) Human Behavior in Organization 
B. Levels of Conflict 
As to the book of Medina (2011), Conflicts can occur at different levels which consists of the
following: 
1. Intrapersonal conflict. The kind of conflict that a person faces internally, as when
an individual experiences personal frustration, anxiety, and stress. 
2. Interpersonal Conflict is the type of conflict that occurs between two or more
individuals who are in the position to one another. 
3. Intergroup conflict occurs among groups in an organization. 
4. Interorganizational conflict is that type of conflict that occurs between
organizations. 
 
C. Sources of Conflict 
If conflict is to be managed effectively, one should understand its many sources. There are two broad
categories of conflict (Medina, 2011) 
1. Structural factors – the sources of conflict may be attributed to structural factors
which refers to the nature of the organization and the way in which work is organized.
Structural factors include: 
a. Specialization 
b. Interdependence 
c. Common resources 
d. Goal differences 
e. Authority relationships 
f. Status inconsistences 
g. Jurisdictional ambiguities 
 
2. Personal factors comprise another broad category of the cause of conflict. These
factors are the result of individual differences which include: 
a. Skills and abilities 
b. Personalities 
c. Perceptions 
d. Values and ethics 
 e. Emotions 
f. Communication barriers 
D. Causes of Conflicts 
Interpersonal Conflicts originate from various causes: (Zulueta, 2002) 
1. Organizational Change 
2. Personality clashes 
3. Different set of Values 
4. Threats to status 
5. Contrasting perceptions 
6. Lack of thrust 
7. Role dissatisfaction  
8. Role ambiguity 
 
To know more about the Causes and outcomes of Conflict, click the link below and read 10.3 
https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-organizational-behavior-v1.1/s14-conflict-and-
negotiations.html 
 
 
E. Conflict Resolution Strategies 
A number of approaches have been developed to resolve conflicts in organizations. The choice of
each approach is contingent upon the situation. The various conflict resolution strategies are
enumerated by Martires and Fule (2000). 
1. Use of Authority 
2. Avoidance 
3. Smoothing 
4. Compromising 
5. Problem solving 
6. Third-party Mediation 
7. Intergroup Training 

F. Negotiation 
Based on the book of Medina (2011) entitled, Human Behavior in Organization, Negotiation may
be defined as a process in which two or more parties attempt to reach an acceptance agreement in a
situation characterized be some level of disagreement. In addition, Negotiation could be useful if the
following conditions are present: 
1. There are two or more parties; 
2. There is a conflict of interest between the parties; 
3. The parties are willing to negotiate; and 
4. They prefer to work together  
 
f.1. Major Negotiation Approaches 
1. Distributive Bargaining. This is a negotiation approach wherein the goals of the
parties are in conflict, and each party seeks to maximize its share of the resources. This
win lose approach is really a process of dividing or “distributing” scarce resources.
(Medina, 2011) 
2. Integrative Negotiation. This is a negotiation approach in which the goals of the
parties are not regarded as mutually exclusive and in which the focus is in making it
possible for both sides to achieve their objectives (Medina, 2011) 
 
f.2. The Negotiation Process 
According to Medina (2011), the negotiation process consists if five steps: 
1. Preparation and planning 
2. Definition of ground rules 
3. Clarification and justification 
4. Bargaining and problem solving 
 5. Closure and implementation 

CHAPTER 8: WORK GROUPS

A. What is a Group 
A group is a collection of individuals who interact with each other such that one person’s actions have
an impact on the others. In organizations, most work is done within groups.  
In organizations, you may encounter different types of groups. Informal work groups are made up of
two or more individuals who are associated with one another in ways not prescribed by the formal
organization. A formal work group is made up of managers, subordinates, or both with close associations
among group members that influence the behavior of individuals in the group.  
Source: https://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/an-introduction-to-organizational-behavior-v1.1/s13-
managing-groups-and-teams.html 
B. Why People Form Groups 
People form groups for reason such as: (Medina, 2011) 
1. Need satisfaction. People join groups because they believe that groups are venues for
satisfying their needs. Social needs, for instance, may be satisfied through interaction with
group members. 
2. Proximity is another reason why people form groups. When people work near each other,
it is not hard for them to form a group. 
3. Attraction. People are attracted to each other because of similarities. This condition is a
positive factor in the formation of groups. 
4. Goals. A group is formed when a number of people are required to achieve goal. 
5. Economics. Individual person join groups so they can obtain economic benefits not
otherwise made available if they are not members of a group. 
 
 
 
C. Stages of group development 
1. The forming stage 
2. The storming stage 
3. The storming stage 
4. The norming stage 
5. The performing stage 
6. The adjourning stage 
 
(Note: to better understand the stages of group development, modified hand-outs will be provided to
students thru Messenger class GC) 
 
 
D. Roles within Groups 
As to Medina (2011), Groups can be made more effective if relevant roles are played within the
group. There are specific roles that are deemed important in the group process. These are the following: 
 
1. Knowledge Contributor. Any group would largely benefit from a member who plays this
role. If he is technically proficient enough, he will be providing useful and valid information. He
can be of great help in task accomplishment and the value of sharing technical expertise with
other members of the group. 
 
2. Process Observer. The person occupying this role forces members to look at how the
group functions. He is the first member affected when the group is starting to fail in doing its
function. However, he is also the first to acknowledge excellent group performance. 
 
 3. People Supporter. Some group members are not emotionally strong to face various
difficulties heaped upon them in the performance of their functions. There is a need for one
member to assume the role of people supporter who provides emotional support to
teammates and resolve conflicts. Even if he disagrees with others, he supports and
encourages them. 
 
4. Challenger. The group needs someone who confronts and challenges bad ideas. He
must not appear as someone who challenges anything for the sake of challenging.  
 
5. Listener. There is a need for someone to listen to whatever ideas or proposals presented
by any member of the group. Even the best proposals will go to waste if nobody cares to
listen. 
 
6. Mediator. It is not uncommon for group members to get involved in disputes between
each other. To avoid this, it is important for the group to have assume the role of mediator. 
 
7. Gatekeeper. There is always a chance that one or two overeager members will dominate
discussions. As a result, timid members may not be heard even if their views are worth
listening to. The role of the gatekeeper is to provide the opportunity for every member to
express his or her opinion. The gatekeeper will also remind every member about good ideas
that were recognized previously.   
 
8. Take-charge leader. There are occasions when a group has no appointed leader, or if
there is one, he could not play his role for one reason or another. A team member should
assume the role of the take-charge leader. With the leader, the group can then move forward
by defining its mission and determining its objectives. 

E. Advantages and Disadvantages of Groups 

Working in groups offers the following advantages: 
 
1. More inputs from various perspectives can be made available for effective
decision making; 
2. Synergism is more likely when people work together as a group; 
3. People in the groups are more supportive of decisions that were formulated with
their assistance; 
4. It allows the efficient exchange of information for effective problem solving; 
5. The opportunity for fulfilling the safety, affiliation, and esteem needs of group
members is made available; and 
6. Group members get mutual support from each other. 
 
Disadvantages of working in a group: 
1. Group activity is usually slower 
2. Group meetings are held to disseminate strictly routine data that could be more
efficiently conveyed in writing through interoffice memorandum 
3. The group’s decision may be diluted by every members input making the
decision ineffective 
4. Accountability is often a problem with group activity 
5. There are occasions when some members shirk responsibility and let other
members of the group do the work. 
6. When the group is high cohesive and motivated, outside criticism tends to be
ignored as group members look inward for reinforcement of each other’s opinion. 
 
Source: Medina, Roberto G. 2011. Human Behavior in Organization 
 
F. Techniques in group Decision Making 
 According to Medina (2011), there are various techniques used in group decision making, four of
these are as follows: 
1. Interacting Groups. Interacting groups are typical groups in which members
interact with each other face-to-face. The essence of interaction is the sending and
receiving of information through oral and nonverbal communication. 
2. Brainstorming. Brainstorming is a group problem-solving technique which
promotes creativity by encouraging members to come up with any ideas, no matter how
strange, without fear of criticism. In brainstorming, the participants are required to
observe the following procedures: 1) generate as many ideas as possible; 2) be creative,
freewheeling, and imaginative; 3) withhold criticism of others’ ideas  
3. Nominal Group Technique. The nominal group technique is a group decision-
making method in which individual members meet face-to-face to collect their judgments
in a systematic but independent fashion.  
4. Electronic Meeting. It is a decision-making technique wherein members interact
through computers, allowing anonymity of comments. Any group member can
anonymously type any message he wants and it flashes on the screen for the entire
group to see at the push of a member’s keyboard. Since anonymity is assured, members
can honestly express their views. 

CHAPTER 9: LEADERSHIP AND SUPERVISORY BEHAVIOR

A. What is Leadership 
Leadership is defined as a process of influencing the activities of formal and informal groups in their
task of goal setting and goal achievement. (Zulueta, et al. 2002). It is the process of providing direction,
energizing others, and obtaining their voluntary commitment to the leader’s vision. (Apruebo, 2006). 
Leadership is that element that convinces members of an organization to behave in such a manner
that will facilitate the accomplishment of the goals of the organization. (Medina, 2011) 
a.1. kinds of leadership 
1. Formal Leadership which refers to the process of influencing others to pursue
official objectives. 
2. Informal Leadership refers to the process of influencing others to pursue
unofficial objectives. 

B. Traits of effective Leaders 

Current research on leadership traits suggests that some factors do help differentiate leaders from
non leaders. According to Newstrom (2007), the primary traits are high level of personal drive, the desire
to lead, personal integrity, and self-confidence. Cognitive ability, business knowledge, charisma,
creativity, and personal warmth are also frequently desired but are often seen as secondary in their
importance. 
As stated by Zulueta and De Lara (2002), here are some traits of a leader: 
1. Knowledge. A leader must have a thorough knowledge 
2.  Bearing. A leader is dignified in appearance and behavior to earn respect 
3. Courage. A leader must possess a physical and mental ability to act decisively
with fortitude and tenacity is spite of danger and hardship 
4. Endurance. A leader must have a physical and mental ability endurance to
continue relentlessly in pursuing the goals and objectives of the organization for a
common good 
5. Enthusiasm. A leader must possess a  high degree of interest and sensitivity in
responding to the needs of the organization 
6. Integrity. A leader must possess a good moral character and an impeccable
integrity 
7. Decisiveness. A leader must have the ability to decide promptly and correctly 
8. Dependability. A leader must demonstrate a higher degree or initiative in the
performance of his duty 
 9. Force. A leader must be able to demonstrate efficacious power within  the
bounds of law to compel obedience among his subordinates 
10. Humility. A leader must possess the virtue of humility – the state of being
reasonably modest and not proud, assuming, arrogant, and boastful 
 
C. Power and the Leader 
According TO Medina (2011), the main concern of a leader is to influence people to behave as he
wants them to. The bases of power that the leader may use to convince subordinates may be classified
as either:  
1. Position Power. The power derived as a consequence of the leader’s position. It
consists of the following type: 
a. Legitimate power 
b. Reward power 
c. Coercive power 
2. Personal Power. The leader’s personal power results from his personal
characteristics. It may be any or both of the following: 
a. Expert power 
b. Referent power 

D. Theories of Leadership 
Due to the varied meanings and definitions given to leadership, various theories of this
components have been conceptualizes. There are few theories that have been shown to be most popular
in the work setting. Some of this theories have shown to be applicable in work and life situations. Martires,
(2003) enumerated them as follows: 
1. Trait or Great man theory. Leadership ability is innate. This theory suggests that
leadership is determined by certain individual personality traits, social traits and
significant physical characteristics. 
2. Environment theory. This theory posits that leadership skills are required. Even if
an individual was not born into a family of leaders or may not possess the physical
attributes of a leader, the proper environment is a strong forces that spots, identifies,
supports, and develops leadership potential. 
3. Behavioural Theory. This theory claims that leaders adopt a particular leadership
style which exerts tremendous impact over an individual and group behaviour. Thus, four
types of leaders emerge: 
a. Dictatorial leader – one with absolute authority and utilizes threats and
punishment to induce compliance. 
b. Authoritarian leader – one who claims covenant sourced from authority to
exact obedience 
c. Democratic or Participative leader – one who involves subordinates in
considering organizational matters giving them guidance in their work problems
and goal achievements. 
d. Laissez-faire or free rein leader – one who offers information to the
members but shows little involvement and participation in group activities. 
4. Situational or Contingency Theory. The situation calls for the emergence of a
leader. 
5. The theory of Shared Leadership. Responsibility for the success of the group
rests upon all the members, not only upon the designated leaders. 
 
To know more about the theories of leadership, kindly click the link below: 
https://businessjargons.com/theories-of-leadership.html 
 
E. Dimensions of Leadership Behavior 
Leaders envision the future and inspire the members of the organization to chart the various
courses of the organization. The skill in leadership includes foru major dimensions: (Zulueta and De Lara,
2002) 
 1. The ability to use power effectively and in a responsible manner 
2. The ability to comprehend that human beings have different motivation forces at different
times and in different situations 
3. The ability to inspire 
4. The ability to act in a manner that will develop a climate conducive to responding to and
arousing motivations