HUMAN DEVELOPMENT: MEANING, CONCEPTS, AND APPROACHES

INTENTED LEARNING OUTCOME:

• State the definition of child and adolescent, development, and its principles.

Developmentally appropriate practices refer to the provision of teaching and learning experiences based on one’s
knowledge and understanding of how students learn at various stages of development. In education, understanding
how children develop and learn guides those who deal with them in planning and providing opportunities to best support
their developmental process and educational success.

This module is about the meaning of the basic terms, goals, domains and principles in the study
of human development.

For better understanding on the study of the child and adolescent learners, let us first define the
key terms in the study of child and adolescent development.

Among the frequently used definition of development is that it involves patterns of change over
time which begins at conception and continues throughout the life. Some psychologists define
development as changes which lead to qualitative reorganizations in the structure of a behavior,
skill or ability. Some others define development as changes which increase the organization of
functioning within a domain.

Another definition of development is “the qualitative changes involving the process of orderly,
cumulative, directional and age-related behavioral reorganizations. This definition highlights four
key terms, namely:

• Orderly – the changes that follow a logical sequence, with each one paving the way for
future changes
• Cumulative – any given phase that includes all that went before it as well as something
more
• Directional – the course of development that always moves toward greater complexity
• Age-related behavioral reorganization – the qualitatively new way of fitting together
or organizing, and using one’s capabilities. The reorganization of thoughts and actions
results in more complex behavior. Qualitative change involves of a transformation of an
ability (physical, cognitive)

Growth, on the other hand, is defined as the quantitative changes that can be measured. It is the
progressive increase in the child’s size or body parts or the maturation of tissues or organs.
Example is the growth in height or weight.
Based from the definitions of development of growth, can you cite their differences? However, most educators often
used them interchangeably. Can you tell why?
Other important terms in the study of development worth noting are as follow:

Child - is given a definition by the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
as “every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child,
majority is attained earlier.
- is defined biologically as “anyone in the developmental stage between infancy
and adulthood”.
- is over 18 but are unable to fully take care of themselves or protect themselves
Childhood – is considered the critical in development where various foundational skills in children are learned. is the
time for children to be in school and at play, to grow strong and confident with the love and encouragement of
their family and an extended community of caring adults.
Child development – includes various processes that every child goes through. It involves learning and mastering
skills like sitting, walking, talking, skipping, and tying shoes. These physical skills that children can do at
predictable time periods are known as developmental milestones.
Adolescent – is anyone in the transitional period between childhood and maturity, occurring roughly between the ages
of 10 and 20.
Adolescence – is the period of transition between childhood and adulthood. It is a period of rapid change. Physical
change is the most obvious, but adolescents are also changing cognitively, emotionally and socially.
Adolescent Development – are individuals entering adolescence are going through many changes (physical,
intellectual, personality and social developmental). Adolescence begins at puberty, which now occurs earlier,
on average, than in the past.
Learning Principles – are statement of generalizations that are proven to be sufficiently reliable and are to be taken
into considerations when making decisions on how children learn at various stages and ages in the lifespan.

Hence, in this course, after reading, doing the activity and gaining knowledge from what you are reading and doing,
you are expected to articulate what you are learning by putting them into practice in a school or classroom
setting. This involves coming up with practices appropriate for each developmental stage where the learners are.

The Importance of Studying the Stages of Development

In many instances, people meet children of varying ages and wonder why each of them displays different
characteristics. The focus of the study of development precisely points to these observations. A teacher, who expects
to meet the needs of his /her learners, must be aware of the various developmental differences among his/her learners.

The knowledge of the pattern of human development will certainly help a teacher to know what to expect of children,
and at what approximate ages certain patterns of behavior may appear or are expected to appear. Planning for
instruction should also be based on certain developmental principles, which to a great extent, determine what types of
learning and amount of learning are appropriate for different age groups. In other cases, knowledge of developmental
patterns will allow teachers to identify learners with developmental lags or delays so as to provide guidance and
intervention as early as possible. Thus, teachers must learn to recognize the significance of this knowledge to their
teaching success, as well as to the learning process.

Factors in Growth and Development

Two general factors influence human development; namely, 1) maturation or natural growth resulting from heredity
(nature); and 2) environmental influences in and through which the growing takes place (nurture). These two factors
are so thoroughly interrelated that it is impossible to isolate their specific influences.

Every individual is born with definite potentialities of development passed on to him by his parents through heredity.
These heredity potentialities for many kinds of behavior patterns continue to develop for months or even years. This
process by which heredity exerts its influence long after birth is called maturation. Studies have shown that a number
of physiological structures are essentially mature and ready to function at birth or even earlier. Others, however, such
as certain nervous, muscular and glandular structures are not ready to function until after months or even years later.
Certain types of behavior which are made possible by these structures cannot be developed unless these structures
are sufficiently mature. No amount of instruction and practice, for example can make a six-month old child walk or talk
because the neural and muscular structures involved are not yet ready for such activities.
Although an individual inherits trait potentialities from his parents, the direction that these characteristics follow during
the process of growth and development depends upon the individual’s environment. Behavior traits develop only after
interaction with environmental influences.

Modes of behavior at a given time in the life of an individual are not determined by heredity or environment working
alone. Instead, they are the product of the interaction between his inherited tendencies and potentialities and those
environmental influences by which he is stimulated. For example, while the ability to vocalize and the capacity for
learning to make intelligible sounds are inherited, the language a child speaks is the result of the language he is exposed
to during the growth process. A child is not born with skills, emotional controls, or attitudes. It is only when his inherited
adaptable nervous muscular systems are given the proper stimulation at a time when they are maturationally ready
that such traits are learned and developed. It is at this point where education plays an important role in the development
of an individual.

Basic Principles of Growth and Development

1. Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable

The first basic principle relates to the orderly sequence of developmental change. The developmental
process, guided by the interaction of maturation and learning, follows a predictable pattern. It is a continuous
process that proceeds according to a definite and uniform pattern throughout the life cycle.
Although physical growth attains its maturational level and stops as a process, developmental change
continues as long as life continues. An individual continuously adapts to changing physical and mental abilities as
age increases. Such developmental changes which occur throughout the life cycle follow a sequential pattern
which is predictable. The stages which an individual goes through from birth to death are always of the same order
from infancy to old age. They have never occurred in reverse.
This predictable sequence is also observable in phylogenetic skills – those skills which are universally true of
the human race. Thus, regardless of the culture, all babies proceed from supported sitting to unsupported sitting
to creeping, crawling, and, finally walking. Similarly, babies produce unrecognizable sounds to babbling before
producing understandable speech.
The two predictable directions during the pre-natal and infancy periods illustrate the uniform pattern of physical
development. These directions are cephalocaudal (development proceeds in a head-to-foot direction in the body)
and proximodistal (parts of the body nearest to the centre are the earliest to develop). Infants, for instance are
able to use their arms before they acquire hand skills while their finger skills follow the development of hand skills.

2. The rate of development is unique to each individual

This relates to the rate of developmental changes as unique to each individual. Although developmental
changes follow a predictable pattern, the rate at which changes may occur may be different from one individual to
another. Such differences in rate of change are determined by the interaction of heredity and environmental
factors. As an example, some children will change faster than others in almost all areas of development while
some will be much slower. Or, some children will have faster rates of development in the physical and social
aspects while at the same time be slower in the mental aspect of development.
This second principle stresses the fact that it is futile to try to accelerate an individual’s development if he is
not ready to develop or experience a change. This means; for instance, that any new ability will emerge only if the
essential physical or mental foundations are already existing. Training can produce results only if the individual
has reached the level of maturation necessary for an activity. Such readiness for an activity is determined by his
rate of development.
3. Development involves change
This principle implies that the human being is always evolving based on theories by developmental
psychologists. As stated earlier, children undergo physical, emotional, and mental changes.
4. Early development is more critical than later development
The studies of Freud, Erikson, and Piaget on early patterns of behaviour led to the conclusion that early
development is very important. It is at this stage of development where individuals develop the foundations for
 social relatedness, emotional well-being, and personal adjustments. It has been widely accepted that the first 2
years of life (formative years) greatly dictate the course of one’s growth and development. This principle is also
the rationale behind early childhood education.
5. Development is the product of maturation and learning
As discussed previously, development is an outcome of both maturation and environmental influences.
Although people are genetically endowed with certain characteristics, learning allows individuals to develop these
innate potentialities. Through exercise and effort, people can act on their environments and develop their
competencies. In most cases, individuals learn through imitation and observation of other role models.
6. There are individual differences in development
Although children follow a predictable pattern of development, a step-by-step progression, all children do not
reach these developmental stages all at the same time or all at the same age. These differences in development
are often ascribed to both genetic and environmental influences, where each individual is either born or exposed
to varying factors.
For instance, physical development depends largely on inherited characteristics, such that children will grow
in height differently from each other. Similarly, intellectual growth is contingent upon one’s educational exposure
or family environment.
7. There are social expectations for every developmental period which are often referred to as developmental
tasks
This principle clearly states that at any point in the individual’s development, each one is expected to fulfil
certain social expectations. As will be seen in a later discussion, these social expectations vary from one stage to
the next.

THE STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT AND DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

There are eight stages of development usually ascribed to the life span of human beings. These stages which are
based on chronological age are listed below. Corresponding to each stage are characteristics often achieved by
individuals within each specified age group.

Since school learners who are the main concern of teachers in the elementary and secondary schools are in stage 2,
3, 4, and 5, the discussion in this section will only focus on the significant changes during these stages. Mention will
also be made of the social expectations for each stage.

These social expectations which Robert Havighurst, a well-known developmental psychologist, labeled as
“developmental tasks”, are skills and patterns of behavior every cultural group expects its member to master or acquire
at various ages during the life span. These tasks are physical, cultural, and psychological in nature.

Table 1
Stages of Development

Developmental Stage Characteristics

1. Pre-Natal Age when heredity endowments and sex are fixed and all body features,
(Conception to Birth) both external and internal, are developed.

2. Infancy Foundation age when basic behavior patterns are organized and many
(Birth to 2 years) ontogenic maturational skills emerge.

3. Early Childhood Pre-gang exploratory, and questioning, when language and elementary
(2 to 6 years) reasoning are acquired and initial socialization is experienced.
4. Late Childhood Gang and creativity age when self-help skills, social skills, school skills, and
( 6 to 12 years) play skills are developed.

5. Adolescence Transition age from childhood to adulthood when sex maturation and rapid
(puberty to 18 years) physical development occur resulting to changes in ways of feeling, thinking
and acting.

6. Early Adulthood Age of adjustment to new patterns of life and new roles such as spouse,
(18 to 40 years) parent, and bread winner.

7. Middle Age Transition age when adjustments to initial physical and mental decline are
(40 years to retirement) experienced.

8. Old Age Retirement age when increasingly rapid physical and mental decline are
(Retirement to Death) experienced.

Table 2
Summary of Categories for Developmental Tasks

STAGES OF INFANCY TO LATE EARLY

ADOLESCENCE
DEVELOPMENT EARLY CHILDHOOD CHILDHOOD ADULTHOOD
Learning to walk
Learning to talk
Learning Accepting changes
Learning to take solid
physical skills in one’s physique Maintaining physical
Physical skills foods
necessary for and using the body health and well-being.
Learning to control
games effectively.
Elimination of body
wastes
Developing
fundamental
skills in reading, Preparing for an
writing, and economic career
Getting started in an
Getting ready to read calculating. with knowledge
occupation
Intellectual Skills Developing gained from
concepts academic exposure
necessary for
daily living
Learning to get
along with age- Achieving new and
mates mature social
relations with age Learning to live with a
Beginning to mates of both sexes marriage partner or
Learning sex develop achieving a independently
Social Skills differences and appropriate masculine or selecting a mate
sexual modesty masculine or feminine social role taking an civic
feminine social desiring, accepting, responsibility finding a
roles developing and achieving congenial social group
attitudes toward socially responsible
social groups behavior
and institutions
Building a Achieving emotional
Learning to wholesome independence from
distinguish right and attitude toward parents and other Starting a family
Emotional Skills wrong and beginning oneself as a adults preparing for rearing children
to develop a growing marriage and family managing a home
conscience individual life acquiring a set of
developing a values and an
 conscience, a ethical system as a
sense of guide to behavior
morality, and a depending on
scale of various ideology.
achieving
personal
independence.

ISSUES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Human development encompasses the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial changes that occur throughout a lifetime.
Human development refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development of humans throughout the
lifespan.

Nature vs Nurture
Nature proposed that important aspects of development are programmed by the genes. Whereas, nurture believed
that development is significantly influenced by learning, experience, and culture.

Continuous vs Discontinuous
Continuous Development – in which development is a result of continuous quantitative changes. Development is a
gradual increase in capacity as when children get older, the types of things they do, do not differ greatly but they are
only able to do things more skillfully.

Discontinuous Development – in which each stage in life is seen as qualitatively different from the ones that come
before and after. Development occurs in stages and in each stage, children display behaviors that are different from
the ones that come before and after.

Continuity theorists asserted that as children get older, the types of things they do, do not differ greatly but they are
only able to do things more skillful while discontinuity theorists believed the change from one style of behaving or
thinking to another is relatively abrupt

Stability vs Change
Stability proposed that there are aspects of development that remain constant despite changes
in the environment. Contrastingly, change believed that there are aspects of development that can be modified through
experience.

Prepared by:
JERICHO MATUTINAO, LPT
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