10/15/2022

‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم‬

‫السالم عليكم ورحمة هللا وبركاته‬ Daftar Isi
• Introduction
Medical Imaging • Signals
Basic Imaging Principles: Signals & Systems • Point & Line Impulse
• Comb and Sampling Functions
• Rect and Sinc Functions
• Exponential and Sinusoidal
Amir Faisal, S.T., M.Eng., Ph.D.
Signals
Teknik Biomedik • Separable & Periodic Signals
Jurusan Teknologi Produksi & Industri
Institut Teknologi Sumatera
• Systems
• Linear Systems
• Impulse Response
• Shift Invariance
• Connections of LSI Systems
• The Fourier Transform
• Properties of the Fourier
Transform
• Transfer Function

Introduction

• Signals and systems are two fundamental concepts for
modeling medical imaging systems.
• Signals are mathematical functions of one or more independent
variables, capable of modeling a variety of physical processes.
• Systems respond to signals by producing new signals.
• They are useful for modeling how physical processes (signals)
change in natural environments and how devices, such as
medical imaging instruments, create new signals (i.e., images).
• This chapter provides an introduction to the theory of signals
and systems, with a focus on those tools required for modeling
medical imaging systems.
• Signals can be classified into three categories: (1) continuous,
(2) discrete, and (3) mixed.
• A continuous signal is a function of independent variables that
range over a continuum of values.

• For example, in computed tomography (CT), the distribution of
x-ray attenuation in a cross-section within the body can be
mathematically modeled using a function 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 of two
independent real-valued variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, which represent two
spatial dimensions.
• Physical processes are usually modeled using continuous
signals.
• Some medical images, such as those obtained on x-ray film,
are also modeled as continuous signals.
• A discrete signal is a function of independent variables that
range over discrete values.
• These signals can be used to model physical processes that
naturally correspond to discrete values.
• For example, the times of arrival of photons in a radioactive
decay process form a discrete sequence of arrival times—that
is, an intrinsically discrete signal.
• Discrete signals can also be used to represent continuous
signals.

1

• For example, the x-ray distribution 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 described above
might be represented in a computer as a function 𝑓𝑑 𝑥, 𝑦 of two
independent discrete variables 𝑚 and 𝑛.
• Finally, a mixed signal is a function of some continuous and
some discrete independent variables.
• Signals of this type are acquired by certain medical imaging
instruments.
• In CT, a signal 𝑔 𝑙, 𝜃𝑘 , 𝑘 = 1,2, … , is recorded as a result of a
parallel or fan beam of x-rays passing through an object.
• For example, an analog-to-digital converter takes a continuous
signal as input and produces a discrete signal as output through
a process called sampling.
• We consider one-dimensional (1-D), two-dimensional (2-D), and
three-dimensional (3-D) signals and systems.
• We primarily develop 2-D continuous signals and systems;
restriction to one dimension or extension to three dimensions is
straightforward in most cases.
Signals
• A continuous signal 𝑓 is defined as a function
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , −∞ ≤ 𝑥, 𝑦 ≤ ∞
• of two independent real-valued variables 𝑥 and 𝑦.
• This signal can be represented and visualized in two different
ways.
• We may plot the signal as a function of the two independent
variables x and y, or we may display it by assigning an intensity
or brightness proportional to its value at 𝑥, 𝑦 .
10/15/2022
• Variable 𝑙 is often modeled as continuous-valued, representing
the distance of a particular ray from the center of the object,
whereas 𝜃𝑘 is a discrete-valued variable, representing the
beam’s angle relative to a reference coordinate system.
• Based on the previous signal classification, systems can also
be organized into categories.
• We may consider a continuous-to-continuous system that
responds to a continuous signal by producing a continuous
signal, or a continuous-to-discrete system that responds to a
continuous signal by producing a discrete signal.
• In all cases, you can think of the input signal (to the imaging
system) as coming from the patient and the output signal as
coming from the imaging system.
• The challenge in medical imaging is to make the output signal a
faithful representation of the input signal.
• This is illustrated in Figure 2.1. In the first case, we call 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 a
function or a signal and (x, y) a point.
• In the second case, we call 𝑓 an image and 𝑥, 𝑦 a pixel, a
word that is derived from ‘‘picture element.’’
• The 3-D analog of the pixel is the voxel, from ‘‘volume element.’’
This is illustrated in Figure 2.2.
• The representation in Figure 2.1(a) is useful in mathematical
calculations, while that in Figure 2.1(b) is most appropriate for
human observers. Accordingly, we focus primarily on two-
dimensional pixel-based representations.
2

• A number of special signals will frequently be used throughout
this book.
• These include the point impulse, the comb and sampling
functions, the line impulse, the rect and sinc functions, and
exponential and sinusoidal signals.
• In addition, many signals will have properties that distinguish
them from other signals and make their use in analysis easier.
• Separability and periodicity are two such common properties.
We now study these special signals and properties.
Two alternative
signal visualizations:
(a) a functional plot
and (b) an image
display.
• In other references, the point impulse is also known as the delta
function, the Dirac function, and the impulse function.
• The point impulse is not a function in the usual sense, but
instead acts on other signals through integration, as we will see.
• It models the property of a point source by having infinitesimal
width and unit area, which can be shown by taking 𝑓(𝑥) = 1 in
(2.3).
10/15/2022
Point Impulse
• It is very useful in medical imaging to mathematically model the
concept of a point source, which is used in the characterization
of imaging system resolution.
• For example, if the source is very small, yet appears to be very
large (blurred out) in its radiological image, then we would say
that the resolution of the system is poor.
• The concept of a point source in one dimension is known as the
1-D point impulse, 𝛿(𝑥), which is defined by the following two
properties:
∞
• 𝛿 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 ≠ 0, ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥 𝛿 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 0
The representation of a 3-D object as a 2-D
image. The 3-D object is represented by a
collection of voxels; the 2-D image is made
up of pixels. In this example, the image is a
slice through the 3-D object.
• The 2-D point impulse, 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦) (also called the 2-D impulse
function, 2-D delta function, or 2-D Dirac function), is
analogously characterized by
• 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ 0,0 ,
∞ ∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 0, 0
• The 2-D point impulse (also not a function in the usual sense)
models the property of a point source located at (0, 0) by having
infinitesimal width and unit volume.
• Figure 2.3(a) illustrates this concept.
3
 10/15/2022

• Signals derived from the point
impulse: (a) point impulse
𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦), (b) shifted point
impulse 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂), (c)
line impulse 𝛿𝑙 (𝑥, 𝑦), and (d)
sampling function
𝛿𝑠 (𝑥, 𝑦; ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦) (note that the
impulses extend to infinity in
both x and y directions).
• In (2.5), the point impulse ‘‘picks off’’ the value of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) at the
location (0, 0) by multiplying 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with the point impulse
followed by integration over all space.
• Suppose we shift the delta function to position (𝜉 , 𝜂)—that is,
𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂)—as shown in Figure 2.3(b).
• Using a change of variables in (2.5), it can be shown that
∞ ∞
• 𝑓 𝜉 , 𝜂 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂) 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
• This important property of the point impulse is known as the
shifting property.

Example 2.1

• Consider the point impulse shifted to position (𝜉 , 𝜂)—that is,
𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂).
• Question: What is the nature of the function that is defined as
the product of 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) with the shifted point impulse?
• Answer: Let 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂). Whenever 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠
(𝜉 , 𝜂), the function 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂) is zero, which means that
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ (𝜉 , 𝜂)
• When (𝑥, 𝑦) = (𝜉, 𝜂), the shifted delta function is undefined
(because its value is infinity), so 𝑔(𝜉 , 𝜂) is also undefined.
• However, we know from (2.6) that the integral of 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦)—that
is, its volume—is 𝑓(𝜉 , 𝜂).
• Therefore, we can conclude that 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) is a point impulse
function located at (𝜉 , 𝜂) having volume 𝑓(𝜉 , 𝜂), or
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝜉 , 𝜂)𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂)
• This result tells us that we can interpret the product of a function
with a point impulse as another point impulse whose volume is
equal to the value of the function at the location of the point
impulse.

Line Impulse

• Two other properties of the point impulse will be used • When calibrating medical imaging equipment, it is sometimes
throughout the book. The scaling property of the point impulse easier to use a linelike rather than a pointlike object.
is given by • For example, it may be easier to position a wire than a small
1
• 𝛿 𝑎𝑥, 𝑏𝑦 = 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 bead to assess the resolution of a projection radiography
𝑎𝑏
system.
• Finally, we occasionally need to use the fact that the point
• For this reason, we would like a mathematical model for a line
impulse is an even function; that is,
source.
• 𝛿 −𝑥, −𝑦 = 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦
• Consider the set of points defined by
• which follows from (2.8) by setting 𝑎 = 𝑏 = −1.
• 𝐿 𝑙, 𝜃 = 𝑥, 𝑦 |𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑦 sin 𝜃 = 𝑙

4

• It can be shown that 𝐿(𝑙, 𝜃) is a line whose unit normal is
oriented at an angle 𝜃 relative to the x-axis and is at distance 𝑙
from the origin in the direction of the unit normal.
• This geometry can be seen in Figure 2.3(c).
• The line impulse 𝛿𝑙 (𝑥, 𝑦) associated with line 𝐿(𝑙, 𝜃) is given by
• 𝛿𝑙 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝛿 𝑥 cos 𝜃 + 𝑦 sin 𝜃 − 𝑙
• This signal, illustrated in Figure 2.3(c), is effectively a 1-D
impulse function ‘‘spread out’’ on the line 𝐿(𝑙, 𝜃).
• In nearly all medical imaging modalities, we need to pick off
values not just at a single point but on a grid or matrix of points,
a process that is called sampling. Collectively, this matrix of
values represents the medical image that is observed.
• A CT image is typically a 1,024 × 1,024 matrix of CT numbers,
representing a physical parameter called the linear attenuation
coefficient of a cross-section of the human body.
• A magnetic resonance (MR) image is typically a 256 × 256
matrix of values, representing one of several possible nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) properties of tissues
• It is useful in describing signal sampling to space the point
impulses in the comb function by amounts∆𝑥 in the 𝑥 direction,
and ∆𝑦 in the 𝑦 direction.
• This yields the sampling function 𝛿𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦; ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 , defined by
• 𝛿𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦; ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 = σ∞ ∞ understanding discretization—the process of going from a
𝑚=−∞ σ𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑥 − 𝑚∆𝑥, 𝑦 − 𝑛∆𝑦
• It can be shown using the scaling property (2.8) of the point
impulse, that the sampling function is related to the comb
function as follows:
1 𝑥 𝑦
• 𝛿𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦; ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑥∆𝑦 comb ,
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
10/15/2022
Comb and Sampling Functions
• We now consider two functions that are critical to the way
medical images are produced, manipulated, and stored in real-
world systems.
• In such systems, medical images are not treated as continuous
functions, but as discrete functions.
• Here, we introduce these two critical functions in relation to the
other functions being introduced in this chapter.
• We saw above that through the use of a shifted point impulse
[within the double integral in (2.6)], we could ‘‘pick off’’ the value
of a function at a single point.
• As a first step toward characterizing sampling mathematically,
we introduce the comb function, given by
• comb 𝑥 = σ∞ 𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑥 − 𝑛
• The comb function is also known as the shah function.
• It is called the comb function because the set of shifted point
impulses constituting it resembles the teeth of a comb.
• In 2-D, the comb function is given by
• comb 𝑥 = σ∞ ∞
𝑚=−∞ σ𝑛=−∞ 𝛿 𝑥 − 𝑚, 𝑦 − 𝑛
• The sampling function is a sequence of point impulses located
at points 𝑚∆𝑥, 𝑛∆𝑦 , −∞ < 𝑚, 𝑛 < ∞, in the plane, as illustrated
in Figure 2.3(d).
• The concept of the sampling function is critical for
continuous signal to a discrete signal.
5
 10/15/2022

Rect and Sinc Functions

• Two signals that are frequently used in the study of medical • The rect function is a finite energy signal, with unit total energy,
imaging systems are the rect and sinc functions. that models signal concentration over a unit square centered
• The rect function is given by around point (0, 0).
𝑥−𝜉 𝑦−𝜂
1 1 • We can use the product 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 rect ,
1, for 𝑥 < 2 and 𝑦 < 2 𝑋 𝑋
• rect 𝑥, 𝑦 = ൞ 1 1 • to select that part of signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 centered at a point (𝜉, 𝜂) of
0, for 𝑥 > 2 and 𝑦 > 2 the plane with width 𝑋 and height 𝑌, and set the rest to zero.
• where the value at |𝑥| = 1Τ2 , |𝑦| ≤ 1Τ2 or |𝑥| ≤ 1Τ2 , |𝑦| = 1Τ2 • The rect function can be written as the product of two 1-D rect
is immaterial. (If this value is desired, we usually set it to 1Τ2.) functions, rect 𝑥, 𝑦 = rect 𝑥 rect 𝑦

• where • The sinc function is a finite energy signal with unit total energy.
1 Its maximum value equals 1, and is attained at point (0, 0).
1, for 𝑥 < 2
• rect 𝑥 = ൞ • The sinc function can be written as the product of two 1-D sinc
1
0, for 𝑥 > 2 functions,
• sinc 𝑥, 𝑦 = sinc 𝑥 sinc 𝑦
• The 1-D rect function is plotted in Figure 2.4(a). The sinc
function is given by (a) The 1-D sinc function
1, for 𝑥 = 𝑦 = 0 rect 𝑥 , and (b) the 1-D
• sinc 𝑥, 𝑦 = ቐsin 𝜋𝑥 sin 𝜋𝑦 sinc function sinc 𝑥 .
2
𝜋 𝑥𝑦
, otherwise

Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals

• where sinc 𝑥 =
sin 𝜋𝑥
𝜋𝑥
• The 1-D sinc function is plotted in Figure 2.4(b). This function
consists of a main lobe and side lobes, which are smaller in
height and eventually diminish to zero for large values of 𝑥.
• It alternates between positive and negative values by passing
through zero at points 𝑥 = ±1, ±2, …
• The rect and sinc functions are useful in understanding the
influence of the finite width of pixels in portraying an originally
continuous signal as a discrete image.
• Another continuous signal is the complex exponential signal,
given by
• 𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦
• where 𝑢0 and 𝑣0 are two real-valued parameters and 𝑗 2 = −1.
• These parameters are usually referred to as fundamental
frequencies, and have units that are the inverse of the units of 𝑥
and 𝑦.
• For example, if x and y are given in mm, then 𝑢0 and 𝑣0 have
the unit mm−1 .

6
 10/15/2022

• The complex exponential signal can be decomposed into real • On the other hand, a sinusoidal signal can be written in terms of
and imaginary parts using two sinusoidal signals: two complex exponential signals, since
1
• 𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 = sin 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 • 𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦 = sin 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 = 2𝑗 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦
−
• 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 1
𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦
2𝑗
• Indeed, 1 1
• 𝑒 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦 = cos 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 + 𝑗 sinሾ2𝜋(𝑢0 𝑥 • 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 = cos 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 = 2 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦
− 2 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦

+ 𝑣0 𝑦)ሿ = 𝑐 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑗𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦

• The fundamental frequencies 𝑢0 and 𝑣0 affect the oscillating Six instances of the
behavior of the sinusoidal signals in the x and y directions, sinusoidal signal 𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦
respectively. = sin 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 , 0
• Small values of 𝑢0 result in slow oscillations in the 𝑥 direction, ≤ 𝑥, 𝑦 ≤ 1, for various values
whereas large values result in fast oscillations in the 𝑥 direction. of the fundamental
frequencies 𝑢0 , 𝑣0.
• This is illustrated in Figure 2.5. Notice that small values
• The concepts of exponential signals are particularly useful in result in slow oscillations in
Fourier analysis, which is used in image reconstruction and in the corresponding direction,
understanding MRI. whereas large values result
in fast oscillations.

Separable Signals

• Separable signals form another class of continuous signals. A
signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is a separable signal if there exist two 1-D signals
𝑓1 𝑥 and 𝑓2 𝑥 such that
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓1 𝑥 𝑓2 𝑥
• A 2-D separable signal that is a function of two independent
variables 𝑥 and 𝑦 can be separated into a product of two 1-D
signals, one of which is only a function of 𝑥 and the other only of
𝑦.
• Notice that the point impulse is a separable signal, since 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦)
= 𝛿(𝑥)𝛿(𝑦). From (2.18) and (2.21), the rect and sinc functions
are separable signals as well.
• Separable signals are limited in the sense that they can only
model signal variations independently in the 𝑥 and 𝑦 directions.
• However, there are instances in which use of separable signals
is appropriate.
• Of major importance is the fact that operating on separable
signals is much simpler than operating on purely 2-D signals,
since, for separable signals 2-D operations reduce to simpler
consecutive 1-D operations.

7
 10/15/2022

Periodic Signals Systems

• A signal 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is a periodic signal if there are two positive
constants 𝑋 and 𝑌 such that
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 + 𝑋, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 + 𝑌
• where X and Y are known as the signal periods in the x and y
direction, respectively.
• From (2.29), we need to know a periodic signal only in the
rectangular window. The sampling function 𝛿𝑠 𝑥, 𝑦; ∆𝑥, ∆𝑦 0
≤ 𝑥 < 𝑋, 0 ≤ 𝑦 < 𝑌 [(2.14)] is a periodic signal with periods 𝑋
= 𝑥 and 𝑌 = 𝑦, whereas exponential and sinusoidal signals
[(2.23) and (2.24)] are periodic with periods 𝑋 = 1Τ𝑢0 and 𝑌
= 1Τ𝑣0 .
• A continuous-to-continuous (or simply continuous) system is
defined as a transformation 𝒮 of an input continuous signal
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) to an output continuous signal 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦).
• This is illustrated in Figure 2.6, which depicts the response of a
system 𝒮 to a point impulse. In general,
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝒮 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦)
• which is known as the input-output equation of system 𝒮.
• With a slight abuse of notation, we denote by 𝒮 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) the
value, at point (𝑥, 𝑦), of the signal obtained by applying the
transformation 𝒮 on the entire signal 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).

• The importance of (2.30) is that it implies that we can predict
the output of an imaging system if we know the input 𝑓 and the
characteristics of the imaging system 𝒮.
• Equation (2.30) is too general to be useful in practice.
• In a particular application, there might be many choices for 𝒮,
and the question is which one is more appropriate.
• For a choice of 𝒮 to be useful, it should be mathematically
tractable.
• It is therefore necessary to limit our choices, by considering
systems obtained using transformations 𝒮 that satisfy certain
simplifying assumptions.
• Of course, any choice of 𝒮 should accurately portray the actual
situation.

Linear Systems

• A simplifying assumption is that of linearity.

• A system 𝒮 is a linear system if, when the input consists of a
weighted summation of several signals, the output will also be a
weighted summation of the responses of the system to each
individual input signal.
• More precisely, for any collection {𝑓𝑘 (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑘 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝐾} of The response of a
input signals, and for any collection {𝑤𝑘 , 𝑘 = 1, 2, . . . , 𝐾} of
continuous system
weights, we have
to a point impulse.
• 𝒮 σ𝐾 𝐾
𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑓𝑘 (𝑥, 𝑦) = σ𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝒮 𝑓𝑘 (𝑥, 𝑦)

8

• The linearity assumption leads to a class of relatively simple
systems, which are tractable and enjoy a number of useful
properties.
• How reasonable is the assumption of linearity in practice? Are
linear systems good mathematical approximations of the
physical phenomena underlying medical imaging? It turns out
that many medical imaging systems are approximately linear.
• In practice, this means that the image of an ensemble of signals
is (nearly) identical to the sum of separate images of each
signal.
• In general, this output depends on four independent variables; it
is therefore a four-dimensional signal.
• The response ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂) is known as the point spread function
(PSF) of system 𝒮, or, equivalently, the impulse response
function.
• Let us now assume that 𝒮 is a linear system. If 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) is an
arbitrary input to 𝒮, then by starting with (2.30) and applying
(2.6), (2.31), and (2.32), the output 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) will be given by
∞ ∞
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂
• In practice, knowing the PSF for every (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝜉, 𝜂) is a formidable
task, since this either requires that ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂) is known
analytically, which is true only in limited circumstances of
usually no practical interest, or that ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂) is experimentally
measured and stored in numerical form, which is usually not
practical due to the four-dimensional nature of ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂).
• Therefore, additional simplification is needed at this point, which
may be achieved by imposing additional conditions on system
𝒮.
10/15/2022
Impulse Response
• We now investigate how a linear system responds to an
arbitrary input signal 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) and demonstrate the fact that
linearity leads to tractable systems.
• However, before we pursue this investigation, it will be
beneficial to first consider the output of a system 𝒮 to a point
impulse.
• Let us denote by ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂) the output of system 𝒮 to input
𝛿𝜉𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝛿(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂) [that is, a point impulse located at
(𝜉, 𝜂)].
• In this case, ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂 = 𝒮 𝛿𝜉𝜂(𝑥, 𝑦)
• The integral in (2.33) is known as the superposition integral.
This equation shows that the PSF ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂) uniquely
characterizes a linear system; that is, we only need to know the
PSF of a linear system in order to calculate its output in
response to a given input.
• In fact, (2.33) facilitates computation of the output 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) from
an arbitrary but known input 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦).
• If the PSF ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦; 𝜉, 𝜂) is known for every (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝜉, 𝜂), then this
computation reduces to calculating the double integral in
Shift Invariance
• An additional simplifying assumption is shift invariance.
• A system 𝒮 is shift invariant if an arbitrary translation of the input
results in an identical translation in the output.
• In mathematical terms, if
• 𝑓𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0
• is a translated version of an input signal 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) shifted at a
point 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , then
• 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝒮 𝑓𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑥, 𝑦
• where 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) is given by (2.30).
9

• Therefore, the response of a shift-invariant system to a
translated input equals the response of the system to the actual
input translated by the same amount.
• Shift invariance does not require or imply linearity: a system
may be shift-invariant but not linear and vice versa.
• However, if a linear system 𝒮 is shift-invariant and
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝒮 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 then 𝒮 𝛿𝜉𝜂 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ 𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂
• In this case, the PSF is a 2-D signal.
• A system 𝒮 that is both linear and shift-invariant is known as a
linear shift-invariant (LSI) system.
• If 𝒮 is an LSI system, then [see (2.32), (2.33), and (2.37)]
∞ ∞
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ 𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂
• or, simply, 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
• Equations (2.38) and (2.39) are known as the convolution
integral and the convolution equation. Treating imaging systems
as LSI systems significantly simplifies our analysis of these
systems, and in most cases is accurate enough for practical
use.
• Therefore, the system is linear.
• On the other hand, if 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 is the response of the system to
input 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , then
• 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0
• and the system is also shift-invariant.
10/15/2022
• By imposing shift invariance on a linear system, we are able to
reduce the dimensionality of the PSF by a factor of two.
• In practice, this means that the PSF is the same throughout the
field-of-view of a shift-invariant imaging system.
• If we measure the PSF at one position, we can assume the
same PSF at all other positions within the imaging field.
• Such a measurement is accomplished by using a (very) small
point object (to mimic a point impulse) and (2.36), which
indicates that the image of this point object is the PSF.
Example 2.2
• Consider a continuous system with input-output equation
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
• Is this system linear and shift-invariant?
• If 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 is the response of the system to input σ𝐾
𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦
then
′ 𝐾 𝐾
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2 σ𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 = σ𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 2𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦
= σ𝐾 𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑔𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦
• where 𝑔𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 is the response of the system to input 𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 .
Example 2.3
• Consider a continuous system with input-output equation
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
• Is this system linear and shift-invariant?
• If 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 is the response of the system to input σ𝐾 𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦
then
• 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦 σ𝐾 𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 = σ𝐾𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑥𝑦𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦
= σ𝐾 𝑘=1 𝑤𝑘 𝑔𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦
• where 𝑔𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 is the response of the system to input 𝑓𝑘 𝑥, 𝑦 .
10

• Therefore, the system is linear.
• On the other hand, if 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 is the response of the system to
input 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 , where 𝑥0 ≠ 0 and 𝑦0 ≠ 0, then
• 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥𝑦𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 ≠ 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 −
𝑦0 )
• Thus, 𝑔′ 𝑥, 𝑦 ≠ 𝑔 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0
• and the system is not shift-invariant.
• In this case, the following is true:
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ሾℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ሿ = ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and
• ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦
• Equations (2.46) and (2.47) are two properties of convolution,
known as associativity and commutativity, respectively.
• From the commutativity property, we see that 𝑔(𝑥, 𝑦) = ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) ∗ ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦), which leads ∞
to 𝑔∞𝑥, 𝑦 =
∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ 𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ 𝜉, 𝜂 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 −
𝜂 ) 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂
(a) Cascade connection of two LSI systems.
(b) Parallel connection of two LSI systems.
10/15/2022
Connections of LSI Systems
• LSI systems can be stand-alone or connected with other LSI
systems.
• Two types of connections are usually considered: (1) cascade
or serial connections and (2) parallel connections.
• Figure 2.7(a) illustrates two equivalent cascade connections of
two LSI systems with PSFs ℎ1(𝑥, 𝑦) and ℎ2(𝑥, 𝑦), as well as the
equivalent ‘‘single’’ LSI system.
• In this case, the following is true:
• Figure 2.7(b) illustrates a parallel connection of two LSI systems
with PSFs ℎ1(𝑥, 𝑦) and ℎ2(𝑥, 𝑦), as well as the resulting
equivalent single LSI system.
• In this case, 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 + ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
= ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 + ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
• which is another property of convolution, known as distributivity.
• The properties of associativity, commutativity, and distributivity
associated with LSI systems significantly simplify our analysis of
medical imaging systems.
Example 2.4
• Consider two LSI systems connected in cascade, with Gaussian
PSFs of the form
1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ൗ2𝜎12 1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 ൗ2𝜎22
• ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝜋𝜎2 𝑒 − and ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝜋𝜎2 𝑒 −
1 2
• where 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are two positive constants.
• What is the PSF of this system?
• This connection is equivalent to a single LSI system with
impulse response ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦), given by
11
 10/15/2022

∞ ∞
• ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ2 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ1 𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂 = • in which case
1 ∞ ∞ 2 2 2 − 𝑥−𝜉 2 + 𝑦−𝜂 2 ൗ2𝜎12 1 − 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2
‫ 𝑒 ׬ ׬‬− 𝜉 +𝜂 ൗ2𝜎2 𝑒
4𝜋2 𝜎12 𝜎22 −∞ −∞
𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂 = • ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = exp
1 ∞ −𝜉2 Τ2𝜎2 − 𝑥−𝜉 2 Τ2𝜎2 ∞ −𝜂2 Τ2𝜎2 − 𝑦−𝜂 2 Τ2𝜎2 2𝜋 𝜎12 +𝜎22 2 𝜎12 +𝜎22
‫׬‬ 𝑒 2 1 𝑑𝜉 ‫׬‬ 𝑒 2 1 𝑑𝜂
2 2
4𝜋 𝜎1 𝜎2 2 −∞ −∞ • To obtain the second equality in (2.52), we have substituted the
•
∞ −𝜉2 Τ2𝜎2 − 𝑥−𝜉 2 Τ2𝜎2
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 2 1 𝑑𝜉 = variable 𝜉 − 𝜎22 Τ 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 𝑥 with 𝜏; whereas, to obtain the third
𝜎21 +𝜎2
2
2 2 2 2 equality, we have used the fact that
2 2 2 ∞ − 2 2 𝜉− 𝜎2 ൗ 𝜎1 +𝜎2 𝑥
𝑒 −𝑥 ൗ2 𝜎1 +𝜎2 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 2𝜎1𝜎2 𝑑𝜉 = ∞ 2 𝜏2 𝜋
𝜎2 +𝜎 2 • ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 −𝑎 𝑑𝜏 = , for 𝑎 ≠ 0.
1 2 2 𝑎
2 2 2 ∞ − 2 2𝜏 2𝜋𝜎1 𝜎2 −𝑥 2 ൗ2 𝜎2+𝜎2
𝑒 −𝑥 ൗ2 𝜎1 +𝜎2 ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 2𝜎1𝜎2 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑒 1 2
• The resulting PSF is Gaussian as well.
𝜎12 +𝜎22

Separable Systems

• Separable systems form an important class of LSI systems. • Therefore, for a 2-D separable system, the 2-D convolution
• As with separable signals, a 2-D LSI system with PSF ℎ(𝑥, 𝑦) is integral (2.38) can be calculated using two simpler 1-D
a separable system if there are two 1-D systems with PSFs convolution integrals, as follows:
∞
ℎ1(𝑥) and ℎ2(𝑦), such that • Compute 𝑤 𝑥, 𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝑦 ℎ1 𝑥 − 𝜉 𝑑𝜉, for every 𝑦.
• ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ1(𝑥)ℎ2(𝑦) • Compute 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 =
∞
‫׬‬−∞ 𝑤 𝑥, 𝜂 ℎ2 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜂, for every 𝑥.
• A 2-D separable system consists of a cascade of two 1-D
systems, one applied in the x direction and the other one in the
y direction.

• Indeed, • This is illustrated in Figure 2.8, which depicts the result of

∞ ∞ ∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑤 𝑥, 𝜂 ℎ2 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜂 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ1 𝑥 − 𝜉 𝑑𝜉 ℎ2 (𝑦 − convolving an image with a 2-D Gaussian PSF of the form
∞ ∞ 1 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 Τ2𝜎2
𝜂 )𝑑𝜂 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ1 𝑥 − 𝜉 ℎ2 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂 = • ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 2𝜋𝜎2 𝑒 −
∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝜉, 𝜂 ℎ 𝑥 − 𝜉, 𝑦 − 𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂 = ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 • With 𝜎 = 4, by using two 1-D steps in cascade.
• The first step keeps 𝑦 fixed, treats image 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) as a 1-D • This PSF is separable, with
signal, and convolves it with the PSF ℎ1(𝑥) to obtain 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦) for 1 2 Τ2𝜎2 1 2Τ2𝜎2
• ℎ1 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑥 and ℎ2 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑒 −𝑦
every 𝑦. 2𝜋𝜎 2𝜋𝜎

• The second step keeps 𝑥 fixed, treats image 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦) as a 1-D • In practice, it is often faster (and easier) to execute two
signal, and convolves it with the PSF ℎ2(𝑦). consecutive 1-D operations than a single 2-D operation.

12
 10/15/2022

Stable Systems

• Stability is an important property of medical imaging systems.

Calculation of the output of
a 2-D separable system
by using two 1-D steps in
cascade.
• Informally, a medical imaging system is stable if small inputs
lead to outputs that do not diverge.
• Although there are many ways to characterize system stability,
we only consider bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stability
here.
• A system is a bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable
system if, when the input is a bounded signal—that is, when
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≤ 𝐵 < ∞, for every 𝑥, 𝑦 ,

• For some finite 𝐵 – there exists a finite 𝐵′ such that
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ≤ 𝐵′ < ∞, for every 𝑥, 𝑦 ,
• in which case the output will also be a bounded signal.
• It can be shown that an LSI system is a BIBO stable system if
and only if its PSF is absolutely integrable, in which case
∞ ∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 < ∞
• In practice, it is very important to design medical imaging
systems that are stable. The output of an unstable system may
grow out of bound, even if the input is small.
• This is an undesirable problem that strongly affects the
accuracy and diagnostic utility of a medical imaging system.
• In the physical world, most systems are stable.
• However, when we design a medical imaging system, we may
occasionally be tempted to model it using a PSF that does not
satisfy (2.61), in which case we need to find alternative stable
PSFs.
• This will be encountered in Chapter 6 where computed
tomography is discussed.

The Fourier Transform

• Although the convolution equation provides a means of relating • An alternative way to decompose a signal is in terms of
the output of an LSI system to its input, there exists an complex exponential signals.
alternative (and equivalent) way of viewing this relationship: the • It can be shown that if
Fourier transform. ∞ ∞
• 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 then
• The Fourier transform provides a different perspective on how
∞ ∞
signals and systems interact, and it leads to alternative tools for • 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣
system analysis and implementation.
• The double integral in (2.62) [as well as the function 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is
• Recall that the convolution equation [(2.39)] was obtained by known as the (2-D) Fourier transform of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , whereas the
decomposing a signal into point impulses [see (2.6), (2.32), and double integral in (2.63) is known as the (2-D) inverse Fourier
(2.33)]. transform.

13
 10/15/2022

• We use the notation
• 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = ℱ2D 𝑓 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℱ2𝐷 −1
𝐹 𝑥, 𝑦
• to denote the Fourier transform and its inverse. The subscript
‘‘2D’’ is used to indicate that the Fourier transform is 2-D.
• Before we can use the Fourier transform and its inverse, we
need to make sure that the integrals in (2.62) and (2.63) exist.
• A sufficient condition for the existence of such integrals is that
the signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is continuous, or has a finite number of
discontinuities, and that it is absolutely integrable. These
conditions are almost always satisfied in practice.
• Equation (2.63) shows that the Fourier transform produces a
decomposition of a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 into complex exponentials
𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 with strength 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 .
• The variables 𝑢 and 𝑣 are known as the 𝑥 and 𝑦 (spatial)
frequencies of signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , respectively.
• The Fourier transform 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is frequently referred to as the
spectrum of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 . Since
• 𝑒 𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 = cos 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦 + 𝑗 sin 2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥 + 𝑣0 𝑦
• the Fourier transform provides information on the sinusoidal
composition of a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 at different frequencies.

• Notice the relationship between the Fourier transform and the • It is quite common then to separately consider the Fourier
exponential and sinusoidal signals discussed in Section 2.2.5. transform’s magnitude and phase, given by
• In practice, the Fourier transform allows us to separately • 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹𝑅2 𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝐹𝐼2 𝑢, 𝑣 and
consider the action of an LSI system on each sinusoidal 𝐹𝐼 𝑢,𝑣
frequency. • ∠𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = tan−1
𝐹𝑅 𝑢,𝑣
• This general characterization of an LSI system then carries over • where 𝐹𝑅 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝐹𝐼 𝑢, 𝑣 are the real and imaginary parts of
to the action on arbitrary signals by considering the signals’ 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 , respectively [i.e., 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹𝑅 𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑗𝐹𝐼 𝑢, 𝑣 , in which
Fourier transforms. case
• In general, the Fourier transform is a complex-valued signal, • 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑒 𝑗∠𝐹 𝑢,𝑣
even if 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is real-valued.

• The magnitude 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 and phase ∠𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 are usually

referred to as the magnitude spectrum and the phase spectrum,
respectively.
• Moreover, the square 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 2 of the magnitude spectrum is
usually referred to as the power spectrum.
• Notice that both the magnitude and phase spectra are required
to uniquely determine 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 .
• We now provide a few examples of signals and their
corresponding Fourier transforms. Some basic Fourier
transform pairs are summarized in Table 2.1.

14

Example 2.5
• Consider the point impulse 𝛿(𝑥, 𝑦). What is its Fourier
transform?
• Answer:
• From (2.62), we have ℱ2D 𝛿 𝑢, 𝑣 =
∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 =
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0+𝑣0 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 1
• In this case, the magnitude spectrum is 1, whereas the phase
spectrum is 0.
• Therefore, the Fourier transform of a point impulse is constant
over all frequencies, with strength equal to 1.
• where the last step is based on the fact that
∞ ∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝛿 𝑢, 𝑣
• which relates the complex exponential to the point impulse. In
this case, the magnitude spectrum is a point impulse located at
frequency 𝑢0 , 𝑣0 , whereas the phase spectrum is 0.
• When 𝑢0 = 𝑣0 = 0, the complex exponential becomes the unit-
valued signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 1, for every 𝑥, 𝑦 , in which case (2.71)
implies that the Fourier transform of a unit-valued signal is a
point impulse at frequency 0, 0 .
• This is illustrated in Figure 2.9, where three images with
decreasing spatial variation (from left to right) produce spectra
with decreasing high frequency content.
• Notice that in order to reduce the dynamic range of values in
the magnitude spectrum 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 for display purposes, we
calculate and display the 2-D function log 1 + 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 instead.
• The Fourier transform of a 1-D signal and its inverse can be
easily obtained from (2.62) and (2.63) by simply eliminating one
of the two dimensions.
10/15/2022
Example 2.6
• Consider the complex exponential signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
= 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦 .
• What is its Fourier transform?
• Answer: From (2.62), we have
∞ ∞
• ℱ2D 𝑓 𝑢, 𝑣 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
∞ ∞
= ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢0 𝑥+𝑣0 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦
∞ ∞
= ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢−𝑢0 𝑥+ 𝑣−𝑣0 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = 𝛿 𝑢 − 𝑢0 , 𝑢 − 𝑢0
• A point impulse, which has an extremely concentrated profile in
space, results in a uniform frequency content (i.e., a magnitude
spectrum with constant value).
• On the other hand, a constant signal, which does not vary in
space, has a spectrum that is all concentrated at frequency
(0, 0).
• This extreme behaviour reveals a more general property.
• Slow signal variation in space produces a spectral content that
is primarily concentrated at low frequencies, whereas fast signal
variation results in spectral content at high frequencies.
• In fact, if 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , −∞ ≤ 𝑥 ≤ ∞, is a 1-D signal, then
∞
• 𝐹 𝑢 = ℱ1D 𝑓 𝑢 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥
−1 ∞
• 𝑓 𝑥 = ℱ1𝐷 𝐹 𝑥 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐹 𝑢 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑢
• where the subscript ”1D” denotes that the Fourier transform is
one-dimensional.
15
 10/15/2022

Example 2.7

• Consider the 1-D rect function

1
Three images of 1, for 𝑥 < 2
decreasing spatial • rect 𝑥 = ൞ 1
0, for 𝑥 > 2
variation (from left to
right) and the associated • What is its Fourier transform?
magnitude spectra
[depicted as log(1
+ 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 ).

Properties of the Fourier Transform

• Answer: From (2.73), we have • The Fourier transform

∞ 1Τ2 satisfies a number of useful
• ℱ1𝐷 rect 𝑢 = ‫׬‬−∞ rect 𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ‫׬‬−1Τ2 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥
properties.
1 Τ 1 𝑒 𝑗𝜋𝑢 −𝑒 −𝑗𝜋𝑢 sin 𝜋𝑢
= −𝑗2𝜋𝑢 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 |1−12Τ2 = 𝜋𝑢 = = sinc 𝑢 • Most of them are used in both
2𝑗 𝜋𝑢
• To derive (2.76), we have used the fact that if 𝑓 𝑥 is a single- theory and application to
valued, bounded, and integrable function on [a, b] and there simplify calculations.
exists a function 𝐹 𝑥 such that 𝑑𝐹 𝑥 Τ𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥 , for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏,
𝑥
then ‫ 𝑥 𝐹 = 𝑥𝑎| 𝜉 𝐹 = 𝜉𝑑 𝜉 𝑓 𝑎׬‬− 𝐹 𝑎 for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏.
Therefore, the 1-D Fourier transform of the rect function is the
sinc function (and vice versa).

Linearity Translation

• If the Fourier transforms of two signals 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 are
𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 , respectively, then
• ℱ2D 𝑎1 𝑓 + 𝑎2 𝑔 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑎1 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 + 𝑎2 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣
• where 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 are two constants.
• This property can be extended to a linear combination of an
arbitrary number of signals.
• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is the Fourier transform of a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and if
• 𝑓𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 then
• ℱ2D 𝑓𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥0 +𝑣𝑦0
• Notice that, in this case, ℱ2D 𝑓𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 , and
• ∠ℱ2D 𝑓𝑥0 𝑦0 𝑢, 𝑣 = ∠𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 − 2𝜋 𝑢𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑦0
• Therefore, translating a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 does not affect its
magnitude spectrum but subtracts a constant phase of
2𝜋 𝑢𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑦0 at each frequency 𝑢, 𝑣 .

16

Conjugation and Conjugate Symmetry
• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is the Fourier transform of a complex-valued signal
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , then ℱ2D 𝑓 ∗ 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 ∗ −𝑢, −𝑣
• where ∗ denotes the complex conjugate.
• This is known as the conjugation property of the Fourier
transform.
• When 𝑓 is real-valued, its Fourier transform exhibits conjugate
symmetry, which is defined by 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 ∗ −𝑢, −𝑣
Scaling
• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is the Fourier transform of a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , and if
• 𝑓𝑎𝑏 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑎𝑥, 𝑏𝑦
• where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are two nonzero constants, then
• If we set 𝑎 = 𝑏 = −1, then the Fourier transform of signal
𝑓 −𝑥, −𝑦 will be 𝐹 −𝑢, −𝑣 .
• Thus reversing a signal in space also reverses its Fourier
transform.
• We see that 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is the rect function scaled by factors 𝑥 and 𝑦
in each direction and then translated to 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 .
• By using the scaling property of the Fourier transform, we have
𝑥 𝑦
ℱ2𝐷 rect ∆𝑥 , ∆𝑦 = ∆𝑥∆𝑦 sinc ∆𝑥𝑢, ∆𝑦𝑣 .
• By using the translation property, we have
• ℱ2𝐷 𝑓 𝑢, 𝑣 = ∆𝑥∆𝑦 sinc ∆𝑥𝑢, ∆𝑦𝑣 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
10/15/2022
• In this case, the real part 𝐹𝑅 𝑢, 𝑣 of 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 and the magnitude
spectrum 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 are symmetric functions, whereas the
imaginary part 𝐹𝐼 𝑢, 𝑣 and phase spectrum ∠𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 are
antisymmetric functions:
• 𝐹𝑅 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹𝑅 −𝑢, −𝑣 and 𝐹𝐼 𝑢, 𝑣 = −𝐹𝐼 −𝑢, −𝑣
• 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 −𝑢, −𝑣 and ∠𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = −∠𝐹 −𝑢, −𝑣
• Notice that the three magnitude spectra depicted in Figure 2.9
are symmetric around the origin.
Example 2.8
• Detectors of many medical imaging systems can be modelled
as rect functions of different sizes and locations.
• Compute the Fourier transform of the following scaled and
translated rect function:
𝑥−𝑥0 𝑦−𝑦0
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = rect ,
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
• Answer: The Fourier transform of the rect function is the sinc
function: ℱ2𝐷 rect 𝑢, 𝑣 = sinc 𝑢, 𝑣
Rotation
• Let us denote by 𝑓𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 the signal
• 𝑓𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 cos 𝜃 − 𝑦 sin 𝜃 , 𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝑦 cos 𝜃
• We note that 𝑓𝜃 𝑥, 𝑦 is a rotated version of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , rotated by
an angle 𝜃 around the origin 0, 0 .
• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is the Fourier transform of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , then
• ℱ2𝐷 𝑓𝜃 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢 cos 𝜃 − 𝑣 sin 𝜃 , 𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝑣 cos 𝜃
• If 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is rotated by an angle 𝜃, then its Fourier transform is
rotated by angle 𝜃 as well.
17
 10/15/2022

Convolution Example 2.9

• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 are the Fourier transforms of two signals
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 , then the Fourier transform of the convolution
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 equals the product of the individual Fourier
transforms:
• ℱ2𝐷 𝑓 ∗ 𝑔 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣
• This property, known as the convolution theorem, provides a
fundamental and very useful link between the space 𝑓 and
frequency 𝐹 domains.
• The convolution theorem provides a practical tool for computing
the convolution of two signals, which may be difficult to conduct
in the spatial domain.
• Consider the two signals 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 given by
• 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = sinc 𝑈𝑥, 𝑉𝑦 ,
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = sinc 𝑉𝑥, 𝑈𝑦 ,
• where 0 < 𝑉 ≤ 𝑈. What is the convolution 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 ?

• Answer: From Table 2.1, we know that • The convolution of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 is

−1
• ℱ2𝐷 sinc 𝑢, 𝑣 = rect 𝑢, 𝑣 . • 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∗ 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℱ2𝐷 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 =
−1 1 𝑢 𝑣 𝑢 𝑣 −1 1 𝑢 𝑣
• By using the scaling property of the Fourier transform, we have ℱ2𝐷
𝑈𝑉 2
rect ,
𝑈 𝑉
rect 𝑉 , 𝑈 = ℱ2𝐷
𝑈𝑉 2
rect ,
𝑉 𝑉
=
1 𝑢 𝑣 1 1 𝑢 𝑣 1
• 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = ℱ2𝐷 𝑓 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑈𝑉 rect , and ℱ −1
𝑈 2 2𝐷 𝑉 2
rect 𝑉 , 𝑉 = 𝑈 2 sinc 𝑉𝑥, 𝑉𝑦
𝑈 𝑉
1 𝑢 𝑣
• 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 = ℱ2𝐷 𝑔 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝑈𝑉 rect ,
𝑉 𝑈

Product Separable Product

• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 are the Fourier transforms of two signals
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 , the Fourier transform of the product
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 equals the convolution of the two Fourier
transforms:
∞ ∞
• ℱ2𝐷 𝑓𝑔 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 ∗ 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐺 𝜉, 𝜂 𝐹(𝑢 − 𝜉, 𝑣
− 𝜂 ) 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂
• If 𝑓 is a separable signal, such that 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑓1 𝑥 𝑓2 𝑦 , then
• ℱ2𝐷 𝑓 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹1 𝑢 𝐹2 𝑣 , where
• 𝐹1 𝑢 = ℱ1𝐷 𝑓1 𝑢 and 𝐹2 𝑢 = ℱ1𝐷 𝑓2 𝑣
• are the 1-D Fourier transforms of 𝑓1 𝑥 and 𝑓2 𝑦 , respectively.
• Therefore, the Fourier transform of a separable signal is also
separable.
• In this case, the Fourier transform of a separable 2-D signal
𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 can be computed by independently calculating the two
1-D Fourier transforms of 𝑓1 𝑥 and 𝑓2 𝑦 and then multiplying
the results.

18
 10/15/2022

Parseval’s Theorem Separability

• If 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 is the Fourier transform of a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , then • The Fourier transform 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 of a 2-D signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 can be
∞ ∞ 2 ∞ ∞ 2 calculated using two simpler 1-D Fourier transforms, as follows:
• ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣, ∞
• Compute 𝑟 𝑢, 𝑣 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥, for every 𝑦.
• which is known as Parseval’s theorem.
∞
• This relationship says that the total energy of a signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 in • Compute 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑟 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑦, for every 𝑢.
the spatial domain equals its total energy in the frequency • Indeed,
domain. ∞ ∞ ∞
• ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑟 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑢𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑦
• In other words, the Fourier transform (as well as its inverse) are ∞ ∞
energy-preserving (‘‘unit gain’’) transformations. = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 .

• The first step fixes 𝑦, treats image 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 as a 1-D signal, and

calculates its 1-D Fourier transform 𝑟 𝑢, 𝑦 .
• The second step fixes 𝑢, treats 𝑟 𝑢, 𝑦 as a 1-D signal, and
calculates its 1-D Fourier transform.
• This is illustrated in Figure 2.10. Notice that calculation of 1-D
Fourier transforms is simpler than their 2-D counterparts.
• Therefore, this technique is strongly recommended for
calculating 2-D Fourier transforms (and their inverses).
Calculation of the 2-D Fourier
transform by using two 1-D
Fourier 1-D Fourier transform
transforms in cascade.

Transfer Function

• In (2.38), we represented an image as the convolution of the
object with the PSF.
• Using the Fourier transform, we can develop an equivalent
representation in Fourier space. In order to do so we need to
introduce the Fourier space equivalent of the PSF.
• In order to determine the PSF ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 of an LSI system 𝒮, we
observe the output of the system to a point impulse [see (2.36)].
• We now replace the point impulse with one of the complex
exponential signals 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 in decomposition (2.63), for
any arbitrary but fixed 𝑢, 𝑣 .
• As a direct consequence of the convolution integral (2.38),
following a short derivation that uses (2.48), we have
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦 ,
∞ ∞
• where 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ ℎ 𝜉, 𝜂 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝜉+𝑣𝜂 𝑑𝜉𝑑𝜂
• Notice that in (2.98) the output equals the input multiplied by
𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 .
• Recalling that (2.98) applies to any arbitrary but fixed 𝑢, 𝑣 , this
means that when the input to an LSI system is a complex
exponential the output will be the same complex exponential but
scaled by 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 .

19
 10/15/2022

• From (2.62) and (2.99), it is clear that 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 is the Fourier
transform of the PSF ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 .
• 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 is known as the transfer function of the LSI system 𝒮.
• 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 is also known as the frequency response or the optical
transfer function (OTF) of system 𝒮.
• The transfer function uniquely characterizes an LSI system
since, given 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 , the PSF is uniquely determined using the
inverse Fourier transform:
∞ ∞
• 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ‫׬‬−∞ ‫׬‬−∞ 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥+𝑣𝑦
𝑑𝑢𝑑𝑣
• The transfer function is an important tool for studying the
behavior of LSI systems because of the convolution property of
the Fourier transform.
• If an input 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 to an LSI system 𝒮 with transfer function
𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 produces an output 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 then, as a direct consequen-
ce of (2.39) and (2.91), we have 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣
• where 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 and 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 are the Fourier transforms of 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
and 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 , respectively.
• This equation allows an alternative (and simpler) method of
studying the behavior of an LSI system.

Example 2.10

• Consider an idealized system whose PSF is ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝛿(𝑥
− 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 )
• What is the transfer function 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 of the system, and what is
the output 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 of the system to an input signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ?
• Answer: The transfer function of the system is
• 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 = ℱ ℎ 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℱ 𝛿 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥0 +𝑣𝑦0
• For an input signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 , the output is its translated version
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑥0 , 𝑦 − 𝑦0 .
• This conclusion can be drawn from the sifting property of the 𝛿
function.
• Now, let us prove this using the transfer function.
• The Fourier transform of the input signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 is 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 =
ℱ 𝑓 𝑢, 𝑣 .
• The Fourier transform of the output signal 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 is
• 𝐺 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 = 𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋 𝑢𝑥0 +𝑣𝑦0
• By applying the translation property of the Fourier transform, we
have 𝑔 𝑥, 𝑦 = ℱ −1 𝐺 𝑥, 𝑦 , which is the input signal 𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦
translated to 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 .

• Remember that in Fourier or frequency space we are dealing

with the representation of an object as sine waves of different The
frequencies. response
of an ideal
• In medical images, these are frequencies in space—spatial low-pass
frequencies. filter for
• Low spatial frequencies represent signals that vary slowly two values
across the image; high spatial frequencies represent signals of the cut-
that vary rapidly across a local region (e.g., at the edges of off
structures within an image). frequency
c (c1 > c2).

20

• As an example, consider an LSI system 𝒮 whose transfer
function 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 is given by
1, for 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ≤ 𝑐
• 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 = ൝
0, for 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 > 𝑐
• This is known as an ideal low-pass filter with cut-off frequency
𝑐. From (2.101) and (2.102), we have
𝐹 𝑢, 𝑣 , for 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 ≤ 𝑐
• 𝐻 𝑢, 𝑣 = ൝
0, for 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 > 𝑐
Summary and Key Concepts
• We take a signals and systems approach to the understanding
and analysis of medical imaging systems.
• Signals model physical processes; systems model how medical
imaging systems create new signals (images, in our case) from
these original signals.
1. Signals are mathematical functions, and they can be
continuous, discrete, or mixed.
2. The point impulse or impulse function is used as the input
signal to characterize the response of a system, which is the
impulse response.
6. A signal is separable if it can be represented as the product of
1-D signals.
7. The Fourier transform represents signals as a sum of sinusoids
of different frequencies, with associated magnitude and phase.
8. The Fourier space analog of the impulse response is the
transfer function.
9. The output of a linear, shift-invariant system is the convolution
of the input with the impulse response; in Fourier space, it is
the product of the Fourier transform of the input and the
transfer function.
10/15/2022
• Therefore, the input spectrum will be eliminated at high spatial
frequencies 𝑢, 𝑣 given by for 𝑢2 + 𝑣 2 > 𝑐.
• Applying such a system to an input signal will result in signal
smoothing, with fine signal details (details that are mainly
responsible for high-frequency spectral content) being
eliminated.
• The amount of smoothing depends directly on the value of 𝑐,
with smaller values of 𝑐 producing more smoothing.
• This is illustrated in Figure 2.11. Most imaging systems can be
modeled as some sort of low-pass filter.
3. Comb and sampling functions, rect and sinc functions, and
exponential and sinusoidal signals are used to help describe
and characterize imaging systems.
4. A system is linear if, when the input consists of a collection of
signals, the output is a summation of the responses of the
system to each individual input signal.
5. A system is shift-invariant if an arbitrary translation of the input
signal results in an identical translation of the output.
‫الحمد هلل الرب العلمين‬
‫والسلم عليكم ورحمة هللا وبركاته‬
Thank you for your attention!
Engineering is essentially a problem-solving.
21