Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Manufacturing Processes

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/manpro

Improve the manufacturing efficiency of steel bars by using hot-wire pulse

arc additive manufacturing
Hao Mao a, b, Chenchen Jing c, Fuxiang Kong a, Tianqiu Xu c, Xiong Xiao a, b, Kun Li a, b,
Xue Ling a, b, *, Changmeng Liu c, *
a
School of Engineering and Technology, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
b
Key Laboratory on Deep Geo-Drilling Technology of the Ministry of Land and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
c
School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: With the advantages of high material utilization and freedom of structural form, wire and arc additive
Hot-wire pulse arc additive manufacturing manufacturing (WAAM) is a feasible solution to achieve fully automated construction of buildings. However, the
Austenitic stainless-steel bar current manufacturing efficiency of steel bars manufacture using WAAM is not sufficient for construction in­
Manufacturing efficiency
dustry applications. This paper uses hot-wire pulse arc additive manufacturing (HWPAAM) to improve the
Microstructural
manufacturing efficiency of 316L stainless steel (316L SS) bars. The efficient manufacturing principle of
Mechanical properties
HWPAAM 316L SS bars was analyzed in this article. The effect of different manufacturing efficiency on heat
input, macrostructure, microstructure, and mechanical properties of 316L SS bars was studied. The results show
that the manufacturing efficiency of the 316L SS bar manufactured by HWPAAM can reach 31 mm/min. The
connection rate of hot-wire power supply can be improved to 96.7 % and the heat input of the arc can be reduced
by 65 % at 31 mm/min manufacturing efficiency. With the decrease of arc heat input, the grain size decreases.
The improvement of manufacturing efficiency has little effect on the macrostructure of the 316L SS bar. Under
uniaxial tension, the mechanical properties of the 316L SS bar standard specimen with different manufacturing
efficiencies are basically the same. By using this manufacturing process, the manufacturing efficiency of the 316L
SS bar is greatly improved while the performance is not significantly reduced.

1. Introduction manufacturing is more focused on concrete, but less on steel structures

The reinforced concrete structure is the most widely used structure in
construction. However, the problems of high construction intensity and
high resource consumption of reinforced concrete structures cannot be
ignored [1–3]. At the same time, new buildings also put forward higher
requirements for structural mechanical properties and aesthetics. Ad­
ditive manufacturing technology (also known as 3D Printing) is regar­
ded as an advanced manufacturing technology with a high degree of
automation, high material utilization rate, and free structural form,
which can solve the above problems [4,5]. High-performance and
multifunctional structures can be obtained through a material-structure-
performance integrated additive manufacturing strategy [6]. In the past
few years, research and applications of additive manufacturing have
focused on aerospace [7–9], automotive [10,11], and medical industries
[12,13]. The level of digitization and innovation in these industries has
increased significantly. In the construction industry, research in additive
[14–18].
Compared with other metal additive manufacturing techniques such
as selective laser melting (SLM) and electron beam melting (EBM), wire
and arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) has a high deposition rate and
a small size limitation, so it is suitable for the manufacture of large metal
structures [19–21]. MX3D used WAAM to build the world's first 3D-
printed bridge, which is 12 m long and made of stainless steel. The
bridge passed a 20-tonne load test and was placed over a canal in central
Amsterdam in 2021 [22]. Lange et al. applied topology optimization to
the connection structure of buildings. The innovative structure of the
beam hook, stiffener, clamping elements, and node for the space frame
was manufactured through WAAM. Unlike MX3D, Lange et al. used
WAAM to print a bridge across a small river on-site [23]. Xia et al.
proposed a framework of an automatic WAAM system which is suitable
for the manufacture of large metal structures in buildings. The multi-
sensor monitoring system, control system, and artificial intelligence

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: lingxue@cugb.edu.cn (X. Ling), liuchangmeng@bit.edu.cn (C. Liu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.01.074
Received 4 October 2022; Received in revised form 24 January 2023; Accepted 30 January 2023
Available online 7 February 2023
1526-6125/© 2023 The Society of Manufacturing Engineers. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 1. HWPAAM equipment schematic.
technology are used to realize real-time automatic control of the large
metal structure manufacturing process. In this way, manufacturing
stability, geometric accuracy, and product quality can be improved
[24–26]. WAAM has great potential for application in the construction
industry.
Using WAAM to manufacture steel bars is a new construction method
for reinforced concrete structures. First, the use of WAAM to manufac­
ture steel bars can improve the digital level of construction. The con­
struction of reinforced concrete structures is mainly divided into two
parts: the assembly of steel bars and the pouring of concrete. Concrete
construction is becoming completely digital, such as contour crafting,
concrete printing, D-Shape, and slip molding [18,27,28]. However, the
construction of steel bars mostly depends on manual, so the degree of
construction digitization needs to be improved. Using WAAM to
manufacture steel bars can reduce the workload of workers in trans­
porting, placing, and assembling steel bars. Through the combination of
digital concrete construction technology, the complete digital or
approximate digital construction of reinforced concrete structures can
be realized [29]. Second, using WAAM to manufacture steel bars can
improve the freedom of steel structures. Due to the limitation of the
manual assembling process, it is difficult to manufacture complex steel
structures. Although the “Mesh-Mould” project has used robots to cut
and weld steel bars to create a curved wall. Using this method to create
3D complex steel structures remains to be investigated [30]. Based on
the principle of layer-by-layer deposition, WAAM theoretically has the
ability to manufacture steel structures of any geometric shape.
Furthermore, the use of WAAM to manufacture steel bars has a higher
material utilization rate. By combining topological optimization tech­
nology, WAAM can produce the optimal steel structure for load-bearing
performance, thereby reducing the low use efficiency of steel bars and
improving the utilization rate of materials [31–33]. Therefore, using
WAAM to manufacture steel bars is an effective way to solve the prob­
lems of high construction intensity, high resource consumption, and
single structural form of reinforced concrete structures.
Some scholars have carried out research on manufacturing steel bars
with WAAM. Mechtcherine et al. first introduced the concept of WAAM
steel bars and successfully manufactured simple and profiled steel bars
using gas-metal arc welding (GMAW) [29]. Müller et al. showed that
using the cold metal transfer (CMT) process to manufacture steel bars
has a lower heat input than using the GMAW process, thus improving the
mechanical properties of steel bars [34]. Silvestru et al. used CMT to
manufacture steel bars with different angles [35]. Researches show that
steel bars manufactured by WAAM have good mechanical properties and
structural freedom, which can meet the needs of building structure
design and use [29,34–36]. The above method of manufacturing steel
431
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
bars using WAAM is based on a point-by-point deposition strategy. The
temperature of the molten pool will rise gradually with the point-by-
point deposition. To avoid collapse caused by overheating of the
molten pool, proper cooling time should be set between layers to realize
the manufacture of steel bars [29,37,38]. Although manufacturing ef­
ficiency can be improved by depositing several steel bars simulta­
neously, as reported by Silvestru et al., the movement of the welding
torch and release of the shielding gas are regarded as non-deposition
time, thus increasing the manufacturing time of steel bars [35]. This
will increase the construction time, resulting in additional costs.
Therefore, the efficiency of using WAAM to manufacture steel bars needs
to be improved.
At present, research on the deposition efficiency of WAAM has
focused on the manufacture of plates [39–42]. An effective way to
improve the deposition efficiency is to increase the arc heat input. Liang
et al. studied the effect of GMAW arc power on droplet transfer and
deposition efficiency. The results show that increasing the arc heat input
can increase the transfer frequency of melt droplets and thus improve
the deposition efficiency [43]. Han et al. studied the forming charac­
teristics of twin electrode gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and showed
that the wire feeding speed and scanning speed were improved with the
increase of current [44]. However, this method is not suitable for steel
bars, because the increased arc heat input will lead to longer interlayer
cooling times [29] and even cause the molten pool to overheat and
collapse [45]. In addition, the research shows that the increase of arc
heat input will not only affect the mechanical properties of the work­
piece [46,47], but also affect the macrostructure of the workpiece
[48,49].
In order to improve the manufacturing efficiency of steel bars
without negative effects, on the one hand, the cooling time of arc
quenching can be avoided by reducing the heat input of the arc, on the
other hand, the deposition efficiency of the wire needs to be improved.
An effective method is to use the hot-wire power supply to heat the wire
through resistive heat, thereby reducing the heat input from the arc. The
hot-wire power supply has been proven to improve the manufacturing
efficiency of metal plate structures. Fu et al. significantly increased the
deposition rate of aluminum alloys from 86 cm3/h to 301 cm3/h by hot-
wire arc additive manufacturing (HWAAM) [41]. Jing et al. used
HWAAM to manufacture 304L stainless steel thin walls, which reduced
the arc heat input by 71 % compared with without hot-wire power
supply. At the same time, the mechanical properties of the material are
improved [50]. However, the current research on the use of hot-wire
power supply to improve the manufacturing efficiency of steel bars is
limited. The principle of efficient manufacturing of steel bars and the
effect of the improvement of manufacturing efficiency on the
H. Mao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443

Table 1
Chemical composition of 316L SS wire (provided by the supplier).
Element Fe C Mn Si S P Cr Ni Mo Cu

Wt (%) Bal. 0.023 1.85 0.51 0.013 0.016 19.00 11.70 2.12 0.10

2. Experimental details
Table 2
Parameters of 316L SS bars manufactured by HWPAAM.
2.1. Hot-wire pulse arc additive manufacturing
Deposition parameters V-12.5 V-25 V-31

Scanning speed (mm/min) 12.5 25 31 The large-scale hot-wire pulse arc additive manufacturing equipment
Peak current (A) 140 140 140 independently developed by the Beijing Institute of Technology was
Base current (A) 5 5 5 used in the experiment. The schematic diagram of the equipment system
Average voltage (V) 16.3 15.5 15.9
Peak time ratio (%) 15.5 13.5 13.5
is given in Fig. 1. The main parts of the equipment include a computer
Pulse frequency (Hz) 0.5 0.5 0.5 numerical control (CNC) system, a three-axis machine tool, a GTAW
Hot-wire current (A) 150 150 150 equipment, a hot-wire power supply, a wire feeder (including a wire
Wire feed speed (mm/min) 1000 2000 2500 straightener to straighten the wire to ensure the stability of the wire
feed), an inert gas shielding equipment, and a workbench. In this
experiment, direct current (DC) was used for both the welding torch and
macrostructure, microstructure, and mechanical properties of steel bars
the hot-wire power supply. Through the parameter acquisition module
are still unclear.
of the GTAW equipment and the hot-wire power supply, the data of the
In this paper, hot-wire pulse arc additive manufacturing (HWPAAM)
device was collected in real-time. The data collection frequency is 0.03
is used to manufacture steel bars to improve manufacturing efficiency.
Hz. 99.99 % argon gas was used as the shielding gas.
By adjusting the manufacturing efficiency, three types of 316L stainless
The 316L SS bar is one of the most commercial types of austenitic
steel (316L SS) bars were manufactured using WAAM. These include
stainless steel bars. 316L SS bars have high corrosion resistance and
316L SS bars at 12.5 mm/min manufacturing efficiency, 316L SS bars at
mechanical strength, which can effectively improve the service life of
25 mm/min manufacturing efficiency, and 316L SS bars at 31 mm/min
reinforced concrete structures in the perchloride corrosion environment
manufacturing efficiency. The heat input, macrostructure, microstruc­
[51,52]. Furthermore, 316L SS has good weldability, so it is suitable for
ture, and mechanical properties of 316L SS bars under the three
WAAM [53]. Therefore, in this experiment, 316L SS wire was used as the
manufacturing parameters were studied and analyzed.
raw material. The diameter of the 316L SS wire was 1.2 mm, and the
chemical composition of the wire is shown in Table 1. The material of
the substrate was 316L SS with a size of 150 mm × 150 mm × 5 mm.
During the manufacturing process, the substrate was fixed on the

Fig. 2. 316L SS bars manufactured by HWPAAM. (a) V-12.5 manufacturing parameters, (b) V-25 manufacturing parameters, (c) V-31 manufacturing parameters.

432
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 3. (a) Three-dimensional scanning geometry of the 316L SS bar uniaxial tensile specimen and the geometry analysis script principle, (b) dimensions of the 316L
SS bar standard specimen under uniaxial tension, (c) the size of the microstructure specimen.
stationary workbench, and the welding torch and wire feeder moved at a
constant speed with the three-axis machine tool. The moving speed of
the three-axis machine tool is called the scanning speed. CNC system
allows simultaneous control of the three-axis machine tool (including
travel path and scanning speed) and modification of the manufacturing
parameters (including peak current, base current, peak time ratio, pulse
frequency, hot-wire current, and wire feed speed). Table 2 shows the
manufacturing parameters of the 316L SS bar under the different
manufacturing efficiency of HWPAAM. The three groups of 316L SS bars
are shown in Fig. 2. During the HWPAAM process, an arc pulse cycle is
divided into a peak current period and a base current period. At the
beginning of the deposition, the substrate dissipates heat quickly, and
large heat input is used to preheat the substrate to ensure the stability of
deposition. After preheating is complete, the pulse current is at the peak
current and the heat input from the arc can melt the wire into the molten
drop, which is deposited into the molten pool under the advance of the
wire feeder. The arc then enters the base current period, and the arc is
maintained with a low current. The wire is melted into the molten pool
by the resistance heat generated by the hot-wire power supply (this is
described in more detail later). The steel bar is continuously deposited in
a “peak current - base current - peak current” cycle until manufacturing
is complete. This can be observed with a charge-coupled device (CCD)
camera (avA1900-50gm, Basler, Germany) equipped with a welding
filter.
2.2. Characterization
2.2.1. Macrostructure characterization
To obtain the three-dimensional geometry data of the 316L SS bar,
the point cloud image of each 316L SS bar was obtained by 3D laser
scanning (FreeScan X5, SHINING 3D, China). The point cloud images
were processed using 3D image software and the 316L SS bars were
calibrated in-plane through three views. The 3D images were imported
into the cross-sectional area and gravity center measurement script [35].
The 316L SS bars were sectioned along the manufacturing direction, as
shown in Fig. 3(a), to obtain the cross-sectional area and gravity center
433
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
data of each section. The 150 mm length of each 316L SS bar was taken
for analysis, and 1500 slices were carried out along the deposition di­
rection to obtain section data with a 0.1 mm interval.
2.2.2. Microstructure characterization
Each group of HWPAAM 316L SS bars is shown in Fig. 2. The
microstructure specimens of each group were processed by wire-
electrode cutting. Along the longitudinal direction of the 316L SS bars,
it was cut into 10 mm × 10 mm × 5 mm microstructural specimens, as
shown in Fig. 3(c). Each metallographic specimen was inlaid, sandpaper
polished, polished with a polishing machine, and finally corroded with a
corrosive solution of FeCl3:HCl:H2O = 1:10:20. The microstructure was
examined by optical microscope (DM 4 M, Leica, Germany) and electron
backscatter diffraction (JSM F100, JEOL, Japan). The ferrite content of
the metallographic specimen was measured by Icalibur software.
2.2.3. Mechanical tests
To compare the mechanical properties of the materials at different
manufacturing efficiencies, the 316L SS bars were processed into 316L
SS bar standard specimens for room temperature uniaxial tensile testing
according to the dimensions in Fig. 3(b). The full length of the 316L SS
bar standard specimen was 200 mm. The two clamping ends of the
specimen were machined according to the length of 40 mm and diameter
of 10 mm. The parallel length of the specimen was set at 120 mm. The
transition arcs were arranged at both ends of the parallel length. The
original gauge length and diameter of the specimen were 100 mm and 8
mm respectively.
Due to the unique three-dimensional morphology of the steel bars
manufactured by HWPAAM, their mechanical properties are influenced
by the material and the irregular three-dimensional morphology. The
HWPAAM 316L SS bar with the same length as the 316L SS bar standard
specimen was used in room temperature uniaxial tensile test. This step
was done by wire-electrode cutting. The uniaxial tensile test was per­
formed directly on the cut 316L SS bar without any mechanical pro­
cessing. The length of the two clamping ends of the 316L SS bar was 50
mm, and the original gauge length was 100 mm, as shown in Fig. 3(a).
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 4. Electronic universal testing machine and digital image correlation
(DIC) equipment.
The fracture of the uniaxial tensile test occurred within the original
gauge length range of the original specimen. Three specimens were
taken from each group for processing and testing. The specimens were
designated as follows: the first term indicates manufacturing efficiency
and the second term indicates specimen type (SS for 316L SS bar stan­
dard specimens, SB for unmachined 316L SS bar specimens). For
example, V-12.5-SS refers to the 316L SS bar standard specimen under
the 12.5 mm/min manufacturing process. The experiment was carried
out on an electronic universal testing machine (CLY30, Sinotest, China),
which can be loaded with 100 kN, and the room temperature uniaxial
Fig. 5. The cross-sectional area of the 316L SS bars along the deposition direction: (a) under the manufacturing parameters of the V-12.5, (b) under the
manufacturing parameters of the V-25, (c) under the manufacturing parameters of the V-31.
434
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
tensile test was performed according to the test standards ISO 15630-
1:2019 [54] and ISO 6892-1:2019 [55]. High-magnification photo­
graphs of fractures were taken using a scanning electron microscope
(EM-30, COXEM, China).
To compare the mechanical response of the 316L SS bar standard
specimen and the 316L SS bar under uniaxial tension test, the full-field
strain of the specimen was measured by digital image correlation tech­
nology (VIC-3D 7, Correlated Solutions, American), as shown in Fig. 4.
This involved spraying matte white paint on the tensile specimen and
then speckle spraying with matte black paint after the matte white coat
had solidified so that the white base specimen was covered with black
spots. The images of the scattered spot data collected during the tensile
process were analyzed by Correlated Solutions' VIC-3D 7 software to
obtain the instantaneous full-field strain. Due to the significant plastic
deformation of the specimen during the late tensile stage, some of the
spray paint peeled off on the surface of the specimen, and the complete
strain data may not be obtained during the late tensile stage.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Heat input and macrostructure
The three-dimensional morphology of three groups of 316L SS bars
was obtained by 3D laser scanning. Fig. 5 shows the variation of the
cross-sectional area along the manufacturing direction for the 316L SS
bars with three manufacturing parameters.
In the continuous deposition of WAAM from bottom to top, the po­
tential change of the actual cross-sectional area from point-by-point or
layer-by-layer will lead to a small fluctuation of the cross-sectional area
along the manufacturing direction. The center of gravity of the molten
pool fluctuates in a small range along the axis as the cross-sectional area
of the non-circular molten pool changes. Steel bars manufactured by
WAAM have the characteristics of cross-sectional area fluctuation and
centroid nonlinearity [29,35,36,56]. The geometric parameters of the
H. Mao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443

Table 3 ( )
J Iav *Uav *t
Geometric parameters of 316L SS bars. Ea =η (2)
mm L
Specimens Mean area (mm2) Coefficient of variation Maximum
eccentricity Iav is the average current of the pulsed arc (A), Ip is the peak current (A),
V-12.5 89.55 ± 0.32 1.94 % 0.05 ± 0.01 Ib is the base current (A), tp is the peak current time (s), tb is the base
V-25 90.35 ± 0.55 2.66 % 0.06 ± 0.02 current time (s). Uav is the average voltage (V), t is the manufacturing
V-31 95.53 ± 0.18 2.08 % 0.07 ± 0.01
time of the steel bar (s), L is the manufacturing length of the steel bar
(mm), η is the GTAW arc conversion efficiency assumed to be 0.7 [59].
316L SS bars are shown in Table 3. (The maximum eccentricity is The heat input from the hot-wire power supply (Eh) is calculated by
normalized by dividing the maximum distance from the center of gravity Eq. (3) [41]:
to the axis by the radius of the cross-sectional area.) ( )
J IH 2 *RFW *t*α
The cross-sectional area, coefficient of variation (COV), and Eh =ζ (3)
mm L
maximum eccentricity of the 316L SS bars do not change significantly
with the increase of manufacturing efficiency. This indicates that the IH is the current of the hot-wire power supply (A), RFW is the resistance of
three manufacturing parameters are stable and the improvement of the wire connected to the hot-wire power supply (Ω), t is the
manufacturing efficiency will not lead to the deterioration of the manufacturing time of the steel bar (s), L is the manufacturing length of
macrostructure. However, according to previous studies, the cross- the steel bar (mm), ζ is the conversion efficiency of the hot-wire power
sectional area of the steel bar is affected by the manufacturing param­ supply, α is the connection rate of the hot-wire power supply (%), which
eters, such as the heat input of the arc [57,58]. The heat input of the is a correction of the manufacturing time t.
pulsed arc can be calculated by using Eqs. (1) and (2) [48]: The heat input per unit length of the arc is reduced from 1419 J/mm
Ip tp + Ib tb at V-12.5 manufacturing parameters to 496 J/mm at V-31
Iav (A) = (1) manufacturing parameters, calculated by Eqs. (1)–(2) and Table 2, with
tp + tb
the average cross-sectional area of the 316L SS bar remaining the same.

Fig. 6. Schematic diagram of the HWPAAM manufacturing steel bar. (a) Manufacturing principle of the steel bar during peak current in a pulse cycle, (b)
manufacturing principle of the steel bar during base current in a pulse cycle, (c) manufacturing principle of the steel bar during peak current in next pulse cycle.

Fig. 7. The manufacturing process of the 316L SS bar under a pulse is captured by the CCD camera. Under the manufacturing parameters of V-12.5: (a) peak current
period, (b)-(c) base current period; under the manufacturing parameters of V-31: (d) peak current period, (e)-(f) base current period.

435
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 8. Data collected by the hot-wire power supply for three manufacturing parameters: (a) at V-12.5, (b) at V-25, (c) at V-31. (d) Use efficiency of the hot-wire
power supply for each manufacturing parameter.
Due to the use of hot-wire power supply, the cross-sectional area of the
steel bar decreases with the decrease of arc heat input, which is different
from previous results [48]. The difference is caused by the change in
heat input and output in the molten pool.
The HWPAAM molten pool heat transfer model was modeled and
simplified in Fig. 6 and Eq. (4). The heat input to the molten pool during
the manufacturing of steel bars includes the heat input from the arc Ea
and the heat input from the hot-wire power supply Eh. The heat output of
the molten pool includes the heat absorption by the melting of the wire
Em and the heat loss of the molten pool Eloss [60]. The steady-state
equilibrium equation of the molten pool is:
Ea + Eh = ELoss + Em (4)
When the hot-wire power supply is not used, the heat input from the
hot-wire power supply (Eh) is zero on the left side of the equation, so the
heat of wire melting (Em) and the heat loss of molten pool (ELoss) need to
be provided entirely by the heat input from the arc (Ea). When the wire
feeding speed is increased, the heat of wire melting (Em) increases. At
this time, it is necessary to improve the arc heat input (Ea) to melt more
wire. In parallel, with the increase of the arc heat input, the diameter of
the molten pool increases [37,61]. When the hot-wire power supply is
used, the steady-state equilibrium equation for the molten pool changes,
and the heat input on the left side of the equation is provided by both the
arc as well as the hot-wire power supply. When the wire is in contact
with the molten pool, the resistance heat generated by the short circuit
can heat the wire for a short time to the melting state and enter the
molten pool. During the base current, the energy for wire melting (Em) is
mainly provided by the hot-wire power supply. With the increase of wire
feeding speed, the contact mode between the wire and the molten pool
changes, resulting in different connection rates of the hot-wire power
436
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
supply (α).
Fig. 7 shows the transfer form of molten drops during the pulse
current taken by the CCD camera for both manufacturing processes.
During peak current, as shown in Figs. 6(a), 7(a), and (d), the arc melts
the wire into the molten pool under the action of the wire feeder.
However, the deposition pattern of the molten pool changes during the
base current. In the scanning speed of 12.5 mm/min, and wire feeding
speed of 1000 mm/min manufacturing parameters, when the wire and
molten pool contact, hot-wire current produces resistance heat will fuse
the wire. With the continuous feed of the wire, the wire and the molten
pool have a continuous poke and fuse as shown in Fig. 7(b)-(c). Fig. 7(c)
captures the spatter phenomenon due to the hot-wire power supply
being connected. At this time, the molten drops belong to the stable
contact transfer form. Fig. 8(a) shows the hot-wire current data
extracted from the hot-wire power supply. Under the manufacturing
parameters of V-12.5, the hot-wire current fluctuates from 0 to 100 A.
The reason for the large number of discrete points in the hot-wire cur­
rent data is that during the peak current period, the melting energy of
the wire is mainly provided by the arc, so the hot-wire power supply is
almost not connected. On the other hand, during the base current
period, the wire and the molten pool are continuously contacted and
fused, so the hot-wire power supply is repeatedly switched on and off. As
shown in Fig. 8(d), the average connection rate of the hot-wire power
supply is 45.9 %.
When the scanning speed is increased to 25 mm/min and the wire
feeding speed is increased to 2000 mm/min, the wire twice as much as
the former is sent into the molten pool through the wire feeding tube in
unit time, which leads to the hot-wire power supply to generate more
resistance heat to melt the wire in unit time. Otherwise, the wire will be
inserted out of the molten pool, resulting in manufacturing failure.
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 9. The wire fails to melt and poke out of the molten pool.
Without changing the current of the hot-wire power supply, the contact
time between the wire and the molten pool is obviously increased, thus
the connection rate of the hot-wire power supply (α) is increased to 85.6
%, as shown in Fig. 8(b) and (d).
To further improve the manufacturing efficiency, the scanning speed
is increased to 31 mm/min, and the wire feeding speed is increased to
2500 mm/min. In the early period of the base current, due to the high
temperature of the molten pool, the wire and the molten pool will poke
under the action of the hot-wire power supply. This is the same phe­
nomenon observed with the V-12.5 and V-25. As the molten pool cools,
the wire continues to be inserted into the molten pool to melt, as shown
in Fig. 7(e)-(f). Under the parameter V-31, the change of molten pool
morphology is more obvious in the middle and late periods of the base
current. The height of the molten pool increases while the width de­
creases, as shown in Fig. 7(f). This is consistent with Young's equation
[62]:
γ s− g − γl−
(5)
s
cosθ =
γ l− g
where θ is the contact angle, γs− g the solid-gas surface tension, γl− s the
liquid-solid surface tension, and γ l− g the liquid-gas surface tension.
As the molten pool cools, the molten pool temperature decreases,
resulting in an increase in liquid-solid surface tension (γ l− s) and liquid-
gas surface tension (γl− g). According to Young's equation, the height of
the molten pool increases and the width decreases as the contact angle
(θ) increases, as shown in Fig. 6(b). Under the action of the force and
temperature of the next peak current, the molten pool returns to its
initial morphology, as shown in Fig. 6(c). At this point, the molten drops
belong to the stable bridging transfer form, and the spatter is obviously
reduced. Under the manufacturing parameters of V-31, the data of hot-
Fig. 10. The longitudinal microstructure of the 316L SS bar along the manufacturing direction: (a) under the V-12.5 manufacturing process, (b) under the V-25
manufacturing process, (c) under the V-31 manufacturing process.
437
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
wire current collected is around 100A with only a few discrete points, as
shown in Fig. 8(c). A few discrete points are mainly caused by the peak
current period and the early base current period. The connection rate of
hot-wire power supply reaches 96.7 %, which is close to full load, as
shown in Fig. 8(d).
Under the V-31 parameter, the arc heat input is reduced by 65 % and
the connection rate of the hot-wire power supply is increased by 110 %.
The same molten pool diameter is maintained with the same parameters
of current and voltage, thus the manufacturing efficiency of the steel bar
is improved while maintaining the size of the steel bar.
In order to achieve higher steel bar manufacturing efficiency, it is
necessary to further improve the scanning speed and the corresponding
wire feed speed. At higher wire feed speed, the wire enters the molten
pool at a very fast rate, while the arc current is only 5 A during the base
current, so the heat input of the arc provides very little heat to the wire
melting [63]. At this time, the connection rate of the hot-wire power
supply has reached the upper limit. When the resistance heat generated
by the hot-wire power supply fails to melt the wire after the wire is
inserted into the molten pool, the wire will destroy the shape of the
molten pool under the action of the wire feeding momentum, or even
poke out of the molten pool, resulting in manufacturing failure, as
shown in Fig. 9.
3.2. Microstructure
A complex thermal cycle occurs during the manufacture of 316L SS
bars by HWPAAM. Fig. 10 shows optical micrographs of longitudinal
sections of 316L SS bars along the manufacturing direction under three
manufacturing parameters. At room temperature, the equilibrium
microstructure of 316L SS bars is fully austenitic (γ), but due to the high-
temperature gradient, high cooling rate, and repeated heating treat­
ments feature of HWPAAM, the microstructure of 316L SS bars is non-
equilibrium. Austenite (γ) matrix and ferrite (δ) are visible in the opti­
cal microscope under three manufacturing parameters. The Cr and Ni
equivalent content (wt%) of 316L SS can be estimated by Eqs. (6)–(7)
[53,64].
Creq = %Cr + %Mo + 1.5%Si + 0.5%Nb (6)
Nieq = %Ni + 30%c + 0.5%Mn (7)
In this study, Creq/Nieq = 21.89/13.32 with a value of 1.64. There­
fore, the solidification mode of the 316L SS bar belongs to the ferrite -
austenite mode: L → L + δ → L + δ + γ → δ + γ [65,66].
In the liquid phase solidification process, according to the solidifi­
cation mode of ferrite - austenite, the ferrite phase is first formed in the
liquid phase, and then through peritectic reaction, the austenite phase
begins to form. At the same time, with the decrease of temperature,
ferrite takes place in solid phase transformation, ferrite gradually de­
creases, and austenite content gradually increases. However, HWPAAM
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 11. Grain morphology: (a) in the case of V-12.5, (b) in the case of V-25, (c) in the case of V-31.
is a continuous deposition process, in which new deposits at the top
generate repeated thermal cycles for the steel bar below so that the
temperature reaches above the solid phase transition temperature again,
and ferrite continues to transform into austenite. In general, the solidi­
fication microstructure of the 316L SS bar is affected by two aspects:
cooling rate and repeated thermal cycle. The cooling rate of the molten
pool is affected by the heat input of the arc, and it decreases with the
increase of the heat input of the arc [67]. According to Eqs. (1)–(2) after
improving the manufacturing efficiency, the heat input of the arc de­
creases significantly with the increase of welding torch scanning speed.
With the improvement of manufacturing efficiency, the cooling rate of
the 316L SS bar increases, and the effect of repeated thermal cycles
weakens. The increase in cooling rate resulted in less time for the ferrite
to undergo solid phase transformation; the weakened effect of thermal
cycling reduced the heating effect of the later deposited layer on the
former deposited layer. Under the simultaneous influence of both fac­
tors, the ferrite content of the 316L SS bar increased from 15.33 % to
22.82 % after improving the manufacturing efficiency. The ferritic
content of all processes increased compared with 9 % of the raw
material.
The optical microscope of the 316L SS bar under the manufacturing
parameters of V-12.5 is shown in Fig. 10(a). The concave dashed line in
Fig. 10(a) indicates the fusion line produced during the HWPAAM
manufacturing. The grain's growth direction is determined by the di­
rection of the temperature gradient. At the solid-liquid interface, the
temperature gradient is vertical to the solid-liquid interface, so the
austenitic columnar grains grow in the opposite direction of the tem­
perature gradient and vertical to the fusion line. The grain growth shows
an obvious 〈001〉 direction, as shown in Fig. 11(a). Ferrite is skeletal in
the austenitic columnar grains. The grain morphology of the 316L SS bar
under the V-25 manufacturing parameters transformation from
columnar to columnar-equiaxed grain, and shows obvious periodicity,
as shown in Figs. 10(b) and 11(b). With the increase of manufacturing
Fig. 12. Stress-strain curves of the 316L SS bar standard specimens under uniaxial tension. (a) Under the V-12.5 manufacturing process, (b) under the V-25
manufacturing process, (c) under the V-31 manufacturing process.
438
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
efficiency, the molten pool has a lower temperature gradient (G) and a
higher solidification velocity (R). Furthermore, under the effect of a low-
frequency pulse, the molten pool is heated by the arc during the peak
current period and cooled during the base current period, as shown in
Fig. 6. When the molten pool is cooled, the temperature gradient of the
molten pool is high and the solidification velocity is low in the early
stage of cooling. As the cooling time increases, the temperature gradient
of the molten pool gradually decreases and the velocity of the solidifi­
cation increases rapidly [68]. Under the conditions of the high-
temperature gradient and the low solidification velocity, the grain
morphology is columnar grain; as the temperature gradient decreases
and the solidification velocity increases, the grain morphology is
transformed into the equiaxed grain [50]. At the initial cooling stage of
the molten pool with the V-25 manufacturing parameters, the columnar
grains begin to grow because the G/R condition of columnar grain
transformation to equiaxed grain is not reached. However, the unifor­
mity of the columnar grain's growth direction decreases. With the
cooling of the molten pool, G/R continues to decrease, and some equi­
axed grains are formed in the late cooling period, as shown in Fig. 11(b).
After a pulse period, the peak current will heat the molten pool, and the
grains of the molten pool will grow into columnar grains again, so the
microstructure changes periodically. As mentioned in Section 3.1, the
heat input of the hot-wire power supply increases significantly as the
manufacturing efficiency increases. Therefore, under the manufacturing
parameters of V-31, the grain morphology is still mainly austenitic
columnar grain, as shown in Fig. 11(c). Compared with the V-12.5
group, the grain size is slightly reduced. Ferrite shows vermicular ferrite
or lath ferrite.
3.3. Tensile properties
Fig. 12 shows the stress-strain curves of the 316L SS bar standard
specimens under uniaxial tension. The yield strength (0.2 % proof
H. Mao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443

Table 4 the cross-section. The stress generated by the bending moment causes
Uniaxial tensile mechanical properties of the 316L SS bar standard specimens. the strain on the inside of the 316L SS bar to be greater than the strain on
Specimens Tensile Yield Elongation the outside. With the increase of stress, plastic deformation of the 316L
strength strength (%) SS bar occurs, and the center of gravity of the section gradually shifts to
(MPa) (MPa) the axis. In the plastic section, it can be seen that the stress asymmetry
V-12.5-SS 578 ± 9.7 238 ± 6.6 49 ± 4.6 caused by eccentricity decreases, as shown in Fig. 15(b). As mentioned
V-25-SS 556 ± 4.5 228 ± 0.6 48 ± 0.6 in Section 3.1, the deflection of the center of gravity is caused by the
V-31-SS 577 ± 9.1 245 ± 10.5 49 ± 2.65 fluctuation of the cross-sectional area. Therefore, a large eccentricity is
Industry requirements for 316L SS 450 170 40
[69]
associated with the smallest section, becoming the most unfavorable
section. This phenomenon is proved by digital image correlation tech­
nology. In this tensile test, the failure of the three groups of 316L SS bars
stress), tensile strength, and elongation of three specimens in each group basically occurred near the minimum section, so the minimum cross-
are statistically analyzed. Table 4 shows the average values of uniaxial sectional area was used to measure the mechanical properties of the
tensile test data of each group.
With the improvement of manufacturing efficiency, both yield
strength and tensile strength showed a trend of decreasing first and then Table 5
increasing. After improving the manufacturing efficiency, the tensile Uniaxial tensile mechanical properties of the 316L SS bars.
strength of the 316L SS bar standard specimens with V-25 Specimens Tensile strength Yield strength Elongation
manufacturing parameters is slightly lower than that with V-12.5 (MPa) (MPa) (%)
manufacturing parameters. As mentioned in Section 3.2, the uniformity V-12.5-SB 570 ± 4.6 226 ± 2.5 35 ± 3.1
of columnar grain growth direction decreases after increasing V-25-SB 566 ± 2.3 227 ± 1.7 40 ± 2.6
manufacturing efficiency. Due to the anisotropy of the mechanical V-31-SB 566 ± 4.7 226 ± 2.6 42 ± 1.5
properties of columnar grains and the effect of weak surfaces on the
grain boundary of columnar grains growing along different directions,
the mechanical properties of the 316L SS bar standard specimens are
different [41].
With the continuous improvement of manufacturing efficiency, the
tensile strength of the 316L SS bar standard specimens is basically the
same under the manufacturing parameters of V-12.5 and V-31. Ac­
cording to the Hall-Patch formula [70], the grain size has an impact on
the strength of the material, but the grain size of the HWPAAM 316L SS
bar is still at the millimeter level, which has little impact on the strength.
Therefore, after improving the manufacturing efficiency, the mechanical
properties of the material are basically the same, far higher than the
industrial standard of 316L SS [69]. This is the same as found in the
research report of Li et al. [71].
The stress-strain curves of the 316L SS bars under three processes are
shown in Fig. 13. Table 5 summarizes the design parameters of 316L SS
bars in building structures, including yield strength (0.2 % proof stress),
tensile strength, and elongation. For the steel bars manufactured by
HWPAAM, the mechanical properties are determined by the strength of
the material and the three-dimensional morphology.
Steel bars under uniaxial tension will be damaged at the most un­
favorable section. The location of the most unfavorable section is
determined by the cross-sectional area and eccentricity of the section. At
the elastic stage of uniaxial tension, it can be seen that the surface strain
distribution of the 316L SS bar is asymmetrical, as shown in Fig. 14. The Fig. 14. The most unfavorable section of the 316L SS bar during uniax­
eccentricity of the geometry results in additional bending moments at ial tension.

Fig. 13. Stress-strain curve of the 316L SS bars under uniaxial tension. (a) Under the V-12.5 manufacturing process, (b) under the V-25 manufacturing process, (c)
under the V-31 manufacturing process.

439
H. Mao et al.
Fig. 15. Full-field strain at 20 % strain rate, (a) the 316L SS bar standard
specimen, (b) the 316L SS bar.
316L SS bars. By comparing the data in Tables 4 and 5, the yield strength
and tensile strength of the 316L SS bar standard specimen and the 316L
SS bar are basically the same.
In contrast, the elongation of steel bars is more seriously affected by
the geometric morphology. Tables 4 and 5 are used to compare the
elongation of the 316L SS bar standard specimens with that of the 316L
SS bars. Under the three manufacturing processes, the elongation of the
316L SS bar is reduced by 28 %, 17 %, and 14 % respectively compared
with the 316L SS bar standard specimen. Fluctuations in the cross-
Fig. 16. Distribution frequency of normalized area A/Amin: (a) at V-12.5, (b) at V-31.
440
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
sectional area will result in uneven stress distribution. In the elastic
section, due to the high elastic modulus of the material, the strain does
not increase rapidly with the increase of stress, thus weakening the
strain difference caused by uneven stress distribution. However, in the
plastic section, as the increase of stress will lead to the rapid increase of
strain, the uneven distribution of strain will be significantly amplified.
The strain distribution of the 316L SS bar standard specimen and the
316L SS bar at a 20 % strain rate is shown in Fig. 15. Due to the uniform
distribution of the cross-sectional area of the 316L SS bar standard
specimen, the difference in strain distribution is smaller than that of the
316L SS bar. This phenomenon will become gradually obvious with the
increase of stress. Before the necking of the 316L SS bar standard
specimen, there is no obvious weak surface due to the uniform stress
distribution. Therefore, there is more than one cross-section which
produces a larger strain, so the 316L SS bar standard specimen has larger
elongation. However, the tensile strength of the 316L SS bar in the most
unfavorable section is reached first, resulting in stress differences from
other sections. Therefore, the 316L SS bar does not deform enough,
resulting in deterioration of elongation.
It can also be found that the reduction in elongation is more serious
under the V-12.5 manufacturing process. Since the fracture of the 316L
SS bar occurs at the minimum section, when each section is closer to the
cross-sectional area of the minimum section, the strain of the 316L SS
bar will be larger before fracture. As shown in Fig. 16, the area of each
cross-section is divided by the minimum cross-sectional area, and its
distribution frequency is calculated. Compared with the two
manufacturing processes, under the parameters of V-12.5, the distribu­
tion frequency of each section area at the minimum cross-sectional area
is lower, thus the deterioration of elongation is more significant.
Before the fracture of the three groups of 316L SS bars, obvious local
necking was observed within the original gauge length. Subsequently,
the fracture occurred at the necking position, and the fracture surface
showed 45◦ , which was related to the maximum shear stress plane of the
316L SS bar under uniaxial tension. Through the SEM images of the
fracture surfaces, shown in Fig. 17(a)-(c), a large number of dimples can
be observed, indicating that the fracture patterns of the 316L SS bar
under the three manufacturing parameters are typical of plastic fracture.
According to the research, the size and depth of dimples are related to
the mechanical properties of steel bars. The size of fracture dimples did
not change significantly under all manufacturing processes, which is
consistent with the mechanical properties of the 316L SS bar. Under the
high magnification of SEM, second-phase particles can be observed at
the base of the dimples in the three groups, as shown in Fig. 17(d)-(f).
Brittle second-phase particles are often the beginning of pore formation
during tension [72].
H. Mao et al. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443

Fig. 17. SEM image of 316L SS bar fracture, (a)-(c) low magnification images of V-12.5, V-25 and V-31 respectively; (d)-(f) high magnification images of V-12.5, V-
25 and V-31 respectively.

441
H. Mao et al.
4. Conclusion
This paper presents the results of research on the manufacture of
316L SS bars using HWPAAM. In particular, the principle of efficient
manufacturing of HWPAAM was investigated. Three groups of 316L SS
bars were manufactured at different manufacturing efficiencies and the
effect of manufacturing efficiency on the heat input, macrostructure,
microstructure, and mechanical properties of the 316L SS bar was
analyzed. The main conclusions are as follows:
1. Through the hot-wire power supply, the wire could be melted into
the molten pool by the resistance heat. With the increase of scanning
speed and wire feed speed, the heat input of the arc is reduced by 65
%, and the connection rate of hot-wire power is increased by 110 %.
2. HWPAAM can significantly improve the manufacturing efficiency of
steel bars while maintaining the macrostructure of steel bars. The
manufacturing efficiency of the 316L SS bar can reach 31 mm/min.
3. With the improvement of manufacturing efficiency, the ferrite con­
tent of the 316L SS bar increases from 15.33 % to 22.82 %, and the
grain size of the 316L SS bar decreases.
4. The 316L SS bar standard tensile specimen shows good strength and
plasticity under the three manufacturing processes. In general, the
improvement of manufacturing efficiency has little effect on the
mechanical properties of the materials.
5. The yield strength and tensile strength of the 316L SS bar are basi­
cally the same as those of the 316L SS bar standard specimen. Failure
usually occurs at the smallest cross-section. However, the elongation
of the 316L SS bar is obviously lower than that of the 316L SS bar
standard specimen, which is caused by the fluctuation of section
area.
Overall, HWPAAM can effectively improve the manufacturing effi­
ciency of steel bars. The results show that the improvement of
manufacturing efficiency has no negative effect on the macrostructure
and mechanical properties of 316L SS bars. Therefore, HWPAAM is a
highly efficient and feasible technology that can be applied in the con­
struction industry.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Hao Mao: Investigation, Methodology, Writing – original draft,
Visualization. Chenchen Jing: Investigation, Writing – review & edit­
ing, Validation. Fuxiang Kong: Investigation, Data curation. Tianqiu
Xu: Writing – review & editing. Xiong Xiao: Writing – review & editing,
Data curation. Kun Li: Investigation. Xue Ling: Methodology, Writing –
review & editing, Resources. Changmeng Liu: Funding acquisition,
Resources, Conceptualization, Supervision, Project administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgement
The work was financially supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (51875041, 51875042).
442
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
References
[1] Wu P, Wang J, Wang X. A critical review of the use of 3-D printing in the
construction industry. Autom Constr 2016;68:21–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
autcon.2016.04.005.
[2] Dixit S, Mandal SN, Thanikal JV, Saurabh K. Evolution of studies in construction
productivity: a systematic literature review (2006–2017). Ain Shams Eng J 2019;
10(3):555–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2018.10.010.
[3] Yan H, Shen Q, Fan LCH, Wang Y, Zhang L. Greenhouse gas emissions in building
construction: a case study of one Peking in Hong Kong. Build Environ 2010;45(4):
949–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2009.09.014.
[4] Bi M, Xia L, Tran P, Li Z, Wan Q, Wang L, et al. Continuous contour-zigzag hybrid
toolpath for large format additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf 2022;55:102822.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2022.102822.
[5] Ngo TD, Kashani A, Imbalzano G, Nguyen KTQ, Hui D. Additive manufacturing (3D
printing): a review of materials, methods, applications and challenges. Compos
Part B Eng 2018;143:172–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
compositesb.2018.02.012.
[6] Gu D, Shi X, Poprawe R, Bourell DL, Setchi R, Zhu J. Material-structure-
performance integrated laser-metal additive manufacturing. Science 2021;372
(6545):932. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abg1487.
[7] Lockett H, Ding J, Williams S, Martina F. Design for Wire plus arc additive
manufacture: design rules and build orientation selection. J Eng Des 2017;28(7–9):
568–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/09544828.2017.1365826.
[8] Chakraborty D, Tirumala T, Chitral S, Sahoo BN, Kiran DV, Kumar PA. The state of
the art for wire arc additive manufacturing process of titanium alloys for aerospace
applications. J Mater Eng Perform 2022;31(8):6149–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/
s11665-022-07128-1.
[9] Suárez A, Aldalur E, Veiga F, Artaza T, Tabernero I, Lamikiz A. Wire arc additive
manufacturing of an aeronautic fitting with different metal alloys: from the design
to the part. J Manuf Process 2021;64:188–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2021.01.012.
[10] Yi L, Gläßner C, Aurich JC. How to integrate additive manufacturing technologies
into manufacturing systems successfully: a perspective from the commercial
vehicle industry. J Manuf Syst 2019;53:195–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmsy.2019.09.007.
[11] Jankovics D, Barari A. Customization of automotive structural components using
additive manufacturing and topology optimization. IFAC PapersOnLine 2019;52
(10):212–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifacol.2019.10.066.
[12] Sing SL, An J, Yeong WY, Wiria FE. Laser and electron-beam powder-bed additive
manufacturing of metallic implants: a review on processes, materials and designs.
J Orthop Res 2016;34(3):369–85. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.23075.
[13] Davoodi E, Montazerian H, Mirhakimi AS, Zhianmanesh M, Ibhadode O,
Shahabad SI, et al. Additively manufactured metallic biomaterials. Bioact Mater
2022;15:214–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bioactmat.2021.12.027.
[14] Domenico A, Ferdinando A, Costantino M, Valentina M. 3D printing of reinforced
concrete elements: technology and design approach. Construct Build Mater 2018;
165:218–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.01.018.
[15] Bos F, Wolfs R, Ahmed Z, Salet T. Additive manufacturing of concrete in
construction: potentials and challenges of 3D concrete printing. Virtual Phys
Prototyp 2016;11(3):209–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/17452759.2016.1209867.
[16] Taylor M, Jay S. Bond properties of reinforcing bar penetrations in 3D concrete
printing. Autom Constr 2020;120:103394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
autcon.2020.103394.
[17] Kruger J, du Plessis A, van Zijl G. An investigation into the porosity of extrusion-
based 3D printed concrete. Addit Manuf 2021;37:101740. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.addma.2020.101740.
[18] Lim S, Buswell RA, Le TT, Austin SA, Gibb AGF, Thorpe T. Developments in
construction-scale additive manufacturing processes. Autom Constr 2012;21:
262–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2011.06.010.
[19] DebRoy T, Wei HL, Zuback JS, Mukherjee T, Elmer JW, Milewski JO, et al. Additive
manufacturing of metallic components - process, structure and properties. Prog
Mater Sci 2018;92:112–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmatsci.2017.10.001.
[20] Wang C, Suder W, Ding J, Williams S. The effect of wire size on high deposition
rate wire and plasma arc additive manufacture of ti-6Al-4V. J Mater Process
Technol 2021;288:116842. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116842.
[21] Rajesh Kannan A, Mohan Kumar S, Pramod R, Pravin Kumar N, Siva
Shanmugam N, Palguna Y. Microstructure and mechanical properties of wire arc
additive manufactured bi-metallic structure. Sci Technol Weld Join 2021;26(1):
47–57. https://doi.org/10.1080/13621718.2020.1833140.
[22] Gardner L, Kyvelou P, Herbert G, Buchanan C. Testing and initial verification of the
world's first metal 3D printed bridge. J Constr Steel Res 2020;172:106233. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.jcsr.2020.106233.
[23] Lange J, Feucht T, Erven M. 3D printing with steel: additive manufacturing for
connections and structures. Steel construction 2020;13(3):144–53. https://doi.
org/10.1002/stco.202000031.
[24] Xia C, Pan Z, Zhang S, Polden J, Wang L, Li H, et al. Model predictive control of
layer width in wire arc additive manufacturing. J Manuf Process 2020;58:179–86.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmapro.2020.07.060.
[25] Xia C, Pan Z, Polden J, Li H, Xu Y, Chen S, et al. A review on wire arc additive
manufacturing: monitoring, control and a framework of automated system.
J Manuf Syst 2020;57:31–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2020.08.008.
[26] Xia C, Pan Z, Polden J, Li H, Xu Y, Chen S. Modelling and prediction of surface
roughness in wire arc additive manufacturing using machine learning. J Intell
Manuf 2022;33(5):1467–82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10845-020-01725-4.
H. Mao et al.
[27] Khoshnevis B. Automated construction by contour crafting—related robotics and
information technologies. Autom Constr 2004;13(1):5–19. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.autcon.2003.08.012.
[28] Lloret-Fritschi E, Wangler T, Gebhard L, Mata-Falcón J, Mantellato S, Scotto F,
et al. From smart dynamic casting to a growing family of digital casting systems.
Cem Concr Res 2020;134:106071. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cemconres.2020.106071.
[29] Mechtcherine V, Grafe J, Nerella VN, Spaniol E, Hertel M, Fuessel U. 3D-printed
steel reinforcement for digital concrete construction - manufacture, mechanical
properties and bond behaviour. Construct Build Mater 2018;179:125–37. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.05.202.
[30] García De Soto B, Agustí-Juan I, Hunhevicz J, Joss S, Graser K, Habert G, et al.
Productivity of digital fabrication in construction: cost and time analysis of a
robotically built wall. Autom Constr 2018;92:297–311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
autcon.2018.04.004.
[31] Zegard T, Paulino GH. GRAND3 — ground structure based topology optimization
for arbitrary 3D domains using MATLAB. Struct Multidiscipl Optim 2015;52(6):
1161–84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00158-015-1284-2.
[32] Gaynor AT, Guest JK, Moen CD. Reinforced concrete force visualization and design
using bilinear truss-continuum topology optimization. J Struct Eng 2013;139(4):
607–18. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0000692.
[33] Amir O, Sigmund O. Reinforcement layout design for concrete structures based on
continuum damage and truss topology optimization. Struct Multidiscipl Optim
2013;47(2):157–74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00158-012-0817-1.
[34] Johanna M, Marcel G, Christoph M, Jonas H, Julian U, Klaus T, et al. Design and
parameter identification of wire and arc additively manufactured (WAAM) steel
bars for use in construction. Metals (Basel) 2019;9(7):725. https://doi.org/
10.3390/met9070725.
[35] Silvestru V, Ariza I, Vienne J, Michel L, Sanchez AMA, Angst U, et al. Performance
under tensile loading of point-by-point wire and arc additively manufactured steel
bars for structural components. Mater Des 2021;205:109740. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2021.109740.
[36] Laghi V, Palermo M, Tonelli L, Gasparini G, Girelli VA, Ceschini L, et al.
Mechanical response of dot-by-dot wire-and-arc additively manufactured 304L
stainless steel bars under tensile loading. Construct Build Mater 2022;318:125925.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.125925.
[37] Abe T, Sasahara H. Layer geometry control for the fabrication of lattice structures
by wire and arc additive manufacturing. Addit Manuf 2019;28:639–48. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.06.010.
[38] Radel S, Diourte A, Soulié F, Company O, Bordreuil C. Skeleton arc additive
manufacturing with closed loop control. Addit Manuf 2019;26:106–16. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.addma.2019.01.003.
[39] Rosli NA, Alkahari MR, Bin Abdollah MF, Maidin S, Ramli FR, Herawan SG. Review
on effect of heat input for wire arc additive manufacturing process. J Mater Res
Technol 2021;11:2127–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.02.002.
[40] Miao Y, Yin C, Wei C, Li C. An investigation on droplet transfer for bypass-current
wire-heating PAW. J Manuf Process 2021;65:355–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2021.03.058.
[41] Fu R, Tang S, Lu J, Cui Y, Li Z, Zhang H, et al. Hot-wire arc additive manufacturing
of aluminum alloy with reduced porosity and high deposition rate. Mater Des 2021;
199:109370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matdes.2020.109370.
[42] Xu T, Zhang M, Wang J, Lu T, Ma S, Liu C. Research on high efficiency deposition
method of titanium alloy based on double-hot-wire arc additive manufacturing and
heat treatment. J Manuf Process 2022;79:60–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2022.04.044.
[43] Liang Z, Jinglong L, Yi L, Jingtao H, Chengyang Z, Jie X, et al. Characteristics of
metal droplet transfer in wire-arc additive manufacturing of aluminum alloy. Int J
Adv Manuf Technol 2018;99(5–8):1521–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-018-
2604-7.
[44] Han Q, Li D, Sun H, Zhang G. Forming characteristics of additive manufacturing
process by twin electrode gas tungsten arc. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2019;104
(9–12):4517–26. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-019-04314-9.
[45] Xiong J, Zhang G, Zhang W. Forming appearance analysis in multi-layer single-pass
GMAW-based additive manufacturing. Int J Adv Manuf Technol 2015;80(9–12):
1767–76. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-015-7112-4.
[46] Wang S, Gu H, Wang W, Li C, Ren L, Wang Z, et al. The influence of heat input on
the microstructure and properties of wire-arc-additive-manufactured Al-Cu-Sn
alloy deposits. Metals (Basel) 2020;10(1):79. https://doi.org/10.3390/
met10010079.
[47] Li C, Gu H, Wang W, Wang S, Ren L, Wang Z, et al. Effect of heat input on
formability, microstructure, and properties of Al–7Si–0.6Mg alloys deposited by
CMT-WAAM process. Appl Sci (Basel) 2019;10(1):70. https://doi.org/10.3390/
app10010070.
[48] Xu T, Cui Y, Ma S, Wang J, Liu C. Exploring the inclined angle limit of fabricating
unsupported rods structures by pulse hot-wire arc additive manufacturing. J Mater
Process Technol 2021;295:117160. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
JMATPROTEC.2021.117160.
[49] Jiang F, Sun L, Huang R, Jiang H, Bai G, Qi X, et al. Effects of heat input on
morphology of Thin-Wall components fabricated by wire and arc additive
443
Journal of Manufacturing Processes 89 (2023) 430–443
manufacturing. Adv Eng Mater 2021;23(4):2001443. https://doi.org/10.1002/
adem.202001443.
[50] Jing C, Chen Z, Liu B, Xu T, Wang J, Lu T, et al. Improving mechanical strength and
isotropy for wire-arc additive manufactured 304L stainless steels via controlling
arc heat input. Mater Sci Eng A Struct Mater 2022;845:143223. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msea.2022.143223.
[51] Wright JW, Pantelides CP. Axial compression capacity of concrete columns
reinforced with corrosion-resistant hybrid reinforcement. Construct Build Mater
2021;302:124209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.124209.
[52] Blanco G, Bautista A, Takenouti H. EIS study of passivation of austenitic and duplex
stainless steels reinforcements in simulated pore solutions. Cem Concr Compos
2006;28(3):212–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2006.01.012.
[53] Chen X, Li J, Cheng X, He B, Wang H, Huang Z. Microstructure and mechanical
properties of the austenitic stainless steel 316L fabricated by gas metal arc additive
manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng a Struct Mater 2017;703:567–77. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msea.2017.05.024.
[54] ISO 15630-1. In: Steel for the reinforcement and prestressing of concrete — test
methods — part 1: reinforcing bars, rods and wire. International Organization for
Standardization; 2019. p. 24.
[55] ISO 6892-1. In: Metallic materials — tensile testing — part 1: method of test at
room temperature. International Organization for Standardization; 2019. p. 78.
[56] Kyvelou P, Slack H, Daskalaki Mountanou D, Wadee MA, Britton TB, Buchanan C,
et al. Mechanical and microstructural testing of wire and arc additively
manufactured sheet material. Mater Des 2020;192:108675. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2020.108675.
[57] Benakis M, Costanzo D, Patran A. Current mode effects on weld bead geometry and
heat affected zone in pulsed wire arc additive manufacturing of Ti-6-4 and Inconel
718. J Manuf Process 2020;60:61–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2020.10.018.
[58] Giridharan PK, Murugan N. Optimization of pulsed GTA welding process
parameters for the welding of AISI 304L stainless steel sheets. Int J Adv Manuf
Technol 2009;40(5–6):478–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00170-008-1373-0.
[59] Zhang H, Huang J, Liu C, Ma Y, Han Y, Xu T, et al. Fabricating pyramidal lattice
structures of 304 L stainless steel by wire arc additive manufacturing. Materials
(Basel) 2020;13(16):3482. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma13163482.
[60] Li F, Chen S, Shi J, Zhao Y, Tian H. Thermoelectric cooling-aided bead geometry
regulation in wire and arc-based additive manufacturing of thin-walled structures.
Appl Sci (Basel) 2018;8(2):207. https://doi.org/10.3390/app8020207.
[61] Ali Y, Henckell P, Hildebrand J, Reimann J, Bergmann JP, Barnikol-Oettler S. Wire
arc additive manufacturing of hot work tool steel with CMT process. J Mater
Process Technol 2019;269:109–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmatprotec.2019.01.034.
[62] White LR. On deviations from Young's equation. J Chem Soc Faraday Trans 1 1977;
73:390–8. https://doi.org/10.1039/f19777300390.
[63] Nie Z, Wang G, McGuffin-Cawley JD, Narayanan B, Zhang S, Schwam D, et al.
Experimental study and modeling of H13 steel deposition using laser hot-wire
additive manufacturing. J Mater Process Technol 2016;235:171–86. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.04.006.
[64] Wang C, Liu TG, Zhu P, Lu YH, Shoji T. Study on microstructure and tensile
properties of 316L stainless steel fabricated by CMT wire and arc additive
manufacturing. Mater Sci Eng A Struct Mater 2020;796:140006. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.msea.2020.140006.
[65] Brooks JA, Thompson AW. Microstructural development and solidification
cracking susceptibility of austenitic stainless steel welds. Int Mater Rev 1991;36(1):
16–44. https://doi.org/10.1179/imr.1991.36.1.16.
[66] Fu JW, Yang YS, Guo JJ, Tong WH. Effect of cooling rate on solidification
microstructures in AISI 304 stainless steel. Mater Sci Technol 2008;24(8):941–4.
https://doi.org/10.1179/174328408X295962.
[67] Wu Q, Ma Z, Chen G, Liu C, Ma D, Ma S. Obtaining fine microstructure and
unsupported overhangs by low heat input pulse arc additive manufacturing.
J Manuf Process 2017;27:198–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jmapro.2017.05.004.
[68] Raghavan N, Dehoff R, Pannala S, Simunovic S, Kirka M, Turner J, et al. Numerical
modeling of heat-transfer and the influence of process parameters on tailoring the
grain morphology of IN718 in electron beam additive manufacturing. Acta Mater
2016;112:303–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2016.03.063.
[69] ASTM A473-21. Standard specification for stainless steel forgings. ASTM
International 2021:5. https://doi.org/10.1520/A0473-21.
[70] Zhu YZ, Wang SZ, Li BL, Yin ZM, Wan Q, Liu P. Grain growth and microstructure
evolution based mechanical property predicted by a modified Hall-Petch equation
in hot worked Ni76Cr19AlTiCo alloy. Mater Des 2014;55:456–62. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.matdes.2013.10.023.
[71] Li Z, Liu C, Xu T, Ji L, Wang D, Lu J, et al. Reducing arc heat input and obtaining
equiaxed grains by hot-wire method during arc additive manufacturing titanium
alloy. Mater Sci Eng A Struct Mater 2019;742:287–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
msea.2018.11.022.
[72] Wang L, Xue J, Wang Q. Correlation between arc mode, microstructure, and
mechanical properties during wire arc additive manufacturing of 316L stainless
steel. Mater Sci Eng A Struct Mater 2019;751:183–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
msea.2019.02.078.