Establishment of Botswana's National Park and Game Reserve System

Author(s): Alec Campbell

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Botswana Notes and Records, Vol. 36 (2004), pp. 55-66
Published by: Botswana Society
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40980360 .
Accessed: 07/02/2013 10:21

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Botswana Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Botswana Notes and
Records.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

EstablishmentofBotswana's NationalPark and Game ReserveSystem1

ByAlec Campbell2

Background
I commencethispaperat theyear1925,somefewyearsbeforedeclaration ofBotswana'sfirst
GameReserve.Atthattime,Botswanawas a 'Protectorate' ofBritain(calledtheBechuanaland
Protectorate),administered througha High Commissioner locatedin Pretoriaand a Resident
Commissioner withSecretariat(Headquarters) located in Mafeking(Mafikeng),SouthAfrica.
Kalaharisandscoverabout75% ofthecounty, whiletheremainder, a broadnorth-south beltin
theeast,is hardveldt withrockyoutcropsandrangesof hills.Althoughflat,theKalahariis by
no meansan uninteresting area,forit containsnotonlytheOkavangoDelta,butfossilrivers,
dead lakebeds and grass-coveredpans, dune formations, parkland,mosaics of varying
woodlands, savanna and opengrassland.
Threedifferent legal formsof land ownershippertainedin the 1930s and stilldo.
Crownland,now called StateLands, have been muchreducedin size. TribalReserves,the
property of individualtribeswherethegreaterpartof thecountry's populationlived and still
lives,have been enlargedat the expenseof Crownland.And small areas of Freeholdland,
originallyownedbyWhitefarmers, were,and stillare,used forcattleranching. Differencesin
theland'slegalstatuseshave,to someextent, shapedthewaysin whichreservesandparkshave
beenestablished.
Censuseswerenotoriously inaccurate, but in 1930 thehumanpopulationprobably
numbered about300,000individuals, less thanone personto a squarekilometre. Mostpeople
livedin TribalReservesin theeast. In thewest,and excludinga fewcommunities livingon
permanent wells,vastareaswereeitherunpopulated orcontainedsmallgroupsofsemi-nomadic
pastoralBakhalagariand foragers (Bushmen,also knownas San or Basarwa) whohuntedand
gatheredwildfood(Campbell1965). Wildlifeon Kalaharisands,butless so in theeast,was
said to havebeenprolific.
The 1925 'Game Proclamation',replacingearlier wildlife legislation,mainly
controlledhunting bynon-Batswana . It also reinforcedexistingpowersofDikgosi(Chiefs)to
controllargegame hunting by theirown people on theirtriballandsand made provisionfor
areas of Crownlandto be declarednon-hunting areas fornamedspeciesforperiodsof up to
threeyears.Until1961,a fewsuchareaswhereso declaredforvarying periodsoftime.It was
notuntil1940 and Game Proclamation No. 19 thatthelaw finallyprovidedforestablishment
of Game Reserves. In those days, there was no Departmentof Wildlife; day-to-day
administration of wildlifematterswas in thehandsof DistrictCommissioners and Dikgosi
underthegeneralsupervision oftheResidentCommissioner in Mafeking.

Introduction
Beforethe1960s,wildlifewas saidto be prolificthroughout
thecountry.
Wildanimalproducts
playedvitalrolesin humansubsistence.Unlicensedsubsistence was
hunting recognisedbythe
1. The paperwas originally
written
fortheFifthWorldCongresson Wildlifein 2003.
2. Alec Campbelljoined the BechuanalandProtectorate AdministrativeService in 1962, and servedas District
Commissioner, Ghanzi1962-3,PopulationCensusOfficer,1963-5,SeniorGameWardenandDirectorofWildlifeand
NationalParks,1966-74,and Honorary Curator& Director,NationalMuseumandArtGallery,1966-87.Currently he
is a DirectoroftheTrustforAfricanRockArt,Nairobi.He livesin Botswana.

55

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

Figure1. BechuanalandProtectorateLand Apportionment

1925.

AdministrationandbyDikgosias a right. Forthepoor,wildlifeprovidedmeat,whileskinswere

tradedto buyclothes,tobacco,tea and sugar,and to pay taxes.Livestockownerssaw wildlife
as inexhaustibleand a cash crop,but a menaceto cattleraisingon accountof stocklost to
predatorsand diseases.Cattlewereuniversally
stock-transmitted recognised as thebackboneof
thecountry'seconomy while wildanimalswere considered as havinglittle
value.
Relianceforall informationon earlynumbers, distribution
andmovements ofwildlife
on
depended eyewitness accounts.In 1962-3, huge herds of wildlifeexisted in both the
Northern and SouthernKalahari.In the south,migrating wildebeestbetweenMatshengand
Okwa could be seen in herdsstretching almostcontinuously forgreatdistances,estimates
placingtheirnumbers at many hundreds of thousands (Campbell1997). In 1963 in thenorth,
Dr ThaneRiney,a Food andAgricultural Organisation ecologist,describedwildebeest,zebra,

56

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

gemsbokandspringbok aroundwestern Makgadikgadi Pansas 'thelargestherdsofplainsgame

leftin Africa today'(Riney and Hill 1963),notwithstandingthehugeSerengetiherdsin East
Africa.In 1974,1 estimated I saw about40,000hartebeest standingalongtheSekomato Kang
road.Itis reasonabletoestimate thatin 1962thecountry heldmorethanone millionwildebeest
andmanyhundreds ofthousands zebraand springbok.
ofhartebeest, Numbersofotherspecies
forthattimeare difficult to gauge.By the 1960s,elephantwereseen to be increasing froma
seriouslydepletedpopulationin the 1930s, while buffaloand lechwe were thoughtto be
decreasing in numbers(Child 1968).
In earlierdays,Game Reservesand thenNationalParkscame intobeing,notas the
resultof carefulplanningnor,forthemostpart,on thebasis of ecologicalresearch,butfrom
accidentsofhistory andcircumstances obtainingat thetimeoftheirpromulgation. Boundaries
wereusuallyarbitrary linesdrawnon maps:tribalboundaries, rivers,roadsand even a sand
ridge.Theirshapeswerecalculatedto excludesettlements and interferewithas fewpeopleas
possible.

The firstGame Reserves

The firstgamereserves, iftheycan so be termed, werecreatedbyDikgosi(TribalChiefs)who
announcedin dikgotla(tribalmeetingplaces) in thenineteenth century thattheyhad reserved
certainareas to themselvesfortheirown and theirinvitedfriendsexclusivehunting.Best
knownoftheseareasareChief'sIslandin thecentralOkavangoDelta reservedforhunting by
TawanaChiefsand anothersucharea,itslimitsnow forgotten, situatednearMmashoroin the
CentralDistrictandreservedforhunting byNgwatoChiefs.
In 1932,theResidentCommissioner, CharlesRey,wantedto establisha gamereserve
in theChobeDistrict. However, the cost of a wardenandtwoscoutswas at thetimeconsidered
by theHigh Commissioner in Pretoria to be too high.Dr H.H. Webb,Directorof Veterinary
also
Services, vehemently opposed the reserve. Although Reyfailedtoestablisha gamereserve,
nottobe outdone,he declareda no-hunting areain theChobeDistrict,a prohibition
thatwas to
be reneweduntil1943 (Parsons& Crowder1988).
The followingyear,1933, saw Sir A.W. Pirnconductan economicsurveyof the
countryand, in a 200-pagereport,mentionwildlifeonly in passingas a nuisanceto the
development oflivestock(Pirn1933).The Veterinary Department constantlycomplainedabout
wildlifeandcontested anyattempts evento considerestablishing gamereserves(Bechuanaland
Protectorate AnnualReports& Spinage 1991). Pirn'sReport,emphasising thevalue of cattle
andignoring was to fixfuture
wildlife, attitudestowardseconomicdevelopment.
In 1930,SouthAfricaestablishedtheKalahariGame Reserveadjacentto theNosop
River,thesouthwestern international boundary, and askedtheProtectorate Administrationto
protectwildlifeon its side of the border.This posed a problemsince at least six small
settlements existedon theBechuanalandside of theNosop Riverwhoseinhabitants, to some
extent,huntedforsubsistence (Clement1967).
At first,theResidentCommissioner merelydeclaredtheBechuanalandside of the
borderto be a 'no hunting'area in termsof the 1925 legislation, butissueditsresidents with
hunting licences.The Bechuanaland residents werecaughtpoachingintheSouthAfricanGame
Reserve,an actthateventually forcedtheResidentCommissioner todeclarean adjacentareain
Bechuanaland, a 40 kmwidestripoflandalongtheriver,as GameReserve.He agreedtomove
thepeoplelivingon theNosopRiver,providedtheyalso agreedto moveandSouthAfricapaid
all expensesincluding compensation to thosemoved.In 1938,280 peopleunderTitusMatthys
wereresettled betweenTweerivieren on theNosopRiverandRappelspanon theMolopoRiver.

57

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Seventy-seven nomadicXhomaniand Cauni (Bushmen),also residingin theReserve,were
resettledat theReservegateat Tweerivieren,buton theSouthAfricanside of theborder(J.le
Riche,pers.comm.).
Then,in 1940,theNossop (sic) RiverGame Reserve,an area of about9,700sqkm,
was promulgated Therewas no moneyto administer
and all animals,butnotplants,protected.
thenew Reserve,and theSouthAfricanWardenof therenamedKalahariGemsbokNational
Parkwas appointed Honorary GameRangerforthenewBechuanalandgamereserve.In effect,
theNationalParksBoardofSouthAfricapolicedtheBechuanaland reserve,a situation
thatwas
to continueintothe1980s.
In 1940,a newformofprotected areawas tocomeintobeing- sanctuaries.Thesewere
smallareas,particularly dams,in whichtheonlyprotection affordedwas to certainwildlife
species.The firstdeclarationinvolvedMogobaneDam in theBamaleteReserve,wherean area
12 km in diameteraroundthe dam was declared,and in it all game birds- ducks,geese,
guineafowl, sandgrouse etc.- werefullyprotected.
This was followedin 1942 by declaration
ofan areasixkilometres in diametersaroundBathoenDam intheBangwaketse Reserve,where
game birds were also protected.

The Game Departmentand Chobe Game Reserve

Increasingelephantpopulationsand destruction to cropsalong the Shashe Rivercreatedso
manycomplaints that theAdministration was forcedtotakeaction.In 1956,MajorP. Bromfield
was employedto 'control'elephantand stationedin Francistown. Bromfieldformedthe
'Elephant Control Unit' in early 1957, and swiftly reviewed the existingGame Proclamation.
Dedicatedto wildlifeconservation, Bromfieldrecognisedthepotentialvalue of Botswana's
wildlifeandsetaboutpersuading theAdministration totakeaction.His first movewas torevive
Col Rey's proposalfora game reservein theChobe District,thistimewithgreatersuccess
(Bromfieldpers. comm.).In 1960, the Chobe Game Reservewas proclaimed,an area of
15,400sqkmwitha northern boundary on theChobeRiver,butso shapedas to avoidhuman
settlements.Wildanimals,butneither plantsnorfish,wereprotected. No peopleweremoved
and those few still in
living Serondela, once a loggingcamp and now situatedin theReserve,
wereallowed to remain. The Reserve's declarationwas routinely opposedbytheDirectorofthe
Veterinary who
Department, stated, '...our cattlecan never be putontoa properfootingifwe
aregoingto considerthegame'(Spinage1991).
In 1961, the Game Proclamationwas replacedby the Fauna ConservationPro-
clamation, No. 22 of 1961,a muchimproved law based on theNorthern Rhodesian(Zambian)
law.The newProclamation provided for declaration of areasas Game Reserves. The Elephant
ControlUnitbecamethe 'Game Department'. A warden and staffwere installedin theChobe
GameReserve.
In 1965, Major Bruce Kinlockwas appointedby theAdministration to advise on
wildlifematters. As a result of his report(Kinlock1965), manychanges were to takeplace.
Major Bromfieldreceived the title'Game Officer', and two game rangers and more game
scoutswerehired.Dr GrahamChild,an FAO ecologist,undertook a detailedreconnaissanceof
thenew Chobe Game Reserve. As a result of Child's report,the Reserve's boundarieswere
revised,at firstto excise areasthenconsideredmoresuitableforloggingand laterto include
areas neededto linktheParkto the MoremiReserve.Not all the changessuggestedwere
implemented.

58

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

CentralKalahari Game Reserve

Duringthe1950s,firsttheMarshallExpeditionexploredtheKalahariseeking'wild' Bushmen,
and thenLaurensvan derPostpublishedTheLost WorldoftheKalahari,botheventsstirring
the public to considerthe Bushmen'sso-called plightand forcingthe Administration in
Mafekingto do something aboutthem.In 1958,GeorgeSilberbauer, a DistrictOfficer,
com-
mencedthe 'BushmanSurvey',workingmainlyin theeasternGhanziDistrict.His termsof
reference requireda reportandrecommendation fortheBushmen'sfuture (Silberbauer1965).
Silberbauerrecognisedthe difficulties Bushmenunderwent in theirrelationswith
othergroups,and particularly theirinabilityto retainrightson land wantedby others.He
worriedaboutencroaching farming and soughtto securelandfortheBushmenon a permanent
andlegalbasis (Silberbauer pers.comm.).In 1960,he recommended to theAdministrationthat
theentireeasternregionoftheGhanziDistrictshouldbe securedfortheBushmenlivingin it,
thenabout3,000people.His mainconcernwas thatBushmenbe freetodecidetheirownfuture
in theirown time.Afterdiscussionsin Mafeking,he recommended thata Game Reservebe
createdin whichBushmencould live, keep small stock,and huntany wild species using
traditionalweapons.It was fearedthata 'Bushman'Reservemightcreatepublicdisapproval
(Silberbauerpers. comm.).In 1961, the CentralKalahariGame Reservewas promulgated,
coveringapproximately 52,800sq km. Silberbauerdraftedregulations forthe new Reserve.
Theseprovidedthatentry be bypermit issuedbytheDistrictCommissioner, Ghanzi(notbythe
Game Department), and thatBushmennormallyresidentin the Reserveshouldhave free
movement in and out,unrestrictedhunting rightsand permission to keep goats,etc.,butnot
dogs,cattleorhorses.The intention was to prohibitentrybycasual visitorsandparticularly by
neighbouring peopleswhohad beenin thehabitof entering theareato grazetheirstock,hunt
andrecruit cheaplabour,activitiesalreadyprovingproblematic fortheBushmen.Tourismwas
to be excluded.When published,the draftregulationshad been alteredin the Secretariat:
Bushmenwereforbidden to huntor keep smallstockas thiswas contrary to theprinciplesof
GameReserves,butprovisionwas madefortheissueoflicencestohuntin theReserve.On the
otherhand,in 1963,theAdministration commenceddrilling boreholesat Cade to supplywater
forbothBushmenand wildlifeuse (Hitchcock2002). No effort was madeto licenseBushman
hunting.

MoremiWildlifeReserve
In theearly1960s,Juneand RobertKaye, authorand wildlifephotographer, together witha
groupof Maun residentsand help of Mrs Moremi,Regentof theBatawana,persuadedthe
TawanaTribeto createa smallreserveon theirtriballand (PeterSmithpers.comm.).The
MoremiWildlifeReserve,as it was originallynamed,was thefirstReservein Africato be
establishedlegallyby a tribeon itsowntriballand.In 1964,theOkavangoWildlifeSociety,a
privateorganisation,arrangedand paid foran ecologicalsurveyof theproposedarea (Tinley
1966).As a result,boundaries weredetermined andtheReservewas proclaimedin 1964,about
2,000sq km of swamp,floodplains,islands,riparianstripand forestin the northeastern
OkavangoDelta. The Reservewas to be administered by a newlyformedorganisation, the
FaunaPreservation of
Society Ngamiland.
A groupof about40 semi-nomadic Bugakwe,undertheleadershipof Kgwere,then
residenton and aroundBodumatauIslandin theReserve,weremovedto a siteon thebankof
theKhwaiRiver,outsidebutadjacentto theReserve(PeterSmithpers.comm.).

59

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

Figure2. BechuanalandProtectorate1964.

In 1976,theMoremi'sboundarieswereextendedwestwardto takein Chief'sIsland in the

centralDelta, and eastwardto linkit to the Chobe NationalPark,creating3,900sq km of
protectedarea. These extensionsaffectedGcanikhwelivingon Chief's Island, who were
moved, and the Tseca, residentsof Kudumane,a neighbouring village in the Mababe
Depression,by diminishingtheir areas used
traditionally for and
hunting gathering wildfood
(MichaelTaylorpers. comm.).
oftheMoremiWildlifeReservewas handedtotheDepartment
In 1979,administration
ofWildlifeandNationalParksandtheReserve'snamechangedto MoremiGameReserve.

60

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

1966,firstWildlifeConservationPolicy,Changesin theGame Department

and theNationalParks Act
In 1966,theyearBechuanalandachieved'independence' fromBritainandbecametheRepublic
ofBotswana,a nationalconservationpolicy was preparedandtheneedtodevelopwildlife- not
only foritsown aesthetic
value,butalso as a commodity - was recognised
of economicreturn
(Campbell1973).The followingcriteriawerelaid down:

1. The return
fromwildlifeto be dramatically
increased,initially
through but
sporthunting,
laterthrough
moreconventional formsoftourism;

2. Provisionto be madeforregularcheapsubsistence forlocal populations

hunting on a
sustained-yieldbasis forso longas it shouldbe needed;

3. Creationoflargeareasto formwildlifereservoirs,
providingan annualspill-over
into
surroundingareasforall formsofhunting,suchareasneedingto be protected
from
agricultural
expansion;

4. A cross-section
of all habitatsandecosystems,
andexamplesof all geologicalformations,
to receivecompleteprotection;

5. Protection of suitablylargeareaswithnecessarytypesofhabitatforthepreservation
of
all existingwildlifespecies;

6. Development oftheareaslistedaboveunder3, 4 and 5 to takeintoaccounttheneed

notonlyto conservewildlifebutalso to providethefacilities
bothforinviolate
wilderness and
preservation forall forms of and
tourism;

7. Preservation
of areasofhistoricandculturalvalue.

In thesame year,Major Bromfield retired,Game Department headquarterswas movedfrom

Francistown intotheMinistryofCommerceandIndustry in Gaborone,andbotha ChiefGame
Wardenand SeniorGameWardenwereappointed.
In 1967,theGameDepartment was renamedtheDepartment ofWildlifeandNational
Parks,the ChiefGame Warden became and
Director, additional
wardensandgamescoutswere
hired.The Fauna Conservation Act was amended.A WildlifeBiologistwas appointed.The
NationalParksAct was enactedand, finally,it became possible to upgradesome Game
ReservesandestablishNationalParks.The ChobeGameReserveacquiredNationalParkstatus,
althoughits size was reducedat the requestof the Ministryof Agriculture to allow for
commercial loggingin peripheral
areas.In 1974,Maikaelelo,an areaexcisedforlogging,was
declaredGameReserveas loggingunderpermitwas permissible in gamereserves.In 1980,its
Reservestatuswas rescindedandtheareareverted to ForestReserveundertheForestry Act.
In 1969,poachingwithlampsatnightbecamea seriousproblematNywaneDam near
Lobatse.Recognisingthatsuchhunting involvedall animalscomingto drinkat thedam,and
thatfinesunderSanctuarystatuswouldbe insufficient,
thefencedareaofthedamwas declared
as Game Reserve,the Nuane (sic) Game Reserve,and all animalsat any time withinit
protected.

61

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

In effect,
therewas to be littledifferencebetweenParksandReserves.To establisha protected
areaon triballand,thetribehad to grantitspermission. After1966 andIndependence, District
Council,and laterboth Councils andTribal Land Boards, had to In tribal
agree. fact, areas were
widely utilisedforcattle raising withlittlefree No
space remaining. permission was needed
fromresidents of Crownland(now StateLand) to establisha Reserve.For thesereasons,most
ofBotswana'sParksandReserveshavebeenestablished on StateLands.
The majorrestrictions placed on game reserveswere thoseof entry,huntingand
introduction -
ofdomesticspecies cattle,dogsetc.Even so, licencescouldbe issuedto people
to huntin gamereservesandvegetation was notprotected. NationalParklegislationrestricted
notonlyentryand hunting, butalso damageto and removalof plants.Even so, theMinister
couldissuea permit to huntin a Park.

FindingAreas SuitableforNew Parks and Reserves

Recognisingthe importance of wildlifein the Okavangoregionand Maun Village as the
probablefuture centreforthecountry's touristindustry, firstmovesinvolveddeclaration of an
areaof400sq kmaroundMaun as a no hunting area,andestablishment of a smalleducational
gamereserveinMaun.An areaof8.5sqkmon theeastbankoftheThamalakane River,directly
oppositethe village,was fenced and declared Maun Game Reserve. Wildlife was capturedin
theOkavangoDelta andthenewreservestockedwitha varietyof species.
The nextmoveinvolveda searchforland to fulfiltherequirements of theWildlife
the
Policy.Using Report of the 1964 Population Census, those areas which appeared tohaveno
humanoccupantswereringedon mapsand whatknowledgeexistedof wildlife,itsnumbers,
distributionand movements, was accumulated.Of paramountimportance was the need to
securesufficient land forlargeplains populationsto migrateto grazingand waterduring
droughtyears.Unfortunately, timehad runout,disease controlfenceshad begunto inhibit
and
migrations, expanding settlements on pans and permanent watersourceshad resultedin
cattledepletinggrazingin areas important to wildlifeduringdroughtperiods.Nor was it
possible to findareas thatwould adequatelyfulfilall the nationalconservation policy's
requirements
Certainareasclearlyneededto be protected in thesouthwestern Kalahariand around
thewestern endofMakgadikgadi Pans.A briefsurveyoftheareaadjacentto theNossopRiver
Game Reserve,by thencalled theGemsbokGame Reserve,indicatedthelocationsof those
settlementsnearestto theReserve.Straight linesweredrawnon mapsacrossthedesertso as to
as as
makethereserve large possible without interfering withhumansettlement. The Reserve
and
was muchenlarged upgraded to National Park. In a area
addition, rectangular containing a
numberof important pans situated against the eastern end of the new Park was declared the
MabuasehubeGameReserve.Untilthedrought ofthe1930s,MabuasehubePan hadbeenhome
but
to theKgothifamily, they had then moved to Tsabongandindicatedtheyhadno interest in
thearea.
Attention was nowturned totheMakgadikgadi Pans,andin 1967an ecologicalsurvey
The ecologist,
instituted. Dale Birkenholz, recommended thatwesternMakgadikgadishould
becomea wildlifemanagement area and open to some hunting. He notedwildlifemigrations
fromNxai Pan (also then known as 'Paradise Pan') Makgadikgadiand proposedthatNxai
to
Pan and surrounding area be declared National Park(Birkenholz1967). In theevent,it was
decidedto declareas Game Reserve western Ntwetwe Pan and surrounding areasstretching to
thenew Nata-Maunroad and westward to the Boteti River. This area became Makgadkgadi
Pans GameReserve.It was also determined to createas NationalParkthearealyingbetween

62

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

theold Nata-Maunroad and Latitude19'30" S, thearea in whichNxai Pan is situated.This

wouldhave lefta passagewaybetweentheold and new Nata-Maunroads,thenorthern and
southernboundaries ofthetwoareastobe protected. Bothproposalswerevehemently opposed
by theDirectorof Veterinary Serviceswho said theywouldinhibitexistingcattletrekroutes,
one alongtheold Maun-Nataroadandtheotherrunning fromKazungulavia Mpandamatenga
to Kanyu(on theold Maun-Nataroad).The lattertrekroutehadat thattime,andhas evennow,
neverbeenused.
Afterlongdiscussions,MakgadikgadiPans Game Reservewas declaredin 1970,its
proposedboundarieslittlealtered.In the followingyear,Nxai Pan NationalPark was also
declared,its size now muchreducedto l,500sq km.The southern boundaryof theParkwas
movednorthward so as to lie alonga sandridgesomedistanceawayfromthecattletrekroute
and thenorthern boundarywas movedsouthward to providemorelandforcommercialsafari
hunting.
BecausetheCentralKalahariGameReservewas closedtotourists andwildlifeformed
potentialsourcesof incomeforruralBakwena,theKhutseGame Reserveon BakwenaTribal
Land,thesecondgamereserveto be establishin a tribalarea,was proclaimedin 1971,an area
of 2,600sqkm.The Reserveprotects an importantcomplexof Kalaharipans,typicalKalahari
savannaveldtand themostsoutherly areain whichgiraffe are stillto be found.The Reserve's
proximity to Gaboroneoffersboth local and foreigntouristseasy opportunity to visit an
undevelopedareaoftheKalahariDesert.
Attempts weremadetoestablisha GameReserveon thereservoir atGaboroneas early
as 1968,buttheseweremetwithoppositionfromtheDirectorof WaterAffairswho believed
wildlifewouldcontaminate thetown'sdrinking supply.On discoverythatthereservoir was
contaminated by bilharziaand thata game fence would keeppeopleout,agreement was reached
andin 1975theGaboroneDam NationalPark,an areaon thewesternsideofthereservoir, was
declared.The Parkwas neverinitiated andthedeclaration revokedin 1979whentheGaborone
Town Council agreed to the establishment of a Game Reserve adjacent to the town's
northeastern suburbs.In 1980,theGaboroneGameReserve,aboutthreesquarekilometres, was
declared.
In 1973,firstattempts weremadeto protecta Cape vulturecolonyon thesouthcliffs
ofMannyelanong Hillon BaleteTribalLand.Negotiations weresporadically continuedwiththe
Baleteuntil1985,whenMannyelanong Hill was declaredGame Reserve.The Reserve,about
threesquarekilometres in extent,protects,in additionto thevulturecolony,interesting hill
vegetation, several prehistoricminingsites, and a varietyof wildlifespecies, such as
klipspringer,mountain reedbuck,kudu,leopard,caracal,civet,and otherspeciesin a heavily
populated area.
I close mydiscussionof theestablishment of Botswana'sNationalParksand Game
Reserveswiththedeclaration ofMannyelanong GameReserve.New areashavebeenprotected
sincethatdate,suchas Nata Sanctuary on Sowa Pan and KhamaRhinoSanctuary nearPaje;
otherswilldoubtlessbe createdin thefuture.
I havenottouchedon PrivateGameReservesforwhichprovisionexistsin theFauna
Conservation Act.Such Reservesare areasof freehold landwhoseownershaverequestedthe
Ministerto protect theirlandundertheAct.PrivateReservestatusdoes notstophunting byits
ownersor people withtheirpermission;it merelyincreasesfinesforthosecaughtillegally
huntingon theirland.

63

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

Nor do I includemore-recentlyestablishedmajorprivateReserves,such as MashatuGame

Reservein thenorthern
Tuli Block,established
forprivatecommercial tourism,andMokolodi
NatureReservesouthof Gaborone,createdmainlyforeducationpurposes.

Figure3. Map ofBotswanaindicatingNationalParksandGameReserves declaredby1985;South

Africa'sKalahariGemsbok NationalPark;andsomeplacesofgeological and culturalimportance
whichshouldreceiveaddedprotection. A - ChobeNationalPark; B - GemsbokNationalPark;
C - NxaiPan NationalPark;D - MoremiGameReserve;E - Makgadikgadi Pans GameReserve;
F - KhutseGameReserve;G - CentralKalahariGameReserve;H - GaboroneGameReserve;
I - Mannyelanong Game Reserve;J - MabuasehubeGame Reserve;K - GcwihabeCaverns;
L KoanakaCaverns;M - StonewallRuins,RockPaintings
- and RockFormations, North-East
N -
District; Lepokole Hills;O - Tswapong Hills;P - ShoshongHills;Q - Dithejwane Hills;R -
-
TsodiloHills;S SouthAfrican KalahariGembokNationalPark.

64

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
 BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

Conclusion
the
Recognising very size of thefirstGame Reserves,it is notsurprising thata widerangeof
habitatsandgeologicalfeatures has receivedprotection, fortuitously, themainconcernat
since
thetimeofdeclaration was theprotection oftheanimalswithinthem.
Onlyafter1963 did ecologicalsurveys,as a preludeto declaration of protectedland,
commence.Even then,boundarieshad to be juggled to take intoaccountotherinterests -
population settlements and future populationexpansion, tribalboundaries, grazingareas, cattle
trekroutes,loggingandso on. Slowly,someoftheproblems havebeenovercomebyalterations
to Park and Reserveboundaries.However,few if any Reservesor Parksare todayideally
configured, eitherto includesufficient areas of diversity forprotection of all theirvarious
for
aspects all time, or to for
provide traditional migration routesfor largerspecieslookingfor
moisture duringdrought periods.Norhas muchthought beengiven,byestablishing smallParks
and Reserves,to protection of culturalremainssuch as prehistoric stonewallsettlements,
smelting sites,religiousplaces,rockartand geologicalformations, suchas limestonecaverns,
granitekoppies,gorgesandhotsprings.
Manyimportant areas,particularlyin theeast,remainunprotected: unfortunately,the
decisionto createparksandreservescamelate,at a timewhenthelandwas alreadyoccupied.
A glanceat themap showsthatalmosteveryparkand reserveis situatedin thewest,in areas
thatweresparselypopulated.Plannershave tendedto look onlyat largeruninhabited areas
wherewildlifestillexistsinrecognisable numbers, withlittleattention paidtoeasternBotswana
wherewildlifeis scarce,yetgeologicalformations and culturalremainsare abundant.The
development of MokolodiNatureReserve,recentlyan area of overgrazedfarmland, shows
whatcanbe done.AreasoftheTwapongHills,ShoshongHills,LepokoleHills,stonewallruins,
rockpaintings androckformations in theNorthEast District, theDithejwaneHills,Gcwihabe
andKoanakaCaverns,theTsodiloHills (recently a
proclaimed WorldHeritageSite) andmany
otherplacesarecryingoutto be protected in areasdeclaredas parkorreserve.
The value of wildlifeand growingtouristindustry is recognised.Today,greater
accountis paid to a multi-disciplinary use of land,particularly in areas littlesuitedto cattle
production and where provision of water is The
expensive. problemsof cattleranching versus
management of wildlifethatdoggedearlyattempts to create protected areas are beingresolved.
However,thecreationof parksprotecting geologicalformations and culturalremainsis stilla
projectofthefuture.

Bibliography
BechuanalandProtectorate AnnualReports1936,1937,1960 and 1964.London,HMSO.
Birkenholz,D.E. (1967) A studyofthestatusandmovements ofbig gamein theBotletle-Nyai
Pan areaof Botswana(19 pages andunpublished).
Campbell,A.C. (1965) Reporton theCensusoftheBechuanalandProtectorate 1964.
Gaberones,BechuanalandGovernment.
(1973) The NationalParkandReserveSystemin Botswana.Biological
Conservation 5.1 pp 7-14.
A
(1997) HistoryofWildlifein Botswana.In ed. F. Monggae:Proceedings of a
NationalConference on Conservationand Management ofWildlifeinBotswana:
StrategiesfortheTwenty-First Centurypp 7-31.
G.
Child, (1968) An EcologicalSurveyof NortheasternBotswana.FAO No. TA 2563.
(1970) Wildlifeutilizationandmanagement in Botswana.BiologicalConservation
3 pp 18-22.

65

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
BotswanaNotesand Records,Volume36

Clement, AJ. (1967) TheKalahariand itsLost City.Johannesburg,LongmanSouthern

Africa.
Hitchcock,R.K. (2002) 'We aretheFirstPeople': Land,NaturalResourcesandIdentityin the
CentralKalahari,Botswana.JournalofSouthern Studies
African 28.4 pp 797-824.
Kinlock,B.G. (1965) Reportto theGameDepartment ofBechuanaland.Gaberones,Ministry
ofMines,CommerceandIndustry.
Parsons,N, andM, Crowder(1988) eds.MonarchofAll I Survey. BechuanalandDiaries 1929-
1937 bySir CharlesRey.Gaborone,The BotswanaSociety.
Pirn,SirA.W. (1933) Financialand EconomicPositionoftheBechuanalandProtectorate.
London.His Maiestv'sStationery Office.
FAO-IUCNReport.
Reporton BechuanalandProtectorate.
Riney,T. andP. Hill (1963) Interim
Silberbauer,G.B. (1965) BushmanSurveyReport.Gaberones, Bechuanaland Government)
Spinage,C (1991) Historyand EvolutionoftheFauna Conservation Laws ofBotswana.
Gaborone,The BotswanaSociety)
Tinley,K.L. (1966) An EcologicalReconnaissanceoftheMoremiWildlife Reserve.
Johannesburg, OkavangoWildlifeSociety.
The FaunaConservation No. 22 of 1961 oftheLaws oftheBechuanaland
Proclamation,
Protectorate.

66

This content downloaded on Thu, 7 Feb 2013 10:21:33 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions