Institution of Technology

School of Mechanical and Industrial

Engineering

Refrigeration and Air-conditioning

(MEng 5212)

Chapter 5
Ultra-low Temperature Refrigeration Systems
(Cryogenics)

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 Ultra-low Temperature system (Cryogenics)
 Cryogenic: a Greek term,‘Kryo’ - cold or frost and ‘Genesis’ -to
produce.
 It is a science and technology of producing low temperatures
and the behavior of materials under low temperature.
 In refrigeration, the temperature from -100°C to -273°C
(absolute zero), is treated as low temperature.
 Cryogenics deals with temperature below -153°C (123K) .
 The first low temperature refrigeration system was primarily
developed for
o Solidification of carbon dioxide
o liquefaction and subsequent fractional distillation of gases
such as air, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and helium.
 Cryogenic fluids: Hydrogen, Helium, Neon, Argon, oxygen,
2 Nitrogen, Methane, air etc.
 …cont.
 Cryogenics refers to very low temperature refrigeration
applications such as in the liquefaction of gases and in the
study of physical phenomenon at temperatures approaching
absolute zero.

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 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
 Hydrogen

 Uses:

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 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
 Liquid Nitrogen

 Uses:

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 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
 Liquid Oxygen

 Uses:

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 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
 Liquid Argon

 Uses:

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 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
 Helium

 Liquid Methane

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 Properties of Cryogenic Fluids
 Liquid Neon

 Liquid air

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 Limitation of VCRS for low temperature applications
 The single stage vapour compression refrigeration systems for different
refrigerants are limited to an evaporator temperature of – 40ºc.
Below this temperature, the use of Vapour compression refrigeration
(VCR) system has many drawbacks.
➢ The use of VCR system for the production of low temperature is
limited inherently by the solidification temperature of the
refrigerants.
Table 5.1: freezing temperature for commonly used refrigerants.

o The refrigerant used must have a freezing temperature well below the
required temperature to be attained.
o Thus, the refrigerants R-113, R-717, R-744 and R-764 cannot be used
10 for low temperature refrigeration systems.
 …cont.
➢ The pressure in the evaporator is extremely low (blow
atmosphere) and the suction volume is very large when the
refrigerant with high boiling temperature used.
➢ The pressure in the condenser is extremely high when a
refrigerant with low boiling temperature is used.
➢ The coefficient of performance is low because of very high
pressure ratios.
➢ The difficulties encountered in the operation of mechanical
equipment at very low temperatures.
▪ When the vapour compression system is to be used for the
production of low temperature, the common alternatives to stage
compression is the cascade system.
▪ In this system, a series of refrigerants with progressively lower
boiling temperature are used in a series of single stage units.
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 Multi-stage VCRs for cryogenic system
 Due to drawbacks of single stage systems are not
recommended when the evaporator temperature becomes very
low and/or when the condenser temperature becomes high.

Effect of evaporator temperature on cycle Effect of evaporator temperature on cycle

performance (T-s diagram) performance (P-h diagram)

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 …cont.
• In such cases multi-stage systems are used in practice.
Generally, for fluorocarbon and ammonia based refrigeration
systems:
➢ A single stage system is used up to an evaporator
temperature of –30 ºc.
➢ A two-stage system is used up to –60 ºc and
➢ A three-stage system is used for temperatures below
–60 ºc.
• A multi-stage system is a refrigeration system with two or
more low-side pressures.
• Multistage systems can be classified into:
➢Multi-compression systems
➢ Multi-evaporator systems
➢ Cascade system
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 …cont.
 Therefore, multistage compression system can be used when low
evaporator temperature is required and the pressure ratio is high.
 eg, A two-stage compression system using R-12 is employed for
evaporator temperatures up to - 60°C and a three-stage compression
system up to 68°C. The compression systems with R-22 operate
satisfactorily at 5°C to 10°C lower temperatures.

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 Multi-compression systems
 Flash gas removal using flash tank

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 Multi-compression systems
Inter cooler in Multistage Compression
 Intercooling not only reduces the work input but also reduces the
compressor discharge temperature leading to better lubrication and longer
compressor life.
a) water cooled intercooler b) intercooling using liquid refrigerant

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 …cont.
 Multi-stage system with flash gas removal and inter

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 Advantages and Disadvantages of flash gas removal
with intercooler

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 Muti- evaporator System
 Muti- evaporator at same temperature with single
compressor and expansion valve.

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 …cont.
 Evaporators at different temperatures with single compressor
and individual expansion valve and back pressure valves

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 …cont.
 Evaporators at different temperature with compound
compressor and individual expansion valves

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 …cont.
 Evaporators at different temperature with compound
compressor, multiple expansion valves mu and flash intercooler

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 Limitation of multistage systems

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 Cascade System
 When the vapor compression system is to be used for the.
production of low temperature, the common alternative to stage
compression is the cascade system.
 In this system, a series of refrigerants with progressively lower
boiling temperatures are used in a series of single-stage units.
 Advantage: used for:
 Liquefaction of petroleum gases and industrial gases
 Deep freezing and production of dry ice
 Disadvantage
 Since each cascade uses a different refrigerant, it is possible to select a
refrigerant that is best suited for the particular temperature range. Very
high or very low pressure cab be avoided.
 Migration of lubricating oil from one compressor to the other is
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prevented
 …cont.

 Eg. R-13 can be used

to temperatures well
below 100°C, but
must be cascaded to
prevent extremely
high condenser
pressure as the
critical temperature
is 28.8°C.

Reading Assignments:
 Methods of solidification of CO2 (dry ice)
 Liquefaction of H2 and He gases
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 Processes of Liquefaction of Gases
 Gases compressed and heated in compressor.
 Heat of gases is removed in condenser
 Refrigerant in expansion valve for cooling below condensation
temperature.
 Now cools the objects to cryogenic temperature and reheating of
gases occurs.

Reading Assignments:
 Methods of solidification of CO2 (dry ice)
 Liquefaction of hydrogen (H2) and helium (He) gases
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 Processes of Liquefaction of Gases
 The performance of a vapor-compression refrigeration system is
improved by using multistage compression with regenerative cooling.
 The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle can also be used to liquefy
gases after some modifications.

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 Liquefaction of gases
➢ Another way of improving the performance of a vapor-
compression refrigeration system is by using multistage
compression with regenerative cooling.
➢ The vapor-compression refrigeration cycle can also be used to
liquefy gases after some modifications.

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 Linde system for Liquefaction of air
➢ The liquefaction of air is an important industrial process not
only for the production of liquid air but also in the separation of
oxygen, hydrogen, helium and many other gases from the
atmosphere by distillation.

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 Claude system for Liquefaction of air
 Claude method of gas liquefaction: expander and secondary
heat exchanger is used.

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 Application of Cryogenics
Working of Cryo-Grinder
 Material is to be cleaned manually
fed into the hopper.
 Liquid nitrogen from the storage
container is sprayer into screw
conveyer.(i,e) conveyer drive.
 The sensor monitor's materials
temperature in the conveyer.
 When the mill is running the
material gets crushed between the
studs & comes out through an
optional sieve as a ground product.
 To the bottom of the mill a collecting bin is housed.
 The vaporized nitrogen from the mill is sucked by a centrifugal blower &
through the filter assembly. And the cyclic process is continued.
 The sensor monitor's materials temperature in the conveyer.
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Cryogenic Machining …cont.
 Cryogenic machining presents a method of
cooling the cutting tool and/or part during
the machining process.
 It relates to delivering of cryogenic
cooling lubrication fluids (CLFs) instead
of an oil-based CLF to the local cutting
region of the cutting tool.
 Used to lower the highest temperature
during the machining process, to focus
change in the material characteristics, to
improve machining process performance
and to increase tool life.
Generally, Nitrogen fluid is used as the cryogenic coolant. Using it in
machining process, when delivered to the cutting zone, it immediately
evaporates and returns back to the atmosphere, leaving no residue to
contaminate the part, chips, machine tool, or operator.
Thus, it is eliminating disposal costs related to CLF usage. This represents
32 completely clean process in contrast to conventional oil- based CLFs.
 Large Hadron Collider (LHC)
 It is the largest and most powerful particle
accelerator. It is also the largest cryogenic
system in the world.
 A particle accelerator is a machine that
accelerates elementary particles, such as
electrons or protons, to very high energies.
 Thousands of magnets of different
varieties and sizes are used to direct the
beams around the accelerator.
 Particle accelerators produce beams of  The magnets in LHC operate at
1.9K which is cooler than outer
charged particles that can be used for a
variety of research purposes. space temperature.
 It includes 4000 leak proof seals of
 There are two basic types of particle
piping, 120 tons of helium, 40MW
accelerators: linear accelerators and of electricity to keep the magnets at
circular accelerators. 1.9K.
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 …cont.

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 End of Chapter 5

Next Lecture
Part II: Air Conditioning System

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