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GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH LETTERS, VOL. 37, L13402, doi:10.1029/2010GL043584, 2010
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Global peatland dynamics since the Last Glacial Maximum
Zicheng Yu,1 Julie Loisel,1 Daniel P. Brosseau,1 David W. Beilman,2
and Stephanie J. Hunt1
Received 11 April 2010; revised 26 May 2010; accepted 7 June 2010; published 9 July 2010.
[1] Here we present a new data synthesis of global peatland
ages, area changes, and carbon (C) pool changes since the
Last Glacial Maximum, along with a new peatland map and
total C pool estimates. The data show different controls of
peatland expansion and C accumulation in different regions.
We estimate that northern peatlands have accumulated
547 (473–621) GtC, showing maximum accumulation in
the early Holocene in response to high summer insolation
and strong summer – winter climate seasonality. Tropical
peatlands have accumulated 50 (44–55) GtC, with rapid
rates about 8000–4000 years ago affected by a high and
more stable sea level, a strong summer monsoon, and
before the intensification of El Niño. Southern peatlands,
mostly in Patagonia, South America, have accumulated
15 (13–18) GtC, with rapid accumulation during the
Antarctic Thermal Maximum in the late glacial, and during
the mid‐Holocene thermal maximum. This is the first
comparison of peatland dynamics among these global
regions. Our analysis shows that a diversity of drivers at
different times have significantly impacted the global C
cycle, through the contribution of peatlands to atmospheric
CH 4 budgets and the history of peatland CO 2 exchange
with the atmosphere. Citation: Yu, Z., J. Loisel, D. P. Brosseau,
D. W. Beilman, and S. J. Hunt (2010), Global peatland dynamics
since the Last Glacial Maximum, Geophys. Res. Lett., 37, L13402,
doi:10.1029/2010GL043584.
1. Introduction
[2] Peatlands worldwide, in particular northern (boreal
and subarctic) peatlands, have been shown to be important
players in the global carbon (C) cycle in the recent past. Their
possible trajectories in a changing climate have become a
focus of global C cycle research, and a number of modeling
groups have started to incorporate peatlands into global
models [Frolking et al., 2009; Kleinen et al., 2010]. However,
we still lack a fundamental understanding of broad‐scale
controls over peatland expansion and C accumulation in
different regions. Also, basic estimates of the size of the
peat C pool are variable. For example, for northern peatlands,
by far the best‐studied region, estimates range from 270 to
450 GtC [Gorham, 1991; Clymo et al., 1998; Turunen et al.,
2002]. Further, although progress has been made for wet-
lands in general [Matthews and Fung, 1987] and for northern
peatlands [MacDonald et al., 2006], an ecosystem‐based
1
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Lehigh
University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA.
2
Department of Geography, University of Hawai’i at Mānoa,
Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.
Copyright 2010 by the American Geophysical Union.
0094‐8276/10/2010GL043584
L13402
digital map of global peatland regions is still lacking at a
scale useful for modeling and synthesis. The need for syn-
thesized data at a global scale, and the need for a better
understanding of processes and controls, currently limit
efforts to incorporate peatlands into global models to better
constrain potential carbon‐cycle – climate interactions and
feedbacks [Joos et al., 2004; Friedlingstein et al., 2006].
[3] Here we present the first results of our synthesis of
global peatland inception age and C accumulation data, and
we discuss the broad‐scale controls of peatland dynamics in
different regions since the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM).
The objectives of this paper are (1) to present a new global‐
scale map of major peatland regions; (2) to present the first
global peat‐based database of peatland initiation and area
change since the LGM; (3) to document C accumulation var-
iations and associated broad‐scale controls in different regions
(northern, tropical and southern); and (4) to discuss the roles
and implications of peatlands for the global C cycle. The
presented map and database will provide a valuable founda-
tion for global C cycle modeling and synthesis activities.
2. Data Sources and Data Analysis
[4] Data sources for the peatland map (Figure 1) were
based on the most up‐to‐date information available from
individual countries or regions in major peatland regions
of the world (see Table S1 of Text S1 in the auxiliary
material).3 Some of these peatland data sets are available
in shapefile or raster digital formats, including those from
Canada, Tasmania and part of Russia. For other regions, we
mapped peatlands either as histosols and/or gleysols layers
as in the Harmonized World Soil Database V1.1 or from
digitized paper sources. The peatland areas we used in the
peat C pool calculations were derived from the literature
(see Table 1 and the auxiliary material), rather than directly
from the new peatland map presented. This is necessary
because the peatland map shows peatland‐abundant regions
where peatlands cover at least 5% of the landmass, but
accurate true peatland coverage and distribution is not avail-
able for many mapped regions.
[5] The radiocarbon‐dated (14C) ages of basal peat, indi-
cating the onset of peat‐accumulating conditions, were
taken from original published sources for tropical peatlands
and southern peatlands (see Table S2 of Text S1) and from
a previous synthesis for northern peatlands (Figure 2)
[MacDonald et al., 2006]. All 14C dates were calibrated to
calendar years with the IntCal04 dataset [Reimer et al.,
2004]. The frequency histograms were constructed by add-
ing the number of dates within 2‐s range (95% probability)
of calibrated ages at 10‐year intervals. The frequencies were
3
Auxiliary materials are available in the HTML. doi:10.1029/
2010GL043584.
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L13402 YU ET AL.: GLOBAL PEATLANDS SINCE THE LGM L13402

Figure 1. Global map of peatland regions and peatland study sites with basal peat ages (small dots; colors showing the
ages of peatland initiation: black <8 ka, red 8‐12 ka, and blue >12 ka) and detailed carbon accumulation rates (large open
triangles). The peatland map was compiled based on the most up‐to‐date and detailed information available from individual
countries and regions (see Text S1 for detailed sources). Three main peatland regions are northern peatlands, tropical
peatlands and southern peatlands, delineated at 30° N/S latitudes. Two insets show details of peatland areas and study sites
in Southeast Asia and Patagonia.

then added to calculate cumulative percentages. We inter- age frequency and peatland total area at the present, and
pret the frequency of basal dates as reflecting changes in C accumulation rates for each 1000‐year bin. These C‐pool
peatland area over time, under the assumption that individual intervals were added to generate cumulative C pools. The
peatlands expanded linearly in their area since their initial C pool ranges were estimated on the basis of standard
formation. Detailed lateral expansion studies of individual errors of the mean C accumulation rates, which represent a
peatlands, and especially a better process‐level understanding minimum estimate of error, as other uncertainties in basal
of peatland expansion, would help us refine the temporal ages, possible non‐linear peatland expansion, and peatland
patterns of regional peatland area increase [Korhola et al., areas are not included.
2010]. For example, the higher rates of peatland initiation
and peat carbon accumulation we observe during the early 3. Results
Holocene [Yu et al., 2009] would likely have also caused
much higher rate of peatland area expansion of individual [8] The peatland initiation patterns for northern peatlands
peatlands at that time, but it is clear that more basin‐scale show a peak in the early Holocene around 11‐9 ka (1 ka =
studies are needed. 1000 cal year BP) (Figure 2b) [MacDonald et al., 2006]
[6] To estimate regional averages of apparent C accu- (n = 1516). The C accumulation rates in many northern
mulation rates, we calculated time‐weighted rates for each peatlands also show a peak in the early Holocene (Figure 2c),
available site in 1000‐year bins, either from raw data includ- with a rate of about 25 g C m−2 yr−1. The overall time‐
ing multiple calibrated ages and bulk density measurements/ weighted average rate is 18.6 g C m−2 yr−1 during the
estimates or from published C accumulation rates. We then Holocene based on 33 sites from northern peatlands [Yu et al.,
averaged the rates in each 1000‐year bin for each region 2009].
(northern, tropical and southern peatlands). These recon-
structed rates of peat C accumulation from peat cores are
apparent rates in that they have been affected by total deep Table 1. Summary Results From Northern, Tropical and Southern
C decomposition since peat formation, often spanning Peatlandsa
thousands of years, and therefore underestimate by some
degree the true rate of past C uptake (but see Z. C. Yu Area C Pool (GtC) Holocene C Rate
(km2) (Range) (gC m−2 yr−1)
(Holocene carbon flux histories of the world’s peatlands:
Global carbon‐cycle implications, submitted to Holocene, Northern peatlands 4,000,000 547 (473–621) 18.6
2010)). Tropical peatlands 368,500 50 (44–55) 12.8
Southern peatlands 45,000 15 (13–18) 22.0
[7] Changes in peat C pools at 1000‐year intervals in (Patagonia)
different regions were calculated as the product of the
a
peatland area at that time, as inferred from cumulative basal References for peatland area data are in Text S1, available online.

2 of 5

L13402 YU ET AL.: GLOBAL PEATLANDS SINCE THE LGM
Figure 2. Global peatland records since the Last Glacial
Maximum. (a) Summer insolation in the Northern Hemi-
sphere (60 °N; red curve) and in the Southern Hemisphere
(50 °S; black curve). Peat basal ages plotted as calibrated
age frequency (bars) and cumulative percentage (smooth
curve) for (b) northern peatlands (n = 1516 [MacDonald
et al., 2006]) and West Siberia (n = 226 [Smith et al.,
2004]); (d) all tropical peatlands (n = 116) and Southeast
Asia (n = 49); and (f) southern peatlands (n = 68) and
southern South America (Patagonia; n = 54). Average peat
carbon accumulation rates (g C m−2 yr−1) at 1000‐year bins
(showing means of the bins from various sites in a region
and standard errors of the means) for (c) northern peatlands
(n = 33 [Yu et al., 2009]); (e) all tropical peatlands from
Southeast Asia, South America and Africa (n = 26) and
Southeast Asia (n = 9); and (g) southern South America
(Patagonia; n = 17). See Text S1 for the sources and refer-
ences of peatland data.
[9] Tropical peatlands started to form before 20 ka, much
earlier than northern peatlands. A peak in tropical peatland
initiation occurred at 8‐4 ka, especially in Southeast Asia,
but with a gap at 5.5 ka (Figure 2d), and then initiation
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L13402
frequency decreased until the present. The peat C accumu-
lation rates were based on 26 sites from tropical peatlands in
SE Asia, South America and Africa (11 span the entire
Holocene), and among these 9 sites were from Southeast
Asia (3 span the entire Holocene). The C accumulation rates
were very low before 13 ka but increased gradually from 13
to 5 ka, followed by an accumulation peak at 5‐4 ka espe-
cially for all tropical peatlands. The C accumulation rates
then increased abruptly over the last 2000 years to > 20–
50 g C m−2 yr−1. The large fluctuations and large spread
in average C accumulation rates from Southeast Asia are
partly due to the low number of sites. The overall average
rate is 12.8 g C m−2 yr−1 during the Holocene based on 26
sites used from tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia, South
America and Africa.
[10] From available data in the published literature,
southern peatlands mostly initiated before 10 ka, with ini-
tiation peaks around 17–14.5 ka and 13.5 ka. The C accu-
mulation rates were available from 17 sites (13 span the
entire Holocene) in southern South America (Patagonia).
The C accumulation rates were highest around 16 ka,
although this was based on only 2 sites. During the
Holocene C accumulation rates show a gradual increase from
∼15 to about 28–40 g C m−2 yr−1. The overall average rate is
22.0 g C m−2 yr−1 during the Holocene based on 20 sites from
all southern peatlands (Patagonia, New Zealand, and sub‐
Antarctic islands).
[11] The total area of northern peatlands has been esti-
mated from 3.88 to 4.09 × 106 km2 by Maltby and Immirzi
[1993]. We used 4 × 106 km2 in our calculations of peatland
area and peat C pool changes in northern peatlands. Tropical
peatland area is estimated to be 368,501 km2, with 68%
(250,580 km2) in Southeast Asia, and peatlands in Patagonia
are estimated to be 45,000 km2 (see auxiliary material data).
The rate of peatland area change varies over three orders
of magnitude for northern, tropical and southern peatlands
(Figure 3b). Our newly estimated peat C pools, based on area
change over time from basal age frequencies and average
C accumulation rates from multiple dated sites, are 547 GtC
(ranging from 473 to 621 GtC) for northern peatlands,
50 (44–55) GtC for tropical peatlands, and 15 (13–18) GtC
for southern peatlands (Figure 3c and Table 1).
4. Discussion
4.1. Patterns and Controls of Global Peatland
Dynamics since the LGM
[12] The highest rates of peatland expansion and C
accumulation in the early Holocene in northern peatlands
(Figures 2b and 2c) [Yu et al., 2009] are most likely caused
by the maximum summer insolation and the greatest sea-
sonality in insolation and climate at that time (Figure 2a).
This temporal pattern is evident in West Siberia (Figure 2b)
[Smith et al., 2004], the largest peatland region in the
world, and also in Alaska [Jones and Yu, 2010]; in both
regions the early Holocene corresponds with the Holocene
thermal maximum (HTM). As with the record from Alaska
[Jones and Yu, 2010], we suggest that the peak in C accu-
mulation is controlled by increased plant production during
warm summers and reduced peat C respiration during cold
winters. The general decrease in peatland expansion and
C accumulation in the mid‐ and late Holocene are likely
in response to neoglacial climate cooling after the HTM

L13402 YU ET AL.: GLOBAL PEATLANDS SINCE THE LGM
Figure 3. Implications of global peatlands for the global
carbon cycle during the Holocene. (a) Atmospheric CH4
records from Greenland (solid line [Brook et al., 2000])
and inter‐polar gradient between Greenland and Antarctica
(North minus South) [Chappellaz et al., 1997]; (b) change
in rates of peatland area increase (km2 per year) for northern
peatlands, tropical peatlands and southern peatlands, based
on cumulative basal age frequencies as in Figure 2, assuming
that individual peatlands expanded in their area linearly since
their formation; (c) temporal change in (observed) cumulative
carbon pools of northern, tropical and southern peatlands,
based on peatland area estimates (Figures 2 and 3b) and
carbon accumulation rates (Figure 2) for different regions;
and (d) atmospheric CO2 concentration from Antarctic ice
cores [Monnin et al., 2004].
[Kaufman et al., 2004; MacDonald et al., 2000], although
the effect of cooling on northern peatland expansion may
be more complex [Korhola et al., 2010] owing to land avail-
ability in peatland basins and regional moisture conditions.
[13] Carbon accumulation dynamics in tropical peatlands
were likely affected by summer monsoon intensity, sea‐level
change and El Niño intensity. The observed peak in tropical
peatland expansion in the mid‐Holocene at 8‐4 ka, especially
in Southeast Asia at 7‐4 ka (Figure 2d), is in response to the
high and stabilized sea level and the resultant monsoon
maximum [Griffiths et al., 2009]. In particular, many peats-
wamps in Southeast Asia developed in coastal regions
(Figure 1) on mangrove substrates after sea‐level stabiliza-
tion. The slowdown in peatland expansion and in C accu-
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L13402
mulation rates after 4 ka may have been affected by
intensified El Niño in the latter half of the Holocene [Moy
et al., 2002]. Earlier initiation of tropical peatlands before
10 ka in Southeast Asia was mostly in inland peatlands at
higher elevations [e.g., Page et al., 2004]. The highest C
accumulation rates in the last 2 ka may be an artifact of
the limited decomposition of recently deposited peat in
undisturbed sites.
[14] The rapid expansion and C accumulation of peatlands
in the Southern Hemisphere at 17‐14 ka (Figures 2f and 2g)
were likely induced by a warm climate during the Antarctic
Thermal Maximum in the South Ocean region [Barker et al.,
2009]. This warm interval, even warmer than the early
Holocene, was caused by the bipolar seesaw effect resulting
from the slowdown in the Atlantic meridional ocean circu-
lation in the North Atlantic Ocean [Barker et al., 2009].
Also, the climate was wet as documented by speleothem
paleoclimate records in South America [Wang et al., 2006].
It is interesting to note that the gap in peatland initiation in
Patagonia and in southern peatlands at 13 ka corresponds
to the Antarctic Cold Reversal [Barker et al., 2009]. The
recurrence of peatland expansion and slight increase in
C accumulation of existing peatlands around 4 ka might
have been in response to the HTM in the Southern Hemi-
sphere and/or to a change in the average position and the
seasonal migration patterns of the Southern Hemisphere
westerlies [Pendall et al., 2001].
4.2. Roles of Peatlands in the Global Carbon Cycle
[15] Our estimate of peat C pools of 547 GtC in northern
peatlands using a new approach based on peatland initiation
ages and time‐variant C accumulation rates is larger than
previous estimates that are based on peatland area, mean
peat depth and mean bulk density (270 GtC [Turunen et al.,
2002]; 450 GtC [Gorham, 1991]). Our estimate is conser-
vative in that peatland area increases were potentially much
more rapid than at the assumed linear expansion rate when
the C accumulation was highest in the early Holocene
(Figures 2b and 2c). Our peat C pool estimate of 50 GtC for
tropical peatlands is lower than the previous estimate of
65–70 GtC [Page et al., 2004]. One possible reason is that
the previous estimates were likely biased toward the much
higher C accumulation during the last 2000 years. Our syn-
thesis shows that the mean rate of apparent C accumulation
for tropical peatlands is relatively low during portions of
the Holocene (Figure 2e), likely reflecting high decomposi-
tion as well as high primary production in tropical climates.
To our knowledge, our estimate of peat C pool of 15 GtC
is the first for southern peatlands (mostly Patagonia).
[16] During the Holocene global peatlands have contrib-
uted significantly to atmospheric CH4 budgets. In particular,
peatland area change should be a primary index for peatland
CH4 emission potential under constant climate conditions
and assuming consistent vegetation and hydrology. Our
global peat data synthesis suggests that northern peatlands
played a dominant role in the early Holocene CH4 budget,
but tropical peatlands likely became more important in the
mid‐Holocene around 8‐4 ka (Figure 3b). These findings
are in agreement with the inter‐polar gradient of CH4 con-
centrations in Greenland and Antarctica (Figure 3a) [Brook
et al., 2000; Chappellaz et al., 1997]. However, the inter‐
polar gradient also indicates an increasing tropical CH4
contribution sometime after 4 ka (Figure 3a). As our tropical

L13402 YU ET AL.: GLOBAL PEATLANDS SINCE THE LGM
peatland data suggest a slowdown after 4 ka in the rate of
expansion of natural peatlands, and presumably of non‐peat
forming wetlands and lakes under weakened monsoons
and dry climates, our synthesis supports the proposal of
Ruddiman [2007] that the late‐Holocene CH4 rise was
strongly contributed to by human activities.
[17] The large total C pool of >600 GtC that we estimate
for these global peatlands is large enough to have had sig-
nificant impact on the global C budget and atmospheric CO2
change (Figure 3d) [Joos et al., 2004; Elsig et al., 2009].
However, the observed cumulative C pools as shown in
Figure 3c do not allow us to make direct assessments of peat
C burden on CO2 concentrations. A further analysis of the
peat C data would need to partition the time‐dependent net
C uptake and C release terms in order to assess the role of
global peatlands in the global C cycle since the LGM,
especially during the Holocene (Yu, submitted manuscript,
2010). Although global peatland C sink intensity has varied
greatly over time, our analysis here shows that peatlands
have accumulated >600 GtC over the Holocene, serving as a
long‐term persistent C sink of >5 GtC per century on
average.
[18] Acknowledgments. We thank Andy Baird and another reviewer
for useful comments. This research was supported by National Science
Foundation grant ATM 0628455.
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D. P. Brosseau, S. J. Hunt, J. Loisel, and Z. Yu, Department of Earth and
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PA 18015, USA. (ziy2@lehigh.edu)