University of Douala,

National Advanced School of Engineering, ENSPD

Department of Hygiene, Safety and Industrial Security

Research Methodology

Lecturer: Innocent Ndoh M. (PhD)

Assoc. Professor in Ecoinformatics
University of Douala
Tel.: (+237 77540384)
Email: dndoh2009@gmail.com

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 Course Status

CODE UE CAT INTITULE CR CM TD TP TPE SEM

SEMINAIRES
FGI-HSI-455 OB 3 30 5 5 5 9
INTERDISCIPLINAIRE II

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 Content Outline

1. Thesis/Memoir: Purpose

2. Research Process

3. Research Proposal

4. Structure/Components of a Thesis/Memoir

5. Referencing

6. Wring a long document in word 2010

7. Probability Sampling (brief)

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 My Goals for the Course

• That each of you develop an intuition for the fundamental

principles of research methodology

• That we have an enjoyable semester learning together

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 Course Objectives

By the end of this lecture you should be able to:

– Understand what research is, and what it is not,
– Understand the research process,
– Frame a good researchable topic,
– Write a good Introduction
– State objectives clearly
– Review relevant literature
– Write a good Research Methodology
– Prepare a good research proposal
– Write a long document using word 2010
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 Assessment Methods

A- Assignments:

• Questions at the end of topic/subtopic,

• Tutorials
• Assignments
• Final paper: Research Proposal (8-10 pages)
.

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 … Assessment Methods
B- Examination and Grading:
• It will be assessed as follows:
• Assessment 1: In-Class Test 5%
• Assessment 2: Written papers 5%
• Proposal 10%
• Class participation: 5%
• Attendance: 5%
• Examination: 70%

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 Suggested Texts/References

• Creswell, John W. 2003. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative,

and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage. 27-47.

• Turabian, Kate L. 1996. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses,

and issertations. 6th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Skim this book.

• Creswell, John W. 2003. Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative,

and Mixed Methods Approaches, 2nd edition. Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage. 27-47.

• Turabian, Kate L. 1996. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses,

and Dissertations. 6th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Skim this book.

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 What Is Research?
It depends on how you answered the three other
questions:
What is reality? Ontology
What is knowledge and
what does it mean to know Epistemology
something?
How does one go about Methodology
knowing reality?
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 Research Defined and Described

“Research is the systematic approach to obtaining and

confirming new and reliable knowledge”

– Systematic and orderly (following a series of steps)

– Purpose is new knowledge, which must be reliable

This is a general definition which applies to all disciplines

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10
 Research is not necessarily
1. Accidental discovery :
1. Accidental discovery may occur in structured
research process
2. Usually takes the form of a phenomenon not
previously noticed
3. May lead to a structured research process to verify
or understand the observation

2. Data Collection
• an intermediate step to gain reliable knowledge
• collecting reliable data is part of the research process

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 Research is not necessarily… cont.

2. Searching out published research results in libraries (or the

internet)
•This is an important early step of research
•The research process always includes synthesis and analysis
•But, just reviewing of literature is not research

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 Research is…

1. Searching for explanation of events,

phenomena, relationships and causes
– What, how and why things occur
– Are there interactions?
2. A process
– Planned and managed – to make the information
generated credible
– The process is creative
– It is circular – always leads to more questions
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 Forms of research

Scientific research
Relies on the application of the scientific method, a harnessing of curiosity.
It provides scientific information and theories for the explanation of the nature
and the properties of the world. It makes practical applications possible.

Scientific research is funded by public authorities, by charitable organizations

and by private groups, including many companies. It can be subdivided into
different classifications according to their academic and application
disciplines.

It is widely used criterion for judging the standing of an academic

institution, such as Engineering schools, but some argue that such is an
inaccurate assessment of the institution, because the quality of research does
not tell about the quality of teaching (these do not necessarily correlate
totally).

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 Induction: Form hypothesis about event, then compare to similar event to verify/falsify/modify

Theory testing and theory construction: Inductive/deductive approaches

hypothesis. Eventually central/general hypothesis will emerge.

a process in which research begins with observations and uses inductive reasoning
to derive a theory from these observations.

begins with a theory and uses theory to guide which observations to make: it moves from the general to the particular.
 Research Characteristics

1. Originates with a question or problem.

2. Requires clear articulation of a goal.
3. Follows a specific plan or procedure.
4. Often divides main problem into subproblems.
5. Guided by specific problem, question, or hypothesis.
6. Accepts certain critical assumptions.
7. Requires collection and interpretation of data.
8. Cyclical (helical) in nature.

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 Research Project Pitfalls

• The following kinds of projects usually don’t

make for good research:
– Self-enlightenment.
– Comparing data sets.
– Correlating data sets.
– Problems with yes / no answers.

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 High-Quality Research
(1 of 2)

• Good research requires:

– The scope and limitations of the work to be clearly defined.
– The process to be clearly explained so that it can be
reproduced and verified by other researchers.
– A thoroughly planned design that is as objective as possible.

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 High-Quality Research
(2 of 2)

• Good research requires:

– Highly ethical standards be applied.
– All limitations be documented.
– Data be adequately analyzed and explained.
– All findings be presented unambiguously and all conclusions
be justified by sufficient evidence.

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 What Makes Research Good? (More information)

– Validity
– Reliability
– Replicability
– Consistent application/analysis
– Trustworthiness”
– Rigor

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 1- Validity in Research
• Validity: degree to which a measure or scale truly reflects the phenomenon
under study
• Reliability: extent to which a measure produces consistent results
• Refers to whether the research actually measures what it says it’ll measure.
Validity is the strength of our conclusions, inferences or propositions.

– Internal Validity: the difference in the dependent variable is actually a

result of the independent variable
– External Validity: the results of the study are generalizable to other
groups and environments outside the experimental setting
– Conclusion Validity: we can identify a relationship between treatment
and observed outcome
– Construct Validity: we can generalize our conceptualized treatment and
outcomes to broader constructs of the same concepts

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 2. Reliability in Research

The consistency of a measurement, or the degree to which

an instrument measures the same way each time it is used
under the same condition with the same subjects.

In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement.

A measure is considered reliable if a person's score on the

same test given twice or many times is similar. It is
important to remember that reliability is not measured, it is
estimated. Measured by test/retest and internal consistency

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 Validity and Reliability

A measurement can be reliable, but not valid. However, a

measurement must first be reliable before it can be valid. Thus
reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition of validity.
In other words, a measurement may consistently assess a
phenomena (or outcome), but unless that measurement tests what
you want it to, it is not valid.

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 4. Rigor in Research

• Adequate presentation of findings: consistency,

trustworthiness

• Appropriate representation of study for a particular field:

disciplinary rigor

• Rhetorical Rigor: how you represent your research for a

particular audience

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 Revision Questions
Explain what you understand by:

Rigor
Validity
Reliability and
Replicability of research

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The research process
Research idea
Literature
review
Conclusions

Comparison Theoretical
with earlier Phase II formulation of the
research research problem
Phase I
Theoretical
Empirical
interpretation research questions
of the results (operationalization)

Answering
the empirical Research
research design
questions (planning)

Data
analysis Data
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 Basic steps of a research project

• Find a topicWhat, When

• Formulate questionsWhat, Why
• Define populationWho, When
• Select design & measurementHow
• Gather evidenceHow
• Interpret evidenceWhy
• Tell about what you did and found out

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 Memoire????
• Definition
In French culture, the word “mémoire”, as in “un mémoire” is used for a piece
of writing allowing the author to show his or her opinion on a given subject,
logically approaching a series of facts in order to arrive at a recommendation or
conclusion.
• Le mémoire de recherche
– Comme le rapport de recherche, il a pour but de faire progresser la connaissance
en explorant un domaine peu connu ou en abordant un thème sous un angle
original. Il doit fournir un modèle d’explication et de compréhension à une question
particulière.
• Le mémoire de terrain
– Le mémoire n’est pas nécessairement un travail de rat de bibliothèque: certains
exigent de mener une enquête de terrain. Ils mêlent ainsi recherche fondamentale et
expérimentation. C’est le cas des mémoires de fin d’études dans de nombreux
instituts ou écoles, qui demandent d’élaborer des modèles d’explication après
examen des phénomènes sur le terrain, ou des mémoires scientifiques, qui suivent
souvent une période d’analyses en laboratoire.

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 Masters degree Thesis/Memoire: Purpose
• The purpose of the your Thesis/Memoire is to prepare you to be a
professional in your discipline. Through this preparation you learn and
demonstrate the ability to conduct independent, original, and significant
research.
• The Thesis/Memoire thus shows that you are able to:
– identify/define problems,
– generate questions and hypotheses,
– review and summarize the literature,
– apply appropriate methods,
– collect data properly,
– analyze and judge evidence,
– discuss findings,
– produce publishable results,
– engage in a sustained piece of research or argument,
– think and write critically and coherently.
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 Understanding Originality and Significance
• “Originality” and “significance” are terms that come up frequently when discussing
Memoire or Theses. What do professors mean when they use these terms?

• An original contribution offers a novel or new perspective. It is publishable because

it adds to knowledge, changes the way people think, informs policy, moves the field
forward, or advances the state of the art.'

• To achieve this goal, you might develop an original insight or advance, or you
might borrow a contribution from another discipline and apply it to your field for
the first time. It is important to understand that the contribution is not necessarily
your entire memoirs but something that is part of it.

• It is important to clarify, in early discussions with your advisors, what is expected

of you in terms of originality. Consider asking for samples of exemplary completed
memoire, and think critically about how you can most clearly display your original
contribution to the reader

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 What is significance?

A significant contribution can be defined as something that is useful and will have an
impact, and is therefore publishable in top-tier journals because it:
– offers a nontrivial to a very important breakthrough at the empirical, conceptual,
theoretical, or policy level;
– is useful and will have an impact;
– causes those inside, and possibly those outside, the community to see things
differently;
– influences the conversation, research, and teaching;
– has implications for and advances the field, the discipline, other disciplines, or
society.

• As with originality, there are degrees of significance. At the highest level, significance is
a function of the field's long-term interest in the problem, the difficulty involved in
solving the problem, the influence of the results on further developments in the field, as
well as the degree to which the results affect other fields, disciplines, and even society

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 11/9/2022

Research Proposal
Protocole de Recherche (Memoire)

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 Research Proposal:
Topic Selection
After completing this chapter, the Participants should be able to:

1. Examine the cyclical nature of the development of a research

proposal

2. Describe the principles underlying whether a problem situation is

researchable.

3. List the criteria for selecting a research topic.

4. Identify and select own topic for research based on certain

guidelines.

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 Protocole de Recherche - Définition
Le protocole de recherche est un outil permettant de planifier adéquatement le
déroulement d’un projet de recherche. C’est à partir de ce document que le comité
scientifique juge du bien-fondé scientifique de tout projet de recherche relevant de
sa compétence (Audy, 2009).

Il permet notamment d'organiser les idées du chercheur en fonction de l'étude qu'il

mène (de clarifier sa problématique, ses objectifs et ses hypothèses), c'est-à-dire de
déterminer le « quoi faire » et le « pourquoi faire ». Il sert aussi à planifier sa
recherche (budget, agenda, etc.) : le « comment faire ».

Le protocole de recherche consiste à décrire de façon précise et claire ce que le

chercheur entend mener comme projet de recherche et comment il sera réalisé. Le
comité scientifique reconnait la diversité des paradigmes et des méthodes de
recherche mais, dans le cadre de son mandat, doit s’assurer de valider les éléments
qui assurent le respect des critères de rigueur scientifique dans la phase de
conception de la recherche propre à la méthode scientifique proposée.
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 Purpose of the research proposal

1. To inform the reader of nature of your proposed

research.
– What is the problem?
– What is its extent?

2. To convince the reader, especially supervisors and

reviewers, of the value of your proposed research.
– Is this project worth the time and money?
– Will it make a difference to the world?

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 Purpose of the research proposal

• 3. To demonstrate your expertise and competency in a

particular area of study.
– Do you have the qualifications to conduct this research?
– Have you informed yourself of the existing theory and data
relevant to your topic?
– Do you have the necessary skills to conduct the research?

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Purpose of the research proposal

• 4. To plan the research project and provide a step-by-step

guide to the tasks necessary for its completion.

– What are the key stages of the work?

– What are the priorities?
– How do the various components fit together?

• 5. To request support from individuals and agencies who

provide supervision, oversight or funding for the research
project.

– What kinds of support does the project need?

– Are all participants properly protected?

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Purpose of the research proposal

• 6. To contract with the agencies and individuals

involved, including supervisors, foundations and
participants in the research team.
– How will tasks be assigned and resources expended?
– What does each contribute
to the collective endeavor?

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 Research Proposal Process

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 Research Proposal: Components
The following key chapters are needed:
• Title Page
• Table of Contents (not required if only two pages long)
• Abstract (250 words)
1. Introduction
2. Literature Review
3. Methodology
4. Research Plan
5. Expected Results
6. Conclusion
• References
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 Article original: Titre & Auteurs

• Titre
– Traduit clairement l’objet de la recherche
– Ouvert, court et attractif (doit être « sexy »)
• Auteurs et ordre des auteurs
– Ceux qui ont contribué à la recherche (acquisitions des
données, lecture, statistiques, écriture)
– Premier auteur : celui qui écrit
– Dernier auteur : initiateur (en théorie)
– En fonction de l’importance de leur contribution (idéalement)
– Choix stratégique

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1. Sujet de recherche
 Envisagez votre recherche avec audace : soyez englobant!
Soyez créatif! Voyez grand! Voyez large!
 Couchez vos idées sur papier.
 Ne laissez pas les autres trop vous influencer :
 c’est votre sujet et votre recherche!

 considérations dont il faut tenir compte :

 Le sujet doit vous passionner.
 Le sujet a été traité antérieurement.
 Il y a de l’information disponible sur le sujet.
 Vous pourrez disposer d’instruments de travail ou de
techniques de recherche pour réaliser votre recherche.
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 Titre de l’étude
Il doit être écrit avec une clarté et une complétude permettant sa compréhension sans
recours au texte intégral du projet d’etude. Tout en veillant a ce qu’’il ne soit pas trop
long, un bon titre doit contenir quatre items. Pour mémoriser cette règle, nous vous
proposons de retenir « le titre OTLP » :
1. Objet,
2. Temps,
3. Lieu,
4. Personne.

Par exemple :

Etude 1: {Caractéristiques épidémiologiques} = O

{des malades souffrant du reflux gastrooesophagien} = P
au {Congo-Brazzaville} = L
{en 2014} = T.

Etude 2 : {Etude des especes} = O {de chimpanzees transmettant le virus

EBOLA} =P {dans les forets d’Afrique} = L {en 2014} =T.
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 Considerations in Selecting a Topic

– Personal interest / Passion

– Importance / Contribution to the field
– Newness / Relevance
– Feasibility
• Tradeoff between rigor and practicality
• Time constraints
• Ethical constraints
• Organizational support
• Economic factors
• Availability of Subjects

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 Sources of Research Topics

● Peer-reviewed journals in your field

● Personal experiences
● Work setting experiences
● Existing literature
 “Recommendations for future research…”

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 Scales for rating research topics
Relevance
1 = Not relevant
2 = Relevant
3 = very relevant

Avoidance of duplication
1 = Sufficient information already available
2 = Some information available but major issues not covered
3 = No sound information available on which to base problem-solving

Feasibility
1 = Study not feasible considering available resources
2 = Study feasible considering available resources
3 = Study very feasible considering available resources

Political acceptability
1 = Topic not acceptable
2 = Topic somewhat acceptable
3 = Topic fully acceptable

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 … Scales for rating research topics
Applicability
1 = No chance of recommendations being implemented
2 = Some chance of recommendations being implemented
3 = Good chance of recommendations being implemented

Urgency
1 = Information not urgently needed
2 = Information could be used but a delay of some months would be acceptable
3 = Data very urgently needed for decision-making

Ethical acceptability
1 = Major ethical problems
2 = Minor ethical problems
3 = No ethical problems
N.B. The above rating should be based on the existing data and not on mere
assumptions.

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 … Topic Selection/Choix du sujet

• Le sujet doit être en rapport avec la spécialité dans le cadre de laquelle la

formation est assurée. Si une proposition est faite par l’entreprise, elle doit
aussi être validée par l’encadreur académique de l’Institut. il doit être complet,
mais bref. En général, un titre comprend une dizaine de mots.

• Problem identification
Le Rapport de Stage/Memoire doit comporter obligatoirement une
problématique à laquelle l’étudiant va apporter des éléments de réponse.
• La problématique peut par exemple s’exprimer sous l’une des formes suivantes
:
– l’entreprise perçoit une difficulté : comment l’analyser et la résoudre
– L’entreprise sent une opportunité : doit-elle la saisir et comment ?

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 Criteria for selecting a research topic
1. Relevance: The topic you choose should be a priority problem:
• Questions to be asked include:
– How large or widespread is the problem?
– Who is affected?
– How severe is the problem?
– un sujet d’actualité
2. Avoidance of duplication: Investigate whether the topic has been researched.
• If the topic has been researched, the results should be reviewed to explore whether
major questions that deserve further investigation remain unanswered.
• If not, another topic should be chosen.

3. Feasibility: Consider the complexity of the problem and the resources you will require to
carry out the study.
• Thought should be given first to personnel, time, equipment and money that are locally
available. In situations where the local resources necessary to carry out the project are
not sufficient, you might consider sources available at the national level.

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 … Criteria for selecting a research topic
4. Political acceptability: It is advisable to research a topic that has the interest
and support of the authorities. This will facilitate the smooth conduct of the
research and increases the chance that the results of the study will be
implemented.

5. Applicability of possible results and recommendations

• Is it likely that the recommendations from the study will be applied? This will
depend not only on the blessing of the authorities but also on the availability of
resources for implementing the recommendations.

6. Urgency of data needed

• How urgently are the results needed for making a decision?
• Which research should be done first and which can be done late?

7. Ethical acceptability
We should always consider the possibility that we may inflict harm on
others while carrying out research. Therefore, it will be useful to review the
proposed study.

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 Facteurs de risque ergonomiques et troubles musculo-squelettiques
liés au travail chez les travailleurs des entreprises de fabrication de
blocs de ciment à Douala

Évaluation des troubles musculo-squelettiques chez les opérateurs

d'équipements lourds à l'Autorité portuaire de Douala, Douala

Characterization of landfill leachate at the PK12 open dumpsite,

Douala-Cameroon, and assessment of water pollution in its vicinity

Leachate characterization and assessment of groundwater pollution

near municipal solid waste dumpsite in Douala-Cameroon

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 Class Exercise
Identify three related problems based on your research topic. Discuss about these problems and rate
them based on the selection criteria. When rating these problems based on the criteria, use the rating
scale indicated at the bottom of the table. You can do the exercise in small groups.

Criteria for selecting a Research Topic

Proposed topic Research problem 1 Research problem 2 Research problem 3
Avoidance of duplication
Feasibility
Political acceptability
Applicability
Urgency of data needed
Ethical acceptability
Relevance
Total

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Rating scale: 1 = low, 2 = medium, 3 = high
 11/9/2022

What is your Masters degree Research Topic?

Class Discussion
Remember:
– Avoidance of duplication
– Feasibility
– Political acceptability
– Applicability
– Urgency of data needed
– Ethical acceptability
– Relevance

Homework: Follow steps 2 – 5 (not more than 20 pages). Use the table on
page 62-67 of this lecture as your guide.
MUST be submitted on Monday 7th December 2020 at 8 a.m prompt
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55
2. Dresser un état de la situation sur le sujet

 Effectuez une recherche bibliographique sur le sujet : articles,

livres, autres thèses
 Faites appel aux services de la Bibliothèque
 Fouillez sur Internet : mais soyez prudents…

 Trucs de lecture
 Lisez les résumés (abstratcs), la conclusion, l’introduction, les
bibliographies
 Gardez toujours en mémoire la question suivante: Comment
cette info peut servir ma recherche?
 Identifiez les documents plus excitants et lisez-les à fond.
 Identifiez les auteurs qui reviennent : ce sont les spécialistes du
sujet.
 Cherchez les zones grises, les questions sans réponse.

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2. Dresser un état de la situation sur le sujet - 2

 Prenez des notes.

 Donnez-vous un système de classement efficace et mettez-y
tout ce qui semble pertinent à votre recherche.
 Faites des photocopies.
 Pour tout, marquez les références exactes.

 Ayez un carnet de recherche pour garder tout ce qui vous

intéresse :
 questions et réponses, réflexions, hypothèses, notes, calculs,
travail informatique, questionnaires, procédures et résultats,
travail bibliographique, esquisses de tableaux et figures,
rédactions partielles, etc.

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3. Définir et délimiter son projet
 Identifiez une question pour laquelle on n’a pas encore trouvé de
réponse (ou un angle d’approche) :
 ce sera votre question de recherche,
 celle à laquelle vous essayerez de répondre,
 celle qui fera de vous une ou un spécialiste.
 Cette question spécifique doit se formuler sur la base des
lacunes ou zones grises que vous aurez identifiées
(références à l’appui) avec du vocabulaire précis et simple.

 Cernez à quel grand problème de recherche se rattache le sujet

qui vous intéresse ou vous passionne.
 Identifiez la demande sociétale ou les enjeux sociétaux.
 C’est la pertinence sociale de votre recherche.

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4. Établir un cadre théorique
 C’est à ce moment qu’on choisit comment on va s’y prendre pour
répondre à sa question (méthode(s) )et avec quel(s) moyens(s)
(matériel).

 Choisissez judicieusement votre approche méthodologique.

 Les cours de méthodologie vous aideront.
 Plusieurs méthodologies (selon les disciplines)
 Qualitative et,ou quantitative,
 Interprétative, critique, comparative, historique, étude de cas,
expérimentale, théorique…
 Envisagez la combinaison de plusieurs méthodologies.
 Discutez-en avec votre directeur de recherche.

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5. Préciser l ’hypothèse de recherche

 Définition d’hypothèse
 L’hypothèse peut être envisagée comme une réponse
anticipée à une question spécifique de recherche.

 L’hypothèse peut être un énoncé déclaratif précisant la

relation anticipée et plausible entre des phénomènes
observés ou imaginés. (Tremblay, Manheim et Rich)

 L’hypothèse établit une relation à vérifier en comparant des

faits, des événements, des concepts…
 Sa formulation doit être plus précise que celle de votre question
de recherche.
 Elle doit être plausible, vérifiable, précise et communicable.

L’hypothèse est le pivot ou l’assise centrale

de toute votre recherche.
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 Structure type d’un protocole de recherche

Summary
1. Introduction Introduction du sujet et du thème de l’étude. Décrire de façon générale le domaine de
la recherche et le contexte. Présenter les visées générales de l’étude.

 Problématique Conceptualisation du problème de recherche : consiste à définir le problème.

Identifier et définir le ou les principaux construits impliqués dans l’étude. Formuler le
problème à l’étude, faire ressortir l’importance du sujet, présenter l’objectif général
de l’étude. On peut aussi décrire les aspects novateurs du projet, l’utilité et la
pertinence au sein de cette section.

 Recension des  Un inventaire et un examen critique des publications en rapport au sujet d’étude
écrits (essai, mémoire, thèse). Discuter des lacunes méthodologiques, des limites et
forces des conclusions des différents articles si pertinents.
 Les buts de la recension consistent à déterminer ce qui a été écrit sur un sujet et à
mettre en lumière la façon dont il a été étudié.
 à souligner l’importance du retour aux sources primaires (études originales) lors
de la recension des écrits. Dans le cadre de certains devis qualitatifs telle que la
théorisation ancrée, cette étape peut ne pas avoir été faite pour permettre une plus
grande objectivité du chercheur. Par contre, le chercheur doit justifier l’absence de
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11/9/2022 recension des écrits. 61
 Cadre de référence  Une structure abstraite formée d’une ou de plusieurs
théories ou de concepts réunis ensemble en raison des
rapports qu’ils ont avec le problème de recherche à
définir.
 On peut inclure un cadre conceptuel, ou un cadre
théorique. Facultatif selon le type d’étude proposée.

 Travaux préliminaires ou étude  Facultatif. À inclure si des travaux préliminaires ont été
pilote effectués.
 Présenter les résultats de l’étude pilote ou les données
préliminaires sous-jacents à l’étude. Démontrent la
faisabilité de l’étude, la pertinence de la recherche et la
compétence du chercheur à réaliser l’étude.

 But général  L’énoncé du but précise les variables clés, la population

Questions, objectifs et hypothèses cible et le verbe d’action approprié. Les
questions/objectifs de recherche découlent directement
du but et précisent l’information que l’on veut obtenir.
 L’hypothèse est un énoncé formel sur les relations
anticipées entre des variables. L’hypothèse est nécessaire
principalement dans les devis expérimentaux.

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2. Méthodologie Voir tableau 2 : Éléments de la méthodologie.

Éléments essentiels de la méthodologie:

 Devis Plusieurs devis existent incluant : devis expérimental, quasi expérimental, descriptif,
corrélationnel et qualitatif. Le devis doit être clairement identifié et justifié, surtout
dans le cas d’un devis non traditionnel en regard de la question de recherche ou du
domaine d’études.

 Échantillonnage Les éléments suivants doivent être inclus : la population, l’échantillon, la

méthode d’échantillonnage, critères d’inclusion et d’exclusion. La procédure de
recrutement doit être clairement établie avec une description de la population
accessible pour permettre au comité de juger de la faisabilité de l’étude.

 Variables /Mesures S’il y a lieu, chacune des variables doit être clairement décrite avec une
définition opérationnelle et de manière obligatoire dans les devis quantitatifs
(dépendantes et indépendantes).

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 … Éléments essentiels de la méthodologie
 Méthode de collecte de données
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 Les méthodes de collecte des données doivent être décrites et
correspondre au devis proposé. Pour les études de nature
quantitative, toute mesure doit être décrite (mesures
physiologiques, questionnaires, échelles, etc.) pour chacune
des variables. Cette section est généralement conjointe avec
les variables. Il faut indiquer la formation des évaluateurs qui
administreront la mesure. Justifier la méthode. Qui va les
collecter? Formation des évaluateurs? Ordre des tests? Où?
Quand? Temps nécessaire pour chaque sujet? Mesures à
l’insu? Justifier tous les choix et s’assurer de documenter les
qualités métrologiques des outils.
 Pour les études de nature plus qualitative, il s’agit de décrire
les outils qui seront utilisés (grille d’observation, entrevues,
etc.), de quelle façon ils ont été développés, s’ils ont été
prétests et validés (auprès de quelle population).
64
 … Éléments essentiels de la méthodologie

 Analyse des données Cette section est essentielle et vise à comprendre quelles analyses seront
effectuées en regard de chacun des objectifs. Elle doit comprendre les
analyses descriptives, statistiques ou qualitatives.

 Justification de la taille  Permet de documenter le nombre de sujets nécessaires

échantillonnale pour obtenir des résultats valables. En recherche
quantitative, le calcul de la taille échantillonnale doit tenir
compte du but et de la nature de l’étude, de l’homogénéité
de la population, du nombre de variables, du seuil de
signification, de la puissance du test et de l’ampleur de
l’effet attendu.
 Pour les recherches qualitatives, il faut également justifier
la taille échantillonnale, le plus souvent à partir de la
tradition du devis proposé, ainsi que, (s’il y a lieu) de
quelle façon sera déterminée que la taille adéquate est
atteinte (ex. : saturation théorique des données).
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 Faisabilité Décrire brièvement la capacité de recruter l’échantillon proposé,
d’avoir les locaux et le matériel nécessaire.

 Considération éthiques

3. Résultats attendus Facultatif.

4. Échéanciers Pour chacun des objectifs, un échéancier de travail global doit être
proposé.
5. Budget

Références Selon une méthode reconnue par un journal scientifique. Nous suggérons
l’utilisation d’un logiciel de gestion des références bibliographiques
(exemple : Endnote).
Annexes Cette section doit comprendre une copie des instruments de mesure ou des
guides d’entrevue, etc. Elle peut inclure d’autre matériel tels que les
résultats préliminaires de l’étude pilote ou des figures.

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6. Décrire un protocole de recherche

Conceptualisation du problème de recherche

Extrait de textes de
1. Définition du problème de recherche Marie-Claude Roland,
2. État des connaissances INRA, Paris, FRANCE
3. Modèle théorique et hypothèse(s) ou question de recherche

Choix d’une stratégie

de recherche
4. a) Devis de recherche retenu
4. b) Validité du devis

Protocole
de recherche
Planification opérationnelle de la recherche
5) Population à l’étude
6) Définition des variables et collecte de données
7) Analyse de données
8) Échéancier et budget, le cas échéant
9) Pertinence de la recherche
11/9/2022 10) Respect des règles d’éthique (humains et animaux) 67
 République du Cameroun Republic of Cameroon
Paix – Travail – Patrie Peace – Work – Fatherland
UNIVERSITE DE DOUALA THE UNIVERSITY OF DOUALA
FACULTE DE GENIE INDUSTRIEL INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING FACULTY

Tél: (237) 33 01 41 30 /31 www.fgi-ud.com B.P. 2701 Douala, Cameroun

FACULTE DE GENIE INDUSTRIEL (FGI)

FACULTY OF INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING (FIE)
--------------------------------------------

TITLE Page Format (SAMPLE)

BP 2701 Douala Tel: (237) 33 01 43 30/31 SITE Web: www.fgi-ud.org
****************************
Research Proposal
(Protocole de Recherche/ de Mémoire)

Title: (Tentative)

Protocole de Recherche de Mémoire Présenté en vue de l’Obtention ……

By:
(Your Full-name)

DEPARTEMENT D’HYGIENE-SECURITE ET SURETE INDUSTRIELLE

SPECIALITE : Hygiène Sécurité - Sûreté industrielle
OPTION : Qualité et Normalisation

11/9/2022
Name of your Supervisor(s) 68
Date of Submission
 Abstract
• Should be structured as follows:
– Background: the context and purpose of the study;
– Methods: how the study was performed and statistical tests used;
– Results: the main findings;
– Conclusion: brief summary and potential implications.
– Keywords. Up to 5 keywords

Résumé

- Background: le contexte et le but de l'étude;

- Méthodes: comment l'étude a été effectuée et les tests statistiques
utilisés;
- Résultats: les principales conclusions;
- Conclusion: bref résumé et implications potentielles.
- Mots clés: max 5
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(Contexte)
Un examen de l'assainissement des eaux souterraines utilisé aujourd'hui montre que de
nouvelles techniques sont nécessaires pour résoudre les problèmes de pompage et de
traitement, de confinement et de traitement in situ. (Énoncé précis) Une de ces techniques
est la méthode qui implique l'utilisation de murs de traitement perméables. (Élaboration)
Ces méthodes utilisent un milieu réactif tel que le fer pour assainir les eaux souterraines
contaminées. (Objectif *) Plusieurs méthodes de mise en œuvre de cette stratégie de
remédiation ont été décrites. (Élaboration du but) Ces méthodes comprennent l'injection
et le creusement de tranchées. (Objectif spécifique de l'objectif) L'utilisation d'un
système d'entonnoir et de porte via une tranchée a été examinée en détail à l'aide d'une
option de modélisation des eaux souterraines du programme FLAC. (Méthodes) La
modélisation impliquait une analyse de l'effet de la modification de la longueur des murs
et de la porte, la variation de la perméabilité et la variation du nombre de portes.
(Résultats) Les résultats ont montré que l'augmentation de la longueur du mur, de la
longueur de la porte et de la perméabilité augmente la taille du panache capturé. (Résultat
clé) Un facteur important dans la conception des murs est le temps de séjour de l'eau dans
la porte ou le temps de contact du contaminant avec le milieu réactif. (Évaluation des
résultats) Une analyse de sensibilité a été menée qui montre que l'augmentation de la
taille de la zone de capture diminue le temps de résidence (Limitations) ce qui limitera la
conception. (Applications et recherches futures) Les résultats de la modélisation et de
l'analyse de sensibilité sont présentés de manière à pouvoir être utilisés comme aide à la
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conception de murs de traitement perméables.
 Introduction
 Problématique
 Etat de l’art: connaissances (le plus récent) existant, les
écarts, c’est que vous voulez contribue a la connaissance
existence (Il faut être modeste)
 Questions de la Recherche
 Objectifs de la Recherche
 Rationale: importance ou significance de votre projet par
apport a votre domain d’etude.
 Délimitation de la Recherche
 Approche de la Recherche
 Plan de Mémoire
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 In sum, the introduction should contain:

- Background (Context)
- Statement of the Problem
- Objectives and/or Research Questions/Hypotheses
- Significance of the Study
- Thesis Structure

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 General Structure of the Introduction

Figure1: The schematic demonstration of the logical flow of facts in the background

11/9/2022 73
 …Introduction

Background (Title case, left indentation, font size = 16)

• Should address the following points:
• Motivation – Research should be put in a global context, problem formulated:
– Where did the problem come from? Any historical underpinnings?
– What is already known & what is not yet known about this problem?
– What methods have been tried to solve it? Is/Are there weakness (es) in
current methodologies?
– What is the alternative or novelty you are suggesting to the scientific
community?
• Summarize relevant literature
• In-text referencing should follow the American Psychological Society (APA)
System or IEEE

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 Statement of the Problem

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11/9/2022 78
A good research problem should have the following characteristics:

 It should address a gap in knowledge.

 It should be significant enough to contribute to the existing body of
research
 It should lead to further research
 The problem should render itself to investigation through collection
of data
 It should be of interest to the researcher and suit his/her skills, time,
and resources
 The approach towards solving the problem should be ethical
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11/9/2022 80
 What is the format for writing a statement of the
problem?
A persuasive statement of problem is usually written in three
parts:

Part A (The ideal): Describes a desired goal or ideal situation;

explains how things should be.

Part B (The reality): Describes a condition that prevents the

goal, state, or value in Part A from being achieved or realized at
this time; explains how the current situation falls short of the
goal or ideal.

Part C (The consequences): Identifies the way you propose to

improve the current situation and move it closer to the goal or
ideal.
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 Example
Partie A.: L'ideal

Selon l'énoncé de mission de l'université XY, l'université cherche à fournir aux

étudiants un environnement d'apprentissage sûr et sain. Les dortoirs sont un aspect
important de cet environnement d'apprentissage, car 55% des étudiants XY vivent
dans des dortoirs du campus et la plupart de ces étudiants passent une quantité
importante de temps à travailler dans leurs dortoirs.

Cependant(However),

Partie B.:La réalité

Les étudiants vivant dans les dortoirs A B C et D ne disposent actuellement pas
d'unités de climatisation, et pendant les saisons chaudes, il est courant que la
température ambiante dépasse 80 degrésF. De nombreux étudiants déclarent qu'ils
sont incapables de faire leurs devoirs dans leurs dortoirs. D'autres rapportent des
problèmes de sommeil en raison de l'humidité et de la température. Les chambres ne
sont pas seulement insalubres, mais elles entravent la productivité des étudiants et la
réussite scolaire.
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Partie C.: Les consequences

En réponse à ce problème, notre étude propose d'étudier plusieurs options pour rendre
les dortoirs plus hospitaliers. Nous prévoyons de mener une enquête participative
globale sur les options d'achat de climatiseurs (financés par l'université; subventionnés
par les étudiants) et différents types de systèmes de climatisation. Nous envisagerons
également des moyens moins coûteux d'atténuer certains ou tous les problèmes
mentionnés ci-dessus (comme la création de dortoirs climatisés et leur équipement
avec de meilleures zones d'étude et un meilleur espace informatique).

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 OBJECTIVES

• After completing this chapter, the student should be able

to:

1. Describe the need for the development of research objectives

2. Differentiate between general and specific objectives
3. Formulate specific objectives and hypotheses

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 Definitions
General objectives: aim of the study in general terms

• Example: In a study on Traditional medicine, Livelihoods and Health care, the general
objective could be:

“to to gain a better understanding of the actual and potential contribution of traditional
medicines, the factors and processes at work in this field ”.

• Specific objectives: measurable statements on the specific questions to be answered. Unlike

the general objectives, the specific objectives are more specific and are related to the research
problem situation. They indicate the variable to be examined and measured.

Example:

(i) to identify the different actors (at village, district and national level), market chains,
important plants and habitats, quantities and prices involved in medicinal plant trade, and

(ii) to investigate main purposes of applications, how traditional medicinal knowledge and use
is distributed within and between communities (e.g. in relation to gender, experts vs. lay
people, and different sectors of society), the share of plant-based remedies compared to other
types of remedies, and the interplay between traditional medicine and biomedicine in people’s
health care strategies.

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 Formulation of the research objectives

The formulation of objectives will help us to:

• Focus the study (narrowing it down to essentials)

• Avoid collection of data that are not strictly necessary for

understanding and solving the identified problem

• Organize the study in clearly defined parts

• The explicit formulation of study objectives is an essential step in

the planning of a study. It is said that “a question well-stated is a
question half-answered”, but a question that is poorly stated or
unstated is unlikely to be answered at all.

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 How should we state our objectives?
We have to make sure that our objectives:

• Cover the different aspects of the problem and its contributing factors in a coherent
way and in a logical sequence
• Are clearly expressed in measurable terms
• Are realistic considering local conditions
• Meet the purpose of the study
• Use action verbs that are specific enough to be measured

Examples of action verbs are:

- to determine
- to compare
- to verify
- to calculate
- to describe
- to find out
- to establish

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 … How should we state our objectives?
Avoid the use of vague non-action verbs such as;
- to appreciate
- to understand
- to study
- to believe

Research objectives can be stated as:

• Questions - the objectives of this study are to answer the following
questions ….
• Positive sentence - the objectives of this study are to find out, to
establish, to determine, …
• Hypothesis - the objective of this study is to verify the following
hypothesis (examples are given below)

• Based on the type of the study problem, it might be possible to develop

explanations for the problem that can be tested. If so, we can formulate
hypotheses in addition to the other study objectives.

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 Stages in a thesis introduction

1. énoncer le sujet général et donner un peu de contexte

2. fournir une revue de la littérature liée au sujet
3. définir les termes et la portée du sujet
4. décrire la situation actuelle
5. évaluer la situation actuelle (avantages / inconvénients) et
identifier l'écart
6. identifier l'importance de la recherche proposée
7. énoncer le problème / les questions de recherche
8. énoncer les buts et / ou objectifs de la recherche
9. énoncer les hypothèses
10. décrire l'ordre des informations dans la thèse
11. décrire la méthodologie

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 Example
The effects of Fluoride on the reproduction of three native Australian plant
Species
1. Objet,
2. Temps,
3. Lieu,
4. Personne.
Sample sentence extracts (the complete Introduction is
Stage 1
17 pages long)
1.1 Fluorure dans l'environnement
Le fluor moléculaire (F2) est le plus électronégatif des
éléments et est donc hautement réactif. En raison de sa
Donnez le grande réactivité, il ne se trouve jamais sous sa forme
contexte élémentaire dans la nature. Il se combine directement à des
températures ordinaires ou élevées avec tous les autres
éléments à l'exception de l'oxygène, de l'azote et des gaz
rares plus légers (Cotton & Wilkinson, 1980).
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Stage 2 and 3 Sample sentence extracts
La principale source de fluorure élevée
dans les plantes provient de la pollution
industrielle atmosphérique. En raison de
son utilisation industrielle extensive, le
fluorure d'hydrogène est probablement le
plus grand contaminant de fluorure
atmosphérique et est généralement
considéré comme le fluorure
Fournir une revue de la phytopathogène le plus important (OMS,
littérature liée au sujet 1984; Treshow, 1965)… Cependant, les
fluorures peuvent même causer des
dommages aux espèces végétales
sensibles. à des concentrations de fluorure
extrêmement faibles (Hill, 1969),
s'accumulent en grandes quantités dans la
plante et provoquent des maladies en cas
d'ingestion par des herbivores (Weinstein,
1977).

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NB: Utilisez les publications les plus récentes
Stages 4 and 5 Sample sentence extracts
Doley (1981) a résumé plusieurs études non
publiées comparant les classements de
sensibilité de 24 espèces en fonction des
réponses de la photosynthèse et du
développement de symptômes de blessures
visibles. Cette analyse a montré que pour neuf
Décrivez la situation
espèces, les mesures de photosynthèse
actuelle; Évaluer la
indiquaient une plus grande sensibilité que ce
situation actuelle et
qui ressortait de l'évaluation visible, et pour
indiquer un écart
sept espèces, l'inverse était appliqué. Cela
indique que, s'il peut généralement être vrai
que les réponses physiologiques se produisent
à des doses plus faibles que les blessures
visibles, cela ne semble pas toujours être le
cas.
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Stage 6&7 Sample sentence extracts
Dans de nombreuses espèces végétales
australiennes, les jeunes feuilles en expansion
semblent beaucoup plus gravement
endommagées par les fluorures gazeux que les
vieilles feuilles. Cela suggère soit que les tissus
des jeunes feuilles sont plus sensibles au
fluorure que les tissus matures, ou qu'une
Énoncez le problème quantité suffisante de fluorure pénètre dans les
de la recherche tissus directement à travers la cuticule pour
perturber le développement normal des feuilles
avant que les stomates ne se soient
complètement développés et ouverts (Doley,
1986a). Cette question n'a pas été résolue en
raison de l'incapacité de localiser avec précision
les faibles concentrations de fluorure (Doley,
1986a)

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NB: Utilisez les publications les plus récentes
Stage 8 Sample sentence extracts
La connaissance des effets du fluorure
sur les processus de reproduction des
espèces au sein d'une communauté
forestière aidera à prédire les
changements potentiels au sein de la
communauté suite à une augmentation
Énoncez les buts et / ou les objectifs du fluorure atmosphérique en raison de
de la recherche sources industrielles supplémentaires,
telles que les fonderies d'aluminium.
Pour ces raisons, ce projet a été conçu
pour étudier les processus de
reproduction d'espèces sélectionnées
dans une forêt près de l'aluminerie de
Tomago.

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Stage 11 Sample sentence extracts
Des essais de germination ont été effectués sur des
graines collectées de chaque espèce le long du gradient
de fluorure pour déterminer si le fluorure a un effet sur
leur viabilité et donc sur la capacité de régénération de
chaque espèce. Une étude de densité a été utilisée pour
Énoncez les déterminer s'il y avait des différences entre le nombre
grandes lignes de la d'arbres matures et immatures, le nombre d'arbres
méthodologie produisant des follicules de graines et le nombre d'arbres
fleurissant cette saison le long d'un gradient de fluorure.
En utilisant des sols collectés à différentes distances de la
fonderie, l'étude a également étudié les différences de
germination à partir de la réserve naturelle de graines du
sol le long d'un gradient de fluorure.

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 Exercises for next class
1. Define general objectives, specific objectives and hypotheses by
giving your own examples.

2. The objectives of a study should be written after the statement

of the research problem and before the methods section. Does this
statement sound true? Justify your answer.

3. List the characteristics of research objectives.

**4.State the objectives (General and Specific of your research

proposal)

5. Write Introduction of your topic

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 Citations & Reference Page Formatting

APA System

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 What is APA?

• American Psychological Association is the most commonly

used format for manuscripts in the Social Sciences.
• APA regulates
– Style
– In text Citations
– References
– A list of all sources used

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 When is APA Style used?
• Term Papers
• Research Reports
• Empirical Studies
• Literature Reviews
• Theoretical Articles
• Methodological Articles
• Case Studies

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 Different professions use different manuals

Modern Language Association (MLA)

• English Studies
• Foreign Language and Literatures

American Psychological Association (APA)

• Social Sciences (Psychology, Sociology, Communications, etc.)
• Nursing

Chicago Style
• History
• Arts
• Sciences
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What does it mean to credit sources?
• Crediting sources gives an author or resource credit for
original information. Crediting sources in your paper
includes two parts:

• In-Text Citations: When you present information in the body of

your paper, you briefly identify its source.

• Reference List: On a separate page at the end of your paper, you

write a detailed list of the sources cited in your paper.

• The in-text citations and reference list should credit the

exact same sources.
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Why credit sources?

I. Acknowledge authors for their ideas

II. Avoid plagiarism
III. Increase credibility and transparency
IV. Join an ongoing academic discussion
V. Become a part of a professional community

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What should you credit?
• Any information that you learned from another source
including facts, statistics, opinions, theories, photographs,
and charts

• Credit these sources when you mention their information

in any way (quotations, summaries, paraphrases)

• EXCEPTION: Information that is common knowledge

• Donald Trump is the president of the United States.
• The declaration of independence was signed July 4, 1776.

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In-Text Citation Format
• An in-text citation usually includes the following information:

• Author’s last name (no first name or initial)

• Publication date (year only—even for electronic sources)
• Page number (required for quotations; optional for paraphrases)

• The rest of the information about the source appears in the reference
list.

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In-Text Citation Format
Author’s name and publication year at end of sentence
• People with bipolar disorder often have lower wages, higher
unemployment, work absenteeism, reliance on workmen’s
compensation, higher rates of divorce, lower levels of
educational attainment, higher arrest rates, and hospitalization
(Leahy, 2007).

Author’s name in the sentence immediately followed by year

• According to Leahy (2007), people with bipolar disorder often
have lower wages, higher unemployment, work absenteeism,
reliance on workmen’s compensation, higher rates of divorce,
lower levels of educational attainment, higher arrest rates, and
hospitalization.
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• A paraphrase is material from a source which has been
summarized in your own words.

• All paraphrases must be cited, using the author’s last name and
year of publication.

• No page number is required.

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 Paraphrase : Example
• If the author’s name is a part of the sentence
structure, the year follows the author’s names
in parenthesis. Quotation marks are not
included.

• Example:
Author’s last name, year of publication

Berk (2007) found that children begin to play

organized games with rules, once they reach
school-age.

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In-Text Citations with Quotations (under 40 words)
Author’s name, year, and page number immediately following
quotation
• Genres are “abstract, socially recognized ways of using
language” (Hyland, 2003, p. 21).

Author’s name in the sentence immediately followed by year

Page number immediately following quotation
• According to Hyland (2003), genres are “abstract, socially
recognized ways of using language” (p. 354).

11/9/2022 108
 Short Quote (< 40 words) Examples
• “Reading makes use of many skills at once,
taxing all aspects of our information-
processing systems” (Berk, 2007, p. 306).

Author’s last name,

year of publication, page #

• Research has shown that “mathematics

teaching in elementary school builds on and
greatly enriches children’s informal
knowledge of number concepts and counting”
(Berk, 2007, p. 307).
11/9/2022 109
 Long Quote (>40 words) Example
• Quotes over 40 words must be block
formatted.
• Quotation marks are not used. The entire
block quote is indented five spaces, and
double-spaced.
• Example:
Notice: the Berk (2007) found the following to be true:
quote is We have seen that middle childhood brings
block major advances in perspective taking, the
formatted
(indented 5 capacity to imagine what other people may be
spaces), but thinking and feeling. These changes support
quotation self-self esteem, understanding of others, and a
marks are wide variety of social skills. (p. 336)
11/9/2022
not used 110
 In-Text Citations: Multiple Authors

11/9/2022 111
 Citations
Note: with 3 or more authors, after the first text citation, only the first author is
named. The remaining authors are included as “et al.”
Table 6.1 Basic Citation Styles
Type of Citation First Citation in Text Subsequent Parenthetical Parenthetical
Citations in Text Format, First Format, Second
One Author Walker (2000) Walker (2000) Citations
(Walker, 2007) Citations
(Walker, 2007)
Two Authors Walker and Allen (2004) Walker and Allen (2004) (Walker & Allen, 2004) (Walker & Allen, 2004)

Three Authors Bradley, Ramirez, and Bradley et al. (1999) (Bradley, Ramirez, & (Bradley et al., 1999)
Soo (1999) Soo, 1999)
Four Authors Bradley, Ramirez, Soo, Bradley et al. (2006) (Bradley, Ramirez, Soo, (Bradley et al., 2006)
and Walsh (2006) & Walsh, 2006)
Five Authors Walker, Allen, Bradley, Walker et al. (2008) (Walker, Allen, Bradley, (Walker et al., 2008)
Ramiriz, and Soo Ramirez, & Soo, 2008)
(2008)
Six + Authors Wasserstein et al. Wasserstein et al. (Wasserstein et al., (Wasserstein et al.,
(2005) (2005) 2005) 2005)
Groups (abbrev.) National Institute of NIHM (2003) (National Institute of (NIMH, 2003)
Mental Health (NIMH, Mental Health [NIMH],
2003) 2003)
Groups (no abbrev.) University of Pittsburgh University of Pittsburgh (University of Pittsburgh, (University of
(2005) (2005) 2005) Pittsburgh, 2005)

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(APA Publication Manual, 2009, 6.11-6.15)
 First In-Text Citation
Subsequent In-Text Citations
One Author: First Parenthetical Citation
Subsequent Parenthetical Citations
First In-Text Citation
Subsequent In-Text Citations
Two Authors: First Parenthetical Citation
Subsequent Parenthetical Citations
First In-Text Citation
Subsequent In-Text Citations
Three to Five Authors First Parenthetical Citation
Subsequent Parenthetical Citations
First In-Text Citation
Six Authors: Subsequent In-Text Citations
First Parenthetical Citation
Subsequent Parenthetical Citations
First In-Text Citation
Group Authors with Identifiable Subsequent In-Text Citations
Abbreviations: First Parenthetical Citation
Subsequent Parenthetical Citations
First In-Text Citation
Group Authors without Subsequent In-Text Citations
Indentifiable Abbrevations: First Parenthetical Citation
Subsequent Parenthetical Citations
11/9/2022
Johnson (2008)
Johnson (2009)
(Johnson, 2007)
(Johnson, 2007)
Smith and Jones (2009)
Smith and Jones (2009)
(Smith & Jones, 2009)
(Smith & Jones, 2009)
Carlson, Rodriguez, and Inez (2004)
Carlson et al. (2004)
(Carlson, Rodriguez, & Inez, 2004)
(Carlson et al., 2004)
Walsh et al. (2000)
Walsh et al. (2000)
(Walsh et al., 2000)
(Walsh et al., 2000)
The College of St. Scholastica (CSS, 2006)
CSS (2006)
(The College of St. Scholastica [CSS], 2006)
(CSS, 2006)
University of Bamenda (2007)
University of Bamenda (2007)
(University of Bamenda, 2007)
(University of Bamenda, 2007)
113
 In-text Citations: Electronic sources
Case 1: Web page with author
Author Last Name, Author First Name. (Year). Title of Webpage. Retrieved from
http://www....Date

For example:

Lee, J. (1997). Kinship and family ties. Retrieved from

http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/maorijlg2b.html, on 20/11/2020
In-text citation (Lee, 1997)

Case 2: Web page with Corporate author

Ministry of Health (1997). Kinship and family ties. Retrieved from
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/maorijlg2b.html
In-text citation (Ministry of Health, 1997)

Case 3: Web page with no date

Lee, J. (n.d.). Kinship and family ties. Retrieved from
http://www.postcolonialweb.org/nz/maorijlg2b.html
11/9/2022
In-text citation (Lee, n.d.) 114
 Case 4: Web page with no author

India: Country specific information (2013, October 3). Retrieved from

http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1139.html

In-text citation (“India: Country specific information”, 2013).

11/9/2022 115
 ARTICLES FROM A MAGAZINE

Kantor, J. (2005, May/June). Snack attack. Psychology Today, 38(3), 20.

In-text citation (Kantor, 2005)

ARTICLES FROM A NEWSPAPER

Print version
Orsman, B., & Vaughan, G. (2005, June 21). Rat blamed for latest Telecom blackout. The
New Zealand Herald. p. A3.
In-text citation (Orsman & Vaughan, 2005)

INTERNET VERSION
Orsman, B., & Vaughan, G. (2005, June 21). Rat blamed for latest Telecom blackout. The
New Zealand Herald. Retrieved from http://www.nzherald.co.nz
In-text citation (Orsman & Vaughan, 2005)

11/9/2022 116
 PRINT REPORT with Corporate Authors

Ministry of Health. (2008). Let's get real: Real skills for people working in mental
health and addiction. Wellington, New Zealand: Author.
In text citation (Ministry of Health, 2008)

ONLINE REPORT with Corporate Authors

Ministry of Health. (2008). Let's get real: Real skills for people working in mental
health and addiction. Wellington, New Zealand: Author. Retrieved from
http://www.health.govt.nz/publication/lets-get-real-real-skills-people-working-mental-
health-and-addiction
In text citation (Ministry of Health, 2008)

NB:
- URL: Uniform Resource Locator

11/9/2022 117
 Print Book with Corporate Authors
Important elements:
 Author(s) (lastname, initials)
 Year of publication
 Title (in italics, capitalise only the first word of title and subtitle and proper nouns)
 Edition (other than 1st)
 Place of publication
 Publisher

Hall, C. M., Timothy, D. J., & Duval, D. T. (2007). Safety and security in tourism:
Relationships, management and marketing. Mumbai, India: Jaico Publishing House.
11/9/2022 118

Material Type
Chapter from book with a single
author
Chapter from an edited book
with different authors for each
chapter (anthology)
Entry in a reference work (author (Straus, 1992).
listed for each entry)
Entry in a reference work (no
author listed for each entry)
11/9/2022
Chapters and Parts of Books
In-text Citation Reference
(Clason, 2008). Clason, G. S. (2008). The tale of seven remedies for a
lean purse. The richest man in Babylon (pp. 23-25).
Charleston, SC:BN Publishing.
"The tale of seven remedies for a lean purse" is
the chapter title. APA style uses p. for a one page item
and pp. for multiple
pages.
(Berry, 2005). Berry, W. (2005). War does not maintain peace or
promote freedom. In L. I. Gerdes (Ed.), War: Opposing
viewpoints (pp. 71-79). Detroit, MI: Greenhaven Press.
Straus, M. A. (1992). Family violence. In E. F. Borgatta
& M. L. Borgatta (Eds.), Encyclopedia of sociology (Vol.
2, pp. 682-689). New York, NY: Simon & Schuster
Macmillan.
("Descendant," 2005). Descendant. (2005). Merriam-Webster's collegiate
dictionary (11th ed., p. 337). Springer, MA: Merriam-
Webster.
119
 NB: Chapter in an edited book

Important elements
 Chapter author(s) (lastname, initials)
 Year of publication
 Chapter title
 Editors (names not inverted)
 Title of book (in italics, capitalise only the first word of title and subtitle and proper nouns)
 Edition (other than 1st)
 Page numbers
 Place of publication
 Publisher

In-text citation
As discussed by Smith (2006) ... OR
Research indicates ... (Smith, 2006)

Reference list
Smith, M. L. (2006). Multiple methodology in education research. In J. L. Green, G. Camilli, &
P. B. Elmore (Eds.), Handbook of complementary methods in education research (pp. 457–475).
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

11/9/2022 120
 Electronic book chapter

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.),

Title of book (pp. xxx–xxx). https://doi.org/10.xxxx/ xxxxxx OR

Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C. Editor (Eds.),

Title of book (pp. xxx–xxx). Retrieved from http://www...

Note that two editors in book-chapter references are written as: In A. Editor & B.
Editor (Eds.)

Examples:
Lisle, D. (2010). Joyless cosmopolitans: The moral economy of ethical tourism. In
J. Best & M. Paterson (Eds.), Cultural political economy (pp. 139–157). Retrieved
from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com

Jordan, K. (2004). Gender role. In S. Loue & M. Sajatovic (Eds.), Encyclopedia of

women's health (pp. 276–278). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-306-48113-0_174

11/9/2022 121
 Journal Article
Author Last Name, Initials of Author First Name. (Year). Title of article. Name
of Publishing Journal, volume(number), pages. Doi (if article is available online)

Examples:
Ndoh Mbue I., BITONDO D, Jose Nana S. (2016). Modeling the Temporal
Variations of Municipal Solid Waste Generation for Future Projection in the Douala
Municipality, Cameroon. Journal of Multidisciplinary Engineering Science and
Technology; 3(7):5288- 5295

Ndoh Mbue I.(2016). Recreational Values and Factors that Correlate with the Use of
Coastal Beaches in Cameroon: Statistical Reasoning in Psychometric Models.
British Journal of Applied Science & Technology. 16(6): 1-12

11/9/2022 122
 Citing and referencing: Abbreviations used in referencing

ed. Edition
For the edition of a book
For example Drugs and life (4th ed.).
Ed. or Eds. Editor(s)
When a book includes editors rather than authors
For example Robinson, D. N. (Ed.). (1992).
et al. This means 'and others'
This is used in intext citations when there are 3 or more authors.
NOTE: stop only after 'al.', not after 'et'.
3 to 5 authors:
(Alberto, Jacobi, & Keating, 1993)
Use ‘Alberto et al.’ in subsequent citations.
6 or more authors:
(Szerman et al., 2005)
11/9/2022 123
 … Citing and referencing: Abbreviations used in referencing
n.d. No date
For sources that do not have a date of publication, substitute ‘n.d.’ (no date) after the name of
the author.
For example

In-text citation
(Southey, n.d.)

End-text reference
Southey, R. (n.d.). The life of Nelson. London, England: Blackie.
n.p. no page numbers
For example:
Mathews' use of...(2010, n. p.).

NOTE: Instructions for electronic sources without page numbers

If page numbers are not given use approximate page number (p. 3 of 9); or paragraph number
for short text (para. 2); or the heading given in the source for the particular section. For
example:

The ABS (2004, p. 1 of 4) defines residents as 'economic entities (persons, organisations or

enterprises) which have a closer association with the territory of Australia than with any other
territory'.
OR
Flitton (2012, para. 1) reports 'Australia is about to confront the biting reality of US military
decline'.
11/9/2022 124
 … Citing and referencing: Abbreviations used in referencing
No. Number
Use in your end text referencing when the resource incorporates a number that represents the
accession, order, catalogue, etc number
For example

Australian national accounts: National income, expenditure and product (Cat. No. 5206.0).

Dissertation Abstracts International. (University Microfilms No. 82-06, 181).

p. or pp. Page(s)
These are included in the in-text citation. If one page number is being refered to, use the
abbreviation p. for page. If there are multiple pages use pp. to represent pages.
For example

According to Gibbs (2009, pp. 34-35)

(Ezzy, 2002, p. 30)

para. Paragraph
For electronic sources that do not provide page numbers, use the paragraph number and, if
available, preceded by the abbreviation ‘para.’
For example

(Clarkson, 2001, para. 2)

Rev. ed. Revised edition
Used in end-text referencing when item is idetified as being a revised edition
For example

11/9/2022 Referencing guide (14th Rev. ed.). 125

 … Citing and referencing: Abbreviations used in referencing

Trans. Translator(s)
Name the translator or editor only in the end-text reference, immediately following the title.
In the case of translated works, cite the title in its translated form, not in its original form.
For example

In-text citation
(Genet, 1966, p. 61)

End-text reference
Genet, J. (1966). The balcony (2nd ed.). (B. Frechtman, Trans.). London, England: Faber.
Vol. or Vols. Volume(s)
Include in end text referencing if books include volume information
For example

Robinson, A. (1994). The principals of genetics and heredity. In The new encyclopedia
Britannica (Vol. 19, pp. 699-740). Chicago, IL: Encyclopedia Britannica.

11/9/2022 126
 WHEN DO YOU NEED TO CITE YOUR SOURCE?
Plagiarism is using another author’s words, ideas, or work in print or speech as if
they were your own.

An author’s original thought is protected as intellectual property under States’

copyright law, so plagiarism is essentially an act of fraud (What is plagiarism?,
2014).

To avoid plagiarism, you need to cite your source whenever you use anything you
are borrowing from someone else. This includes using:
 someone else’s exact wording,
 paraphrasing, and
 idea from another author, or even using a similar sentence structure

According to plagiarism.org, these are also considered plagiarism:

 failing to give credit when using or copying words or ideas from another author,
including neglecting quotation marks,
 giving inaccurate source information, and
 using so many words or ideas from another source that it makes up most of your
work – whether you give credit or not
11/9/2022 127
 There is a category of information that does not need to be cited, known as
common knowledge.

This is information that is easily accessible from any of several sources –

such as a phone number – or information that is so well-known that the
original source would be tough to track down – like the fact that there is
calcium in milk.

Citations used within the body of the report (in-text citations) should be in the
Full citation listed on the References page at the end of the report

11/9/2022 128
 WHAT IS THE CITATIONS FEATURE ON MICROSOFT?

The “Citations” feature on Microsoft will:

 store source information, and
 then automatically create in-text citations and
 a references page

However, some discretion is necessary to ensure that this automaticity follows the APA
guidelines.

HOW TO CREATE A SOURCES LIST

Two main kinds of lists:

 “Master list” = list of all of the sources you’ve entered, and
 Current list = a list of the sources specific to the document at hand.

11/9/2022 129
 How to Create a Reference Page and Citations in MS Word
Click on the References tab, then in the Citations & Bibliography group click
the Style: dropdown list. Select the desired bibliography style for the
document…

11/9/2022 130
 Inserting an inline citation:
A citation is an in-text parenthetical reference. Based on the document style, the citation
may include the author’s name, the year, the source’s title, and the page(s) on which the
quotation appears in the source document… or a combination of these elements. All of
these can be configured to appear correctly using Word’s Citation & Bibliography tool.

Place the insertion point at the exact location where the citation should be located,
according to the applicable style requirements

GOTO:

References > Insert Citation

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11/9/2022 132
11/9/2022 133
Conception of research problem and research outline
CONCLUSION
Demande sociétale
Enjeux sociétaux

Problème de recherche Introduction

(SUJET qui vous passionne)

Votre question de recherche

(votre PROJET) Méthodes et matériel

Résultats (ou données)

Et n’oubliez pas : Discussion

le processus de
recherche est une
route accidentée
Validation

11/9/2022 Évaluation 134

Rédiger votre mémoire ou votre thèse

 Lisez des guides de rédaction et respectez celui de

votre faculté, département.
 Profitez de toutes les occasions de rédiger.
 Rédigez au fur et à mesure.
 Discutez de votre recherche.

 Un plan général pour un mémoire ou une thèse

traditionnelle
 L’introduction
 L’état des connaissances (revue de la littérature)
 Votre question de recherche Chapitre 1
 La méthodologie, le matériel, l’expérimentation
Corps du texte
 Les données, les résultats Plusieurs
 L’analyse, l’interprétation, la validation chapitres
 La discussion (l’argumentation)
 La conclusion Dernier chapitre
 La bibliographie
11/9/2022  Les annexes, appendices… 135
 Mémoire

Cycle Master (organisation du travail de recherches en parties +

une table des matières en début du texte)

1. Master 1 (Mémoire) : 80 à 100 pages

2. Master 2 (Mémoire) : 150 à 200 pages

11/9/2022 136
 11/9/2022

Literature Review

After completing this chapter, the student should be able to:

1. Describe the reasons for reviewing available literature and other

information during the preparation of a research proposal.

2. Describe the resources that are available for carrying out such a
review.

3. Record (organize) information obtained from literature on an index

card.

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137
 La méthodologie de la revue de littérature du mémoire

 A literature review is a comprehensive and up-to-date overview of

the principal research about the topic being studied.
 An evaluation of previous research on your topic

A literature review has three key components:

1. A search of the literature available on a given subject area.
2. An evaluation of the literature, including its scope.
3. A well-structured and argued written account of the literature
that provides an overview and critique.

11/9/2022 138
 Aims of the literature review for thesis writers

11/9/2022 139
 … Aims of the literature review for thesis writers

11/9/2022 140
 1. "provides background information needed to understand
your study
2. assures your readers that you are familiar with the
What is its purpose? important research that has been carried out in your area
3. establishes your study as one link in a chain of research
that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field"
(Weissberg & Buker 1990, p.41)
What do I need to Minimum: well-established research in the field; most recent
include? relevant research.
Some POSSIBLE approaches, which can be combined (there are
others):
1. Organised around key themes or debates
2. From distant to close; from less specific to more specific
3. Generic knowledge
How do I organise it?
 conceptual framework
 understanding of specific context
 applying theory to context
11/9/2022 141
4. A methodological approach, following the different
 The REFERENCE system you follow will be that of one
What referencing system
of the leading journals in your field: check with your
should I use?
supervisor.
How you refer to authors will depend on whether you want
to focus:
on the information: use name/number in parentheses. e.g.: It


was demonstrated [2] or It was demonstrated (Williams,

How do I refer to other 2003)
authors?
or on the author: use acknowledging phrases e.g. Williams

(2003) demonstrated that… or Williams [2] demonstrated

that…

How long is a piece of string? Unless your School specifies

the length, you can use the following as a rough guide:
Around 15-30% of the whole thesis
How long should it be? OR
Your thesis is expected to be 60% your own work. If your
literature review is more than 40% of your thesis, it’s
probably too long.
11/9/2022 142
 You’re expected to show that:
1. you can recognise the relevant and
important research in your field
What am I supposed to DO in my 2. you can understand this research,
literature review? by organising and evaluating it
3. you can see where there is a gap in
the research which your study will
attempt to fill

11/9/2022 143
Use of literature review 11/9/2022

• It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.

• It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this may
assist you in refining your "statement of the problem".

• It gives you confidence why your particular research project is needed.

• To be familiar with different research methods

Sources of information
 Card catalogues of books in libraries

 Organizations (institutions)

 Published information (books, journals, etc.)

 Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.)

 Computer based literature searches such as Medline

 Opinions, beliefs of key persons
11/9/2022 144
144
 11/9/2022
Some examples of resources where information could be obtained are:

 Clinic and hospital based data from routine activity statistics

 Local surveys, annual reports

 Scientific conferences

 Statistics issued at region and district levels

 Articles from national and international Peer Reviewed journals

 Internet

 Documentation, reports, and raw data from the Ministry of Health, Central
Statistical, Offices, Nongovernmental organizations, etc.

11/9/2022 145
145
 11/9/2022

• In conclusion, while reviewing a literature, all what is known about the

study topic should be summarized with the relevant references. This review
should answer

 How much is known?

 What is not known?
 What should be done based on what is lacking?

• Overall, the literature review should be adequate, relevant and critical. In

addition to this, appropriate referencing procedures should always be
followed in research proposals as well as in research reports.

• While reviewing a literature give emphasis to both positive and negative

findings and avoid any distortion of information to suit your own study
objectives.

• Finally, after an exhaustive literature review, summarize the findings and

write a coherent discussion by indicating the research gap which supports
the undertaking of your study.

11/9/2022 146
146
 11/9/2022

Exercises

For your research topic, carryout thorough literature review,

citing a minimum of 15 references, atleast 10 should be from
Peer Reviewed journals.

Deadline: next class

Thank you

11/9/2022 147
147
 Research Methods

The methodology you followed for the collection of your data should be described in detail
The methodology section should include a description of:
 the study type;
 major study themes or variables (a more detailed list of variables on which data
was collected may be annexed);
 the study population(s), sampling method(s) and the size of the sample(s);
 data-collection techniques used for the different study populations;
 how the data was collected and by whom;
 procedures used for data analysis, including statistical tests (if applicable).

11/9/2022 148
 … Research Methods

Research methods must:

- outline the design and present a timeline,
- describe participant selection and recruitment,
- explain the procedures for assignment to condition and methods for
experimental control,
- describe the independent variable, the intervention,
- present the dependent variables or measures,
- discuss data collection and management procedures,
- provide the data analysis strategy, including a power analysis, if appropriate,
and
- address attrition and missing data.
11/9/2022 149
 … Research Methods

• This section explains “how” you are going to conduct your

research. You should demonstrate that you are fully aware of
the alternative research methods and explain how your
proposed methodology is more advantageous than the others in
attaining your stated objectives.

• For quantitative research, you should include:

(i) the research design, e.g. a questionnaire study or a laboratory

experiment

(ii) the subjects or data source, e.g. who will participate in the data
collection, the sample size and sampling methodology

11/9/2022 150
3.1. Cadre de l’étude
3.1.1. Contexte et Historique
3.1.2. Location
3.1.3. Mission and Vision of Enterprise
3.1.4. Organisation Administrative
3.1.5. Les produits fabriqués
3.1.5. Environment(politique, Competitive, Economique,Sociale)

3.2. Méthodologie de la Recherche

3.2.1. The Research Approach
11/9/2022 151
 … The Research Approach
The approach (Fig 7) reflects the logical flow from the preliminary
activities that initiated the study and the development of the
preliminary conceptual model through the data collection and
analysis, the refinement of the conceptual model, and the articulation
of a set of working hypotheses.

11/9/2022 152
 3.2.2. Choix et Justification des Méthodes et Outils

Objectifs spécifiques Taches à réaliser Méthodes Outils Justification

Objective 1

Objective 2

Objective 3

………….

11/9/2022 153
3.2.3. Research Design

Polit and Hungler (1999) describe research design as a blueprint, or

outline, for conducting the study in such a way that maximum control
will be exercised over factors that could interfere with the validity of
the research results.

This cross sectional research used both qualitative and quantitative

approaches. Qualitative approach was chosen because:

We need qualitative research because,

 The hypotheses has to be well formulated,
 A deeper understanding of the phenomena is needed, and
 We need to interpret organizational – specific results
accurately.

11/9/2022 154
On the other hand, quantitative research uses surveys and
standardized research instruments to answer research questions with a
statistical level of accuracy. It was employed in this research because
we needed to use statistics to:
 Generalize findings,
 Reduce and restructure some of the complex questions to a
limited number of variables,
 Establish relationship between some variables, and
 Establish cause and effect in highly controlled circumstances

11/9/2022 155
3.2.4. Target Population and Size

3.2.5. Data Collection

 Emphasise the period of your research/data collection
 State both primary and secondary data sources :
For Primary data include:
 Interviews,
 Checklists,
 Observations
 Structured questionnaire

For Secondary data:

 Documentary analysis and Desktop review. These included bank
annual reports, monthly financial statements, related peer review
publications
11/9/2022 156
3.2.6. Operationalization of the variables
It is necessary to set down exact definitions of each variable inorder
to increase the quality of the results, and improve the robustness of
the design. Thus, the variables should be defined so that they can be
measured or expressed quantitatively and qualitatively
Example of operationalising variables
Variables Indicators
- Articulation of and commitment to institutional mission
Social Mission - Efforts to measure mission fulfillment
- Geographic Coverage and Growth
Outreach - Demographic and Poverty Information on members
- Efforts to Reach Underserved Populations
- Efforts to Promote Member Satisfaction
Benefits to members - Products and Services
- Feedback Mechanisms
Association with the Community - Social Responsibility
- Sustainable Growth
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 Conceptual Model
Variables

–Sex
Individual –Income
characteristics –Education level
–Occupation

Body Mass Variables

Index

Environment
Individual
Behaviour
Variables

–Physical environment –Eating behavior: daily calorie intake

–Social environment –Exercising behavior: level of exercise
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 Operational Definitions of Variables
• Before we directly go to the operational definition of variables it would be
important to discuss about the nature of variables first.

• Definition: A variable is a characteristic of a person, object, or phenomenon

that can take on different values.
• A simple example of a variable is a person's age. The variable can take on
different values, such as, 20 years old, 30 years old, and so on. Other examples
of variables are:
a) weight in kilograms
b) height in centimeters
c) monthly income
d) marital status (single, married, divorced and widowed)
e) job satisfaction index (1 to 5)
f) occupation (civil servant, farmer, student, et.)
g) disease condition (presence or absence of a disease)

• The first three variables (a to c) are numerical variables because they are
expressed in numbers (metric data). Since the values of the remaining three
variables (d to g) are expressed in categories, we call them categorical
variables.
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 … Types of Variables
Categorical variables
variables expressed in categories,
For example, the variable gender has two distinct categories,
male and female. Other examples are:

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 …Categorical variables
• Categorical variables can either be ordinal or nominal.
1. Ordinal variables. These are grouped variables that are ordered or ranked in
increasing or decreasing order:

Disability: 1. no disability,
2. partial disability,
3. serious or
4. total disability
Income 1. High income (above $300 per month);
2. Middle income ($100-$300 per month); and
3. Low income (less than $100 per month).

Seriousness of a 1. severe,
disease: 2. moderate,
3. mild
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 …Categorical variables

2. Nominal variables. The groups in these variables do not

have an order or ranking in them.

For example:

Sex: male, female

Main food crops: maize, millet, rice, etc.

Religion: Christian, Moslem, Hindu, Buddhism, etc.

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 Scale measures/Variables

• Have intrinsic numeric meaning that allow typical

mathematical manipulations
• Examples:
 Age,
 Total score in exams,
 Final score in an exam, etc
• NOTE: a score of 16 in an exam is twice as much as 8; 4 is
half as much as 8,,,,

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 Dependent and independent variables

• The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem

under study is called the DEPENDENT variable.
• The variables that are used to describe or measure the factors that
are assumed to cause or at least to influence the problem are
called the INDEPENDENT variables.

• For example, in a study of the relationship between smoking and

lung cancer, ‘suffering from lung cancer’ (with the values yes,
no) would be the dependent variable and ‘smoking’ (varying
from not smoking to smoking more than three packets a day) the
independent variable.

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 … Dependent and independent variables
• Whether a variable is dependent or independent is determined by
the statement of the problem and the objectives of the study

• Note that if a researcher investigates why people smoke,

‘smoking’ is the dependent variable, and ‘pressure from peers to
smoke’ could be an independent variable. In the lung cancer
study ‘ smoking’ was the independent variable.

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3.2.7. Ethical Consideration
 The data gathered from different medium should be cited properly
with appropriate reference style.
 The data collected for analysis should be kept confidential.
Confidentiality protects participants in a study so that their
individual identities cannot be linked to the information that they
provide and will not be publicly divulged. To do so, no
respondent should be identified by name during and after data
collection.

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3.2.8. Data Analysis

 State the software(s) used for data analyses , e.g., The Statistical
Package for Social Sciences (SPSS 20), Matlab version six, R,
ArcView 3.2a, ArcGIS 10.2, Excel (2010 version), etc
 State the way you present your results, e.g., frequency tables,
graphs, standard deviations, and mean differences
 State the statistic used, e.g., correlation analyses and the Chi square
statistic, PCA, Logistic regression. In this case, state the
significance level used e.g., p <.05.

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 Results (Not for Research Proposal)

– The results are actual statements of observations, including statistics,

tables and graphs.
– Indicate information on range of variation.
– Mention negative results as well as positive. Do not interpret results -
save that for the discussion.
– Lay out the case as for a jury. Present sufficient details so that others
can draw their own inferences and construct their own explanations.
– Use S.I. units (m, s, kg, W, etc.) throughout the thesis.
• Break up your results into logical segments by using subheadings

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 Discussions

The most difficult but important section of your work

a. Compare and evaluate your results in terms of the theorists and/or related sources
you discussed in the first part of the paper;
b. Explain why you think you got the results you did
c. Discuss what you consider to be the most important aspects or the implications of
your results,
d. Discuss what you might do differently if you could do the project over; what did
you learn?
e. Discuss ideas for future projects suggested by your work.
Discuss results similar to those obtained by previous researchers,
f. Discuss anything else you think is relevant.

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 …Discussion

• The Discussion should deal with the interpretation of the

results and not recapitulate them.
• I encourage you to write your Discussion in a structured way,
as follows:
a) statement of principal findings;
b) strengths and weaknesses of the study;
c) strengths and weaknesses in relation to other studies;
d) discussion of important differences in results;
e) meaning of the study;
f) unanswered questions and future research.

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 …Discussion
• Should start with a few sentences that summarize the most important results.
The discussion section should be a brief essay in itself, answering the following
questions and caveats:,

Should answer the following questions:

• What are the major patterns in the observations? (Refer to spatial and temporal
variations.)
• What are the relationships, trends and generalizations among the results?
• What are the exceptions to these patterns or generalizations?
• What are the likely causes (mechanisms) underlying these patterns resulting
predictions?
• Is there agreement or disagreement with previous work?
• Interpret results in terms of background laid out in the introduction - what is the
relationship of the present results to the original question?
• What is the implication of the present results for other unanswered questions in
earth sciences, ecology, environmental policy, etc....? Multiple hypotheses:
There are usually several possible explanations for results.
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 Conclusions, Recommendations
a). Conclusion
• The conclusion should provide a brief summarry of the key findings, potential
implications and the way forward
• If you met the reader at a meeting six months from now, what do you want them to
remember about your paper?
• Refer back to problem posed, and describe the conclusions that you reached from
carrying out this investigation, summarize new observations, new interpretations,
and new insights that have resulted from the present work.
• Include the broader implications of your results.
Do not repeat word for word the abstract, introduction or discussion.

b). Recommendations
• Remedial action to solve the problem.
• Further research to fill in gaps in our understanding.
• Directions for future investigations on this or related topics.
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What should be in the conclusion?
Conclusions: concise statements about your main findings, related to your
aims/objectives/hypothesis.
Contributions to your field of research, stating/restating the significance of what you
have discovered. Can include limitations.
Future research: where to go from here (can include where NOT to go, if your research
demonstrated that a particular approach or avenue was not useful).

What should NOT be in the conclusion?

Discussion. This should be in the Discussion section. If your thesis combines the two, use sub-
headings to distinguish between them.
Any points that have not been mentioned in the Discussion section: your conclusions should
be based only on points already raised.
References: it is quite unusual to include references in this section, as it is mainly a review of
what has already been said.
Unnecessary information: your conclusion should be concise
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 What am I trying to say in my conclusion?
What you are trying to say is:
 What did I learn?
 What am I proudest of?
 What was the hardest part?
 How did I solve the difficulty?

Or, in other words:

 To what extent you achieved your aims/objectives OR not: if not, why not?
 How important and significant your results are, as well as any limitations of
your research (e.g. small sample size; other variables)
 Where the research should go from here: what are some interesting further
areas to be explored based on what you have discovered or proven?

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 WORK PLAN AND BUDGET
(Échéanciers)
Work Plan
• A WORK PLAN is a schedule, chart or graph that summarizes the different
components of a research project and how they will be implemented in a
coherent way within a specific timespan.

• It may include:
• The tasks to be performed;
• When and where the tasks will be performed; and
• Who will perform the tasks and the time each person will spend on them.

• Work plan could be presented in different forms, such as work schedule

and GANTT chart, but we will demonstrate the GANTT chart here.

• A GANTT chart is a planning tool that depicts graphically the order in

which various tasks must be completed and the duration of each activity.
The length of each task is shown by a bar that extends over the number of
days, weeks or months the task is expected to take.
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 Example of a GANTT Chart

No. Activity Responsibility Month1

Wk1 Wk2 Wk3 Wk4

1 Prepare proposal Self & supervisor

2 Proposal defense self

2 Preparation of study tool Self & supervisor

3 Data collocation Self

4 Data entry and cleaning Self & supervisor

5 Data analysis and write up Self & supervisor …. …. …. ….

… …. …. …. …. …. ….

… …. …. …. …. …. ….

… …. …. …. …. …. ….

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 Budget

Why do we need to design a budget?

• A detailed budget will help you to identify which resources
are already locally available and which additional resources
may be required.

• The process of budget design will encourage you to consider

aspects of the work plan you have not thought about before
and will serve as a useful reminder of activities planned, as
your research gets underway.

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 Budget Category Unit cost Multiplying factor Total
Cost
(FCFA)
1 Personnel Daily Wage (including per diem) Number of staff days (Number of staff
x Number of working days)
Principal investigator … …
Data analyst … …
… … … …
… … … …
… Personnel TOTAL …
2 Transport Cost per km T Number of km
… … … …
… … … …
… … … …
Transport TOTAL …
3. Supplies Cost per Item Number
Questionnaire … … …
duplication
Flip chart paper … … …
Pen … … …
Pencil … … …
Eraser … …
Sharper … …
… … … …
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… … … … 178
Supplies TOTAL …
 Bibliography

A reference list is the detailed list of references that are cited in

your work. A bibliography is a detailed list of references cited in
your work, plus the background readings or other material that you
may have read, but not actually cited.

You will have many source for your thesis proposal; your thesis
proposal is incomplete and will be rejected without a list of
references and citations throughout the work. Anything that is not
your own must be cited, which includes text, data, and ideas. When
citing an idea or data, back it up with your own data.
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 Structure of Mémoire: Department of HSSI, FGI

• Develop an understanding about different sampling

methods

• Distinguish between probability & non probability sampling

• Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each

sampling methods

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 How to create a table of contents in Microsoft Word
Step 1.
Start Word, and then open your document.

open your document in Microsoft Word 2010 and click on the Home tab.

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Step 3:
Follow Step 2 to set all of the remaining headings. Once you have set all of your headings,
click on the References tab at the top of the screen.

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Step 4:
Place your cursor at the beginning of the document. This is the place where the table of
contents will be inserted. Click on the Table of Contents icon and select Automatic Table 1.

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Step 5:
Notice that a table of contents has been inserted at the head of your document

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Step 6:
If you would like the table of contents to appear on a separate page, place your cursor before
the first heading and click Page Break within the Insert tab, shown below.

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Step 7:
To update the table of contents, simply click anywhere on the table. Click the Update Table
tab that appears at the top of the table, as shown in the screenshot below.

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 Sampling Methods

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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• Develop an understanding about different sampling

methods

• Distinguish between probability & non probability sampling

• Discuss the relative advantages & disadvantages of each

sampling methods

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 Populations & Samples

Population: the complete set of individuals, objects or scores of

interest.
Often too large to sample in its entirety
It may be real or hypothetical (e.g. the results from an
experiment repeated ad infinitum)

Sample: A subset of the population.

A sample may be classified as random (each member has
equal chance of being selected from a population) or
convenience (what’s available).
Random selection attempts to ensure the sample is
representative of the population.

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9-Nov-22 189
 Sample vs. Population

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Population Sample
19
1 11/9/2022
SAMPLING BREAKDOWN 191
 SAMPLING…….

STUDY POPULATION

SAMPLE

TARGET POPULATION

19 11/9/2022 192
2
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 Process
• The sampling process comprises several stages:
– Defining the population of concern
– Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible
to measure
– Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events
from the frame
– Determining the sample size
– Implementing the sampling plan
– Sampling and data collecting
– Reviewing the sampling process

195 11/9/2022 195

 Types of Samples
• Probability (Random) Samples
• Simple random sample
– Systematic random sample
– Stratified random sample
– Multistage sample
– Multiphase sample
– Cluster sample
• Non-Probability Samples
– Convenience sample
– Purposive sample
– Quota

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 Non Probability sampling

(Non-random sample): This is sample chosen according to the

person's own judgment so result cannot be generalized to the whole
population.

There are three types of non probability sampling:

A- convenience sampling: It uses participants who are easily

accessible to the researcher and who meet the criteria of the study.

B- Snowball sampling: It is a particular type of convenience

sampling in which the researcher net works with a small sample of
accessible participants and use them to assist in identifying other
participants with the specific trait.
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C- Quota sampling: In this case the population are divided into strata
then the researcher determines which strata are to be studied, then
computed number of participants needed for each strata.
Once quota for each strata is determined, the subjects are solicited via
a convenience sampling method.

D- Purposive/theoretical/judgemental sampling: In this type, the

researcher based on knowledge and expertise of the subject, selects or
hand picks the elements of the study. The chosen element are thought
to best represent the phenomena being studied.

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 PROBABILITY SAMPLING

• A probability sampling scheme is one in which every unit in

the population has a chance (greater than zero) of being
selected in the sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined.

• . When every element in the population does have the same

probability of selection, this is known as an 'equal probability
of selection' (EPS) design. Such designs are also referred to as
'self-weighting' because all sampled units are given the same
weight.

199 11/9/2022 199

 … Probability sampling
(Random sample): It is a sample which is chosen so that every member of the
population is equally likely to be a member of the sample.

•A- Simple random sample: Applicable when population is small, homogeneous & readily
available. All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability. Each element of the frame
thus has an equal probability of selection. It provides for greatest number of possible samples.
This is done by assigning a number to each unit in the sampling frame. A table of random
number or lottery system is used to determine which units are to be selected.

B- Stratified random sample: In this case, we start by dividing the population into
different strata according to their characteristics (e.g. male and female, different age
groups, rural and urban). Then from each of those strata, we choose a random sample
from each stratum, the final sample is the total of the samples from different strata.
the best survey results occur when elements within strata are internally
homogeneous

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C- Cluster sampling: In this case the population first divided in to clusters or
groups as sample units rather than individuals and all the elements within the
chosen cluster are examined (e.g. house holds, schools) and the sample is selected
from these clusters by simple random method. the best results occur when
elements within clusters are internally heterogeneous

D-Multistage sampling: in this case the sample is taken in a series of stages.

First, start by big clusters (e.g. zones) from this draw a sample, each zone is
then divided into cities and villages, and from each of these you can choose a
sample, from each city choose a district or house by random method, and then
randomly draw a sample of families or individuals.

E- Systematic sampling: Relies on arranging the target population according to

some ordering scheme and then selecting elements at regular interval through the
ordered list. In this case we choose every Nth individual e.g. every 5th, 10th, etc.,
the first one to be included should be randomly selected.

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Answers to last tutorials:

Define the following

Veracity
Obligation to tell the truth

Engineering research:
Is research designed to generate knowledge to guide Engineering practice and to improve the
health and quality of life of Engineers’ clients.

Sampling
Is the process of selecting a portion of the population to represent the entire population.

Research Design.
a plan for gathering data for answering specific research questions. the framework used to
conduct the research.

Research proposals:
are documents describing what researchers propose to study, prepared before a project has
commenced. Are Clear, concise, well-organized document that spells out what it is you
propose to do and why you are proposing to do it.
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In order to avoid plagiarism in scientific reporting, Researchers must credit all sources
used. What to you understand by:
a) Plagiarism
b) Crediting a source
c) List any two ways you can employ to avoid plagiarism in your end of training
memoir.

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Rearrange the paragraphs so that they make more sense and follow the logical order
of a Conclusion

An advantage of this algorithm is that the computations of the bead’s movement can be
done in parallel, provided there is a synchronisation barrier to update their new
1
positions. This can take advantage of some parallel computers, for example mapping
each bead to a (virtual) processor.
The Steiner tree has been shown to be an optimisation problem. Neural network has
been successfully applied to solve many optimisation problems, for example TSP. Some
of these techniques have been discussed. It is possible that these techniques can also be 3
applied to solve the SMT if a good mapping of the problem to an appropriate network
architecture is found. This could be an interesting area for research in the future.
The Steiner minimal tree problem has been studied in the above discussion. A node-
splitting algorithm that finds a good heuristic solution to the problem has been
2
developed. Comparison shows that the node-splitting method is comparable to other
heuristic methods. In some cases, it is better, for instance, than Korhonen’s algorithm.

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The sentences in Column 1 are indicative of the writing of a combined Discussion / Conclusions chapter.
Key features of a Discussion / Conclusion chapter are provided in Column 2. Match each of the sentences
in Column 1 with the key features of a discussion in Column 2

B. If the soils of the Tomago sandbeds retain a high percentage of the increased fluoride ... it would then
Interprets the
remain in the soil for many years. This could severely alter the soil biology... It may also lead to changes
data
in the ... The potential for regeneration of the native vegetation communities would [then] depend on...

C. The potential for regeneration of native vegetation communities ...would depend on the ability of the
Evaluates
soil to maintain their growth. If the soils are altered permanently ... a changed plant community may
importance
occur after the closure of the smelter... there could be a reduction in species richness and some species
of the results
may become locally extinct.
D. The cones in the high fluoride sites have shown a slight decrease in length over the last four years.
Interprets the
This trend may continue ...given increases in gaseous and particulate fluoride emissions from the new and
data
extended smelter potlines.
Raises
E. Further research looking at the impact of both individual and combined disturbances may help
questions for
determine whether the combined effects of fluoride with other disturbances are cumulative or synergistic.
future
This may help in the management of areas with multiple disturbances such as Tomago.
directions
F. The results for the forest community indicate that sensitive native species such as long lived Banksia Explains
aemula and Bossiaea hyterophylla will be removed from the plant community close to the smelter. This what the
will reduce the resources they provide to the existing ecosystem... results mean
G. The Banksia aemula plants near the smelter have a larger concentration of foliar fluoride than plants Points out
growing further away. Whether this is affecting the physiological and biochemical processes of the plant limitations of
(which in turn may indirectly affect the reproductive potential of the plants) or the increased fluoride in your
the atmosphere is directly affecting the reproductive mechanisms is difficult to ascertain from this study. research
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 -Identify which of the following research could be Quantitative Research and which
are Qualitative Research.

Bournes and Mitchell (2002) undertook an in-depth study to describe the experience of
waiting in a critical care waiting room.
The Answer ………………… Qualitative Research
…………………………………………………….

Hupcey (2000) undertook a study that involved the development of a model explaining the
psychosocial needs of patients in the intensive care unit. Feeling safe was the overwhelming
need of patients in the intensive care unit.
The Answer …………………… Quantitative Research
………………………………………………………

McDonald, Freeland, Thomas, and Moore (2001) conducted a study to determine the
effectiveness of a preoperative pain management intervention for relieving pain among elders
undergoing surgery.
The Answer …………………… Quantitative Research
……………………………………………………

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Sadala and Mendes (2000) explored the experiences of 18 nurses who cared for patients who
had been pronounced brain dead but kept alive to serve as organ donors.
The Answer …………… Qualitative Research.

-Reynolds and Neidig (2002) studied the incidence and severity of nausea accompanying
combinative antiretroviral therapies among HIV infected patients, and explored patterns of
nausea in relation to patient characteristics.
The Answer …………………… Quantitative Research

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 Matching
No A No B
1 Person undertaking the study 1 Directional hypothesis
2 System of organizing concepts 2 dependent Variable
3 Relationship between a single independent variables and a single dependant 3 Study participant
variable
4 Information gathered 4 Concepts
5 variables that the researcher creates. 5 Deductive reasoning
6 It is a process by which specifics are inferred from general principles. 6 Qualitative Research
7 Build theories 7 Theory
8 Person contributing information 8 active variables
9 Specifies not only the existence but the expected direction of the relationship 9 Simple hypothesis
10 That which is being investigated 10 Inductive reasoning
11 Quantitative Research
12 Data
13 Investigator
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

13 7 9 12 8 5 6 3 1 4
The answer
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 True or false
No Statement
1 Research is not systematic inquiry that uses disciplined methods to answer questions or F
solve problems. T
2 A problem statement is an expression of dilemma or disturbing situation that needs
investigation . T
3 Closed ended questions allow participants to respond to question in their own words
F
4 Interview after the possibility of complete anonymity.
5 When an attribute is extremely varied in the group under investigation, the group is said to F
be heterogeneous T
6 in non experimental research, researchers make observations of existing situations and T
characteristics without intervening.
7 Research questions direct rewording of statements of purpose interrogatively rather T
than declaratively.
T
8 Background of the problem need to provide a brief, focused review of the literature
F
9 The proposal is comprehensible to only expert in the field
10 The most common scaling technique is the visual analog scale. F
11 Sample in Qualitative Research is large sample. F
12 Life histories are narrative self disclosures about individual life experiences T
13 Researcher used standardized instruments in Qualitative Research. F
14 Open ended questions are more difficult to construct F
15 Qualitative Research is test theories F
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List and explain four characteristics of a scientific research method

What is the first step of the scientific method?

a. draw conclusions
b. analyze the data
c. collect data
d. conceptualize a problem

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