Engineering Mechanics Higdon Stiles 1949

ENGINEERING*
MECHANICS
BY
ARCHIE HIGDON
Professor of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
Iowa Slate College
AND
WILLIAM B. STILES
Professor of Engineering Mechanics and Associate Director,
Engineering Experiment Station, University of Arkansas.
Formerly Associate Professor of Theoretical and
Applied Mechanics, Iowa Slate College
IN COLLABORATION WITH
ARTHUR W. DAVIS and HERBERT 0. USTRUD

Assistant Professors of Theoretical and Applied Mechanics
Iowa Stale College
NEW YORK
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
1949
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Cngin.
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1948, 1949, BY
COPYRIGHT,
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
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ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK
MAY BE REPRODUCED IN ANY FORM, BY MIMEO
GRAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS, WITHOUT PER
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PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

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Preface
The principles of mechanics are few and relatively simple; the applica
tions, however, are infinite in their number and variety and frequently
appear to be forbiddingly complicated. Since much of engineering is
“applied mechanics” (just as applied mechanics is in turn applied physics
and applied mathematics), it is highly desirable that the engineering
student grasp mechanics, not as a series of formulas and manipulative
operations but rather as a well-comprehended mechanism for stripping
problems of their extraneous confusing aspects; breaking them down into
relatively simple, easily analyzed elements.
In this text emphasis is placed on an understanding of the principles
/ employed in the solution of problems rather than on a rote process of
o substitution in numerous formulas. The authors believe that every
teacher of engineering mechanics needs constantly to keep in his con-
T sciousness the fact that mechanics is a prelude to engineering design in
which innumerable complicating empirical considerations are super
imposed upon the relatively simple situations encountered in mechanics.
Unless the student is both well-grounded in the principles and well-drilled
in logical, orderly, step-by-step methods of analysis and procedure, he is
likely to experience considerable difficulty as he tries to add the design
elements of judgment, approximation, and compromise in his problems.
In their attempt to keep student attention focused on mechanics as a
prelude to design, however, the authors see no justification for realism
carried to the point of introducing time-consuming complexities merely
because these are inherent in the problems of engineering. Thus they
adhere to the common practice of freely using values for weights, dimen
sions, forces, and angles that simplify the numerical work involved, in
the belief that the time saved can better be employed in solving more
problems and gaining a better mastery of principles and their applica
tions. It is expected that the slide rule will be used and greater precision
is not expected. Where data are expressed to but one or two significant
figures, as 2 by 4 ft, they are assumed to be exact to the permissible limit,
i.e., 2.00 by 4.00 ft. The authors have endeavored especially to maintain
a sense of engineering reasonableness by avoiding such absurdities as:
a wheel having a radius of gyration in excess of its radius; accelerations
requiring abnormal coefficients of friction, and weights of bodies that are,
for the material normally used, inconsistent with the volume or the given
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V
vi PREFACE
The authors are convinced that the established procedure of drawing
a correct, complete free-body diagram for each situation involving a force
system contributes much toward accuracy of visualization, clarity of
thought, and ease of analysis. The free-body diagram technique has,
with varying types and degrees of emphasis, long been standard for
mechanics and is in no sense an Iowa State College invention. The
authors nevertheless feel that special acknowledgment is due former staff
members Dr. Vernon P. Jensen and Frank E. Lightburn for the com
pleteness with which they recognized the potency of that tool. With
the establishment of this department in 1931, Jensen and Lightburn
consistently indoctrinated students and incoming staff members with its
importance and with the techniques of its use. In effect, they established
what has virtually become a free-body diagram tradition, one that the
authors of this text hope may be reflected herein. Various other pictorial
and semi-graphical aids such as v-t diagrams for linear motion of a point,
F-s diagrams for the work done by springs, and the related circle for sim
ple harmonic motion are introduced to assist the student to visualize the
action involved. These aids are not intended to circumvent or eliminate
the use of calculus but rather to supplement it.
The chapter on centroids and centers of gravity is placed immediately
after the chapter on resultants because basically the centroid or center of
gravity is the point through which the resultant acts, and the principle of
moments is used in the same manner in both chapters. For those
teachers who prefer it, centroids can be taught after equilibrium and
friction by omitting the relatively few problems in those chapters that
involve distributed forces.
A workable understanding of the principles of kinematics is believed
essential to a mastery of kinetics. Velocities and accelerations of points
and lines are developed as time derivatives of functions representing
positions. The distinction between “position” as an instantaneous
function of time and “displacement” and “total distance traveled”
during a time interval is stressed. The authors are convinced that
failure to make a distinction between “position at any instant” and
“displacement during a time interval,” and attempts to differentiate
“displacement” with respect to time, lead to serious misunderstandings
for many students. Kinematics of rigid bodies is developed from the
motion of points and lines, and the concept of relative motion is empha
sized as being extremely helpful in studying rigid body motion. The
algebraic solution of the equations of relative motion is stressed instead
of the graphic solution, because the algebraic solution is believed to
place more emphasis on fundamentals. While the authors recognize the
value of graphic methods in simplifying the solution of many relative
motion problems, they believe that the time required to develop profi
ciency in the use of graphic kinematics does not justify the inclusion
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PREFACE vii
of such material in a basic course under a limited time allotment.

Graphic methods can readily be introduced as needed in courses of kine
matics of machines, after the underlying principles of relative motion
have been mastered.
This text is intended to be used for two successive terms, although it
can be adapted to a one-semester course by omitting articles such as those
dealing with graphical solutions of problems in equilibrium, the latter
part of the chapter on friction, principal moments of inertia, relative
motion with respect to rotating axes, and some of the specialized topics in
kinetics. Specifically, the following omissions are suggested: Articles
4-9, 4-12, 4-13, 4-14, 4-15, 5-3, 5-7, 5-8, 6-7, 6-8, 8-6, 9-9, 11-10, and.
Chapter 12.
Regardless of the time available for the course, the authors believe
that the emphasis should always be upon complete visualization and
understanding use; that it is clearly better to omit certain topics than to
attempt a coverage that leads only to a formula or a glimpse, rather than
to a grasp. While it is not feasible to require the derivation of all for
mulas each time used, the student should be actively discouraged from
using any formula which he is himself unable to derive.
The number of problems is intentionally large, not with the idea that
problem assignments should be burdensome (about three problems are
considered an average day’s assignment, in addition to the appropriate
text material) but rather to offer selectiveness and afford variation in the
problems assigned from term to term.
The authors acknowledge their indebtedness to many present and
former members of the departmental staff for suggestions and problems
they have contributed. They especially appreciate the encouragement
and wise counsel of Professor H. J. Gilkey during the writing of the
manuscript.
Dr. A. W. Davis has checked all the problems and Professor H. O.
Ustrud has drawn many of the figures, while both men have read the
manuscript in detail, offered many constructive criticisms, and supplied
numerous problems. Professor R. T. Othmer has also assisted in the
preparation of figures.
Archie Higdon
William B. Stiles
Ames, Iowa
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Contents
FOREWORD, H. J . Gilkey ......................................................... xiii
SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xv
1. BASIC CONCEPTS 1
1-1 Historical Background. 1-2 Introduction. 1-3 Scalar and Vector
Quantities. 1-4 Forces. 1-5 Composition and Resolution of Forces.
1-6 Moment of a Force. 1-7 Principle of Moments of Forces. 1-8 Cou
ples. 1-9 Transformation of a Couple. 1-10 Resolution of a Force into
a Force and a Couple. 1-11 Dimensional Equations. 1-12 Numerical
Calculations.
2. RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS ................................. 30

2-1 Introduction. 2-2 Resultant of a Collinear Force System. 2-3 Re-
sultant of a Concurrent, Coplanar Force System. 2-4 Resultant of a
Parallel, Coplanar Force System. 2-5 Resultant of a Nonconcurrent,
Nonparallel, Coplanar Force System. 2-6 Resultant of a Concurrent,
Noncoplanar Force System. 2-7 Resultant of a Parallel, Noncoplanar
Force System. 2-8 Resultant of a System of Couples in Space. 2-9 Re
sultant of a Nonconcurrent, Nonparallel, Noncoplanar Force System.
2- 10 Closure.
3. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY . . . . 56

3- 1 Introduction. 3-2 The Center of Gravity of a System of Particles.
3-3 The Center of Gravity of a Body. 3-4 Centroids. 3-5 Centroids
and Centers of Gravity by Integration. 3-6 Centroids and Centers of
Gravity by Composite Parts. 3-7 Theorems or Propositions of Pappus.
3- 8 Center of Pressure.
4. EQUILIBRIUM ......................................................................... 83
4- 1 Equilibrium. 4-2 Free-Body Diagrams. 4-3 Equations of Equilib
rium for a Concurrent, Coplanar Force System. 4-4 General Procedure
for the Solution of Problems in Equilibrium. 4-5 Graphical Solution of a
Concurrent, Coplanar Force System in Equilibrium. 4-6 Equilibrium
of a Parallel, Coplanar Force System. 4-7 Graphical Solution of a Paral
lel, Coplanar Force System in Equilibrium. 4-8 Equilibrium of a Norn
concurrent, Nonparallel, Coplanar Force System. 4-9 Graphical Solu
tion of a Nonconcurrent, Nonparallel, Coplanar Force System in Equilib
rium. 4-10 Trusses. 4-11 Stress Analysis of Trusses — Algebraic. 4-12
Stress Analysis of Trusses —Graphic. 4-13 Flexible Cables. 4-14 Para
bolic Cables. 4-15 Catenary Cables. 4-16 Equilibrium of a Concurrent,
Noncoplanar Force System. 4-17 Equilibrium of a Parallel, Noncoplanar
Force System. 4-18 Equilibrium of a Nonconcurrent, Nonparallel, Non
coplanar Force System. 4-19 Closure.
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ix
X CONTENTS
5. FRICTION ............................................................................... 156
5-1 Nature of Friction. 5-2 Coefficient of Friction. 5-3 Angle of Fric
tion. 5-4 Types of Problems involving Frictional Forces. 5-5 Flexible
Band or Belt Friction. 5-6 Square-Threaded Screws. 5-7 Frictional
Moments on Thrust Bearings and Disk Clutches. 5-8 Rolling Resistance.
5- 9 Laws of Friction.
6. SECOND MOMENT OR MOMENTS OF INERTIA . . 191

6- 1 Introduction. 6-2 Definitions. 6-3 The Parallel-Axis Theorem for
Areas. 6-4 Second Moments of Areas by Integration. 6-5 Radius of
Gyration of Areas. 6-6 Moments of Inertia of Composite Areas. 6-7
Products of Inertia of Areas. 6-8 Maximum and Minimum Second
Moments of Areas. 6-9 Definitions. 6-10 Parallel-Axis and Parallel-
Plane Theorems for Masses. 6-11 Moments of Inertia of Masses by
Integration. 6-12 Radius of Gyration of Mass. 6-13 Moments of
Inertia of Composite Masses.
7. KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION ............................ 228

7- 1 Introduction. 7-2 Rectilinear Motion of a Particle. 7-3 Angular
Motion of a Line. 7-4 Position of a Particle with Curvilinear Motion.
7- 5 Velocity of a Particle with Curvilinear Motion. 7-6 Acceleration of
a Particle with Curvilinear Motion. 7-7 Motion of Projectiles. 7-8
Simple Harmonic Motion. 7-9 Motion of Rigid Bodies. 7-10 Closure.
8. KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION ............................. 278

8- 1 Introduction and Definitions. 8-2 Relative Displacement. 8-3
Relative Velocity. 8-4 Instantaneous Centers. 8-5 Relative Accelera
tion. 8-6 Acceleration with Respect to Rotating Axes. 8-7 Closure.
9. KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, AND ACCELERATION . . 318

9- 1 Introduction. 9-2 Newton’s Laws of Motion. 9-3 Equations of
Motion for a Particle. 9-4 Motion of the Mass Center of a System of
Particles. 9-5 Procedure for the Solution of Problems in Kinetics. 9-6
Translation of a Rigid Body. 9-7 Rotation of a Rigid Body. 9-8 Plane
Motion of a Rigid Body. 9-9 Reversed Effective Forces and Couples.
9- 10 Closure.
10. KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY .................................. 380

10- 1 Introduction. 10-2 Work Done by a Force. 10-3 Work Done by a
Couple. 10-4 Work Done by a Force System. 10-5 Energy. 10-6
Potential Energy. 10-7 Kinetic Energy of a Particle. 10-8 Kinetic
Energy of a Rigid Body. 10-9 Principle of Work and Kinetic Energy.
10- 10 Conservation of Energy. 10-11 Power and Efficiency . 10-12 Dis
sipation of Mechanical Energy. 10-13 Closure.
11. KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM . . . . 418

11- 1 Introduction. 11-2 Linear Impulse. 11-3 Linear Momentum.
11-4 Principle of Linear Impulse and Linear Momentum. 11-5 Con
servation of Linear Momentum. 11-6 Elastic Impact. 11-7 Angular
Impulse. 11-8 Angular Momentum. 11-9 Principle of Angular Impulse
and Angular Momentum. 11-10 Gyroscopes. 11-11 Conservation of
Angular Momentum. 11-12 Closure.
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CONTENTS xi
12. MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS ................................................ 466
12-1 Introduction. 12-2 Free Undamped Vibrations of a Particle. 12-3
Free Undamped Vibrations of Rigid Bodies. 12-4 Free Undamped Tor
sional Vibrations. 12-5 Forced Vibrations without Damping. 12-6
Damping and Vibration Reduction.
ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS . . . . 493

INDEX ................................................................................................ 503
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Foreword
Rarely does a textbook reflect a unified philosophy on the teaching
of departmental subject matter to the extent of this one. As the authors
state in their preface, this book is very much an outgrowth of the teach
ing practices of an entire department rather than being limited to those
of the pair of individuals who took unto themselves the strenuous task of
authorship. While, as the authors have so generously indicated, they
are indebted in some measure both to present and former members of the
T. & A. M. staff, the debt is by no means one-sided. For years both Dr.
Higdon and Dr. Stiles have carried the responsibility for planning and
synchronizing the teaching of the statics and the dynamics. One of
their heavy responsibilities has been the supervision and indoctrination
of new staff members, of whom there have been many. Through this
type of handling, it has been possible to keep the teaching efforts of the
department unified to a degree not often approached in college teaching.
As the writer sees it, there are in this country three general philoso
phies or procedures in the teaching of mechanics:
1. What might be termed the philosophical, which tends to allocate
major emphasis on the theoretical aspects and the mathematical tech
niques for dealing with the various situations; relatively less emphasis
on free-body diagrams and actual problem solving. Mechanics taught
under liberal arts auspices invariably carries this flavor, as does much of
the continental type of presentation. The writer places at least one of
the well-kno n U. S. textbooks in this bracket, a book with considerable
prestige and a sizable list of users among recognized colleges of
engineering.
2. What, for lack of a better term, we might call “the more strictly
applied,” in which a maximum use is made of the free-body-diagram
approach, every effort being made to accomplish complete visualization of
each step of the analysis and problem-solving operations. In this cate
gory falls much of the engineering mechanics taught in U. S. institutions.
3. “Applied” mechanics, with the emphasis on the word “applied”
to the detriment of fundamental handling. Such courses may be taught
from textbooks written for empirical, softer or somewhat abbreviated
presentation, or they may be taught from books recognized as the best.
Regardless of the text used, the distinguishing feature is usually a major
emphasis on “getting answers” by the formula route, without much
attempt at rigor in analysis and mastery of underlying theory.
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xiii
xiv FOREWORD
This book has definitely been written for the Type 2 user. It is not
likely to appeal to a genuine Type 1, and it is not intended to cater to
what has been designated as Type 3. Only by gross deviation from the
authors’ concepts of the job that should be done, could the book be
adapted to such use.
Virtually every new textbook consciously or unconsciously owes much
to its predecessors in the same field for, in general, new treatments are
evolved as a series of departures from existing treatments, the virtues of
which are naturally and subconsciously retained. This book can hardly
be an exception, and it would be an oversight not to recognize that some
may be inclined to describe this text as “belonging to the Seely and
Ensign class,” a description which the writer is sure the authors would not
consider to be anything but a compliment.
The Seely and Ensign text came into being just as the writer entered
teaching as a junior colleague of its authors, and it was with pleasure and
pride in his erstwhile office mates that he saw that book virtually take the
field with a lead which it has now held through nearly three decades.
To be a privileged onlooker at the launching of another mechanics text,
this time by younger colleagues, borders on the coincidental.
Tangible evidence that the junior members of one’s pedagogical
family are growing and producing, that the boundaries of teaching and
research are being extended on something broader than a personal or
individual front is perhaps even more rewarding than is the ability or
opportunity for one to be moderately productive in his own right and
name. Such pleasant experiences rank high on the list of compensations
for the dubious distinction of being a department head.
It is with special satisfaction, therefore, that the writer introduces as
authors two of his colleagues in a venture so thoroughly in accord with
the teaching traditions of the department throughout the eighteen years
of its existence. He confidently expects to see “Higdon and Stiles”
take its place as a worthy addition that will make its own distinctive
contributions to a field already stocked with strong textbooks of eminent
authorship.
H. J. Gilkey
Ames, Iowa
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Symbols and Abbreviations*
a, og linear acceleration, linear acceleration of mass center
A area, amplitude
Al angular impulse
AM angular momentum
AR axis of rotation (used only as subscript)
Art. article
avg average
b breadth, width
Ci, C 2, . . . constants of integration
C couple, compression, centroid of area
cu cubic
d differential of (as dx), distance
D diameter
e coefficient of restitution
Ek kinetic energy
Eq equation
f frequency, sag of a cable
F, F lt Fa, . . . forces or loads
F„ FV1 F n , . . . components of force F
Fig. figure
fpm feet per minute
fps feet per second
fps 1 feet per second per second
ft foot
g acceleration of gravity
G center of gravity, mass center
h height, length, depth
hp horsepower
i initial when used as subscript, as Vi
I moment of inertia of area or mass
I AR, Iz, . . . moment of inertia with respect to axis or plane indicated by
subscript
in. inch
in-lb inch-pound
ips inches per second
ips 1 inches per second per second
Jo, J i polar moment of inertia of area with respect to axis indicated by
subscript
k spring constant (load per unit deflection)
... radius of gyration with respect to axis indicated by subscript
K constant
l,L length
* The symbols and abbreviations used in this text conform essentially with those
approved by the American Standards Association.
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xv
xvi SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS
LI linear impulse
LM linear momentum
lb pound
log logarithm (common)
In logarithm (natural)
m mass, W / g
M moment of a force, area, mass, etc.
. moment of a force, area, mass, etc., with respect to the axis
or plane indicated by subscript
max maximum
min •minimum
mph miles per hour
mphps miles per hour per second
n normal direction
N normal force
0 origin of coordinates, instantaneous center of zero velocity
oz ounce
P pitch of threads, unit pressure, load per unit area
P a force, power
P- product of inertia of area
psf pounds per square foot
psi pounds per square inch
<1 linear displacement during a time interval, load per unit
distance
Q total distance traveled during a time interval, a force
T radius, polar coordinate
R resultant force, reaction, radial direction, radius
rad radian
rpm revolutions per minute
rps revolutions per second
9 function indicating position of a particle measured along a
path from a fixed point on the path, arc length, length of
cable
sec second
sq square
t time, thickness, tangential direction
T tension, torque (moment of a force or couple), period, trans
verse direction
U, V rectangular coordinates
V, V<i linear velocity, linear velocity of mass center
V volume
W weight, total load
wk work
x, y, * rectangular coordinates
th* rectangular coordinates of mass center or centroid, coordinates
of resultant force
y»t static deflection
a angular acceleration, angle
P angle of contact for belt friction, angle
7 specific weight (weight per unit volume)
V efficiency
e function indicating angular position of a line measured from a
fixed reference line, a polar coordinate, angle
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SYMBOLS AND ABBREVIATIONS xvii
M., coefficient of friction, static or kinetic coefficients

V circular frequency of forced vibrations
P density (mass per unit volume)
angular displacement during a time interval
total angle turned through during a time interval
(I) angular velocity, circular frequency (21/)
+> vector addition
-►
- vector subtraction, direction of a vector
vector representing the resultant force
SENSE (OF ROTATION)

counterclockwise looking downward
Y>¥
counterclockwise looking inward
counterclockwise looking to the left
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ENGINEERING
MECHANICS
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CHAPTER 1
Basic Concepts
1-1. Historical background. Engineering mechanics is essentially a
study of the effects of forces acting on bodies. That portion of mechanics
known as statics, which deals with equilibrium of bodies —that is, force
systems which produce no acceleration —is an old branch of science.*
The builders of the pyramids of Egypt used some of the principles of
mechanics. The writings of Archimedes of Syracuse (287-212 b.c.) show
that he understood the necessary relationship between the forces acting
on a lever to produce equilibrium. Stevinus (1548-1620) was the first
to state the principle of the inclined plane and to employ the principle
of the parallelogram of forces. Modem mechanics was developed very
rapidly after the time of Stevinus. The experiments of Galileo (1564-
1642) led to the development of the principles of dynamics by exploding
some of the false theories of the Greek philosophers. He made investiga
tions and obtained experimental proof of the laws of falling bodies even
though he was handicapped by lack of adequate clocks for measuring
small time intervals. Christian Huygens (1629-1695) continued the
mechanical investigations started by Galileo. He invented the pendulum
clock, determined the acceleration of gravity, and introduced the theorems
respecting centrifugal force. Newton (1642-1727) completed the basic
principles of engineering mechanics by his discovery of universal gravita
tion and by his statement of the laws of motion.
1-2. Introduction. Mechanics is that branch of physical science
which considers the motion of bodies, with rest as a special case of motion.
Attention in engineering mechanics is directed primarily to the external
effects of a system of forces acting on a rigid body. The external effect
of a force on a body is either to accelerate the body or to develop resisting
forces (reactions) on the body. When the force system acting on a body
is balanced, the system has no external effect on the body, the body is
in equilibrium, and the problem is one of statics. When the force system
has a resultant different from zero, the body will be accelerated and the
problem is one of dynamics. When the internal effects of a force system
on a body are to be considered of when the changes in shape of the body
* For more historical information see Science of Mechanics, by Ernst Mach, The
Open Court Publishing Company, Chicago, 1893, or A Historical Appraisal of
Mechanics, by Harvey F. Girvin, International Textbook Company, Scranton, Pa.,
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1
2 BASIC CONCEPTS [§l-3
are important, the problem becomes one of mechanics of materials. Only

problems of statics and dynamics are considered in this text.
The external effects of a force system on a physical body are not
ordinarily altered appreciably by small distortions of the body. Many
problems of statics would be unnecessarily complicated by taking such
changes of shape into account. Thus most of the bodies in this text
will be considered as rigid bodies. A body in which all of the particles
remain at fixed distances from each other is called a rigid body. No real
body is absolutely rigid, but in many cases the changes in shape of the
body have a negligible effect upon the acceleration produced by a force
system or upon the reactions required to maintain equilibrium. When
ever the changes in distance between the particles of a body can be
neglected, the body will be assumed to be rigid.
1-3. Scalar and vector quantities. Physical quantities such as force,
mass, acceleration, volume, velocity, and time used in engineering
mechanics can be classified as either
scalar or vector quantities. A scalar
quantity is one which has only magni
tude, whereas a vector quantity has both
magnitude and direction. Vector quan
tities can be further divided into free
and localized vectors. A free vector is
one with a specified slope and sense but
Fig. 1-1
not acting through any particular point,
whereas a localized vector has a definite or specific line of action. Mass,
volume, and time are examples of scalar quantities. It is evident that a
time interval of three minutes has no direction and is therefore a scalar
quantity. To say that the wind is blowing at a rate of 30 mph does not,
however, tell a complete story. The direction of the wind is frequently
just as important as the magnitude of its velocity. The velocity of the
wind is an example of a vector quantity. Since the velocity of the wind
does not act along one line, it is a free vector and not a localized vector.
The velocity or acceleration of a particle can, however, be considered as
a localized vector through the particle. The moment of a couple, Art.
1-8, is another example of a free vector. Force, impulse, and momentum
are examples of localized vectors. To illustrate the importance of the
position of the action line of a force (localized vector), consider the beam
shown in Fig. 1-1. It is simply supported at its ends and carries a 50-lb
downward load. When the load is placed in position C at the center of
the beam, the reactions of the supports at A and B on the beam are equal.
If the load were moved to position D, the support at A would carry more of
the load and the support at B would carry less. In other words, the effect
of the supports on the beam (the external effect) depends on the position of
the load it carries as well as @seismicisolation
on the slope, sense, and magnitude of that load.
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§1-4] BASIC CONCEPTS 3
1-4. Forces. Since mechanics is primarily a study of the effects of

forces on bodies, it is important to have a clear understanding of the con
cept of a force. A force may be defined as the action of one body on another
body which changes or tends to change the motion of the body acted on.
Because of the inertia possessed by all material bodies, they react or
oppose any force which acts on them. When body A exerts a force on
body B, body B exerts an equal opposite collinear force on body A, as
stated in Newton’s third law of motion. Thus forces never exist singly
but always act in equal opposite collinear pairs. The effect of one body
on another, however, is a single force (one of the pair) and will be studied
as such.
Those properties which are necessary to distinguish one force from
every other force are called its characteristics. The characteristics of a
force, which describe its external effect on a rigid body, are (a) its mag
nitude, (b) the position of its line of action, and (c) the sense of the force
along its line of action. Characteristics (b) and (c) are frequently com
bined and called direction. Characteristics (a) and (c) are mathe
matically inseparable in that the sense of a force is indicated by the
algebraic sign of its magnitude. Since a force is not completely deter
mined or identified until all its characteristics are known, it is very
important to keep in mind all three characteristics as listed. Further
more, in order to indicate completely the position of the action line, it is
necessary to locate two points on the line, locate one point on the line,
and specify the slope of the line, or else to 225 it>
locate one point on the line and specify the
6
angle the line makes with a fixed reference
line in the plane of the force. Figure 1-2
shows a convenient way of indicating all
the characteristics of a force in a plane. An example of another complete
description of a force is “10 tons through points A and B directed from
A toward B.” If two forces have the same characteristics, they will
produce the same external effect on a rigid body. This fact leads to the
principle of transmissibility, which states that the external effect of a force
on a rigid body is independent of the point of application of the force along
its line of action. The unit of force commonly used in engineering is the
pound (lb) although the ton and the kip (1000 lb) are frequently encoun
tered. Other units of force are the ounce, poundal, dyne, gram weight,
and so on.
When several forces act in a given situation, they are called a system
of forces or a force system. Force systems can be classified according to
the arrangement of the lines of action of the forces of the system as
follows:
Collinear. All forces of the system have a common line of
action. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Concurrent, coplanar. The action lines of all the forces of the system
are in the same plane and intersect at one point.
Parallel, coplanar. The action lines of all the forces of the system
are parallel and lie in the same plane.
Nonconcurrent, nonparallel? coplanar. The action lines of all the
forces of the system are in the same plane, but they are not all parallel
and they do not all intersect at a common point.
Concurrent, noncoplanar. The action lines of all the forces of the
system intersect at a common point, but they are not all in one plane.
Parallel, noncoplanar. The action lines of all the forces of the sys
tem are parallel, but they are not all in the same plane.
Nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar. The action lines of the
forces of the system do not all intersect at a common point, they are not
all parallel, and they are not all in the same plane.
The resultant of a force system is the simplest force system which can
replace the original system without changing its external effect on a rigid
body. The resultant of a force system can be a single force, a pair of
parallel forces having the same magnitudes but opposite senses (called a
couple), or a force and a couple. If the resultant is a force and a couple,
the force will not be parallel to the plane containing the couple.
1-5. Composition and resolution of forces. The process of replacing a
force system by its resultant is called com-
--------------- position. The resultant of a pair of con-
/-------------------------current forces can be determined by means
/ ' of the parallelogram law or principle, which
/ / states that the resultant is proportional to
/ s' the diagonal of the parallelogram whose
L<\ ) T ! sides are proportional to the two forces.
0 p
This law is not subject to an analytical
Fig. 1-3 proof but is rather the result of experimental
observation.
The parallelogram law is illustrated in Fig. 1-3. The resultant of the
forces P and Q is the single force, P, which passes through 0, the point
of concurrence of P and Q. The resultant force can be determined
graphically by drawing the parallelogram to scale. Its magnitude can
also be determined algebraically by applying the cosine law for a general
triangle, thus:
R = (P 2 + Q 2 - 2PQ cos
The angle the resultant makes with either force can be determined by
the law of sines, for example:
sin a sin 0
Q ~
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
iWJ BASIC CONCEPTS 5
A corollary of the parallelogram law called the triangle law can be

used to obtain the magnitude, sense, and slope of the resultant of any
two intersecting forces such as P and
Q in Fig. 1-4. When the vectors P',
which is equal to P, and Q are arranged
in tip-to-tail fashion, the vector R' that
completes the triangle is equal in magni
Fig. 1-4
tude and is parallel to the true resultant
R which passes through the point of concurrence of the forces P and Q.
Since R in Fig. 1-3 is obtained as the resultant of the two forces P
and Q by means of the parallelogram law, it is apparent that a single
force can be resolved into two or more forces (components) by reversing
the procedure. The process of replacing a force by its components is
called resolution.
In the most general sense a component of a force is any one of two
or more forces having the given force as a resultant. These components
need not be concurrent or even coplanar. Normally, however, the term
“component” is used to mean either one of two
coplanar concurrent forces or any one of three
noncoplanar concurrent forces having the given
force as the resultant. This more limited defini
tion will be used in this text.
For most purposes, rectangular (mutually
perpendicular) components of a force are more
useful than general components. In obtaining
rectangular components, the parallelogram re
duces to a rectangle. For example, consider the
rectangle OACB in Fig. 1-5 and the force F along
the diagonal OC. One pair of horizontal and vertical components of F
is
F x = OA = F cos 0 = $F = 0.8F to the right through 0
and F y = OB = F sin G = fF = 0.6F upward through 0.
Another correct set of rectangular components is
F* = BC = 0.8F to the right through C
and F v = AC = 0.6F upward through C.
Note that the two components of a force must intersect on the action
line of the force. In other words, OA and AC are not the components of
F, but they are the components of an equal force through A parallel to F.
Frequently it is convenient to resolve a force in space into three
mutually perpendicular components parallel to three coordinate axes.
As indicated in Fig. 1-6, the resultant force R could first be resolved into
two components along AC and AD @seismicisolation
by means of the parallelogram law,
@seismicisolation
6 BASIC CONCEPTS . [51-5
and the component along AD could then be further resolved into com
ponents along AE and AF. From the figure, it is apparent that
F x = AC = R cos F 9 = AF = R cos 6V , F a = AE = R cos 6 X .
The angles 0*9 and are the angles between the resultant force and
the positive coordinate axes. The cosines of these angles are called
direction cosines. If the angle is greater than 90°, the cosine is negative,
indicating that the sense of the component
is opposite the positive direction of the
coordinate axis; thus the sense of F* in
Fig. 1-6 is in the negative y direction. In
either two or three dimensions, a rectan
gular component of a force is equal to the
product of the force and the cosine of the
angle between the force and the com
ponent. Notice again that the three com
Fig. 1-6
ponents in Fig. 1-6 intersect at point A
on the action line of the resultant force. The components of a force
must always intersect at some point on the, action line of the force. The
resultant of three forces along the lines AE, ED, and DB in Fig. 1-6 is
not a single force but is a force and a couple, as indicated in Art. 2-9.
Thus they are not the components of the single force R.
If nonrectangular components of a force are needed, there are several
methods available for determining them. The components of the force
F shown as OA and OB in Fig. 1-7 can be de
termined graphically by drawing the parallelo
gram to any convenient scale. The magnitudes
of the components can be determined algebraically
from the law of sines ; for example, in Fig. 1-7,
OA = _______F ________
sin 3 sin (180° — a — 0) Fig. 1-7
A third method is to resolve the force F into rectangular components and
equate each of the rectangular components of F to the sum of the cor
responding rectangular components of OA and OB (Fig. 1-7). Example
1-1 illustrates this third method of procedure.
Another common and convenient method for determining the com
ponents of a force, particularly in three dimensions, is to let the edges of a
box, rectangle, or parallelogram represent component forces to the same
scale as the diagonal representing the resultant force. The resultant
force divided by the length of the diagonal gives a scale which, when
multiplied by the length of an edge, gives the magnitude of the component
along that edge. Example 1-2 illustrates this method of procedure.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The subject of the composition of force systems is discussed more com
pletely in Chapter 2.
Example 1-1 : In Fig. 1-7, the resultant force F is 300 lb and the angles a and 0 are
25° and 45°, respectively. Resolve the force F into a pair of components P along line
OA and Q along line OB.
Solution: The rectangular components of F are
F x - 300 cos 25° = 272 lb
and F v - 300 sin 25° = 126.8 lb.
Since P has no y component,
Fv Q sin (a 4- 0)
or 126.8 = Q sin 70°,
from which Q = = 134.9 lb Zto* through O.
0.940 /V
When the sum of the x components of P and Q is equated to the x component of F,
the result is
F x - P 4- Q cos 70° - P + 134.9 (0.342)
or 272 - P 4- 46.1,
from which P = 272 — 46.1 = 226 lb—♦ through 0.
Example 1-2: Determine the z, y, and z components of the 80-lb force R of Fig. 1-6.
Solution: The length of the diagonal AB is
V3» 4- 4* 4- 8* - 9.43 in.
and the scale for R is
= 8.48 lb per in.
The three components are
F x - 8.48(8) - 67.8 lb -► through A,
Fy - 8.48(4) = 33.9 lb | through A,
F, = 8.48(3) - 25.4 lb / through A.
In both examples the directions of the component forces are indicated
by arrows rather than by algebraic signs, to reduce possible confusion.
This practice is recommended and will be adhered to throughout this text.
PROBLEMS
1-L Determine a pair of horizontal and vertical components of the 195-lb
force in Fig. P 1-1.
Fig. P 1-2
1-2. Determine a set of horizontal and vertical components of the 500-lb
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
8 BASIC CONCEPTS [51-5
1-3. Determine a pair of horizontal and vertical components of the 1000-lb

force on the cantilever beam in Fig. P 1-3.
Fig. P 1-3
1-4. Resolve the 300-lb force acting on the wall bracket in Fig. P 1-4 into a set
of x and y components when 0 is (a) 40°, (b) 70°, (c) 130°.
1-5. Resolve (a) the 2400-lb and (b) the 8000-lb force in Fig. P 1-5 into two
components, one along AB and the other perpendicular to AB.
1-6. (a) Can two forces which are the components of the 150-lb force in Fig.
P 1-6 intersect at B?
(b) Resolve the 150-lb force in Fig. P 1-6 into a set of horizontal and
vertical components.
(c) Is each of two components of a force always less in magnitude than
the force?
.1-7. (a) Determine a pair of horizontal and vertical components of the 600-lb
(b) Determine a pair of components of the 600-lb force in Fig. P 1-7
whose action lines are parallel to AC and CB.
1-8. Determine a pair of components of the 400-lb force in Fig. P whose

@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
action lines are parallel to AB and BC.
1-9. Resolve the force R in Fig. P 1-9 into two components, P having a line
of action through point A and Q having a line of action along BC.
1-10. Resolve the 300-lb force acting on body OBC in Fig. P 1-10 into two
components, one having a line of action through point 0 and the other having a
line of action along BC,
1-11. An x component of the force F in Fig. P 1-11 is 180 lb to the right
through 0. Determine F and its corresponding y component.
y
Fig. P 1-11
1-12. One component of the force P in Fig. P 1-12 is 600 lb up the plane
through A. The other component is perpendicular to the plane. Determine P.
In each of the Problems 1-13 through 1-16 the action line of the given force
passes through the origin and the indicated point and is directed from the Origin
toward the point. The positive directions of the coordinate axes are as shown in
Fig. P 1-13. In each problem determine a set of x f yt z components of the given
force.
Magnitude Point ( x , y j )
1-13. 2101b 2, 6, 3
1-14. 3001b 10,-6, 11
1-15. 4401b 6, 2,-9
1-16. 16001b @seismicisolation
2, 4, 5
@seismicisolation
1-17. Determine a set of three rectangular components of the 200-lb force in

Fig. P 1-17.
B
U>
Fig. P 1-18
1-18. Determine a set of three rectangular components of the 250-lb force F
shown as the diagonal of the box in Fig. P 1-18.
1-19. A force of 200 lb acts on body A as shown
in Fig. P 1-19. Determine a set of components of
this force that act along three mutually perpendicu
lar edges of A.
1-20. Resolve the force in Fig. P 1-20 into a set
of x, yf and z components.
Fig. P 1-19
1-21. Determine the direction cosines of the force in Fig. P 1-20.

1-6. Moment of a force. The moment of a force with respect to a line
perpendicular to a plane containing the force
is the product of the force and the perpen
dicular distance from the force to the line or
moment axis. The moment of a force is a
measure of its tendency to turn or rotate
a body about the moment axis. In Fig.
1-8, the magnitude of the moment of the
horizontal force F about (with respect to)
the vertical line ab is the product Fd, where
d is the perpendicular distance from F to ab. Since d is also the perpen
dicular distance from point 0 (the intersection of the line ab and the
horizontal plane) to the force, the quantity Fd is often referred to as the
moment of the force with respect to point 0.
The moment of a force acts either clockwise or counterclockwise
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§1-71 BASIC CONCEPTS 11
about a particular moment axis; thus it is a vector quantity with a
definite sense of rotation about a definite axis. The moment of a force
is frequently represented as a vector along the moment axis. The sense
of rotation is indicated by placing the arrowhead on the vector pointing
in the direction a right-hand screw would advance if turned in the direc
tion of the sense of rotation of the moment. When the forces being
considered lie in one plane, it is common practice to indicate the sense of
the moments by clockwise or counterclockwise arrows. In three-dimen
sional problems, however, it is convenient to
show a set of axes and indicate the sense of
rotation about each moment axis as in Example
1-3. Since the moment of a force is the prod
uct of a force times a distance, the dimensions
of a moment of a force are force times length,
and some common units are Ib-ft, in-lb, and so
on. It is immaterial whether the unit of force Fig. 1-9
or the unit of length is stated first.
If the force does not lie in a plane perpendicular to the moment axis,
it may be resolved into two components, one of them being parallel to
the moment axis and the other lying in a plane perpendicular to the axis.
The component of the force parallel to the reference axis has no tendency
to rotate the body about the axis and so has no moment with respect to
this axis. The moment of the other component is thus the moment of
the force with respect to the line or axis. To determine the moment of
the force F in Fig. 1-9 about the line ofc,
the force is first resolved into two com
ponents, Fi parallel to ab and F2 in a plane
perpendicular to ab. The moment of Fi
with respect to ab is zero, and the magni
tude of the moment of F2 with respect to
ab is F d- Consequently the moment of F
with respect to ab is the same as the mo
ment of F 2 with respect to ab.
To illustrate that a force parallel to
an axis has no moment with respect to
Fjg. i-io the axis, consider the shaft and pulley
shown in Fig. 1-10. The forces Ti and
tend to rotate the pulley on the shaft oft, whereas the force R tends to
translate the pulley along the shaft ab. Since a moment of a force is
a measure of the rotation it produces or tends to produce, the moment
of R with respect to ab is zero.
1-7. Principle of moments of forces. The principle of moments as
applied to a force system states that the moment of the resultant of the force
system with respect to any axis is equal@seismicisolation
to the algebraic sum of the moments
@seismicisolation
12 BASIC CONCEPTS [§i-7
of the forces of the system with respect to the same axis. The application
of this principle to a pair of concurrent forces is known as Varignon’s
theorem. Varignon’s theorem may be demonstrated as follows: In
Fig. 1-11, R is the resultant of the two
forces P and Q ; 0 is the intersection of
the moment axis, perpendicular to the
plane of the forces, with the plane of
the forces; and p, g, and r are the per
pendicular distances from 0 to the
corresponding forces. The angles 0 p,
0 q , and 0 r are measured as shown from
Fig. 1-11 the line connecting 0 with the point
of concurrence of the forces, and a is
the distance from 0 to the point of concurrence.
The magnitude of the moment of the resultant, R, with respect to 0
is
Rr = Ra sin 0 r .
From Fig. 1-11,
R sin 0 T = AC = AB + BC
= Q sin 0 q + P sin 0 p.
Therefore Rr = a(Q sin 0 q + P sin 0 p(
= Qa sin 0 q + Pa sin 0 p
= Qq + Pp. (1-D
Equation (1-1) indicates that the moment of the resultant, R, with
respect to 0 is equal to the sum of the moments of the forces P and Q
with respect to 0.
The principle of moments is not restricted to two concurrent forces
but may be extended to any force system. The following example
illustrates the use of the principle of moments.
The y component of F is parallel to ab and therefore has no moment with respect to ab.
The other two components through C are
F s = 42.2(7) - 295 lb <-
and @seismicisolation
F» - 42.2(5) - 211 lb / .
@seismicisolation
51-7] BASIC CONCEPTS 13
Consequently,
- 295(4) - 1180
211(6) - 1266
2446 0
- 2450ft-lb (clockwise looking downward).
PROBLEMS
1-22. Determine the moment of the force with respect to the given point A
for each of the systems shown in Fig. P 1-22.
Fig. P 1-22
1-23- Determine the moment of the force with respect to the given point A
for each of the systems in Fig. P 1-23.
Fig. P 1-23
1-24. The magnitude of a horizontal component of the force F in Fig. P 1-24

is 80 lb.
(a) Determine the force F.
(b) Determine the moment of the force F with respect to point A.
(c) By means of the principle of moments, determine the perpendicular
distance from the action line of the force @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
F to the point A.
1-25. (a) Determine the moment of the 1604b force in Fig. P 1-25 with
respect to A:
(1) When the force is resolved into components at C.
(2) When the force is resolved into components at B.
(b) By means of
the principle of moments
determine the perpendicu
lar distance from the force
to point A in Tig. P 1-25.
1-26. A pulley is keyed
to the horizontal shaft A in
Fig. P 1-26. The tensions
in the belt are shown as
downward forces. Deter
mine the twisting moment
transmitted to the shaft by
the belt pulley.
1-27. A 3-ft section of a masonry dam is shown in Fig. P 1-27. The resultant
horizontal water pressure is the force R t and the uplift hydrostatic pressure is the
force Q. Determine the resultant overturning moment of the water (forces
R and Q) with respect to A.
Fig. P 1-27 Fig. P 1-28

1-28. By means of the principle of moments, determine the perpendicular
distance from the action line of the 10,0004b force in Fig. P 1-28 to point C.
1-29. Determine:
(a) A set of x, y, and z components of the force in Fig. P 1-29.
(b) The moment of the force in Fig. P 1-29 with respect to the z axis.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
1-30. A 200-lb force acts along the diagonal of the box as indicated in Fig.
P 1-30. Determine the moment of this force with respect to the line DE.
1-31. Determine:
(a) A set of x, y, and z components of the 280-lb force in Fig. P 1-31.
(b) The moment of the 280-lb force with respect to line ab.
1-32. In making a sidewind landing on a level runway, the tire of an airplane

is subjected to a force of 20,000 lb as shown in Fig. P 1-32. If the x axis is
parallel to the wheel spindle along ab and the tire has an outside radius of 20 in.,
determine the moment of the ground reaction about the spindle.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Fig. P 1-32
1-33. (a) Determine the algebraic sum of the moments of the two forces in
Fig. P 1-33 with respect to the ab axis.
(b) Use the principle of moments to determine the perpendicular
distance from the action line of the 1704b force to point C.
Fig. P 1-33
1-34. A 3404b force acts along a diagonal line from C to D as shown in Fig.
P 1-34. Determine the moment of this force with respect to the line AB located
in the left face of the box as indicated.
1-35. An unknown force passes through point A, Fig. P 1-35. The moment
of this force with respect to the z axis is 480 in-lb counterclockwise looking inward,
with respect to the x axis is 400 in-lb counterclockwise looking to the left, and
with respect to line be (parallel to the x axis) is 520 in-lb counterclockwise looking
to the left. Determine the unknown force.
1-8. Couples. A couple consists of two forces which have equal magni
tudes and parallel noncollinear lines of action but which are opposite in sense.
A couple cannot be reduced to a simpler force system. Since the sum
of the forces of a couple in any direction is zero, a couple has no tendency
to translate a body in any direction but tends only to rotate the body on
which it acts. The properties which distinguish one couple from every
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§1-91 BASIC CONCEPTS 17
other couple are called its characteristics. The characteristics of a couple,
which indicate its external effect on a rigid body, are: (a) the magnitude
of the moment of the couple, (b) the aspect or slope of the plane of the
couple, and (c) the sense of rotation of the couple. The moment of the
couple is the algebraic sum of the moments of its forces about any axis
perpendicular to the plane of the couple. The moment is the same for
all axes perpendicular to the plane. In fact, the moment of a couple
does not depend on the position or orientation of the moment axis but is
an invariant property of the couple. For example, the moment of the
couple in Fig. 1-13 about the line be b e
halfway between the forces is
/ / /
In a similar manner the moment about / , /
the line ef is I
P(a + d) — Pa = Pd Fio 113
To repeat, then, the moment of a couple is independent of the position or

orientation of any moment axis. The component of the moment of a
couple (the moment with respect to an axis not perpendicular to the
plane of the couple) is less than the moment of the couple.
A couple is a vector quantity having both magnitude (of moment) and
direction (aspect of plane and sense of rotation). The moment of a
couple has the same dimensions and common units as the moment of a
force.
Since a couple is a vector quantity, it is sometimes convenient to
represent a couple by a vector. The vector is drawn perpendicular to the
plane of the couple to indicate the aspect of the plane. The magnitude
of the moment of the couple is represented by the length of the vector.
The sense of rotation is indicated by the arrowhead on the vector which
points in the direction a right-hand screw would advance if turned in the
direction of the sense of rotation of the couple. The vector representing
the couple in Fig. 1-13 would point downward and have a length propor
tional to Pd. This vector representation of a couple is very convenient
for determining the resultant of a system of couples in space (Art. 2-8)
and in the solution of problems involving gyroscopic action.
1-9. Transformations of a couple. A couple may be transformed in
various ways without changing its characteristics and hence its external
effect on a rigid body. The characteristics of a couple are not altered if :
(a) the couple is rotated in its plane, (b) the couple is moved to a parallel
position in its plane, (c) the couple is moved to a parallel plane, or (d) if the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
distance between the forces of the couple and the magnitude of the forces are
18 BASIC CONCEPTS [|l-9
changed, provided the moment remains the same. These changes are known
as the transformations of a couple.
To illustrate transformation (a), consider the rigid body in Fig. 1-14.
The couple on arm CD will cause the body to rotate unless the resisting
couple on arm EF has the same magnitude of moment, Pd = Qr, and
thus holds the body in equilibrium. There is no tendency for the body
to move horizontally or vertically but simply to rotate. Now consider
the body with the couple on the right end rotated 90° so that the forces
act at A and B. It is apparent that the same resisting couple on arm
EF is required to hold the body in equilibrium. In short, the rotation of
a couple in its plane does not change its external effect on a rigid body.
Transformation (b) is illustrated by the following example:
The rigid body in Fig. 1-15 is built into the wall at F. The couple
with forces at C and D will twist the
body, and a resisting couple having
a magnitude of moment equal to Pd
will be developed by the wall to ehold
the body in equilibrium. Now move
Fig. 1-15
the couple from its position with forces through C and D to a parallel
position with forces through A and B as shown by the dashed lines.
Since the moment of the couple is independent of the position of the
moment axis, the tendency to twist member HF, and consequently the
resisting moment of the wall, are unchanged by this movement.
To illustrate transformation (c), consider the effect of the length of
member GH in Fig. 1-14 on the magnitude of the resisting couple, Qr,
required to hold the body in equilibrium. Changing the length of GH
is equivalent to moving the couple acting on arm CD to a parallel plane.
Since the only effect of the couple is to twist or rotate the body, it is
evident that the external effect on the body measured by the required
resisting couple on member EF is not affected by any change in the length
of GH.
To illustrate transformation (d), consider two pulleys in Fig. 1-16,
keyed to the same shaft. When a couple consisting of two 100-lb forces
is applied to the smaller pulley as shown, a 1200-in-lb resisting moment
@seismicisolation
will be required in the shaft to maintain equilibrium. If instead of the
@seismicisolation
100-lb forces a couple consisting of two 60-lb forces were applied (as
indicated by the dashed lines) to the larger pulley, the same 1200-in-lb
resisting moment would be required in the shaft to maintain equilib
rium. Therefore the characteristics of the couple are unchanged by this
transformation.
Since changing the location of the forces of a couple does not alter its
external effect on a rigid body, a couple is sometimes indicated by means
60*
Fig. 1-16
of a single curved arrow instead of two straight vectors. In this case

the magnitude of the moment of the couple is indicated rather than
specifying the two forces and the distance between them.
The use of the transformations of a couple should help emphasize the
invariant properties (characteristics) of a couple and the external effect
a couple has on a body. The transformations of a couple are used in
Art. 2-8 for obtaining the resultant of a system of couples in space.
PROBLEMS
1-36. Determine the moment of the couple in Fig. P 1-36 with respect to:
(a) point A, (b) point B, (c) point C.
Fig. P 1-37
1-37. Do couples A and B of Fig. P 1-37 have the same external effect on body
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
E? Verify your answer by means of the transformations of a couple.
20 BASIC CONCEPTS [§1-10
1-38. Can the 120-lb-in. couple shown in Fig. P 1-38 have the same external
effect on the body as the couple with forces through A and B? If so, for what
magnitude of the forces?
1-10. Resolution of a force into a force and a couple. Occasionally

the effect of a force on a body may be more conveniently determined when
the force is replaced by an equal parallel force through a different point
and a couple. The addition of two equal collinear forces of opposite
sense to a force system does not change the external effect of the system
on a rigid body. By this means, a force may be replaced by an equal
parallel force through any other point of the body and a couple. The
couple can then be placed in any desired equivalent position by the
transformations of a couple. This procedure is demonstrated in the
following example.
Example 1-4: Replace the 90-lb force in Fig. l-17a by a force through C and a
couple whose forces act horizontally at A and B.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Fio. 1-17
Solution: Add two 9O-lb vertical collinear forces of opposite sense acting through
C as shown in Fig. l-17b. The added upward force and the given force constitute a
450-in-lb couple which is moved to a parallel plane as indicated in Fig. 1-1 7c. The
couple is rotated in the plane of the right face as shown in Fig. 1-1 7d. The magnitude
of the forces and the distance between them is changed as indicated in Fig. l-17e,
with the magnitude of the moment kept constant at 450 in-lb. Finally the couple is
moved downward in its plane to the required position with its forces through A and B
as shown in Fig. l-17f .
Each of the force systems shown in Fig. l-17a through l-17f has exactly the same
external effect on the block, and the successive steps in the solution of the problem are
shown by the series of figures.
When a force is replaced by a force and a couple, the new force has
the same magnitude and sense as the original force, and it has a parallel
line of action. The couple will be either in the plane determined by the
original and final positions of the force or in a parallel plane.
The above procedure for replacing a force by a force and a couple
can be reversed and used to replace a force and a couple by a single
force, provided the force and the couple are in the same plane or in
parallel planes. It is expected that this reverse procedure will be used
for solving Problems 1-50*1-55, although more convenient methods of
solving them will be developed later. These problems are included here
to provide practice in using the transformations of a couple. A series
of sketches showing successive steps is a recommended method of
solution.
PROBLEMS
In each of the following problems draw a separate sketch for each step in the
solution as illustrated in Fig. l-17b-f. Do not change the external effect on the
body at any step of the procedure.
1-39. Replace the single force in Fig. P 1-39 by a force which acts along line
C D and a couple.
1*40. Replace the single force in Fig. P 1-40 by a force which acts through O
and a couple. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
1-4L By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the 200-lb force in

Fig. P 1-41 by a force at A and a couple whose forces act vertically at B and C .
1-42. By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the force system

shown in Fig. P 1-42 by a force along line C D and a coupje.
Fig. P 1-43
1-43. Replace the single force in Fig. P 1-43 by a horizontal force through A ,
a vertical force along line CD, and a couple.
1-44. By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the 6500-lb force
through E in Fig. P 1-44 by a force through A and a couple.
1-45. Replace the single force in Fig. P 1-45 by a force which acts through 0
and two couples, one parallel to face ABEF and the other parallel to face AC EG.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
1-46. Replace the single force in Fig. P 1-46 by a force which acts at B and a
couple the forces of which act horizontally at C and D.
1-47. Replace the force in Fig. P 1-47 by a force which acts at B and a couple
the forces of which act at A and C perpendicular to AC.
1-48. Replace the 10-lb force of Fig. P 1-48 with a force acting at A and a
couple the forces of which act horizontally at B and C .
1-49. Figure P 1-49 represents a control cable pulley with its attachment to
a main member. Replace the two 50-lb forces with a single force acting through
G and a couple the forces of which act vertically at A and B.
@seismicisolation
Fig. P@seismicisolation
1-49
1-50. Replace the force system in Fig. P 1-50 by a single force. Solve by
using the transformations of a couple.
1-51. Replace the couple and force shown in Fig. P 1-51 by a single force.
1-52. Replace the force and couples of Fig. P 1-52 with a single force.
lb
Fig. P 1-53
in Fig. P 1-53 by a single force.
in Fig. P 1-54 by a single force.
1-65. By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the forces in Fig.

P 1-55 by a single force.
1-11. Dimensional equations. Physical quantities commonly studied

in engineering mechanics@seismicisolation
can be expressed dimensionally in terms of
@seismicisolation
three fundamental or basic quantities. The three fundamental quantities
normally used in engineering are force (F), length (L), and time (T). The
dimensions of the other physical quantities can be expressed in terms of
these three basic quantities. Some examples are shown in the following
table.
Common Engineering
Physical Quantity Dimensions Units
Area .............................................. ........... L*l ft 1 , in. 1
Volume ......................................... ........... L ft*, in.*
Moment of a force .................... ........... FL ft-lb, Ib-in.
Work ............................................. ........... FL ft-lb, in-lb
Power ............................................ ........... FL/T ft-lb per sec, hp
Angle ............................................. ........... L/L = \ rad, rev, degrees
Sin 0.............................................. ........... LIL - 1
Linear velocity ........................... ........... L/T fps, mph
Linear acceleration .................... ........... L/T* fps*
Mass .............................................. ........... FT'/L lb-sec* per ft (slug)
Angular velocity ........................ ........... 1/T rad per sec, rpm
Linear impulse ........................... ........... FT lb-sec, ton-hr
Temperature and electrical charge are other fundamental dimensions
necessary in some engineering quantities, but they are not generally
encountered in engineering mechanics.
Another set of basic quantities often used in physics is mass (m),
length (L), and time (T). This system uses mass instead of force as a
basic quantity. Newton’s second law of motion states that the accelera
tion of a particle acted on by an unbalanced force, F, is proportional to
the force and inversely proportional to the mass, m, of the particle.
The law may be expressed algebraically as follows:
a = K
m d-2)
where K is a dimensionless proportionality constant. Dimensionally,

the equation becomes
L_ = F
T2 m
In engineering, force is usually considered to be the basic quantity, and
the dimensions of mass are FT 2 /L. When mass is assumed to be the
basic quantity, force is expressed in terms of mass, length, and time as
ML/T 2 . In this text the gravitational set of dimensions will be used with
force, length, and time as the fundamental dimensions.
When substituting numerical values in a dimensionally homogeneous
equation, it is necessary that consistent units be used. The English
gravitational system of units, commonly used in engineering, uses ft,
lb, and sec as units for length, force, and time, respectively. When these
units are used, the constant K in Eq. (1-2) will be unity, provided the
unit of mass is 1 lb-sec 2 per foot, frequently called a slug. A body which
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
26 BASIC CONCEPTS (§1-11
has a mass of one slug will be given an acceleration of 1 fps 2 when acted
on by a force of 1 lb. If a unit of mass different from the slug were
selected, the constant K in Eq. (1-2) would not be unity with the ft-lb-sec
system of units. The mass of a body in slugs can be determined by
dividing the resultant force in lb acting on the body by the acceleration
in fps 2 produced by the force. When a body is falling freely, the accelera
tion of the body is the acceleration of gravity, g, and the only force acting
on it is its weight, W . Thus from Eq. (1-2),
W
or m = —
9
That is, the mass of a body in slugs is equal to its weight in pounds
divided by the acceleration of gravity in feet per second per second,
approximately 32.2 fps 2.
When two quantities are to be added or subtracted, they must have
the same dimensions if the result is to have any physical significance.
Consider the expression
3 f t + 4 sec + 10 lb,
written dimensionally as
L + T + F.
The terms to be added do not have the same dimensions, and the expres
sion has no physical meaning. Every term of an equation must have the
same dimensions if the equation is to be dimensionally homogeneous
and have a real physical interpretation. This fact may be used to check
the dimensional correctness of a derived equation when the dimensions
of each quantity are known. It can also be used to determine the
unknown dimensions of one or more quantities in an equation.
Dimensional equations are also very useful in designing experiments
involving model studies and in analyzing the results of such experiments.
Such use is beyond the scope of this text.
Equations indicating the units used rather than the dimensions may
also be useful in checking the numerical values substituted in an equa
tion, particularly when some quantity such as length is given in feet in
one expression and as inches or miles in another.
Example 1-5: The equation
C “ la -F mia* — myax
is dimensionally correct when a is an angular acceleration (angle per unit of time 3),
m is a mass, £ and y are lengths, and a« and a y are linear accelerations. Determine
the fundamental dimensions of C and I.
Solution: From the previous discussion,
m - FT* IL.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
1 FT 1 L FT 1 L
Therefore C =I (L) 7p ----- (L) 5
or C - FL — FL.
Since all terms must have the same dimensions, this equation is equivalent to the
following separate equations :
C - JT, - FL - FL
or C - FL
and I - FLT*.
Example 1-6: Consider the equation
„ cos 0 — —w v +
Ft . Ir <0
0
where F is force, t is a time interval, 6 is an angle, W is a weight (force), g is a linear
acceleration, v is a linear velocity, I is (mass) (length) 1 , and w is an angular velocity.
Is the equation dimensionally correct?
Solution: When the various quantities are expressed in terms of fundamental
dimensions, the equation becomes
( F T l \ /LX fFT'X , T x /1\
FT + (L {
~ \ L ( \t) \ L ( \t)
or FT — FT + FLT.
Since all terms do not have the same dimensions, the equation is not dimensionally
correct.
PROBLEMS
In the following problems all numerical factors are dimensionless unless otherwise
specified.
1-56. The equation s = P / A + Me/ 1 is dimensionally correct. If s is a
force per unit area, A is an area, c is a length, and M is the moment of a force,
what are the fundamental dimensions of P and Z?
1-57. Determine the fundamental dimensions of the expression
V2g y/h* - x*,

where g is the acceleration of gravity, h is a length, and a? is a length.
1-58. The equation Q = K(D — is dimensionally homogeneous.
Q is a volume per unit of time, and H is a length. Determine the fundamental
dimensions of K and Z).
1-59. In the dimensionally correct equation
_ M , Y '
8 +
aft[ Z ( R + F)J’
8 is a force per unit area, M is the moment of a force, R is a length, and Z is a

dimensionless quantity. Determine the fundamental dimensions of a and b.
1-60. Determine the fundamental @seismicisolation
dimensions of the expression mgL sin 6,
@seismicisolation
where m is a mass, g is a linear acceleration, L is a length, and 0 is an angle.
28 BASIC CONCEPTS [§M2
1-6L The equation N = p — is dimensionally homogeneous. If p is mass per

u
unit volume, v is a velocity, d is a length, and u is force multiplied by time and
divided by an area, determine the dimensions of N .
1-62. Consider the equation
1W
Work = Ps — v*
2 g
where P is force, 8 is length, IF is a force, v is a linear velocity, and g is a linear
acceleration. Is the equation dimensionally homogeneous? Show your proof.
1W
1-63. Is the equation Pt = mv + - — r*w dimensionally correct when P is
Q
a force, t is a time interval, v is a linear velocity, IF is a weight, g is a linear
acceleration, r is a distance, and w is an angular velocity?
1-64. Determine the fundamental dimensions of the expression P y/ A — x*/g,
where P is a force, A is an area, z is a length, and g is a linear acceleration.
1-65. In the dimensionally homogeneous equation
1 W 1 w
„ , . 7 , .
E = v
*9 gT + *o + gT ywV ’
E1b& force times a distance, IF is a weight, v is a distance per unit of time, u> is an
angular velocity, and y is a distance. Determine the fundamental dimensions of
g and 7.
1-66. In the dimensionally homogeneous equation
1W
CO = — 1>’ - P h sin 0,
2 g
6 is an angle, IF is a weight, g is a linear acceleration, P is a force, and A is a length.
Determine the fundamental dimensions of C and v.
1-12. Numerical calculations. In solving problems in mechanics,

a slide rule will usually provide sufficient accuracy if used carefully.
Most slide rules have scales for determining common logarithms and
trigonometric functions in addition to the scales used in multiplication
and division. These scales make it unnecessary to refer to any tables
of functions, and a thorough understanding of the slide rule will be
extremely helpful in the following work. Slide rules will yield results
accurate to three or four significant figures, and it is suggested that all
intermediate results be obtained to as many significant figures as pos
sible. Round off the final result if the original data do not justify results
with as many figures as are obtained.
In general the final result should contain no more significant figures
than the least accurate figure used in obtaining it. For example, if the
area of a rectangular figure is to be obtained by measuring the tw’o sides,
the result can be no more accurate than the least accurate measurement.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Suppose the long side were measured as 33.84 in. and the short side as
1.71 in.; the area would be 33.84(1.71) = 57.9 sq. in. Including more
figures gives a false sense of accuracy, since if the short side were any
thing from 1.705 in. to 1.715 in., it would still be given as 1.71 in. to the
closest 0.01 in., which is all that is implied by the data. The two limiting
widths would give areas from 57.7 sq in. to 58.0 sq in., so it would obvi
ously be misleading to give more than three figures in the result. If
two or more figures are to be added or subtracted, the final result should
contain no more significant figures than the least accurate data. If a
65.4-in. piece of wood were added to a 0.887-in. piece, the total length
would be
65.4 + 0.887 = 66.3 in.
It would be meaningless to give the total length as 66.287 in. since one
of the original lengths was measured only to the closest 0.1 in. If the
original length had been measured more exactly, it could have been
any length between 65.35 in. and 65.45 in. Thus without more precise
measurements the total length could be given only as 66.3 in.
The answers to problems in this text are usually given to four sig
nificant figures when the first digit is a 1 and to three figures for other
numbers. In problems with data given to only one or two significant
figures, the answers are based on the assumption that all such data are
exact.
Neatness in setting up problems is not to be considered as an end in
itself but rather as a safeguard against careless mistakes. Unless a
problem is to be solved graphically, it is unnecessary to draw figures to
scale, and often a freehand sketch will be satisfactory. If the sketch and
accompanying calculations are arranged in a neat and orderly manner,
however, the problem can usually be solved faster, the calculations will
be much easier to check, and the chances of error will be greatly reduced.
Orderliness in setting up the problem also helps develop an orderly,
systematic method of thinking, which is an additional benefit to be
derived from a study of mechanics.*
• More specific suggestions on setting up problems are to be found in texts on
engineering problems, such as Introduction to Engineering Problems, by Brown (Pren
tice-Hall, 1948), and Engineering Problems Manual, by Dana and Halyard (4th ed.,
McGraw-Hill, 1947).
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 2
Resultants of Force Systems
2-1. Introduction. The resultant of a force system has been defined
as the simplest force system which can replace the original system without
changing its external effect on a rigid body. When the resultant of a
force system is zero, the force system is said to be in equilibrium and the
body on which the system acts is also in equilibrium. Consequently,
the study of resultants is a desirable preliminary to determining the
necessary equations of equilibrium for each type of force system. If
the force system acting on a body is not in equilibrium, the body will be
accelerated and the acceleration will depend, among other things, on the
resultant force. Therefore the study of resultants is a necessary pre
liminary to the study of dynamics. In this chapter procedures will be
developed for determining the resultants of various types of force systems.
Resultants can be determined either graphically or algebraically, although
if the force system is noncoplanar, the graphical method is rather cumber
some and will not be discussed in this text.
The types of force systems as classified in Art. 4, together with their
possible resultants, are listed below for ready reference. In order to
give complete information about a resultant, all three characteristics of
each resultant force and each resultant couple must be specified. A good
method of giving this information is to show the resultant on a sketch.
Type of Force System Possible Resultants
Collinear Force
Concurrent, coplanar Force
Parallel, coplanar Force or a couple
Nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar. . . . Force or a couple
Concurrent, noncoplanar Force
Parallel, noncoplanar Force or a couple
Nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar. Force or a couple, or a force and a couple
2-2. Resultant of a collinear force system. The simplest type of force

system is the collinear, because the action lines of all the forces lie along
the same straight line. When the parallelogram law is applied to a pair
of collinear forces, the magnitude of the resultant will be the sum of
the two magnitudes if the forces have the same sense, or the difference
if they are of opposite sense. The sense of the resultant will, of course,
be the same as the sense of the larger force, and the line of action of the
resultant will be the same as that of the two forces. Since this resultant
can be combined with any@seismicisolation
other collinear force in the same manner, it
@seismicisolation
30
§2-3] RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS 31
may be concluded that the magnitude of the resultant of a system of
collinear forces is the algebraic sum of the magnitudes of the separate
forces, that the line of action of the resultant is the same as that of the
original force system, and that the sense of the resultant is determined
from the summation of the forces. For a collinear force system, the only
possible resultant is a single force with its line of action along the line of
action of the original force system. The magnitude of the resultant may be
determined by means of the algebraic equation
R = SF
where the summation is taken parallel to the forces.
PROBLEMS
2-1. Determine the resultant of the collinear force system in Fig. P 2-1.
j 135
B C
Fig. P 2-1 Fig. P 2-2
2-2. The resultant of the collinear force system in Fig. P 2-2 is 30 lb to the
left along ABC. Determine the force F.
2-3. Resultant of a concurrent, coplanar force system.
a. Graphical solution. Consider the three coplanar forces Fi, Ft, and
F* in Fig. 2-1, all passing through point 0. The resultant of the two
forces Fi and F 2 is the diagonal Rn of the
parallelogram oabc as shown. The force Rn r
may next be combined with Fi by means of V \
the parallelogram obde, giving the resultant of \ / \
the three forces Fi, Fif and F 8 as R. If there \ /c \
are more forces in the system, this process \ \
can be continued until all forces have been rx\
0
included. Note that the resultant must pass **" b
through the point of concurrence. The result- /
ant can be determined more readily with the
triangle law by treating the forces as free y
vectors and adding each one to the preceding
one. In Fig. 2-1 this is accomplished by starting at 0 and drawing Fi
from 0 to a, then adding F 2 from a to b and Fi from b to d. The result
ant is the vector from 0 to d, and its line of action passes through 0, the
point of concurrence of the action lines of the forces. A polygon con
structed as just described is called a force polygon. The vector from the
tail of the first vector to the tip of the last one represents completely
the resultant of the force system, provided the point of concurrence is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
used as the starting point in the construction.
32 RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS (§2-3
b. Algebraic solution. From the preceding discussion it is apparent

that the resultant of a concurrent, coplanar force system is a single force
passing through the point of concurrence and that the force will be com
pletely determined when its magnitude, slope, and sense are known.
In order to determine the resultant algebraically, each force is first
resolved into a pair of rectangular components. The components form
two perpendicular collinear force systems whose resultants are given by
the equations
R9 = SF X and Rv = ZF y , (2-1)
where x and y are the rectangular coordinate axes in the directions of the
components of the forces of the system. From the parallelogram law (a
rectangle in this case), the magnitude of the resultant of the system now
composed of the forces R x and R y is
R = y/R + R* (2-2)
and the slope of the resultant is
tan fl, = (2-3)
where 6 X is the angle between the resultant and the x axis. The resultant
passes through the point of concurrence of the forces of the system, and
* its sense can be determined from the compo-
\ y nents R z and R y.
L 90,b
a \ y Example 2-1: Determine algebraically the result-
\ jC ant of the concurrent, coplanar force system in Fig.
/ 5* 2-2.
— «
Solution: In using Eq. (2-1), arrows indicating slope
and sense will be used instead of algebraic signs. The
use of arrows eliminates a possible source of confu-
100
sion, especially when it is desirable to use axes which
are no
Fig. 2-2 horizontal and vertical. The components of
the forces along each axis will be added in two columns,
one for each sense, and the results subtracted to give the component of the resultant
along that axis as illustrated below. The right side of the relation Rx =» ZF, becomes
100 cos 30° = 86.6 9nn _L

— QQ ,
/ = oa.Tt
90 cos 45° - 63.6 V5
150.2 89.4,
from which R, = 150.2 — 89.4 = 60.8 lb —♦.
The right side of the relation Ru— becomes
t I
90 sin 45’ - 63.6 100 sin 30° - 50.0
200 - = = 178.8
V5 __
242.4 50.0
from which Ry @seismicisolation
= @seismicisolation
242.4 — 50.0 - 192.4 lb T.
The magnitude of the resultant is
R - y/R\ + 202 lb through O.
The angle the resultant makes with the x axis can be used in place
of the slope to indicate the direction. In this case the angle is
e x = tan -1 I. = 72.5°
ou.o Fig. 2-3
and the resultant is shown in Fig. 2-3. It is not necessary to
indicate both the slope and the angle. Since the slope is usually determined more
readily, it is suggested that the slope instead of the angle be used.
PROBLEMS
Although the following problems can be solved either algebraically or graph
ically, the principal emphasis in the succeeding work is placed on algebraic solu
tions. Therefore it is assumed that the problems will be solved algebraically
unless specific instructions indicate otherwise.
2-3. (a) What are the possible resultants of a concurrent, coplanar force
system?
(b) Determine the resultant of the coplanar force system in Fig. P 2-3.
2-4. Determine the resultant of the coplanar force system in Fig. P 2-4.
2-6 Determine the resultant of the coplanar force system shown in Fig.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
P 2-6.
34 RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS [§2-4
2-8. The 10-lb force in Fig. P 2-8 is the resultant of two forces, one of which
is 39 lb as shown. Determine the other force.
2-9. The resultant of the three forces indicated on the airplane in Fig. P 2-9 is
horizontal. Determine the magnitude and sense of the resultant.
Fig. P 2-9 Fig. P 2-10

2-10. In Fig. P 2-10, the resultant of two forces, P acting along ab and Q along
cd, is the 150-lb force shown. Determine the forces P and Q.
2-11. Solve Problem 2-7 graphically.
2-4. Resultant of a parallel coplanar force system.
a. Graphical solution. The resultant of two or more parallel coplanar
forces can be determined graphically by resolving each force into com
ponents by means of the parallelogram law and adding the components
graphically.
When several forces are involved, the force and string polygon method
described in connection with Fig. 2-5 provides the most direct graphical
solution. The nature of the possible resultant of any system of parallel
forces, however, can be indicated by determining the resultant of the
two parallel forces P and Q shown in Fig. 2-4. The force P is first resolved
into a pair of components such as P' and P" which intersect on P. The
second force Q is next resolved into a pair of components Qf and Q" in
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
such a manner that O' has the same magnitude and line of action as P"
but with an opposite sense. The components P" and Q' thus balance
each other, leaving the two concurrent forces P' and Q". The resultant
of P' and Q" is the force R, which is thus the resultant of forces P and
Q. Since P" and Qr are equal in magnitude, the horizontal components
of P' and Q" must also be equal, and therefore the resultant will be
parallel to the original forces. By similar triangles, AB is equal to P
and BC is equal to Q; consequently, the magnitude of the resultant is
equal to the sum of the magnitudes of P and Q. The resultant R could
be combined with additional parallel forces in
the same manner, but this method is more cum
bersome than the force and string polygon
method. If the resultant of all except one of
the parallel forces were equal in magnitude and
opposite in sense to the last force, the resultant
would be a couple when the two forces were not
collinear and zero when they were collinear.
Thus the resultant of any system of parallel
coplanar forcesis either a single force parallel to the
forces of the system or a couple in the plane of the
forces.
( b ) force diagram
Fig. 2-4 Fig. 2-5

The forces may be resolved into components more conveniently by
means of a force and a string diagram as indicated in Fig. 2-5. The
string or space diagram in Fig. 2-5a shows the positions of the action
lines but not their magnitudes, whereas the force diagram in Fig. 2-5b
shows the magnitude and sense of each force but not the position of its
line of action. To construct the diagrams, label the forces Fi, F 2, and
F 8 as ab, be, and cd (see Fig. 2-5a). Next, the force diagram is constructed
by drawing AB to represent Fi to scale, then adding BC to represent F 2
and CD to represent F 3, both to the same scale. The resultant magnitude
is given by the distance from the initial to the final point (length AD)
multiplied by the force scale. A pole 0 is then selected at any convenient
point (a little practice will be useful in selecting such a point). Force
Fi (AB) is resolved into components@seismicisolation
having magnitudes represented by
@seismicisolation
36 RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS I§2-4
AO and OB. The action lines of these forces are shown in Fig. 2-5a
as ao and ob intersecting on Fi. Force F 2 (BC) is next resolved into
components having magnitudes represented by BO and OC and lines
of action along bo and oc. Similarly, CD is resolved into components
with magnitudes CO and OD and lines of action along co and od. Since
the components OB of Fi and BO of F 2 have the same line of action, ob,
are equal in magnitude (from the length OB), and are opposite in sense,
they neutralize each other. The same reasoning eliminates all com
ponents except AO along ao and OD along od; therefore the resultant
must pass through the intersection of ao and od and have the magnitude
and sense indicated by AD. If D and A in Fig. 2-5 were coincident, the
resultant force would be zero and the resultant would be a couple, pro
vided ao and od were not collinear. When ao and od are collinear, the
resultant is zero. The notation used in the above solution is known as
Bow’s notation.
b. Algebraic solution. From the graphical solution the resultant of a
parallel, coplanar force system is known to be either a single force or a
couple. If the algebraic sum of the forces is different from zero, the
resultant is a force, and the equation
R = SF (2-4)
gives the magnitude and sense of the resultant. The position of a point
on the action line is determined by the principle of moments (Art. 1-7),
which states that the moment of the resultant about any axis equals the
algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system about the same
axis. Thus
Rq = ZMo = 2Fd, (2-5)
where q is the perpendicular distance from the resultant, R, to the moment

center 0 and d is the perpendicular distance from 0 to any force F. The
direction of q from 0 to R is determined by inspection from the sense of
R and of ZM 0 .
If the sum of the forces is equal to zero, the resultant will be a couple,
and
ZM 0 = SFd
will give the magnitude and sense of the moment
0
of the couple. In case both the sum of the forces
and the sum of the moments with respect to a point
in the plane are zero, the resultant will be zero.
Fio. 2-6 Example 2-2: Determine algebraically the resultant of
the four forces in Fig. 2-6.
Solution: The magnitude and sehse of the resultant are determined from Eq. (2-4).
The right side of the equation @seismicisolation
becomes
@seismicisolation
T 1
20 30
12 25
32 55
from which R ■■ 55 — 32 = 23 lb 1.
The moment of the resultant with respect to 0 is SFd, which becomes

25(5)"*— 125 20 (3]P- 60
12(9) - 108
125 168
from which XM 0 - 168 - 125 - 43 ft-lb ( .
The distance q from O to the resultant is determined from Eq. (2-5) as
s - -g-i-sran. «■=’
1.870* I
Since the force is downward and the moment is counterclockwise ’ I
with respect to O, the force must be to the left of 0 as indicated in
Fig. 2-7 which shows all three characteristics of the resultant force. Fig. 2-7
PROBLEMS
80*
r
. ___________ | ~i F~
n~T I 'l i 1 1 1 ii-n
60* *40*
Fig. P 2-14
2-16. A truss is loaded as shown in Fig. P 2-15. Determine the resultant
load on thp truss.
80* 20*
—
Iso* l»*r
@seismicisolation
2-16
2-17. Determine the resultant of the parallel, coplanar force system in Fig. P
2-17.
Fig. P 2-17 Fig. P 2-18

2-18. Determine the resultant of the parallel, coplanar force system shown in
Fig. P 2-18 and locate it with respect to point A.
2-19. Determine the resultant of the five forces in Fig. P 2-19.
Fig. P 2-19
2-20. The wall bracket of Fig. P 2-20 is subjected to the loads as indicated.
Determine the resultant of the applied loads.
2-21. In Fig. P 2-21 the resultant of three parallel forces (one force is not shown)
is R as indicated. Determine the missing force.
R=40 n>
Fig. P 2-21 Fig. P 2-22

2-22. The resultant of the three forces shown in Fig. P 2-22 and two other
forces, P along ab and Q along cd, is a couple having a clockwise moment of
415 ft-lb. Determine the forces P and Q,
2-26. Solve Problem 2-18@seismicisolation
graphically.
@seismicisolation
2-5. Resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar force system.
a. Graphical solution. The resultant of a system of nonconcurrent,
nonparallel, coplanar forces can be obtained either by applying the
parallelogram law as illustrated in Fig. 2-8 or by means of a force and a
string polygon as illustrated in Example 2-3. The latter method provides
the more direct and systematic graphical solution, but the other method
is included to emphasize the basic parallelogram law and to indicate the
possible forms of the resultant of a system of nonconcurrent, nonparallel,
coplanar forces.
The resultant of the four forces Fi, F 2, F 3, and F 4 is desired. The
forces Fi and F 2 are moved along their lines of action to their point of
intersection by the principle of transmissibility. A parallelogram is then
Fig. 2-8
constructed to determine their resultant Z?i2. The resultant 7?i 2 is then
combined in the same manner with the force F 3 to obtain the resultant
Z?i23, and finally the resultant of the force system, 7?i 234 , is determined
by combining j?i23 with F 4. The resultant is thus completely determined,
since the three characteristics (magnitude, sense, and position of action
line) are all included in the sketch.
In the case just considered, the resultant was found to be a single
force. The resultant will be a couple whenever the resultant of all but
one of the forces of the system and the remaining force form a couple.
Thus it is apparent that the resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel,
coplanar force system is either a single force or a couple.
Force and string polygons can be used to determine the resultant of a
nonparallel system of forces in a plane in the same manner as they were
used in Art. 2-4 for parallel forces. The procedure is demonstrated in
the following illustrative example.
Example 2-3: Determine graphically, by means of a force and a string polygon, the
resultant of the five forces in Fig. 2-9a.
Solution: The forces Fi, , are labeled as ab, be, . . . , as indicated on the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
space diagram. The force diagram is constructed by drawing AB parallel to the line
40 RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS (52-5
ab, BC parallel to be, and so on, as indicated for the five forces in Fig. 2-9b. The scale
used in drawing the diagram is included in the figure. Since F and A coincide, the
resultant is not a force but might be a couple. The two forces making up the resultant
are represented in magnitude, sense, and direction by the components from A to O and
from 0 to F, where 0 is any arbitrarily selected pole. Since the pole can be located at
any arbitrary point, it is frequently convenient to select the pole in such a position that
when the resultant is a couple the forces will be either horizontal or vertical ; they are
horizontal in this instance. If the line from 0 to A and F were inclined, the forces of
the resultant couple would also be inclined, but the moment of the couple would not be
changed.
The other component forces are shown in magnitude and sense (but not line of
action) by the lines OB, OC, OD, and OE. The components of F x ( A B ) are AO and
OB, the components of Fj (BC) are BO and OC, and so on. To show the posi
tions of the lines of action of the com
ponents, an arbitrary point on force F x
is selected and lines parallel to AO and
OB are drawn through the point. These
lines are labeled ao and ob. The com
ponents of Ft are BO and OC and must
intersect on F 2. Since ob is already
located, oc is drawn parallel to OC
through the intersection of ob and Fj.
In a similar manner, the rest of the
lines od, oe, and of are drawn. Since all
the component forces except AO and
OF occur in equal and oppositely directed
collinear pairs, the resultant of the force
system is the resultant of these two
forces. They are equal in magnitude
(AO — OF), have parallel lines of action
(ao is parallel to of), and are oppositely
directed (AO to the left and OF to the
right), and hence constitute a couple.
The moment of the couple is the product
of the force (AO — 85 lb from the force
scale) and the perpendicular distance
between their lines of action (q ■= 1.6 ft
from the space scale). For this force
system the resultant is a couple parallel
to the plane of the paper, having a clock
wise sense of rotation and a moment
whose magnitude is
Fig. 2-9 M - (85)(1.6) - 136 ft-lb.
If ao and of had been collinear, the resultant would have been zero and the system
would have been in equilibrium. If points A and F had not been concurrent, the
resultant would have been a force equal to the vector A to F passing through the
intersection of the lines ao and of.
b. Algebraic solution. The resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel,

coplanar force system has been shown, by the graphical method, to be
either a force or a couple. In order to determine this resultant alge
braically, each force of the system can be replaced by its x and y (usually
horizontal and vertical) components. The resulting system can be con
sidered as two systems of parallel forces. When the algebraic sum of
the forces in either the x or@seismicisolation
the y direction, or both, is different from zero,
@seismicisolation
§2-51 RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS 41
the resultant is a force, and its magnitude and slope are determined from
the following equations:
=
F* EF R*— SF y, (2-6)
and R = y/R* +
The angle between the x axis and the resultant can be obtained from the
relation
tan 0A x = 9
~
The location of the action line of the resultant is determined by the prin
ciple of moments in the same manner as for a parallel force system;
that is,
Rq = ZM 0 , (2-7)
where q is the perpendicular distance from the moment axis through 0 to

the resultant force, R. As before, the direction from 0 to R is determined
by inspection from the sense of R and of
When the algebraic sum of the components of the forces is zero in
two different directions, the result
ant cannot be a single force but can
be a couple in the plane of the forces.
The magnitude of the moment of the
couple and its sense of rotation can be
determined as the algebraic sum of the
moments of the forces of the system
with respect to any point in the plane.
Example 2-4: Determine the resultant
of the force system in Fig. 2-10 and show it
on a sketch located with respect to point A.
Solution: The horizontal components of the forces of the system can be tabulated as
75(1) - 60.0 100 cos 65° - 42.3

50(0.866) - 43.3 40-4= - 17.0
y
103.3 ' 5 60.2
and Eq. (2-6) gives R. - 103.3 - 60.2 - 43.1 lb
The vertical components of the forces of the system can be tabulated as
t I
75({) - 45.0 50(0.5) - 25.0
2
40 -7= - 35.8 100 sin 65° - 90.6
v 5 80.8 115.6
and Eq. (2-6) gives @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
R, - 115.6 - 80.8 - 34.81b j.
42 RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS [52-5
The resultant is
R = [(43.1)» 4- (34.8)’] «= 55.4 lb
To locate the action line of the resultant force with respect to the point A, the
algebraic sum of the moments of the forces about A is needed. The moments of the
forces can be obtained more readily by resolving each force into components and
adding the moments of the components than by calculating the perpendicular dis
tances of the forces from A and multiplying by the magnitudes of the forces. If the
pair of horizontal and vertical components of the 75-lb force through a' were used,
each component would have a moment about A, whereas if the force were resolved
into a pair of components through a, the horizontal component would have no moment
about A because its moment arm would be zero; therefore the components intersecting
at a are used. Similarly the 50-lb force is resolved into components through b and
the 100-lb force into components through c. There is no obvious choice of com
ponents of the 40-lb force; hence the pair at d is used. The moments with respect
to A are tabulated as
1(75)7= 45.0 -4= (40)F= 179.0

o V5
cos 30° (50)3 = 129.9
sin 65°(100)5 = 453.0
-4= (40)1 = 17.9
V5
645.8 179.0
from which SA/ O 83 645.8 — 179.0 = 467 in-lb ).
The distance q as obtained from Eq. (2-7) is
467 o .
9 = 8 43 m
5 4 = -
The resultant must be a 55.4-lb force directed downward to the right at a distance of
8.43 in. from A and in such a position that it will have a clockwise moment about A.
The resultant must be tangent to the circle in Fig. 2-11 at e or at /. If, however, R
Fig. 2-11
were at/, its moment would have the wrong sense; thus the action line of the resultant
passes through e instead of /. Notice that the resultant does not touch the body as
shown in Fig. 2-11; but if an extension were added to the body and the force R were
applied as indicated, the external effect on the body would be the same as the external
effect of the original force system.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
PROBLEMS
2-27. Determine the resultant of the coplanar force system in Fig. P 2-27 and
locate it with respect to point 0.
2-28. Determine the resultant of the force system of Fig. P 2-28.

2-29. Determine the resultant of the force system in Fig. P 2-29 and locate
it with respect to point 0.
2-30. Given the coplanar force system of Fig. P 2-30, determine the resultant.
2-31. Determine the resultant of the coplanar force system applied to the
body in Fig. P 2-31 and locate it with reference to point 0.
zoo* 6
40*
Fig. P 2-32
2-32. In the coplanar force system of Fig. P 2-32 all forces are tangent to the
circle. Determine the resultant and show it on a sketch located with respect to
point A . @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
2-33. Determine the resultant of the force system in Fig. P 2 33 and locate
it with respect to point 0. The 100-lb and 80-lb forces are tangent to the circle.
co*
Fig. P 2-33 Fig. P 2-34

2-34. Determine the resultant of the four forces in Fig. P 2-34 and locate it
with respect to point 0.
2-35. The 130-lb force in Fig. P 2-35 is the resultant of four forces, three of
which are shown in the figure. Determine the fourth force.
2-36. The resultant of the three forces in Fig. P 2-36 and an unknown force P
through point E is a vertical force through point H . Determine the force through
E and the resultant through H .
2-6. Resultant of a concurrent, noncoplanar force system. Although
the resultant of a noncoplanar force system can be determined graphically
by projecting the forces on a set of coordinate planes, it is usually much
easier to determine the resultant algebraically, and therefore only the
algebraic solution will be discussed.
Any two forces of a concurrent force system determine a plane; and
their resultant, as determined by the parallelogram law, is a force in this
plane passing through the@seismicisolation
point of concurrence. When this resultant
@seismicisolation
force is added to a third force of the system, the resultant again passes
through the point of concurrence and lies in the plane of the third force
and the resultant of the first two forces, and so on. It is apparent, then,
that the resultant of any set of concurrent forces must be a force (not a
couple or force and couple) passing through the point of concurrence of
the forces of the system, and thus it becomes necessary to determine
only the magnitude, sense, and slope of the resultant. This is readily
accomplished by determining the components of the resultant in three
mutually perpendicular directions by means of the following equations:
R» = SF X, R v = SFy, R, = (2-8)
and R = (7?* +
The forces of the system can first be resolved into components in the
manner described in Art. 1-5 to facilitate the use of Eq. (2-8).
A convenient method of indicating the resultant of a concurrent force
system in space is to draw a rectangular parallelepiped with one comer
at the intersection of the lines of action of the forces and with edges
parallel to the components of the resultant R Xf Rv , R g . If the lengths of
the edges are drawn proportional to the values of R x , RVf and R g , the
diagonal of the box from the point of concurrence will represent the
resultant. For example, if the components of the resultant as determined
from Eq. (2-8) are
R x = 175.0 lb
R v = 123.0 lb 1,
R, = 73.0 lb / ,
the magnitude of the redUtant will be
R = (175.0* + 123.0 2 + 73.0 2)* = 226 lb
and it will be located as shown in Fig. 2-12.
Another method of specifying the action line of a force in space is to
give its direction cosines as explained in Art. 1-5. In the preceding
example,
R„ =
cos 0 Z = § = 0.774, cos = -0.544,
K R
and cos -0.323.
When direction cosines are used, components of forces in the negative

direction along an axis must be used as negative numbers as indicated
here.
PROBLEMS
2-41. The following forces are concurrent at the origin and are directed away
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
from it toward the point indicated. Determine the resultant of the system.
Force UOlb ISO lb

x,yt z coordinates of the point 2,6,— 3 0,5,12
2-42. Determine the resultant of the 30-lb force and the 10-lb force in Fig.
P 2-42
Fig. P 2-42
2-43. (a) Determine the resultant of the two forces in Fig. P 2-43.
(b) Determine the moment of the resultant force from part (a) with
respect to the x axis.
2-44. In Fig. P 2-44 determine:
(a) The x, y, and z components of the 26-lb force.
(b) The moment of the 26-lb force with respect to the a axis.
(c) The resultant of the 20-lb and 26-lb forces.
2-45. The following forces are concurrent at the origin and are directed away
Force 70 lb 60 lb 90 lb
x,yt z coordinates of the point 2,6,3 1,2,2 2,1,2
2-46. The following forces are concurrent at the origin and are directed awav
Force 90 lb 140 lb 60 lb
x, y,z coordinates of the point 1,-2,— 2
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation 2,— 6,3 —2,1,— 2
2-47. Determine the resultant of the forces shown in Fig. P 2-47.

900 ,b
Fig. P 2-47 Fig. P 2-48

2-48. (a) Determine the resultant of the two forces in Fig. P 2-48.
(b) Determine the moment of the resultant of the forces in Fig. P 2-48
with respect to line ab.
2-7. Resultant of a parallel, noncoplanar force system. The resultant
of two parallel forces is either a single force parallel to the given forces
or a couple in the plane determined by the action lines of the two forces.
If additional parallel forces are added one at a time, each successive
resultant must be either a force parallel to the given forces or a couple
whose plane is parallel to the forces of the system and is determined by
the last force added and the resultant of all previously used forces of the
system. In case the resultant of some of the forces is a couple and
another parallel force is added, the system may be reduced to a single
force by means of the transformations of a couple (see Art. 1-9).
If the resultant is a single force, its magnitude is equal to the algebraic
sum of the forces of the system, and its position in space can be deter
mined by the coordinates of the intersection of its action line with any
plane perpendicular to the forces of the system. These coordinates can
be determined by applying the principle of moments to two nonparallel
(usually perpendicular) axes in a plane perpendicular to the forces of
the system. The resultant of a system of forces parallel to the y axis
is thus completely determined by the equations
R = SF V, RZ = Rz = (2-9)
where x and z are the coordinates of the intersection of the action line
of the resultant, R, with the xz plane.
If R, equal to is zero, the resultant is either zero or a couple
having the indicated moments about the z and x axes. One convenient
way of showing a resultant couple on a sketch is to place an upward
force on one moment axis and an equal downward force on the other
moment axis, so spaced as to produce the proper resultant moments.
If, for example,
= 0, SM, = 120 ft-lb @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
= 80 ft-lb ft— ,
the resultant couple can be indicated as in Fig. 2-13. Any other couple
having the same characteristics could, of course, be used to indicate the
resultant. The magnitude of the moment of the resultant couple is

M = 40(3.02 + 2.02)* = 144.2 ft-lb.
Example 2-5: Determine the resultant of the four parallel forces in Fig. 2-14 and
show it on a sketch. Each space represents 1 ft.
Solution: The forces of the system can be tabulated as

T I
60 75
32 40
92 115
and Eq. (2-9) gives
R = 115 - 92 - 231b
The moments of the forces about the x axis can be tabulated as
3(75) = 2 2 5 1(32) = 32
2(40) = 80 4(60) - 240
305 272,
from which Ri — 305 — 272 = 33 ft-lb —
and = H " 1.435 ft.
The resultant must, therefore, be a downward force intersecting a line parallel to
and 1.435 f t in front of the x axis in order to have the correct moment about the x axis.
The moments of the forces with respect to the z axis can be tabulated as
4(40) 160 1(32) = 32

3(60) = 180
160 212,
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
S2-7J RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS 49
from which R£ - 212 - 160 - 52 ft-lb

and f - H = 2.26 ft.
In order to have the proper moment about the z axis, the resultant must be 2.26 ft
to the left of the z axis. The resultant is thus completely determined and can be
shown on a sketch as indicated in Fig. 2-15.
Rs23,b
Fig. 2-15
PROBLEMS
2-49. Determine the resultant of the parallel, noncoplanar force system repre
sented in Fig. P 2-49 and locate it with respect to the coordinate axes shown in
the figure.
2-50. Determine the resultant of the force system in Fig. P 2-50 and show it
on a sketch of the coordinate system.
2-51. Determine the resultant of the force system in Fig. P 2-51. Show the
resultant on a sketch of the coordinate system.
z
*
Fig. P 2-51 Fig. P 2-52
2-51 Determine the resultant of the parallel, noncoplanar force system in
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Fig. P 2-52 and show it on a sketch of the coordinate system.
2-53. The 25-lb force R in Fig. P 2-53 is the resultant of four forces, three of
which are shown. Determine the fourth force and show it on a sketch.
2-8. Resultant of a system of couples in space. The resultant of any

system of couples in space is a couple. When two couples are in parallel
planes, they ’ can be moved into the same plane by means of the trans
formations of a couple. The forces of one couple can be spaced the same
distance apart as those of the second couple; and if the first couple is
then rotated and translated in the plane, the two forces of the first couple
can be made to be collinear with the corresponding forces of the second
couple. It thus becomes obvious that the resultant of two couples in
the same or in parallel planes is a couple and that the moment of the
resultant couple is the algebraic sum of the moments of the original
couples.
(O) (b)
Fig. 2-16
If the two couples are in nonparallel planes, their resultant is also a
couple. To prove this statement, consider the two couples lying in the
pair of nonparallel planes intersecting along line ab in Fig. 2-16a. By
rotating each of the couples in its plane until the forces are parallel to
ab as shown in Fig. 2-16b a system of parallel, noncoplanar forces is
obtained. The resultant of the four forces can be obtained either from
Eq. (2-9) or by making use of the transformations of a couple. The
resultant cannot be a single force because the sum of the forces is zero;
therefore it is a couple in a plane parallel to the line ab. The exact aspect
of the plane and the moment of the resultant couple are determined from
the moments of the two couples and the angle, 0, between the planes.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
If additional couples are added to the resultant of the first two couples,
similar reasoning leads to the conclusion that the final resultant must also
be a couple. Thus the general principle, that the resultant of any force
system composed of couples is a couple, is demonstrated.
Example 2-6: Determine the resultant of the two couples shown in Fig. 2-17a.
Couple A is in the yz plane and couple B is in the xz plane.
Fig. 2-17
Solution: By means of the transformations of a couple, A is rotated in its plane so
that one of its forces lies along the z axis and B is translated in its plane to such a posi
tion that one of its forces is collinear with, and opposite in sense to, the force of couple
A lying along the z axis as shown in Fig. 2-17b. The forces and moment arm of
couple B are then varied to obtain 60-lb forces without changing the moment. The
two collinear 60-lb forces cancel each other, leaving the 350-ft-lb resultant couple in
Fig. 2-17c.
The resultant couple could also have been obtained by representing each couple
by a vector as explained in Art. 1-8 and combining the couple vectors by the method
discussed in Art. 2-6 for concurrent forces in space.
PROBLEMS
2-54. The block in Fig. P 2-54 is subjected to a pair of couples on the vertical
sides as shown. By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the two
couples by a single couple having the same external effect on the body.
Fig. P 2-54
2-55. Determine the resultant of the two couples in Fig. P 2-55.
2-56. Determine the resultant of the three couples shown in Fig. P 2-56.
Fig. P 2-56
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
2-9. Resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar force

system. The resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar
force system can be a single force or a couple, but in general it is a force
and a couple. It is impossible to reduce a single force and a couple not
in the same or parallel planes to a simpler system. The force and couple
can be resolved into two noncoplanar forces or into a single force with a
line of action parallel to the original force and a different couple. Thus
the resultant can have a variety of forms consisting of different parallel
forces together with couples in various planes. When the force is per
pendicular to the plane of the couple, the resultant is called a screw or
wrench. There is only one screw for a given force system, and therefore
the resultant screw is the one definite form of the resultant of a general
force system in space.
The resultant of any nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar force
system can be obtained by resolving each force into a parallel force
through some common point or origin and a couple. The forces thus
constitute a concurrent force system whose resultant can be determined
as explained in Art. 2-6, and the resultant of the system of couples is a
couple and can be determined by the method indicated in Art. 2-8. If
the resultant couple is not in a plane perpendicular to the resultant
force, it can be resolved into two component couples, one in a plane
perpendicular to the force and the other in a plane parallel to the force.
The couple in a plane parallel to the force can be combined with the
force to produce a single parallel force (see Art. 1-10), which reduces
the force system to a force and a couple in a plane perpendicular to the
force, that is, a screw. This procedure can become quite involved unless
the principles of vector analysis are employed. Since it is not particu
larly useful in elementary mechanics, it will not be discussed further.
It is important, however, to realize that in the general case of a non
coplanar force system, the resultant is a force through any arbitrarily
selected point and a couple in a plane not parallel to the force. To deter
mine the resultant it is necessary to use three force equations to deter
mine the resultant force and three moment equations to obtain the
resultant couple.
2-10. Closure. The possible resultants, other than zero, of force
systems and the procedures for finding them can be summarized as
follows.
The resultant of a concurrent force system is always a single force
through the point of concurrence. Its component in any direction is
equal to the sum of the components of the forces of the system in the
given direction. No moment equations are needed to determine the
resultant completely.
The resultant of a parallel force system, either coplanar or nonco
planar, and of a nonconcurrent, coplanar force system is either a force or
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
a couple. It is a force when the sum of the force components in any direc
tion is different from zero and a couple when the sum of the force com
ponents is equal to zero in every direction. A resultant force can be
located by applying the principle of moments with respect to one or more
axes. When the resultant is a couple, its moment can be determined
by summing moments with respect to one or more axes.
The resultant of any system of couples is a couple, and it can be
determined by means of the transformations of a couple.
The resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar force sys
tem is, in general, a force and a couple. Three force equations and three
moment equations are required to determine the resultant.
The force and string polygon method is the most practical graphical
method for determining the resultant of a coplanar force system.
PROBLEMS
2-57. Determine the resultant of the force system in Fig. P 2-57.

2-59. The x component of the resultant of the four forces in Fig. P 2-59 is
80 lb to the right. Determine the resultant and the force P.
Fig. P 2-59 Fig. P 2 0
2-60. Determine the resultant of the parallel force system in Fig. P 2-60
and show it on a sketch of the coordinate@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
system.
RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS [§2-10
2-61. The cylindrical body in Fig. P 2-61 is acted on by four coplanar forces
as indicated. Determine the resultant of the force system and locate it with
reference to point A.

2-63. The resultant of four parallel forces (one force is not shown) is the 20-lb
force R in Fig. P 2-63. Determine the missing force.
Fig. P 2-63
2-64. Determine the resultant of the parallel force system in Fig. P 2-64 and
show it on a sketch of the coordinate system.
2-66. The 125-lb force in Fig. P 2-66 is the resultant of four forces, three of
which are shown on the diagram. Determine the fourth force.
Fig. P 2-66
2-67. The three forces listed below are concurrent at the origin and are
directed away from it toward the point indicated. Determine the resultant of
the force system. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Force Magnitude x,y,z coordinates of the point
Fi 100 lb 3,4,6
Ft . 751b -2,5, - 7
F. 901b 2,1,2
2-68. The 150-lb force in Fig. P 2-68 is the resultant of five parallel, non-
coplanar forces, three of which are shown. The other two forces are a force P
through point A and force Q which intersects the y axis. Determine forces
P and Q.
2-69. Determine the resultant of the force system in Fig. P 2-69 and show
it on a sketch.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 3
Centroids and Centers of Gravity
3-1. Introduction. The force of attraction of the earth for a particle
is called the weight of the particle. A body consists of a number of par
ticles each of /which has a weight or force of attraction directed toward
the center of the earth. The resultant of this parallel* system of gravi
tational forces in space is the weight of the body. The position of the
resultant weight when a body is in any position can be determined by
means of the principle of moments as indicated in Art. 2-7. If the body
is turned in space, the weights of the various particles do not retain the
same relative positions, and therefore the resultant weight may be in a
different position. The resultant weight does, however, pass through one
point in the body, or the body extended, for all orientations of the body,
and this point is defined as the center of gravity or center of mass\ of the
body. The position of the resultant weight of the body must be found
for two different orientations of the body in order to locate the one com
mon point defined as the center of gravity of the body. Although the
line of action of the resultant of a parallel force system in space can be
located by the two coordinates of the intersection of the action line of the
force with any plane perpendicular to the resultant force, three coordinates
are required to locate the center of gravity of a body (a point in space).
If a homogeneous body has a plane of symmetry, the center of gravity
is in that plane. Similarly the center of gravity of a homogeneous body
is located on any line of symmetry or at a point of symmetry. Thus
any symmetry possessed by a homogeneous body simplifies the work
involved in locating its center of gravity or center of mass.
3-2. The center of gravity of a system of particles. The procedure
for determining the coordinates of the center of gravity of a system of
particles is illustrated in the following example.
Example 3-1: Locate the center of gravity of four small bodies (considered as
particles) arranged as shown in Fig. 3-la.
Solution: The sum of the weights of the bodies is equal to the resultant force
(weight), which is
R = 5.001b I .
When the system is arranged with the y axis vertical as indicated in Fig. 3-la, the
location of the line of action of the resultant can be determined by summing moments
* For ordinary bodies the gravitational forces are essentially parallel.
t There is a negligible difference between the locations of the centers of gravity
and mass of a body because the weight of a particle varies as its distance from the
center of the earth changes. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
56
§3-2] CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 57
Fig. 3-1
about the x and z axes and applying the principle of moments as follows. The sum of
the moments of the weights with respect to the x axis is
M t - 0.50(4) - 2.00 in-lb
from which 2 = ----- — 0.400 in. from the xy plane toward £>.
R
Also - 2.00(6) - 12.00 in-lb
SAfg
from which i =“ — 2.40 in. from the yz plane toward B.
it
The center of gravity is therefore on a line 0.40 in. in front of the xy plane and 2.40 in.
to the right of the yz plane as oriented in Fig. 3-la. The third coordinate of the
center of gravity can be obtained by rotating the system to a different position as in
Fig. 3- lb and again applying the principle of
moments. Thus
SAL - 1.00(3) - 3.00 in-lb
from which
0 “ "ir" “ 0-60 bi. f rom

the xz plane toward C.
The three coordinates locating the center of
gravity, G, of the system are shown in Fig.
3-2. Drawing a sketch to locate the center of gravity of a body will often assist
in detecting obvious errors. The resultant weight of the four bodies A, Bt C t and D
in Fig. 3-la will pass through point G as shown in Fig. 3-2 regardless of the orientation
of the system.
PROBLEMS
3-L Determine the coordinates of the center of gravity of a plane system
of particles which have equal weights and are located at (3,1), (2,4), and (—2,1).
The coordinates are given in inches.
3-2. Determine the coordinates of the center of gravity of the plane system
of particles which have weights of 5 oz, 3 oz, and 2 oz and are located at (2,1),
(1,-4), and (—4,3), respectively. The coordinates are given in inches.
In the next two problems determine the coordinates of the center of gravity
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of the system of particles with weights and coordinates (positions) as listed.
58 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY [§3-3
Particle Weight x,y t z coordinates of position of particle in feet

3-3. A 21b
B 51b
C 31b
3-4. A 1 lb
B 31b
C 41b
3-3. The center of i of a consists of an
infinite number of particles, the determination of the position of the
center of gravity by the method described in Art. 3-2 would be very
cumbersome if not impossible. A
general method of procedure can be
developed by considering the plate
in Fig. 3-3. The resultant weight
of the plate can be determined by
considering the plate to be made up
of an infinite number of small ele
ments each having a weight given by
the expression
dW = yt dA,
where dW is the weight of an element, y is the specific weight of the
material (weight per unit volume), t is the thickness of the plate, and
dA is the area of the element (surface area in xy plane). The total
weight of the plate is
W = fyt dA.
The coordinates of a point on the line of action of the resultant weight
can be determined by the principle of moments. The moment of the
weight of the element about the x axis is
dM x = y dW = yyt dA
and M x = fyyt dA.
The y coordinate of a point on the action line of the resultant is
-y _ M x fyyt dA
~ W ~ fyt dA ■ (3-1)
In a similar manner the x coordinate of a point on the action line of the

resultant is found to be
__ fxyt dA
* ” fyt dA ’ (3-2)
The center of gravity of the body is on a line parallel to the z axis through
the point (5, y). When t and y are constant, z can be obtained by sym
metry. If either t or y is @seismicisolation
a variable, the plate can be rotated so that
@seismicisolation
§3-4J CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 59
either the x axis or the y axis is vertical. Then the principle of moments
gives
dV
5e - n
(3-3)
~fydV’
where dV is equal to dA dt.
3-4. Centroids. If the plate in Fig. 3-3 has a constant thickness and
is homogeneous (has a constant specific weight), the product ty in Eq.
(3-1) and (3-2) can be taken outside the integral signs and eliminated
from the equations, leaving
- JydA fxdA
y ( 3 )
~ -JdA’ * ~ -JdA'
In each of these equations the denominator is the surface area of the
plate in the xy plane and the numerator is called the first moment* Qi
the area with respect to the x or the y axes.
The point located by the coordinates £ and y is defined as the cen
troid of the area of the top surface of the plate. Since an area has no
thickness, the centroid must lie in the plane of the area, and two coordi
nates are sufficient to locate it.
The first moment of an area about an axis is the product of the area
and the coordinate of the centroid measured from that axis. Conse
quently, the moment of an area has the dimensions of L 2 times L or
and has units of in. 8 , ft 8, and so on. The moment of a force about an
axis was designated as clockwise or counterclockwise, depending on the
sense and position of the line of action of the force. An area, however,
is a scalar quantity and has no direction; therefore the sign or sense of
the moment of an area depends only on the moment arm and is considered
to be positive if the area is on one side of the axis and negative if the area
is on the opposite side of the axis.
If an area has an axis of symmetry, the centroid is on that axis; and
if an area has two axes of symmetry, the centroid of the area is the point
of intersection of the two axes.
The principle of moments can be used in a similar manner to locate
the centroids of other geometrical figures such as lines, volumes, and
areas which do not lie in a plane and also to locate the center of mass of
a body. Whereas moments of forces and other vector quantities are
usually obtained with respect to reference lines or axes, the moments of
noncoplanar scalar quantities are usually considered with respect to
planes. Otherwise the moment arm might be in any direction and thus
could not be assigned a positive or negative sign. In fact, the first
moments in Eq. (3-4) can be considered to be with respect to the xz and
yz planes instead of with respect to the x and y axes. A logical generaliza-
* The term “first moment” is used to distinguish this quantity from the second
moment, or moment of inertia, which is discussed in Chapter 6.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
tion may then be made that first moments of vectors are taken with
respect to lines and first moments of scalar quantities with respect to
planes.
In general, the centroid of any geometrical figure (line, area, volume) is
a point in the figure or the figure extended located in such a manner that the
first moment of the figure with respect to any plane is the product of the length,
area, or volume multiplied by the distance from the plane to the centroid.
The first moment with respect to any plane through the centroid is
therefore zero.
Since mass is a scalar quantity, the mass center of a body is located
by summing moments with respect to coordinate planes. The position
of the center of gravity, a point on the action line of the resultant weight
(force), is determined by summing moments with respect to a set of axes.
As noted previously, however, the two points may be used interchange
ably in engineering problems.
The center of gravity of a body and the centroid of the corresponding
volume will coincide when the material of the body is homogeneous. If
the specific weight is variable, the center of gravity of the body and the
centroid of the volume will usually be different.
For example, in a sphere composed of wooden
and steel hemispheres as indicated in Fig. 3-4, the
centroid of the volume is at C, whereas the center
\ wood steel J / y is at G, some distance to the right of C.
\ The term “centroid” is used here in connection
J
with geometrical figures, whereas “mass center”
Fig 3-4 and “center of gravity” refer to physical
bodies.
3-5. Centroids and centers of gravity by integration. Identical
principles are involved in the determination, by integration, of the
coordinates of the centroid of a line, area, or volume of a figure or of
the center of mass or center of gravity of a body. For this reason the
following discussion will be limited principally to areas, and the areas
will be assumed to lie in the xy plane. Sometimes it is possible to deter
mine one or both of the coordinates of the centroid from symmetry, as
for example the coordinates of the centroid of a rectangular or a circular
area.
The location of the centroid of an area by integration involves the
selection and use of an element of that area. The element can usually
be selected in such a manner that only one integration is necessary.
However, sometimes it may be necessary to use double integration or
perhaps triple integration for volumes. The element must be selected
in such a manner that the distance from its centroid to the moment axis
or plane is known. These two rules may help in selecting an appropriate
element: @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
1. When the element is chosen in such a manner that all parts of it
are the same distance from the reference axis or plane, this common
distance is obviously the centroidal distance.
2. When the parts of the element selected are at different distances
from the reference axis or plane, the location of the centroid of the ele
ment must either be known or be readily obtainable by symmetry.
A logical, orderly procedure in the analysis of any problem helps to
develop both a thorough understanding of the subject matter and effi
ciency in solving problems. The following steps are suggested as out
lining such a procedure for determining the coordinates of the centroid
of a figure by integration.
1. On a sketch of the figure draw the selected element and dimension
it completely as shown in the following illustrative examples. When
using double integration, sketch the element and then extend it, with
dashed lines, to indicate the result of the first integration as indicated
in Fig. 3-7.
2. Write an expression for the area (length, volume, or weight) of
the element and simplify the expression as much as possible.
3. Integrate the expression from Step 2 to determine the area. If
double integration is used, particular care in setting up the limits should
be employed.
4. Write an expression for the moment of the element of area with
respect to any desired reference axis (or plane) and simplify the expres
sion as much as possible.
5. Integrate the expression from Step 4 to determine the moment of
the area (length, volume, or weight).
6. Divide the moment from Step 5 by the area (length, volume, or
weight) from Step 3 to obtain the coordinate of the centroid with respect
to the reference axis or plane.
7. Repeat Steps 4 to 6, using different reference axes or planes for
the other coordinates of the centroid.
If the centroid is shown on a sketch approximately to scale, obvious
errors will often be detected.
The following examples illustrate the two types
of elements and the sequence of steps used to
locate the centroid of a figure or the center of
gravity or mass of a body.
Example 3-2: Determine the coordinates of the cen
troid of the circular arc (line) in Fig. 3-5.
Solution: From symmetry, the centroid must lie on a
line through the origin at an angle a / 2 with the x axis; Fig. 3-5
therefore it is necessary to determine only one coordinate of
the cqptroid. The element of length is shown as dL and is dimensioned on the sketch
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
according to Step 1. In this solution the steps are indicated by number for emphasis.
The length of the element is

dL = r dO (Step 2)
The length of the arc, determined by integrating the length of the element, is
r dO =* [r0]o a “ ra. (Step 3)
The angle a is expressed in radians, and the length L could have been obtained
directly from the definition of a radian. The moment of the element with respect to
the y axis is
dMy = x d L = (r cos 0)(r dO) = r* (cos 0) dO. (Step 4)
The moment of the arc with respect to the y axis as determined by integrating the
moment of the element is
r* (cos 0) dO = [r* sin 0]o a — r* sin a. (Step 5)
The x coordinate of the centroid of the arc is determined by dividing the moment
of the arc with respect to the y axis by the length of the arc ; thus
My r 2 sin a r sin a
i - ~r -- --------- -- --------- (Step 6)
L ra a
When the angle a is 90° or r/2 radians, the
x coordinate of the centroid is the same as the y
coordinate (by symmetry) and is
t = y - 2r/w.
Example 3-3: Determine the coordinates of
the centroid of the area in Fig. 3-6 bounded by
the curve y — x* and the line y — x 4- 2. In
the equations x and y axe in inches.
Solution: A vertical element of area is
selected because the same element can be used
for the entire area. If a horizontal element
were chosen it would be necessary to use two
different elements. Note that the element is
completely dimensioned. The area of the element is
dA = (ya — yi) dx = (x 4- 2 — x1 ( dx
e
and the total area is
x’l 2
(z + 2 - x« 4- 2x — - I , = 4.50 sq in.
oJ i
The moment of the element with respect to the y axis is
dM y = x d A » x(x 4- 2 — x 2( dx - (x* + 2x — x’) dx
and the total moment is
Mv = x’) dx
x_’ = 2.25 in.’
3 -1
The x coordinate of the centroid is
i @seismicisolation
=
@seismicisolation
- 0.500 in.
A 4.50
§3-51 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 63
The positive result indicates that the centroid is to the right of the y axis.
The element used above is parallel to the y axis and thus was selected in accordance
with the first rule for selecting the element when determining the moment with
respect to the y axis. If the same element is used to determine the moment about the
x axis, the location of the centroid of the element must be obtained with respect to the
x axis. Since the element is a rectangle, the centroid is at the midpoint, which is a
distance
+ y» - y . = y. + y ?
" 2 2
above the x axis, and the first moment of the element with respect to the x axis is
dA - 5 (x* + 4z + 4 - z<) dx.

£ £
The moment of the entire area about the x axis is
M . - 5 f 2 (x« + 4x + 4 - x‘) dx
£ J 1
1 r a:* "12
“ S R- + 2x« + ~ = 7.20 in?
2L3 5 J-i
The y coordinate of the centroid is
. M, 7.20 , .
W
" T ” 4 50 ” 1-600
The centroid of the area is 0.500 in. to the right of the y axis and 1.600 in. above the
x axis. Double integrals could also be used to good advantage in solving this prob
lem. The solution of the problem by the use of double integrals is left as an exercise
for the student.
Example 3-4: Locate the centroid of the semicircular area in Fig. 3-7.
Solution: By symmetry, the centroid must be on the y axis ; therefore it is necessary

only to determine y. The element of area is approximately a rectangle of length dr
and width r dO, and the area of the element is
dA — r do dr.
It is not necessary to integrate this expression for the area, since the area of a
semicircle is
A = rr«/2.
The centroidal distance from the x axis to the element is
y — r sin 9
and the moment of the element with respect to the x axis is
dM x • y d A — (r@seismicisolation
sin 9)(r d9 dr).
@seismicisolation
64 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY [53-5
The moment of the entire area about the x axis is
) ) r*sinedrd0 — ) sin 0 d0 *= (— cos 0) 1 =

Jo Jo Jo L 3 Jo L 3 Jo 3
From the principle of moments, the y coordinate of the centroid is
. M. 4R
y
“ A “ 3r‘
Example 3-5: Determine the coordinates of the center of mass of the frustrum
of a homogeneous right circular cone shown in Fig. 3-8.
P 4" I
i
Fig. 3-8
Solution: By symmetry, £ and y are both zero. In order to determine the z
coordinate of the mass center, the moment of the mass of the cone with respect to
the xy plane is needed. A thin circular disk of radius x and thickness dz is selected
as the element of mass because all parts of it are the same distance from the xy plane.
The mass of this element is
dm — p dV “ prx* dz
where p is the density, (mass per unit volume) of the material of the body and dV is
the volume of the element. The relationship between x and z may be obtained from
similar triangles as
z
------- 6 ,
= -------
4 - x 4 - 1
g
from which x = 4 — -•
The mass of the element then becomes
)16 — 4z 4 —z*\
4/
I dz
and the total mass of the body is
m = pr 16 — 4z dz «■42pr.
The moment of the mass of the element with respect to the xy plane is
= z dm = pr )16z — 4z* +— ( dz
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and the moment of the body is
re / z i\
“ pr I ) 16z — 4z* ~ ) dz ■ Sips-.
JO X 4/
From the principle of moments, the z coordinate of the mass center is
2 - Mf? „ 1.930 in.

m 42pr
above the xy plane.
If the material in the body had not been homogeneous, the density, p, would
have been a variable and could not have been taken outside the integral sign. In
this case the problem could not be solved without first obtaining the law relating the
density and the coordinates of any point in the body.
PROBLEMS
3-5. Determine by integration the coordinates of the center of gravity of a thin
homogeneous triangular plate bounded by the line x + 2y = 9 and the coordinate
axes. In the equation x and y are measured in inches.
3-6. Determine the y coordinate of the centroid of the area of the general
triangle in Fig. P 3-6.
3-7. What is the x coordinate of the centroid of the arc of the curve in Fig.
P 3-7 from A to D? In the equation x and y are measured in inches.
3-8. Determine the y coordinate of the centroid of the arc of the upper half
of the hypocycloid in Fig. P 3-8.
Fig. P 3-8
3-9. Locate the centroid of the area bounded by the curve y — bx*/a\ the
line x — a, and the x axis.
3-10. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area bounded by the
curve y = x l (x and y are in ft) and the @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
lines y = 0 and x = 1 ft.
3-11. What are the coordinates of the centroid of the shaded area shown in
Fig. P 3-11 ? In the equation x and y are in inches.
3-12. A thin homogeneous elliptical plate is divided into four equal pieces by
cutting along the lines of symmetry of the plate. Determine the coordinates of
the center of gravity of one of the pieces. The dimensions of the piece are shown
in Fig. P 3-12.
Fig. P 3-13
3-13. Compute the coordinates of the centroid of the shaded area in Fig.
P 3-13.
3-14. Locate the centroid of the area bounded by the curves y* = ax and
a*y = x3 .
3-15. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area in the first
quadrant bounded by the curve r = 10 sin 20 (see Fig. P 3-15).
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
3-16. Locate the center of mass of a solid homogeneous hemispherical body of

radius r and density p,
3-17. Locate the centroid of the volume of a right circular cone of altitude
h and radius r.
3-18. The area in Fig. P 3-18, bounded by the curve y* = x3 (x and y in feet)
and the lines x = 2 ft and y = 0, is revolved about the x axis to generate a homo
geneous solid. Determine the coordinates of the center of mass of the body.
3-19. A homogeneous body has the volume generated by rotating the shaded
area in Fig. P 3-19 about the line x = 2 in. Determine the coordinates of the
mass center of the body.
3-20. Determine the coordinates of the mass center of a homogeneous body

having the volume generated by revolving the area in Fig. P 3-20 about the line
x = 5 in.
3-2L The specific weight of the material of a long slender rod of uniform
cross section and of length L varies directly as the square of the distance from the
left end. Determine the location of the center of gravity of the rod.
3-22. The specific weight of the material of a right circular cone of height h
varies directly as the square of the distance of any particle from the base. Deter
mine the position of the center of gravity of the cone.
3-6. Centroids and centers of gravity by composite parts. The
centroid or center of gravity of any figure or body can be obtained by
means of the principle of moments if the area, weight, and so on, and the
moment of these factors about any axis or plane can be determined.
Frequently an area can be divided into two or more simple rectangles,
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
triangles, circles, or other shapes whose areas and centroidal coordinates
can be readily obtained. In this case the resultant or total area is the
sum of the separate areas (if some parts are removed the corresponding
areas must be subtracted), and the resultant moment about any axis or
plane is the algebraic sum of the moments of the component areas.
This method avoids the necessity for integration where the area and
centroid of each part of the figure are known. Of course the principle
applies to lines, volumes, weights, and masses as well as to areas. In
using this method it is desirable to indicate clearly on a sketch the sepa
rate parts into which the figure is resolved. The following examples
illustrate the method.
Example 3-6: Locate the center of gravity of the homogeneous uniform wire
ABCD shown in Fig. 3-9.
Solution: The wire is made up of the three straight sections AB, BC, and CD.
Since the wire is uniform and homogeneous, the center of gravity is the same as the
centroid of the line. The length and coordinates of the centroid of each section are
shown in Fig. 3-9. The total length is
L = 3 + 5 + 2 = 10in.
The first moment of the length of the wire with respect to the y axis is
M v - 3(1.5) + 5(5) + 2(7) = 4.5 + 25 + 14 = 43.5 in.«
The x coordinate of the centroid as determined by the principle of moments is
f = My
_* = 43.5 .
—— = 4.35 .
m.
L 10
Similarly, the moment with respect to the x axis is
Mx 3(5) 4- 5(3.5) + 2(1) - 15 4- 17.5 4- 2 = 34.5 in. 1
and the y coordinate of the centroid is
y =
T = Io' = 345 in-
The center of gravity of the wire is showm as point G in Fig. 3-9.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Example 3-7: Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the shaded area in
Fig. 3-10.
Fig. 3-10
Solution: The composite area in Fig. 3-10 is divided into two right triangles
A and B, a large rectangle C, and a small rectangle D t whose area is to be removed.
All necessary data for each area is arranged in a compact and convenient form in the
following table:
Symbol used Area in x coordinate M v in y coordinate in

in sketch sq in. of centroid cu in. of centroid cu in.
A 27 3 81 2 54
B 9 7 63 2 18
C 48 3 144 -2 -96
D -12 4.5 -54 -1 12
Total 72 234 -12
The coordinates of the centroid can be obtained by applying the principle of

moments for areas. They are
3.25 in.
A 72
— 12
and y —— ■■ —0.1667 in. or 0.1667 in. below the x axis.
72
Example 3-8: The composite body in Fig. 3-11 consists of the 322-lb homogeneous
cylindrical disk A , the 257.6-lb homogeneous slender rod BC, and the 64.4-lb homo-
Fia. @seismicisolation
3-11
@seismicisolation
70 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY I §3-6
geneous slender rod CD. The xy plane is a plane of symmetry, and the diameters of
the rods may be neglected. Determine the coordinates of the center of mass of the
composite body.
Solution: The z coordinate of the mass center of the body is zero, by symmetry.
The mass of a body can be determined by dividing its weight by the acceleration of
gravity, that is, the acceleration the weight would produce if it were the only force
acting on the body (see Art. 1-11). Thus the total mass of the composite body is
322 257 6 64 4
m = + + 20 lbrSec
322 327 327 ” * Per foot = 20 slugs
-
The moment of the mass of the body with respect to the yz plane is
= 10( - 5) 4- 8(2) + 2(7) = -20slug-ft
and the x coordinate of the centroid is
-20
£ = ---- =
m 77 “ “ l f t
or 1 ft to the left of the yz plane. Similarly the moment of the mass with respect to
the xz plane is
= 10(0) + 8(0) + 2(2) = 4 slug-ft
and the y coordinate of the centroid is
= 0.2 ft.
m “ 20
PROBLEMS
3-23. A homogeneous slender bar of negligible width is bent into an angle as
shown in Fig. P 3-23. Determine the coordinates of its center of gravity.
3-24. Locate the centroid of the area in Fig. P 3-24 with respect to the given
axes. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
53-6] CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 71
3-25. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area in Fig. P 3-25.
3-26. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area in Fig. P 3-26.
3-27. Locate the centroid of the area shown in Fig. P 3-27.
Fig. P 3-28
3-28. Locate the centroid of the shaded area in Fig. P 3-28 with respect to the
AB axis.
3-29. Determine the x coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area in Fig.
P 3-29.
Fig. P 3-29 Fig. P 3-30

3-30. For the shaded area shown in Fig. P 3-30, determine the coordinates of
the centroid. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
72 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY
3-31. Locate the centroid of the shaded area in
Fig. P 3-31 with respect to the given axes.
3-32. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of
the area in Fig. P 3-32.
n 1-5 r
Fig. P 3-31
3-33. Determine the x coordinate of the centroid of the area in Fig. P 3-33.
In the equation x and y are in inches.
3-34. For the shaded area shown in Fig. P 3-34, determine the coordinates of
the centroid.
3-35. The area in Fig. P 3-35 is bounded by the curve y 2 = 9 — 3x, the y axis,
and the line y = 2x — 6. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the area.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation Fig. P 3-36
3-36. A thin sheet of metal made up of two triangles and a square is bent to
the shape shown in Fig. P 3-36. The isosceles triangle is in the yz plane, the right
triangle is in the xy plane, and the square is in the xz plane. Determine the
coordinates of the centroid of the area of the plate.
3-37. The two homogeneous uniform rods A and B in Fig. P 3-37 weigh 20 lb
and 14 lb, respectively. Determine the coordinates of the center of gravity of
the composite body. Neglect the diameter of the rods.
3-38. Figure P 3-38 represents a long slender 300-lb rod with two spheres
attached to its ends in such positions that the xy plane is a plane of symmetry.
The large sphere weighs 720 lb, and the small sphere weighs 80 lb. The bodies
are all homogeneous, and the rod has a constant cross-sectional area. Determine
the coordinates of the mass center of the composite body.
3-39. Bodies A, B, and C in Fig. P 3-39 are connected in such positions that
the xy plane is a plane of symmetry for the composite body. Bar A weighs 30 lb,
cylinder B weighs 250 lb, and bar C weighs 120 lb. All three bodies are homo
geneous. Determine the coordinates of the mass center of the composite body.
3-40. A uniform slender homogeneous wire is bent to the shape shown in

Fig. P 3-40. The semicircular section ABC is in the yz plane, and the straight
section CD is in the xz plane. Determine the coordinates of the mass center of
the wire.
3-7. Theorems or propositions of Pappus. * Sometimes it is necessary
to determine the surface area or volume of a solid of revolution, that is,
* Sometimes called the theorems of Guldinus t after Paul Guldin (1577-1643),
a Swiss mathematician who republished them without reference to, and possibly
@seismicisolation
without knowledge of, the original work of Pappus (about a.d. 380).
@seismicisolation
a figure generated by rotating a plane curve or area about a line in the
plane. Disk wheels and pulleys are familiar examples of solids of revolu
tion. In order to compute the amount of paint required to cover the
pulley or the weight of the pulley, it would be necessary to obtain the
surface area or the volume of the pulley. The theorems or propositions
of Pappus can be used to determine the surface area or volume of any
solid of revolution.
The first proposition of Pappus states that the surface area of any
solid of revolution is the product of the length of the generating curve multi
plied by the distance traveled by the centroid of the arc of the curve.
The second proposition of Pappus states that the volume of any solid
of revolution is the product of the generating area and the distance traveled
by the centroid of the area.
In each case the generating figure must not cross the axis of rotation.
The first proposition of Pappus can be proved as follows. The plane
curve BC of length L in Fig. 3-12 is rotated about the x axis through any
angle 0 of 2r radians or less to generate a surface of revolution, and y

is the distance of the centroid of the arc BC from the x axis. As the arc
BC is rotated the element of length dL generates the shaded strip whose
length is Gy and whose area is
dA = Gy dL.
The total area generated is
A = GfydL = GyL,
since fy dL is equal to yL from the principle of moments. The quantity

Gy is equal to the distance traveled by the centroid of the generating arc
BC. Thus the first proposition is demonstrated, that is,
)SurfaceX
area /
/lengthX /distance traveled by the
\of arc / \centroid of the arc
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The second proposition of Pappus can be proved as follows. The

plane area A in Fig. 3-13 is revolved about the x axis through any angle B
less than or equal to 2t radians. The element of area dA generates an

element of volume whose length is By and whose volume is
dV = BydA,
from which V = Bfy dA = By A.
The factor y in the preceding expression is the distance from the x axis
to the centroid of the generating area, and the quantity By is the distance
traveled by the centroid, thus demonstrating the second proposition.
Although the theorems of Pappus generally are used to determine the
surface area or volume of a solid of revolution when the properties of the
generating figure are known, they are also useful for locating the centroid
of an arc or area when the length or area of the generating figure and the
surface area or volume of the generated figure are known. The following
examples illustrate the use of the theorems of Pappus.
Example 3-9: By means of the first proposition of Pappus, determine the lateral
area of the frustum the right circular cone in Fig. 3-14.
Solution: By symmetry, the x coordinate of the centroid of the generating line is

2.5 in., and the y coordinate is 3.0 in. The length of the generating line is \/3 2 + 6* in.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
76 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY (§3-7
From the theorem, the lateral area is

A = L(2r£) = V3’ 4- 6 2(2t2.5) = 105.4 sq in.
This result gives only the curved surface area and excludes the area of the bases (the
ends) of the frustum.
Example 3-10: By means of the second proposition of Pappus, locate the centroid
of a semicircular area.
Solution: Let the semicircular area of Fig. 3-15 be revolved around the x axis to
generate a sphere. The volume of the sphere is Itt 2, and the area of the semicircle is
far*. By the second theorem, the volume is
F - 4 M,
from which firr 2 = jirr 2 2nry
. 4r
or v =
3?
and by symmetry, x = 0.
PROBLEMS
3-41. By means of one of the theorems of Pappus, locate the centroid of a
semicircular arc.
3-42. Determine the surface area of a right circular cone of radius r and
altitude A, using the first proposition of Pappus. *
3-43. The circular area in Fig. P 3-43 is revolved about the x axis, generating
a torus or anchor ring. By use of the first proposition of Pappus, determine the
surface area of the torus.
3-44. By means of the second proposition of Pappus, determine the volume

of the torus of Problem 3-43.
3-45. Determine the volume of a right circular cone of radius r and altitude
A. using one of the theorems@seismicisolation
of Pappus.
@seismicisolation
§3-81 CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 77
3-46. The shaded area in Fig. P 3-46 represents the cross section of the rim
of a steel flywheel. Steel has a specific weight of 0.283 lb per cu in. Determine
the weight of the rim of the flywheel.
3-47. The composite area in Fig. P 3-47 is revolved about the x axis to gener
ate a solid of revolution. Determine the volume of the solid.
3-8. Center of pressure. When a force is exerted on a body over a

small area, the force is called a concentrated force and is assumed to act
at a point. Frequently a force is exerted on a body over a large area,
in which case it is called a distributed force or pressure. The effect of
grain on the floor and walls of a grain bin, of water on a dam, and of
wind on the side of a building are examples of distributed forces. The
distributed force or pressure can be considered to be a number of con
centrated forces each acting on a small part of the surface. Usually
these forces act normal to the surface, and for a plane surface they con
stitute a parallel force system. The resultant pressure can, therefore,
be obtained by the method described in Art. 2-7. If the force is the
same on all equal elements of area no matter how small the elements,
the pressure is said to be uniform, and the resultant force acts at the
centroid of the plane area. If the force is not the same on equal elements
of area, the pressure is variable, and the line of action of the resultant
force must be determined by the principle of moments. The intersection
of the line of action of the resultant of the distributed force system and the
plane on which it acts is known as the center of pressure.
A load-distribution or pressure diagram showing the variation of the
intensity of the distributed force is often useful in determining the result
ant force. When the pressure varies in only one direction, as for example
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the load on a floor beam, the load distribution diagram can be drawn as
shown in Fig. 3-16. The ordinate of the diagram indicates the intensity
of the load in pounds per foot or similar units. The load dF on an ele
ment of length of the beam dx is
dF = q d x
and the total load is
The moment of the resultant force about an axis through 0 is

Mo = j x d F = j*' xq dx
and the location of the resultant can be determined by means of the
principle of moments as
. Mo
X
~ F'
By analogy, it is apparent that the equation for the magnitude of the
resultant force would also give the area under the load-distribution dia
gram and that the moment of the resultant force about an axis through
0 is the same as the moment of the area of the pressure diagram with
respect to the q axis. Therefore the resultant force is represented by the
area under the load-distribution diagram and passes through the cen
troid of the area of the diagram. .
When the intensity of the distributed force varies over an area instead
of in a single direction, for example the pressure on the floor of a grain
bin, the pressure diagram becomes a volume as in Fig. 3-17 instead of an
area. The distributed pressure is applied to the area in the xy plane
and the ordinate, g, represents the intensity of the force per unit area in
psf or similar units. The element of force dF on the element of area dA
is equal to the volume of the element; that is,
dF = q d A
and the total force is
F =$ q d A
which is equal to the volume of the pressure solid.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation The resultant force
can be located by means of the principle of moments, and it intersects
the centroid of the pressure volume. The following example illustrates
the procedure for determining the resultant of a distributed force system.
Example 3-11: Sand is piled in a bin in such a manner that the load on lhe floor
beams varies from zero at the left end to 1000 lb per ft at the right end as shown in
Fig. 3-18. Determine the magnitude of the resultant load on the beam and locate its
line of action.
Solution: The intensity of the applied load in lb per ft is indicated by the ordinate,
q, of the load-distribution diagram in Fig. 3-18. The pressure is assumed to be con
stant over a short length of the beam dx, and the force on that length is equal to the
product of the pressure (in lb per ft) and the length dx (in ft) :
dF » q dx.
In order to determine the tqtal force on the beam, the pressure must be expressed
as a function of the distance x along the beam. In this case (from similar triangles)
q 1000
x “ 12
and • F - 60001b j. .
Jo 12 L 12 2 Jo
The moment of the force dF about an axis at A is
d M i — xdF — xqdx “ x —— - x dx
12
and the resultant moment is
„ 1000 f 12 s lOOOfs’P
A/a = -77T / x dx = —— — I = 48,000 ft-lb J .
12 JO 12 L 3 Jo
i
The distance from A to the resultant as determined by the principle of moments is
. x,™■Ma =” 48,000
----- o It.
F 6000
The resultant force could have been determined more easily in this example from
the area of the pressure diagram and the position of its centroid. Thus the resultant
force is
F = area - i(1000)(12) =- 6000 lb ].
The force F passes through the centroid of the area, which for a triangle is two-thirds
of the distance from the vertex to the base, or 8 ft from A in this example.
When the load-distribution diagram is a composite area, each component area
can be replaced by a single force at the centroid of the appropriate area. The resultant
load is the resultant of these forces. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
PROBLEMS
3-48. Determine the resultant of the distributed load in Fig. P 3-48.
3-49. Determine the resultant of the distributed load in Fig. P 3-49.

3-50. A distributed load on a beam has the distribution shown in Fig. P 3-50.
The right portion of the diagram is a quadrant of a circle. Determine the
resultant of the distributed load.
3-51. A beam 12 ft long is subjected to a pressure that varies as indicated in

Fig. P 3-51. The pressure, q, is in lb per linear ft, and the distance z, in ft is
measured from the left end of the beam. Determine the resultant of the dis
tributed load.
3-52. The water pressure (in psf) at any point on the side of an open tank is ■
equal to the weight of a column of water one sq ft in area, extending from the
point to the water surface. Water weighs approximately 62.4 lb per cu ft. The
gate in Fig. P 3-52 is a rectangle 4 ft wide.
(a) Compute the total pressure of the* water on the gate.
(b) Locate the center of pressure of the water on the gate.
*2777727
Fig. P 3-52
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
J3-8] CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY 81
3-53. Using the information concerning the variation in water pressure from
Problem 3-52, determine the total pressure and locate the center of pressure of the
water on an isosceles-triangular sluice gate 4 ft wide by 6 ft deep. The base of
the triangle is at the water surface, and the vertex is 6 ft below the center of
the base.
REVIEW PROBLEMS
curve y = x*— 4 (x and y are in inches) and the line y = 5 in.
3-55. A solid of revolution is formed by revolving the area in Fig. P 3-55
about the x axis. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the volume.
3-56. A column is made by riveting together the two angles in Fig. P 3-56.
Determine the coordinates of the centroid of their cross-sectional area.
3-57. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the volume generated by
revolving about the y axis the area bounded by the cubical parabola y = x3 ,
the line x = 2 in., and the x axis. In the equation x and y are in inches.
curve y = x* — 4 and the line y = x 4- 8. In the equations x and y are in
inches.
3-59. Determine the position of the centroid of the shaded area of Fig. P 3-59.
3-60. Determine the volume generated when the circle r = cos Q of Fig.
P 3-60 is revolved about the y axis. Use (a) an integration process; (b) a theorem
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of Pappus.
3-61. Locate the centroid of the area bounded by the curves y* = Sax and
x* = ay.
3-62. Determine the coordinates of the centroid of the shaded area in Fig.
P 3-62.
3-63. Determine the y coordinate of the centroid of the shaded area in Fig.
P 3-63.
3-64. The specific weight of the material of a circular rod of uniform cross
section varies directly as the square root of the distance from the left end of the
rod. Determine the coordinates of the center of gravity of the rod.
3-65. The equation of the cardioid in Fig. P 3-65 is r = 1 + cos 0. Deter
mine the coordinates of the centroid of the area bounded by the cardioid.
3-66. The homogeneous body of Fig. P 3-66 consists of a rectangular prism

and half of a cylinder. The axis of the hole is parallel to the x axis. Determine
the coordinates of the mass @seismicisolation
center of the body.
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 4
Equilibrium
4-1. Equilibrium. When a system of forces acting on a body has no
resultant, the system of forces is said to be in equilibrium, and the body
on which the force system acts is also in equilibrium. A force system
which is in equilibrium is frequently called a balanced force system. As
indicated by Newton’s first law of motion, any body in equilibrium will
remain at rest if it is initially at rest or will move with a constant velocity
if it is not initially at rest. In Chapter 2 the resultant of each type of
force system studied was determined by obtaining the sum of the forces
of the system in certain directions and the sum of the moments of the
forces with respect to certain axes. When all these sums are zgro for any
particular force system, its resultant is zero and the system is in equilib
rium. The conditions assuring equilibrium of a particular type of force
system can therefore be expressed as a set of algebraic equations which
must be satisfied. For coplanar force systems the graphic requirements
for equilibrium, on the basis of the force and string polygon method, are
that both polygons close. By means of these conditions, either algebraic
or graphic, it is possible to determine one or more unknown forces or
reactions acting on a body which is in equilibrium. The number of
forces which can be determined depends on the type of force system
involved. The algebraic solution may be applied to any type of force
system, whereas the graphic solution is most useful when applied to
coplanar force systems. The two methods are sometimes applied to the
same problem, one to provide an independent check of the other. The
principal emphasis in this text will be placed on the algebraic solution,
with only a limited discussion of the graphical solution. A more com
plete discussion of the graphical solution of problems in equilibrium can
be found in texts on the theory of structural design.
In order to study the force system acting upon any body or any por
tion of a body, first it is necessary to recognize completely what forces,
both known and unknown, act on the body. After the forces acting on a
given body have been identified, it is possible to determine the type of
force system involved as well as the number of unknowns in the force
system. The omission of existing forces or the inclusion of nonexisting
forces in a force system is both a serious and a common source of difficulty
in statics. The development of a method for the correct identification
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of every force acting on a body in a given situation is essential for success
83
84
Name of Body to
Sketch of Reacting Bodies Action of Body Removed Description
Be Removed
@seismicisolation
Always a single force per
@seismicisolation
Smooth surface pendicular to the smooth
surface
EQUILIBRIUM
Always a force perpendicu

lar to the surface on
which roller can roll
A force through the pin at

an unknown angle; usu
Smooth pin ally shown as two inde
pendent components
[54-1
Name of Body to §4-1]
Be Removed Sketch of Reacting Bodies Action of Body Removed Description
A force normal to the shaft

Smooth bearing on a at an unknown angle;
shaft usually shown as two
independent components
Pin or runner in a A force normal to the guide

smooth guide or slot or slot
EQUILIBRIUM
Ball support A single force normal to the

contact surface
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
A force at the ball at an
Ball and socket unknown angle; usually
shown as three inde
pendent components.
85
86 EQUILIBRIUM [§4-2
in the study of equilibrium. The next article is devoted to an explana

tion of a procedure for recognizing correctly and showing on a diagram
all the forces acting on a body under any existing set of conditions.
4-2. Free-body diagrams. A free-body diagram is a sketch of a body
(or a portion of a body) completely isolated or free from all other bodies,
showing the forces exerted by all other bodies on the one being considered.
A free-body diagram has three essential characteristics: (1) it is a dia
gram or sketch of the body; (2) the body is shown completely separated
(isolated, cut free) from all other bodies including foundations, supports,
and so on; and (3) the action on the body of each body removed in the
isolating process is shown as a force or forces on the diagram.
Each force in a complete free-body diagram should be labeled either
with its known magnitude or with a letter when it is unknown. The
sense of unknown forces, when not obvious at a glance, may be assumed and
corrected later if found to be incorrect. The slope or angle of inclination
of all forces not obviously horizontal or vertical should be indicated.
Too many dimensions on a free-body diagram may be confusing; con
sequently, it may be advantageous to show on the diagram only unknown
distances to be determined in the solution.
A free-body diagram as defined and explained in the preceding para
graphs is an invaluable aid in identifying correctly all the forces that act
on a given body in a given case. In order to draw a free-body diagram,
the type of force exerted on a body by each type of connection or contact
must be known. The tabulation on pp. 84-85 indicates how the action of
a few bodies or connections can be represented by a force or forces on
a free-body diagram when the bodies or connections are removed.
Other connections will often be encountered, but these are the most
common. A knife-edge, is frequently used as either a roller or a
pin, but it will not be used as either one in this text.
Example 4-1 : Draw a free-body diagram of the 1000-lb body in Fig. 4-la. The pin
at A and the surface at B are smooth.
Solution: Figure 4- lb is the free-body diagram.
(o) 9 (b)
Fig. 4-1
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
$4-3] EQUILIBRIUM 87
PROBLEMS
All pins and surfaces are to be considered smooth in the following problems.
4-1. Member AB in Fig. P 4-1 weighs 200 lb. Draw a free-body diagram of
AB.
Fig. P 4-1 Fig. P 4-2

4-2. Neglect the weights of the members in Fig. P 4-2. Draw a free-body
diagram of bar CDE.
4-3. Cylinder A in Fig. P 4-3 weighs 400 lb, B weighs 600 lb, and C weighs
900 lb. Draw a free-body diagram of C.
I. 6* _1 5 * I
ZZZZZZZXZZZZZ. <ZZZZZZZ/ZZZ
Fig. P 4-3 Fig. P 4-4

4-4. Draw a free-body diagram of member ABC of Fig. P 4-4. Neglect the
weights of the members.
4-3. Equations of equilibrium for a concurrent, coplanar force system.
The resultant of a concurrent, coplanar force system
is a single force through the point of concurrence
(see Art. 2-3). When this resultant force is zero,
the force system is in equilibrium. The equations
necessary to ensure a zero resultant are the equations
of equilibrium.
Consider the force system shown in Fig. 4-2. If
the sum of the x components of the forces of the
system is equal to zero, the resultant can act only
along the y axis. If, in addition, the@seismicisolation
sum of the y
@seismicisolation
components of the forces of the system is equal to zero, the resultant must
be zero. Consequently, one complete set of equations of equilibrium fora
concurrent, coplanar force system is
2F X = 0, ZFV = 0. (4-1)
Again, if the sum of the x components of the forces of the system is
equal to zero, the resultant can be only a force along the y axis; and if
the sum of the moments of the forces of the system with respect to an
axis through A is equal to zero where A is any point not on the y axis,
the resultant will be zero because the moment arm from A to the y axis
is not zero. Thus, another set of equations which assure equilibrium
for this system is
XF x = 0, 2 M a = 0, (4-2)
where A is not on the y axis.
In a similar manner, a third set of independent equations can be
shown to be
SJf a = 0, SJfs = 0, (4-3)
where line AB does not pass through the point of concurrence of the forces
of the system. The proof is left as an exercise for the student.
Regardless of which set of equations is used in a given situation, there
are only two independent equations of equilibrium for a concurrent,
coplanar force system. When a force system of this type contains not
more than two unknowns (two magnitudes, one magnitude and one slope,
or two slopes), they can be determined directly from the equations of
equilibrium. When a concurrent, coplanar force system contains more
than two unknowns, they cannot all be determined from the equations
of equilibrium alone (although one unknown can sometimes be deter
mined), and the force system is said to be statically indeterminate.
For a collinear force system, Eq. (4-1) reduces to one equation,
= 0,
where the x axis is parallel to the forces. Likewise, Eq. (4-2) can be
reduced to the equation
= 0,
where A is not on the action line of the forces of the collinear system.
Consequently, only one unknown can be determined when a collinear
force system is in equilibrium.
When three nonparallel forces are in equilibrium, they are concurrent
and coplanar. This statement or theorem can frequently be used to
advantage in determining the location of the point of intersection of three
forces in equilibrium, the slope of an unknown force, and so on. To
prove the theorem, consider the 114-lb block A of Fig. 4-3a, which is
@seismicisolation
held in equilibrium on @seismicisolation
the smooth plane by the horizontal force P
§4-41 EQUILIBRIUM 89
Block A is held in equilibrium by three forces as indicated in Fig. 4-3b.

Any two nonparallel, coplanar forces such as P and the weight must
intersect, and their resultant is a single force through the point of inter
section of their action lines. This resultant and any third force such as N
will be in equilibrium only if the resultant and N are equal in magnitude,
of opposite sense, and collinear. In order for them to be collinear, the
third force must pass through the point of intersection of the other two
forces. This requirement proves that any three nonparallel, coplanar
forces in equilibrium are concurrent. In general, the resultant reaction
of a plane on a block can act anywhere along the block, but in this case
it must act through E.
(b)
Fig. 4-3
4-4. General procedure for the solution of problems in equilibrium.

One of the important abilities the successful engineer must develop is a
logical, orderly method of attacking a problem. The following sequence
of steps is designed to aid in organizing the analysis and solution of any
problem in equilibrium. It is not considered desirable that these steps
be memorized but rather that they be used as a guide to help develop
an orderly procedure in analyzing equilibrium problems. The steps are
listed in the order in which they should be performed in the solution.
Step-by-Step Procedure
1. Determine carefully what data are given and what results are
required.
2. Draw a free-body diagram of the member or group of members on
which some or all of the unknown forces are acting.
3. Observe the type of force system which acts on the free-body dia
gram drawn.
4. Note the number of independent equations of equilibrium available
for the type of force system involved.
5. Compare the number of unknowns on the free-body diagram with
the number of independent equations of equilibrium available for the
force system.
6. (a) If there are as many independent equations of equilibrium as
unknowns, proceed with the solution by writing and solving the equations
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of equilibrium.
(b) If there are more unknowns* to be evaluated than independent
equations of equilibrium available, draw a free-body diagram of another
body and repeat Steps 3, 4, and 5 for the second free-body diagram
drawn.
7. (a) If there are as many independent equations of equilibrium as
unknowns for the second free-body diagram, proceed with the solution
by writing and solving the necessary equations of equilibrium.
(b) If there are more unknowns to be evaluated than independent
equations of equilibrium for the second free-body diagram, compare the
total number of unknowns on both free-body diagrams with the total
number of independent equations of equilibrium available for both
diagrams.
8. If there are as many independent equations of equilibrium as
unknowns for both diagrams, proceed to solve the problem by writing
and solving the equations of equilibrium. If there are more unknowns
than independent equations of equilibrium, repeat Steps 6b and 7. If
there are still too many unknowns after as many free-body diagrams have
been drawn as there are individual bodies in the problem, then the prob
lem is statically indeterminate; that is, not all the unknowns can be
evaluated by statics alone.
The selection of the most desirable member or combination of mem
bers for Step 2 is largely a matter of experience. Sometimes free-body
diagrams of each separate member are required and the initial choice is
of no consequence. In other instances a free-body diagram of two or
more members as a unit may provide the best approach. Free-body
diagrams can be quickly and easily drawn, and when the most direct
approach is not readily apparent the beginner will probably be better
advised to draw several free-body diagrams and check Steps 3, 4, and 5
than to spend too much time trying to decide where to start.
Many students become confused and fail to obtain the solution of a
problem in equilibrium by writing equations that are not independent
before making the analysis indicated in Steps 3, 4, and 5 to see that
additional free-body diagrams are necessary. This frequently means a
waste of time and effort in attempting the impossible.
The method of procedure for determining algebraically the unknown
forces in a concurrent, coplanar force system known to be in equilibrium
is illustrated in the following examples, in which the steps outlined above
will be referred to by number for brevity. The sense of each unknown
force is assumed. The magnitude of the result will be the same whether
the sense is assumed correctly or incorrectly. If the algebraic sign of the
* Special cases may arise in which certain unknowns (but never all of them) may be
evaluated even though there are more unknowns than independent equations of
equilibrium. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
result is positive, the assumed sense is correct, whereas a negative sign
indicates that the correct sense is opposite to that assumed.
Example 4-2: The 300-lb shaft A and the 500-lb shaft B are supported as shown in
Fig. 4-4a. Neglecting friction at the contact surfaces C, D, E, and F, determine the
reactions at E and F on shaft B.
(c)
Fig. 4-4
Solution: Step 1 is contained in the statement of the problem. Since the desired
forces act on body B, a free-body diagram, Fig. 4-4b, of body B is drawn for Step 2.
The force system acting on B is a concurrent, coplanar system (Step 3), and there are
only two independent equations of equilibrium for such a system (Step 4). The
system contains three unknowns (Step 5), the magnitudes of forces Dt Et and F.
Since there are more unknowns than equations of equilibrium, the unknown magni
tudes cannot all be determined from this free-body diagram.
The next step (6b) is to draw a free-body diagram of body A as in Fig. 4-4c. Notice
that the force exerted by shaft A on B*is shown as the force D downward to the left in
Fig. 4-4b, whereas the force exerted by shaft B on A is shown as the force D upward
to the right in Fig. 4-4c. These forces are equal in magnitude, collinear, and opposite
in sense as indicated by Newton’s third law of motion, which states that for every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The concurrent, coplanar force system on body A has two independent equations
of equilibrium and contains only two unknowns, the magnitudes of forces C and D.
Force D can therefore be determined from the free-body diagram in Fig. 4-4c, and
there will be only two unknown forces remaining on the free-body diagram of body B
with two equations of equilibrium available. Thus the analysis of the problem is
complete. From the free-body diagram of A in Fig. 4-4c, the vertical components of
the forces are
t 1
D sin 40® 300,
from which D sin 40° - 300
and 40* on A.
D - 467 lb@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
T
92 EQUILIBRIUM [$4-4
From the free-body diagram of B in Fig. 4-4b, the vertical components of the forces are
T 1
F 500
D sin 40°
F = 500 4- D sin 40°,
from which F = 800 lb T on B.
Also from the free-body diagram of B, the horizontal components of the forces are
E D cos 40°,
from which E = 467 cos 40° = 358 lb on B,
PROBLEMS
4-5. The block of ice in Fig. P 4-5 weighs 100 lb and is in equilibrium. The
inclined plane upon which the block rests is smooth. Determine all unknown
forces acting on the body.
4-6. The homogeneous body of Fig. P 4-6 weighs 100 lb and rests on the
smooth inclined plane. Determine all unknown forces acting on the body.
4-7. In Fig. P 4-7, the 120-lb sphere rests against the smooth walls as shown.
Determine the reaction of the wall at A on the sphere.
Fig. P 4-7
4-8. In Fig. P 4-8, an 80-lb sphere rests against the smooth plane and is held
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§4-5] EQUILIBRIUM 93
in position by means of a cord. Determine all unknown forces acting on the
sphere.
4-9. Determine the tensile stresses in the cords A, B, C f and D supporting
the 100-lb weight in Fig. P 4-9.
Fig. P 4-9 Fig. P 4-10
4-10. The two steel shafts in Fig. P 4-10 have the same diameter and weigh
100 lb each. Neglecting friction at contact surfaces A, B, C t and D, determine
the reaction of the wall at A on the lower shaft.
4-11. In Fig. P 4-11, bodies A and B remain at rest on smooth planes. The
weight of body A is 200 lb. Determine the weight of body B and all of
the other unknown forces acting upon it. Neglect the friction of the pin on the
pulley C.
c
Fig. P4-11 Fig. P 4-12
4-12. The bodies A and B of Fig. P 4-12 weigh 80 lb and 100 lb, respectively,
and are in equilibrium. Determine the angles a and 0. Consider all surfaces of
contact to be smooth.
4-5. Graphical solution of a concurrent, coplanar force system in
equilibrium. The resultant of a concurrent, coplanar force system can be
determined graphically, by means of a force polygon (see Art. 2-3), as
the vector from the tail of the first force vector to the tip of the last one.
The resultant is zero if the tip of the last vector coincides with the tail
of the first one, that is, if the force polygon closes. Thus the graphic
condition for the equilibrium of a concurrent, coplanar force system is
that the force polygon must close.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
94 EQUILIBRIUM IW-6
Example 4-3: Solve Example 4-2 graphically.
Solution: The free-body diagrams for the two bodies are shown in Fig. 4-5a. Bow’s
notation is used for indicating the forces. Two lower-case letters are used for each
force on the space diagram, and the known forces are labeled first. Since there are
three unknowns on body B, they cannot be determined from body B alone; so the
forces on body A (with only two unknowns) are determined first. Figure 4-5b is the
force diagram for body A. The force A B is laid off to the indicated scale and labeled
with capital letters. The other two forces have known slopes and must form a closed
polygon. The force be in Fig. 4-5a will be represented on a horizontal line through
B in Fig. 4-5b, and the force ca will be on a line through A in Fig. 4-5b, making an
angle of 40° with the horizontal. The intersection of these two lines locates point C,
and the magnitudes of the forces be and ca are obtained from the lengths BC and CA.
In a similar manner, the force polygon for body B, Fig. 4-5c, may be drawn to deter
mine the two forces ef and fc. Point F on the force polygon is located at the inter
section of a vertical line through E and a horizontal line through C. The two force
diagrams, Fig. 4-5b and c, could have been superimposed by drawing CD collinear
with AC. The two forces ef and fcas determined graphically are
ef = 800 lb on B as shown
and fc = 360 lb on B as shown.
The accuracy of results determined graphically will depend on the size of the scale
used and the care exercised in laying off the various lengths and angles.
PROBLEMS
4-6. Equilibrium of a parallel, coplanar force system. The resultant

of a parallel, coplanar force system is either a single force parallel to the
forces of the system or a couple as indicated in Art. 2-4. The equations
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of equilibrium for a parallel, coplanar force system are the equations
which prove that all possible resultants are zero. Consider the force
system of Fig. 4-6. If the sum of the moments of the forces of the
system with respect to A is equal to zero, where A y
is any point in the plane, the resultant cannot be a ---------». Fi
couple but may be a force passing through A . If, in .8
addition, the sum of the x components of the forces ___
of the system is equal to zero the resultant cannot _______ _
be a force. Therefore the resultant is zero, and 7a
SJf A = 0, =0 (4-4)
-------- F4
are a complete set of equations of equilibrium for
a parallel, coplanar force system.
Again, if the sum of the moments of the forces of the system with
respect to A is equal to zero, the only possible resultant is a force through
A. If, in addition, the sum of the moments of the forces of the system
with respect to some other point B is also equal to zero, where the line
AB is not parallel to the forces of the system, the resultant force must
pass through B. However, a force through both A and B would not
be parallel to the forces of the system and could not, therefore, be a
resultant of the system. This proves that
ZMa = 0, ZM b = 0, (4-5)
where AB is not parallel to the forces of the system, are a complete set
of equations of equilibrium for a parallel, coplanar force system.
Either set of equations, (4-4) or (4-5), provides only two independent
equations of equilibrium for a parallel, coplanar force system. Thus,
when a force system of this type contains not more than two unknowns
(two magnitudes, one position and one magnitude, or two positions),
they can be determined directly from the equations of equilibrium. If
there are more than two unknowns in the parallel force system (shown on
the free-body diagram), the system is statically indeterminate and the
unknowns cannot be determined from the equations of equilibrium for
this free-body diagram alone. Frequently it is possible to draw one or
more additional free-body diagrams of other bodies involving some of the
same unknown forces. If the total number of unknown forces does not
exceed the total number of independent equations of equilibrium that
can be written after a separate free-body diagram has been drawn for
each body of the system, the unknown forces can all be determined.
Sometimes it is advantageous to replace one or more of the free-body
diagrams of individual members by a corresponding number of free-body
diagrams of combinations of two or more of the members in order to
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@seismicisolation
obtain equations of equilibrium that are easier to solve for the desired
unknowns. If there are more unknowns than independent equations,
however, the system is statically indeterminate, and the unknowns
cannot all be determined from statics alone. Methods for solving such
systems are presented in courses in mechanics of materials, structures,
and so on.
The following example illustrates the method of procedure for deter
mining the unknown reactions in a parallel, coplanar force system known
to be in equilibrium. As was stated in Art. 4-4, the sense of each unknown
force can be assumed. The magnitude of the result will be the same
whether the assumed sense is correct or incorrect. If the algebraic sign
of the result is positive, the assumed sense is correct, whereas a negative
sign indicates that the correct sense is opposite to that assumed.
Example 4-4: Beam CD of Fig. 4-7a carries a distributed load which varies uni
formly from 900 lb per f t at C to 200 lb per f t at D. Neglecting the weights of the
beams, determine the reactions at A and B on the lower beam.
Fig. 4-7
Solution: Step 1 is contained in the statement of the problem. Since the desired
forces act on beam AB, a free-body diagram of AB is drawn in Fig. 4-7b as Step 2.
The x component of the reaction at B is zero because there is no other force with a
horizontal component acting on AB; consequently, the remaining forces constitute a
parallel, coplanar force system (Step 3). There are only two independent equations
of equilibrium (Step 4), and the system contains three unknown forces (Step 5).
Therefore it is necessary to draw another free-body diagram. The free-body diagram
(Step 6b) of beam CD in Fig. 4-7c shows the distributed load treated as a uniformly
distributed load of 200 lb per ft with a resultant of 2400 lb at the mid-point of CD
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and a triangular loading varying from 700 lb per ft at the left end to zero at the right
end. The resultant of the variable load is 4200 lb acting 4 ft from C (see Art. 3-8).
The x component of the reaction at D is zero because there are no other forces with
horizontal components acting on CD; thus the remaining forces constitute a parallel
coplanar system with two independent equations of equilibrium. Since Dx is equal
to zero, the free-body diagram contains only two unknowns, which can be readily
determined from the equations of equilibrium. When the force C has been deter
mined, the free-body diagram of A B can be used to obtain the desired reactions. Thus
the problem is analyzed. From the free-body diagram of C D in Fig. 4-7c, the moments
of the forces with respect to D are tabulated as
12C 4200(8) = 33,600

2400(6) = 14,400
12C 48,000
from which 12C = 48,000
and C = 4000 lb 1 on AB.
From the free-body diagram of A B in Fig. 4-7b, the sum of the moments with
respect to B gives
6A 2C,
from which 6A = 2C = 8000
and A - 1333 lb | on AB.
Also from the free-body diagram of AB, the sum of the moments with respect to A
gives
6B, 4C,
from which 6B V = 4C = 16,000
and By — 2670 lb f on AB.
A quick and convenient check can be obtained by determining the sum of the forces
in the y direction.
T I
2670 4000
1333
4003 = 4000 (check)
PROBLEMS
4-16. Determine the reactions at A and B on the beam in Fig. P 4-16.
Neglect the weight of the member.
Fig. P 4-16
4-17. The bar in Fig. P 4-17 is held in equilibrium by the three forces shown
and two forces acting along the lines ab and cd. Determine the magnitudes and
senses of the two unknown forces. Neglect the weight of the member.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
98 EQUILIBRIUM
4-18. Body A in Fig. P 4-18 weighs 1000 lb, and the uniform homogeneous
member BC weighs 200 lb. Determine the reactions at D and B on the member
BC.
Fig. P 4-18
4-19. If the force P exerted on each of the tongs in Fig. P 4-19 is 16.50 lb,
determine the gripping force on body A.
4-20. In Fig. P 4-20, determine the reactions on the
beams at A, B, and D. Neglect the weights of the
members.
4-21. The weights of the pulleys in Fig. P 4-21 may
be neglected. The body A weighs 120 lb. Determine
the weight of B necessary to maintain the system in
equilibrium.
4-22. The members in Fig. P 4-22 are connected by pins at A, C, and D.

Determine the reactions on the members at the points A, B, F, and E due to the
three loads. Neglect the weights of the members.
3 ------
4-23. Determine the reactions at A and G on the Pratt roof truss shown in
Fig. P 4-23. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-24. The fork lift truck in Fig. P 4-24a is used for loading and stacking
materials. The truck weighs 9800 lb and has a rated capacity of 7500 lb when
the distance, d, from the mass center of the load to the back of the fork is 21 in.
(b)
Fig. P 4-24
(see Fig. P 4-24b). Assume that a load 30 per cent greater than the rated load
applied as indicated would just cause the rear wheel to lift off the ground.
(a) Locate the center of gravity of the unloaded truck.
(b) Determine the reaction of the ground on each of the two front
wheels when the truck is loaded to its rated capacity.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-25. The two beams AB and CD in Fig. P 4-25, each weighing 200 lb, are
supported by a pin at A and a roller at C and are connected by a pin at B and a
roller at E. A distributed load is applied to CD as shown. Determine the
reaction of the roller at E on AB.
4-7. Graphical solution of a parallel, coplanar force system in equilib

rium. When the resultant of a parallel, coplanar force system is deter
mined graphically, the magnitude of the resultant (if a force) is the vector
drawn from the tail of the first vector to the tip of the last one in the force
diagram (see Art. 2-4). Consequently, if the force diagram closes, the
resultant cannot be a single force. If the resultant is a couple, however,
the force diagram will close, but the first and last strings on the space
diagram (representing the action lines of the component forces) will not
be collinear. The resultant cannot be a couple if the strings on the
space diagram are collinear because the distance between the forces will
then be zero. The graphic conditions for equilibrium of a parallel,
coplanar force system are that the force polygon and the space or string
polygon must close. The following example illustrates the graphical
solution of a parallel, coplanar force system in equilibrium.
Example 4-5: Determine graphically the reactions on the beam in Fig. 4-8.
Neglect the weight of the beam.
Fig. 4-8
Solution: The space diagram is drawn to scale in Fig. 4-9a, and the forces are
labeled with lower-case letters starting with ad, 6c, and cd for the known forces, and
de and ea for the unknown reactions. The last force is labeled ea, since the force
polygon must close, and the end of the last force must coincide with the start of the
first one. The forces AB, BC, and CD are drawn to scale on the force diagram in
Fig. 4-9b. The reactions DE and E A must be along the same line, but their magni
tudes cannot be determined until point E is located. The pole O is selected at any
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
convenient point (ODA has been selected in this case to be approximately an equi
lateral triangle), and the rays OA, OB, OC, and OD are drawn. Starting at any
point on one of the forces in the space diagram, draw the strings oa, ob, oc, and od
connecting the corresponding forces. The string oe must intersect the forces de and ea,
and it can be drawn on the space diagram connecting the intersections of the lines
(o) (b)
Fig. 4-9
oa and ae and of od and de. The ray OE is parallel to the string oe and passes through
the pole 0. The intersection of this line with the line DA locates point E, and the
reactions which are determined by measuring DE and EA are
DE - 8300 lb T through K, EA - 2700 lb f through J .
PROBLEMS
4-8. Equilibrium of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar force

system. The resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar force
system is either a single force or a couple (see Art. 2-5). The equations
which eliminate all possible resultants constitute a complete set of equa
tions of equilibrium. If the sum of the moments of the forces of the
system with respect to A is equal to zero, where A is any axis perpendicu
lar to the plane of the forces or any point in the plane, the resultant
cannot be a couple. Furthermore, if a resultant force exists, it must
pass through point A. If, in addition, the sum of the x components of
the forces of the system is equal to zero, where the x and y axes are in the
plane of the forces, the only possible resultant is a force perpendicular to
the x axis through A. Finally, if the sum of the y components of the
forces of the system is equal to zero, all possible resultants are eliminated.
Therefore
M a = 0, SFx@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
= 0, 2F y = 0* (4-6)
are a complete set of independent equations of equilibrium for a noncon
current, nonparallel, coplanar force system.
Again, if the sum of the moments of the forces of the system with
respect to A is equal to zero, where A is any point in the plane, the
resultant can be only a force through A. If the sum of the moments of
the forces of the system with respect to B is also equal to zero, where B
is any other point in the plane, the resultant can be only a force along the
line connecting A and B, Finally, if the sum of the x components of
the forces of the system is equal to zero, where the x axis is in the plane
of the forces and is not perpendicular to the line AB, there is no possible
resultant. Therefore
ZM a = 0, ZM b = 0, = 0 (4-7)
are another complete set of equations of equilibrium for a nonconcurrent,
nonparallel, coplanar force system, provided the line A B is not per
pendicular to the x axis.
Another complete set of equations of equilibrium for this system can
be written as
= 0, ZM b = 0, ZM C = 0, (4-8)
where points A, B, and C are not collinear. The proof that these equa
tions are sufficient to ensure equilibrium is left as an exercise for the
student.
Regardless of which set of equations is used, there are only three
independent equations of equilibrium for a nonconcurrent, nonparallel,
coplanar force system because only three equations were required to
ensure equilibrium in each case. This information is needed for Step
4 of the procedure outlined in Art. 4-4. The following examples illus
trate the use of the preceding equations, together with the procedure
outlined in Art. 4-4.
Example 4-6: Body G in Fig. 4-10a, weighs 1500 lb, and the weights of all other
members can be neglected. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of
the force exerted by the pin at A on member AB. Friction may be neglected at all
contact surfaces. The roller E is pinned to the member AB.
Solution: The steps outlined in the procedure explained in Art. 4-4 will be indi
cated here for ready reference.
All weights, slopes, and dimensions are given, and the horizontal and vertical
components of the reaction at A on AB are wanted (Step 1). The free-body diagram
of member A B is shown in Fig. 4-10b (Step 2). The nonconcurrent, nonparallel,
coplahar force system (Step 3) has three independent equations of equilibrium (Step 4)
and contains five unknown forces (Step 5). Therefore another free-body diagram is
required.
The force system in the free-body diagram of member C D in Fig. 4-10c is a non
concurrent, nonparallel, coplanar system having three equations of equilibrium and
five unknowns (Step 6). The two free-body diagrams contain nine unknowns with
only six equations of equilibrium (Step 7b); therefore a free-body diagram of the
pulley D, Fig. 4-10d, is needed (Step 8). As drawn, the force system in Fig. 4-10d
is a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, @seismicisolation
coplanar system having three equations of equilibrium
@seismicisolation
and three unknowns. These three unknowns can be determined from the free-body
diagram of the pulley, leaving only three unknowns on the free-body diagram of CD.
After it is solved, only three unknowns will remain on the free-body diagram of AB.
Therefore the analysis is complete, and the remainder of the solution follows.
(b)
Fig. 4-10
When the equation
ZM d = 0
is written for the free-body diagram of Fig. 4-10d, the result is
T — 1500 lb as shown.
When the equation
= 0
Dx — J T =» 1200 lb —♦ on the pulley — 1200 lb <— on C D .
When the equation

SF W = 0
T I
Dv 1500
I T _____________
DV + I T ~ 1500
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and D9 =" 600 lb f on the pulley ” 600 lb 1 on C D .
From the equation

SMc - 0
for the free-body diagram of Fig. 4-10c, the result is
5E 6D„
8D„
8£>, + 5£ = 6D.
and 5E - 6(1200) - 8(600) - 2400.
Thus E = 480 lb on C D = 480 lb on AB.
From the equation
ZFV = 0
for the free-body diagram of Fig. 4- 10b, the result is
I T
IT tE
Ay
A v 4- I T - IE
from which A v = f (480) - 1(1500) = -516 - 516 lb f on AB through A .
The equation
Z M p «= 0
for the free-body diagram of Fig. 4-10b gives
*T(2.25) = 2700 A x 10
I E (5) = 1440
4140 = 10A x
and A, » 414 lb —* on AB through A.
Example 4-7: The tension in the spring in the pin-connected structure shown in
Fig. 4-1 la is 540 lb. The weights of the members and friction at all contact surfaces
can be neglected. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the pin
reaction at B on member EB.
Solution: Here again the steps suggested in Art. 4-4 will be indicated.
All angles, dimensions, and applied loads are given or can be readily obtained from
the given data, and the horizontal and vertical components of force B on member
EB are to be determined (Step 1). The free-body diagram of body EB is shown in
Fig. 4-1 lb (Step 2). The nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar force system (Step
3) has three independent equations of equilibrium (Step 4) and four unknowns
(Step 5). The free-body diagram of the entire structure is shown in Fig. 4-1 1c
(Step 6b). The noncurrent, nonparallel, coplanar force system has three equations
of equilibrium and four unknowns.
The two free-body diagrams contain a total of six unknowns, and six equations
of ‘ equilibrium are available; therefore the analysis is complete (Step 7). The
remainder of the solution follows. From the free-body diagram of the entire structure,
the equation
ZM a = 0
becomes £ x (6 tan 36° 4- 6 tan 42°) 0

1120(8)
9.76£ x 4- 8960 = 0
from which Ex =@seismicisolation
—918 lb = 918 lb <— on EB.
@seismicisolation
From the free-body diagram of EB, the relation
- 0
becomes Bx “ Ex — —918
or Bx — 918 lb -* on EB through B.
Attention is called to the negative results obtained for Ex and Bx . The negative
sign means that the sense of each of these forces was assumed wrong. When the value
of Eg was used to obtain Bx , the negative value was used as obtained and the free-body
(c)
Fig. 4-11
diagrams were not altered. In case either of these results is used in another equation,
the negative result must be used as calculated.
An alternate method of procedure when the sense of one or more unknown forces
has been assumed wrong is to circle the incorrect arrowheads and show the correct
sense on all free-body diagrams involved. In this procedure the negative result must
be used in any equations written before the changes were made, and positive values
must be used in equations written after the changes were made.
From the free-body diagram of Fig. 4-1 lb, the relation
ZM e = 0
becomes 540(2) = 1080 0
B,(6 tan 42°) » -4960
B y (6) — 6B V
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
- 3880 = 6,
from which 623v «= 3880

and 3, — 647 lb J, through B on member BE.
PROBLEMS
4-29. The center of gravity of the 50-lb ladder in Fig. P 4-29 is 8 ft from the
bottom measured along the ladder. Friction at all surfaces of contact may be
neglected. Determine the reaction at A and the horizontal and vertical com
ponents of the reaction at B on the ladder.
4-30. The airplane control stick in Fig. P 4-30 weighs 4 lb and is subjected to
a force of 50 lb. Determine:
(a) The resultant pull of the control stick on the elevator cable.
(b) The horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at 0
on the control stick.
4-31. In Fig. P 4-31, determine the horizontal and vertical components of
the reaction at A on member AB and the tension in the cord BC. Neglect the
weight of the member.
4-32. The weight of the bar AC in Fig. P 4-32 can be neglected, and all sur
faces of contact are smooth. Determine the reaction at B and the horizontal
and vertical components of the reaction at A on bar AC.
4-33. A passenger vessel has an arrangement for suspending its lifeboats by
supports at their ends similar to that shown in Fig. P 4-33. There is a socket
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@seismicisolation
at 0 and a smooth journal through the deck rail at M . A flexible cord passes
over the locked pulley. The boat fully loaded weighs 5000 lb. Determine the
resultant reaction at M and at 0 on one of the two supports for the boat. Con
sider the load concentrated at the mid-point of the boat.
4-34. The cross section of a concrete gravity dam is shown in Fig. P 4-34.
The forces exerted by the fluid on a cross section 1 ft in length are indicated on
the diagram. The vertical force is the uplift due to seepage. If the concrete
weighs 150 lb per cu ft, determine the resultant reaction of the ground on the
1-ft length of the dam.
4-35. In the pin-connected structure of Fig. P 4-35, neglect the weights of all
members. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction
of the pin on the wall bracket at A.
Fig. P 4-35 Fig. P 4-36
4-36. Block A in Fig. P 4-36 weighs 100 lb and block B weighs 200 lb. The
surfaces between A and B and between B and the plane are smooth. Determine
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the force P necessary to hold bodies A and B in equilibrium.
108 EQUILIBRIUM (§«
4-37. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the pin reactions
at A and D on the member AB in Fig. P 4-37. The weights of all the members
can be neglected.
4-38. In Fig. P 4-38, the body F weighs 500 lb, and the weights of all other
members can be neglected. Determine the horizontal and vertical components
of the pin reactions at C and E on the member CD.
4-39. In the pin-connected structure of Fig. P 4-39, determine the horizontal

and vertical components of the pin reactions at A and C on member AC. Body
E weighs 3600 lb. Neglect the weights of all other members.
Fig. P 4-39
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-40. The adjustable pliers in Fig. P 4-40 are used to produce greater pres
sures between the jaws than can be achieved with ordinary pliers. They can
also be used as a clamp or wrench, since they lock when the handles are pulled
together. Determine the force Q on each handle necessary to produce a pressure
between the jaws of 500 lb, that is, with the forces P each equal to 500 lb.
4-41. The two homogeneous triangular plates of uniform thickness in Fig.

P 4-41 are in a vertical plane and are connected by a smooth pin at C. Deter
mine the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction of the pin C on plate
ABC. The plates weigh 10 psf.
4-42. In the pin-connected structure of Fig. P 4-42, a roller at B on

member AB is free to slide in a smooth slot in member CD. The body Q weighs
1600 lb, and the weights of all other members may be neglected. Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at C on member CD.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-43. The homogeneous block ABCD of uniform thickness in Fig. P 4-43

weighs 5000 lb, and member CE weighs100 lb. A clockwise couple acts on ABCD
and a 300-lb force acts on EC as shown. Determine the horizontal and vertical
components of the pin reaction at A on ABCD,
B
Fig. P 4-44
4-44. In the coplanar structure of Fig. P 4-44, the weights of all members
can be neglected. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
force at B on the member BC.
y 4-45. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the pin reactions
at A and B on the member AE of the structure in Fig. P 4-45. The weights of
the members are as follows: DF, 200 lb; DB, 80 lb; AE t 150 lb; CB (cable), negligi
ble. The cable is attached to the pin at B,
4-46. Body A in Fig. P 4-46 weighs 400 lb, and body B weighs 300 lb. All
surfaces of contact are smooth. Determine the forces acting on body B at C
and D,
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-47. In the pin-connected assembly shown in Fig. P 4-47, the weights all of
of the pin reactions at A and B on the member AB.
4-48. The continuous rigid member ABCE is loaded and supported as shown
in Fig. P 4-48. The weights of the members may be neglected. Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at D on member BDF.
4-49. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction of
pin D on the member AG Qi the pin-connected frame of Fig. P 4-49. Neglect
the weights of all members.
4-50. A pin-connected structure is shown in Fig. P 4-50. The 1200-lb body

A is smooth. Determine the tension in the cord and the horizontal and vertical
@seismicisolation
4-50
components of the pin reaction at C on the member GE. Neglect the weights of
the members.
4-51. The 10,000-lb-capacity crane in Fig. P 4-51a is used for moving or
loading crates and similar objects. Figure P 4-51 b gives some of the details of
the boom of the crane. The crane is supporting a crate weighing 4000 lb. Deter
mine the reactions of the pins at A and B on the boom. Neglect the weights of
the members.
(b)
Fig. P 4-51
4-52. The cylindrical tank A, which is supported by the pin-connected
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
structure of Fig. P 4-52, weighs 600 lb, and the weights of the members of the
structure can be neglected. The surfaces of contact at B, D, and E are smooth.

Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force at C on member
BD.
Fig. P 4-52 Fig. P 4-53

4-53. In Fig. P 4-53, the body G weighs 300 lb, and the weights of DF and CE
can be neglected. The horizontal surface at B is smooth. Determine the force
exerted on body G by the plane at B.
4-54. Three rigid members ABC, CDF, and BDE are connected by pins at
B, C, D, and F to form the structure shown in Fig. P 4-54. Neglect the weights
of the members. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the
force at B on member ABC.
Fig. P 4-55
4-55. The uniform bar AB is 10 ft long and weighs 100 lb. The bar is placed
with its ends on smooth inclined planes as shown in Fig. P 4-55. Determine the
angle 0 at which the bar will be in equilibrium.
4-9. Graphical solution of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
force system in equilibrium. Problems involving nonconcurrent, non
parallel, coplanar force systems in equilibrium can also be solved by a
114 EQUILIBRIUM [H-9
graphical method. If the free-body diagram has only three unknown

force characteristics (magnitudes, angles, or locations of points), the pro
cedure is similar to that described for parallel, coplanar force systems in
Art. 4-7. The same principles, of course, apply to both systems. If
the resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar force system is a
force, the force polygon will not close; and if the resultant is a couple, the
force polygon will close but the space or string polygon will not close
If both force and string polygons close, the resultant must be zero; hence
the closures of both polygons are the graphical requirements for equilibrium.
If more than three force characteristics are unknown on each free-body
diagram so that two free-body diagrams must be used simultaneously,
the graphic solution is more involved and will not be discussed here.*
The graphic method will be illustrated in the following example, in
which one reaction has only its magnitude unknown and the other reac
tion has both its magnitude and angle unknown. Since both reactions
pass through known points, the three unknown characteristics are two
magnitudes and one angle.
Example 4-8: Determine graphically the reactions at P and Q on the truss in
Fig. 4-12a.
Fig. 4-12
Solution: The space diagram in Fig. 4-12a shows the three known loads and the two
reactions. Since the reaction at Q is due to a roller, the force must be vertical, but
the magnitude is unknown. The pin at P can be replaced by two component forces
or by a single force acting at an unknown angle. In either case the resultant force
must pass through point P, and it is more convenient to consider the reaction to be a
single force at an unknown angle for the graphical solution. Bow’s notation is used
to designate the various forces, with two lower-case letters being used for each force
on the space diagram. The solution is facilitated by labeling the known forces first
as ab, be, and cd, then the force with the known line of action is labeled de, and finally
* See any structures text such as Fuller. A. H., and F. Kerekes, Analysis and
Design of Steel Structures, pp. 20-21. New York, D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc..
@seismicisolation
the force having only a point on the line of action known is labeled ea. The last force
is labeled ea to indicate that the force polygon must close. It is common practice to
label the forces consecutively by moving around the space diagram in either a clock
wise or a counterclockwise direction (counterclockwise in this instance), making
certain that the last force labeled is the one having only one point on its line of action
known.
The force polygon in Fig. 4-12b is drawn to a convenient scale with the forces
labeled with capital letters corresponding to the lower-case letters used on the space
diagram. The forces AB, BC, and CD can be plotted directly. The force DE must
be a vertical force above or below D, but its magnitude cannot be determined until
point E is located.
A pole 0 is selected at some point on the force diagram (experience will usually
indicate a desirable point which will keep the space diagram on the paper), and the
rays AO, BO, CO, and DO are drawn. The space or string polygon of Fig. 4-12a
(often called the funicular diagram) is then completed. In this connection, the student
should keep in mind that each pair of components must intersect somewhere along
the line of action of the corresponding force. Since the force ea has only one known
point, the diagram should be started there to ensure the intersection of both com
ponents at P. The string oa is drawn parallel to OA from P on ea to ab. The second
string, ob, is drawn from the intersection of oa and ab parallel to OB and connecting
ab and be. The strings oe and od are drawn in a similar manner to connect be with cd
and cd with de. The space diagram is complete except for oe, which must connect
de with ea; and since two points on oe are known, it can be drawn. The other ray
on the force diagram OE can now be drawn through the pole 0 parallel to the string oe,
and the intersection of the lines OE and DE locates point E. The reaction at Q is the
vertical force DE and is equal to 6900 lb upward as scaled from the force diagram.
Similarly, the reaction at P is the inclined force EA and is equal to 11,000 lb upward
and to the left at the angle indicated on the force diagram.
PROBLEMS
4-56. Determine graphically the reactions at A and B on the bar in Problem
4-29.
4-57. Determine graphically the reactions at A and B on the vertical member
in Problem 4-31.
4-10. Trusses. A truss is a structure made up of a number of mem

bers fastened together at their ends in such a manner as to form a rigid
body. A truss may be used to support a larger load or to span a greater
distance than can be done effectively by a single beam or column.
Trusses are frequently used in bridge and in
roof construction. The discussion in this text
will be limited to trusses in which the members,
loads, and reactions are all in the same plane. //
When three members are connected by //
smooth pins at their ends as indicated in Fig. "'"'rf
4-13, they form a rigid structure and will sup-
port a load P. If four members are connected ,n
by smooth pms at their ends as shown in Fig.
4-14a, the resulting structure will not be rigid and will collapse when
a load P is applied. If an additional member from B to D or from
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
A to C is added to the structure, as indicated in Fig. 4-14b, the five mem

bers form a rigid body and will support the load P without collapsing.
The addition of the member BD in Fig. 4-14b reduces the structure to
two triangles, and in general a truss can be constructed by starting with
three members arranged in the form of a triangle and adding members in
noncollinear pairs for each additional joint. The connections at the ends
of the members are usually called joints or panel points.
c
(0) (b)
Fig. 4-14
When the internal forces (stresses) in the individual members of a

truss are to be determined, the calculations are usually based on the fol
lowing assumptions:
1. The members of the truss are joined together by means of smooth
pins at their ends.
2. The loads and reactions act only at the joints.
3. The weights of the individual members can be neglected.
In justifying the truss assumptions, consider the bridge truss in Fig.
4-15. The bridge is on the Santa Fe Railroad and spans the Colorado
River at Topock, Arizona. In order to justify the first assumption, the
joints must consist of smooth pins at the ends of the members only.
In practice the connections are usually made by riveting or welding the
members to gusset plates (see Fig. 4-15), and frequently the top and bot
tom chords are continuous members instead of a series of shorter members
between the various joints. However, if reasonable care is observed in
erecting the truss to make sure that the center lines of all members inter
sect at a common point at each joint, the error in assuming pin connec
tions and noncontinuous members is usually small enough to justify the
first assumption.
The second assumption is valid for most bridges, since the floor or
deck of the bridge is usually supported by cross beams between the two
trusses, and the cross beams are connected to the truss at the joints as
shown in Fig. 4-15. The loads on other trusses such as roof trusses are
also applied at the joints in most cases.
The third assumption requires careful consideration, because it is
rather obvious that the total weight of the members of a large railroad
or highway bridge truss cannot be neglected in comparison to the com-
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@seismicisolation
bined weight of the floor system and the trains or the cars and trucks on
the bridge at any one time. Even in small bridges, roof trusses, and
similar structures, the weight of the truss cannot be neglected. How
ever, structural designers have found that generally the weight of the
Courtesy American Institute of Steel Construction and Santa Fe Railroad
Fig. 4-15
truss can be apportioned as loads at the joints of the truss without serious
error. Therefore it is common practice to assume that the weight of
the truss acts with all other loads on the truss at the joints. No attempt
win be made here to explain the distribution of the weight of a truss to
the joints, since the procedure for calculating the weight is beyond the
scope of this text. Furthermore, the methods of
procedure developed here for determining the
stresses produced by loads at one or more joints
will apply equally well to a truss with loads at
most or all of the joints.
When the preceding assumptions are used for
a truss, each member of the truss has only two
forces acting on it, namely, the actions of the pins
at the two ends of the member. Assume that the
member AB in Fig. 4-16 is held in equilibrium by
the two forces P and Q. These forces can each
be resolved into a pair of perpendicular components acting in any two
mutually perpendicular directions. With Q resolved into two components
parallel and perpendicular to the @seismicisolation
member as shown, the equilibrium
@seismicisolation
118 EQUILIBRIUM [54-11
equation
2M A = 0
indicates that Q y must be zero, since it is the only force having a moment
about A. Therefore the resultant force at B must be Q x along AB, and
similarly the force at A must act along AB. Thus if two forces are in
equilibrium, they must be collinear; furthermore, they must be equal, in
magnitude and opposite in sense. A member with only two forces acting
A on it is called a two-force member.
t= 1
~ ■ — When a two-force member is cut in
0
p two pieces, a free-body diagram of either
AB
’— (b) " piece (see Fig. 4-17) shows that the inter-
nal force, called the stress in the member,
is equal to the load carried by the member
and acts along the axis of the member. As used here, “stress” means the
total internal force on the entire cross-sectional area as distinguished from
unit stress meaning the stress or internal force on a unit area. When the
applied load tends to stretch the member as indicated in Fig. 4-17, the inter
nal force is called a tensile stress. When the load tends to compress the
member, the internal force is called a compressive stress. In determining
stresses in two force members, a complete answer includes an indication
of whether the stress is tensile or compressive, since the design problems
are different for these two types of members.
4-11. Stress analysis of trusses —algebraic. The stresses in the
members of a truss can be determined by drawing a free-body diagram of
a portion of the truss involving one or more of the unknown stresses as
forces and applying the equations
of equilibrium. When a single joint
in the truss is isolated as the free
body, the stresses are said to be
determined by the method of joints.
If two or more nonconcurrent mem
bers are cut to obtain the free body,
then two or more joints will be in
cluded in the free-body diagram,
and the process of obtaining the
stresses is referred to as the method of sections. These two methods are
illustrated in the following discussion.
An inclined chord Pratt bridge truss is shown in Fig. 4-18. The
reactions at A and L can be determined by drawing a free-body diagram
of the entire truss or by symmetry. In either case the reactions are each
5000 lb acting vertically upward. The portion of the truss inside the
dashed line a can be isolated as a free body as shown in Fig. 4-19a. The
action of the parts of the members AB and AC removed from the isolated
joint are shown as the forces AB and AC along the axes of the members,
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@seismicisolation
since they are two-force members. The other force on the free-body
diagram is the 5000-lb reaction. The force system is concurrent and
coplanar. Since such a system has two independent equations of equilib
rium and since two unknown forces are involved, the unknowns can be
determined. The stress AB is assumed to be a compressive stress and
AC is assumed to be a tensile stress. If a negative answer is obtained
for any stress, the result will be correct in magnitude and opposite in
sense to that assumed. If all stresses are assumed to be tensile stresses,
as is frequently done, then a negative answer means a compressive stress.
A free-body diagram of the joint at B is shown in Fig. 4-19b. There
are four forces, representing the four members that are cut away in
isolating the body. Force A B can
be determined from the free-body
diagram in Fig. 4-19a. However,
since the system is concurrent at B,
there are only two independent
equations of equilibrium, and the
three remaining unknown forces
cannot be determined from the
free-body diagram of Fig. 4-19b.
A diagram of the joint at C in Fig.
4-19c has two unknown forces BC
and CE. AC can be determined
from the diagram in Fig. 4-19a;
and when BC is determined, there
will be only two unknown forces in Fig. 4-19
the free-body diagram of joint B.
When the method of joints is used to determine the stresses in the
members of a truss, the first joint considered should have not more than
two unknown forces, and each successive joint must introduce not more
than two new unknowns. Thus, to determine the stress in a member near
the center of the truss, it is usually necessary to determine the stresses in
all the members from one end of the truss to the member in question.
In the special case in which all but one of the unknown members at a joint
are collinear, the stress in the noncollinear member can be determined
by summing forces perpendicular to the unknown collinear members.
When the isolated portion of the truss involves two or more joints
as in the portion included in the dashed lines d or e in Fig. 4-18, the result
ing free-body diagram depicts a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar
force system as indicated in Fig. 4-19d or 4-19e. There are three inde
pendent equations of equilibrium for this type of force system, and
therefore three unknown stresses can be determined. The method of
sections has the advantage that the stress in a member near the center
of the truss usually can be determined @seismicisolation
without first obtaining the stresses
@seismicisolation
in all the other members of the truss to one side of the member, and as a
result the stress is independent of any errors in stresses previously
calculated.
Whether the stresses are determined by the method of joints or by the
method of sections, the free-body diagrams represent bodies which are in
equilibrium, and the principles involved in determining the unknown
forces are the same. As with other problems of equilibrium, a systematic
approach to the solution of problems involving the stresses in members
of a truss is important. It is desirable to draw a free-body diagram of an
isolated portion of the truss and to cut, in the isolating process, one or
more of the members in which the stress is desired. The remaining
procedure for the analysis and solution of the problem is outlined in
Art. 4-4.
Experience in selecting the proper free bodies will frequently reduce
the number of calculations required for determining some of the stresses.
In designing a truss, it is necessary to determine the stresses in all mem
bers, but the fundamental principles can be demonstrated by obtaining
the stresses in only a few of the members. The following example and
problems are chosen to demonstrate the principles rather than to deter
mine all the stresses in each truss.
Example 4-9: Determine the stresses in members ABt ACt DEt and EG of the pin-
connected truss in Fig. 4-18.
Solution: As an aid in deciding which free-body diagram to draw, it is desirable to
identify the members in which the stresses are to be determined by check marks.
In this example the free-body diagram of the joint at A in Fig. 4-19a involves two of
the desired stresses and the 5000-lb reaction (determined from a free-body diagram of
the entire truss). The equation of equilibrium
ZFV = 0
gives | AB = 5000,
from which AB = 6250 lb C.
The result is marked C for “compression,” since the member was assumed to be in
compression on the free-body diagram, and the positive sign of the result indicates
that the assumption was correct.
The equation of equilibrium
SF, = 0
gives AC - i(6250) - 3750 lb T .
The other two stresses to be determined appear in the free-body diagram in
Fig. 4-19e. There are three independent equations of equilibrium for the force system,
and three unknown forces. Since stresses BD and DE act through D, they have no
moment about D. Therefore the stress EG can be determined from the equation
SAfzj » 0
as follows:
30(5000) 25EG
15(2000)
150,000 - 25FG + 30,000
from which EG — 4800 lb
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation T.
The stress, DE, can be determined by summing moments with respect to any
point on the action line of the unknown BD. Whenever possible, it is desirable to
use equations which do not require the use of computed results, to prevent any errors
in previous calculations from affecting subsequent results. The equation
ZMq = 0
does not involve the stresses BD and EG, and it gives
60(2000) 120,000 45(5000) 225,000

75(2000) = 150,000
75(DE) = 75DE
270,000 + 75DE = 225,000
4
from which DE = ~ ;°99 -600 - 6001b T .
75
The negative sign indicates that the assumed sense of the stress (compression)
was incorrect and that the stress is actually a tensile stress.
PROBLEMS
4-59. Determine the stresses in member EF, J K , and I K of the pin-connected
truss in Fig. P 4-59.
Fig. P 4-59
4-60. Determine the stresses in members BC> CG, and BG of the pin-con
nected truss in Fig. P 4-60.
Fig. P 4-60
4-6L In the pin-connected truss of Fig. P 4-61, determine:

(a) The horizontal and vertical components of the reactions on the truss at
A and B.
(b) The stresses in the members GH, DF, and CF.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
122 EQUILIBRIUM (§4-11
Fig. P 4-62
4-62. Determine the stresses in members U 2 U 3, U 2L 3, and U 2L 2 of the Pratt

4-63. In the pin-connected truss of Fig. P 4-63, determine the stresses in the
members GH, GT t and F N ,
Fig. P 4-64
4-64. The truss in Fig. P 4-64 is connected with pins. Determine (a) the
tension in the cable; (b) the components of the reaction on the truss at F; (c) the
stresses in members DF, DG, and FG.
4-65. In the pin-connected truss shown in Fig. P 4-65 determine the stresses
in members BD and BE.
4-66. Determine the stresses in members and of the Howe
truss in Fig. P 4-66. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
U U
J .2 4s ”
33’
L
L L L L
ZW, » , 2 5 , 4 , H L 6 Lfffr
" I T * " Y T 7777777
P P P P P P P
P=25 k ' P
8 ponels ot 27* = 216*
Fig. P 4-66
4-67. In the pin-connected truss of Fig. P 4-67, determine the stresses in

members BE, DE, and DF. The weight of IF is 10,000 lb.
4-68. Determine the stresses in members EG, EH, and FH of the pin-con
nected truss in Fig. P 4-68.
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@seismicisolation
4-69. The steel hoisting cable in Fig. P 4-69 raises a weight of 5 tons at a
constant velocity of 5 fps. Determine the stresses in members BE, BF, and EF
of the truss.
Fig. P 4-69
4-70. Determine the stresses in members AB, BF, DF, and DE of the truss
shown in Fig. P 4-70.
4-71. The turnbuckle on the truss in Fig. P 4-71 is tightened until the tension
on the cable from A to H is 1000 lb. Determine the stresses in the members
AB, DE, BJ, EJ, and I J .
Fig. P 4-72
4-72. In the pin-connected truss of Fig. P 4-72, determine (a) the resultant
reactions of the supports on the truss at A and at E; (b) the stresses in members
BC, BF, and FG. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-73. Determine the stresses in members FG and EF of the Howe roof truss
shown in Fig. P 4-73.
4-74. Determine the stresses in members BC, CF t and FG of the inclined-

chord Pratt truss in Fig. P 4-74.
4-75. Determine the stress in member KQ of the Fink truss of Fig. P 4-75.
5000*
Fig. P 4-75 Fig. P 4-76

4-76. Determine the stress in member MG of the K truss shown in Fig. P 4-76.
4-12. Stress analysis of trusses —graphic. The determination of the

stresses in a truss provides one of the most useful applications of the
graphical method of solving problems in equilibrium. Since each joint
in a truss represents a concurrent force system in equilibrium, the stresses
in the members can be determined by drawing a force polygon for each
joint, provided there are not more than two unknown stresses at any
joint. It is necessary first to determine the reactions by means of either
a graphic or an algebraic solution. A joint having only two members is
force polygon is drawn to determine
selected as a starting point, and the@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the two stresses, which in turn can be used for determining stresses in
members at other joints. The procedure is discussed in Example 4-10.
Example 4-10: Determine the stresses in the members of the truss in Fig. 4-20a.
Solution: Bow’s notation for designating
the members and stresses is convenient in
the graphic analysis of trusses and is used
in the example. Each of the forces on the
truss is indicated by the two lower-case
letters in the spaces on either side of the
force; that is, the load Pi is ab, the reaction
Ri is be, the load P a is cd, and the reaction
Ri is da. The spaces in the truss are
identified with numbers, 1, 2, and 3 in this
instance, and the members of the truss are
referred to by the letter and number on
either side of the member as al for the
inclined member at the left reaction, 62 for
the top member, 63 for the inclined member
at the right reaction, and so on. Capital
letters with numbers are used on the force
diagram to indicate the corresponding loads
and stresses.
The reactions Ri and R* have been de
termined from a free-body diagram of the
entire truss. The force diagram for the
joint at the left reaction is shown in Fig.
4-20b. The line DA, which represents
force Pi, is drawn parallel to Pi and to any
convenient scale. Line A l represents the
stress (internal force) in member al; thus
it is drawn parallel to al. Line I D repre
sents the stress in Id and therefore is drawn
parallel to Id. Point 1 is located as the
intersection of A l and ID. The force
diagram in Fig. 4-20b shows that member
A 1 exerts a force of 8700 lb, represented by
Al, downward to the left on the pin, which
means that the member is in compression.
(f) c3=3800lb T Likewise, member Id exerts a force of
b3 s 62OO lb C
5200 lb, represented by ID, to the right on
Fig. 4-20 the pin, which means that the member is
in tension.
The force polygon for the joint at la62 can be drawn next, since there are only two
unknown forces involved, namely, those in the two members 62 and 21. The force
polygon, Fig. 4-20c, is drawn for the joint by starting with the known forces, repre
sented by 1A and AB, and drawing the lines through B and 1 parallel to 62 and 21,
respectively, to locate point 2 on the force diagram.
Similarly, the stresses in the members at the joints cdl23 and c36 can be obtained
from the force polygons in Fig. 4-20d and 4-20e, respectively. The forces at any joint
can be added in any order without changing the results. However, if the forces at
each joint are included in the same order, either clockwise or counterclockwise around
the joint, the separate force polygons can all be combined into a single diagram as
indicated in Fig. 4-20f. In this example the order in which the forces are included
can be obtained by considering each member or force as it appears in a clockwise
circuit of the joint. The stress in any member can be obtained by considering the
joint at either end of the member. For example, if the stress in member 23 is desired,
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§4-12) EQUILIBRIUM 127
its magnitude is obtained from the length 23 in Fig. 4-20f as 5500 lb. The sense of the
stress, tension or compression, is determined from the direction of the force on the
joint. On the joint cd!23 the member is 23 and not 32 because the clockwise direction
was used in the construction. From Fig. 4-20f, the force 23 is up and to the right on
joint cd!23, which means that member 23 carries a tensile stress. If the joint 632 is
considered, the member is 32 and the force is down and to the left on the joint; that is,
the member is in tension.
A convenient method of showing the sense of the stresses (tension or compression)
is to draw arrows on each of the truss members showing the direction of the force
exerted by the member on the joint at either end (see Fig. 4-20a). A compressive
stress is indicated by an arrow directed toward the pin and a tensile stress by an arrow
directed away from the pin. It is desirable, however, to interpret the results obtained
by specifying the stress in each member as tension or compression, even though the
arrows are shown. The results for the example are tabulated in Fig. 4-20.
The graphic method of determining stresses in all the members of a

truss is usually faster than the algebraic method, especially if odd angles
or slopes are involved and if the moment arms for some of the forces must
be computed. The procedure is to start at one end of the truss and
determine all the stresses from joint to joint. At the next to the last
joint in the truss there will be only one instead of two unknown stresses,
and the closure of the last polygon with a single unknown stress consti
tutes a check of the solution. Frequently the stresses in a truss are
determined by using both a graphic and an algebraic solution to obtain
an independent check.
The principal disadvantages of a graphic determination of the stresses
in a truss are that it is usually necessary to determine a number of
stresses in order to obtain one near the center and that it is necessary to
have facilities available for drawing a fairly large-scale diagram.
PROBLEMS
4-77. Determine graphically the stresses in the members of the Pratt roof
4-78. Determine, by use of the graphical method, the stresses in the members
of the Fink roof truss in Fig. P 4-78.
4-79 —4-83. Solve Problems 4-61, 4-65, 4-70, 4-72, 4-74 graphically.
@seismicisolation
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4-13. Flexible cables. In many engineering structures such as sus

pension bridges and transmission lines, cables which are assumed to be
flexible are suspended between supports and subjected to vertical loads.
Since a flexible cable offers no resistance to bending, the resultant internal
force (total stress) on any cross section of the cable must act along the
tangent to the cable at that section. The resistance to bending offered
by actual cables is usually relatively small and can be neglected without
serious error.
The two common types of assumed load distribution on cables are
(a) load uniformly distributed along the horizontal span and (b) load
uniformly distributed along the cable. The weight of a suspension
bridge roadway is an example of a load which is uniformly distributed
along the horizontal span. Cables loaded uniformly along the span hang
in the shape of parabolas, as will be shown in Art. 4-14. The weight of a
homogeneous cable of constant cross section is an example of a load dis
tributed uniformly along the cable. If the cable is stretched so tightly
that its sag is small compared to its length, its weight can be assumed to
be distributed uniformly along the horizontal span instead of along the
length of the cable without introduc
ing an appreciable error. A cable
loaded uniformly along the cable hangs
in the shape of a catenary, as will be
shown in Art. 4-15. The term sag, as
used here, is the difference :in elevation
between the lowest point on the cable and
(o)
a support. When the supports are not
at the same elevation, the sag measured
from one support will be different from
the sag measured from the other sup
port. The span is the horizontal dis
tance between supports.
4-14. Parabolic cables. LetADB
in Fig. 4-21a be a flexible cable sup
ported and loaded as shown. The
(b) lowest point of the cable, D, is selected
Fig. 4-21
as the origin for the coordinate axes.
A free-body diagram of a portion of the
cable immediately to the right of point D is shown in Fig. 4-21b. The
horizontal tension in the cable at D is denoted by Tn, and the tension at
any other point (coordinates x,y) by T.
The equations of equilibrium
= 0, ZFy = 0
give = T d,
T cos @seismicisolation
0@seismicisolationT sin 0 = qx f (4-9)
H-14] EQUILIBRIUM 129
where q is the load per unit length (measured horizontally). Elimination

of T from these equations gives
tan 0 = 7— (4-10)
1D
Since the slope of the curve is
= tan 0,
ax
Eq. (4-10) becomes
dy = qx_
dx Td (4-11)
When Eq. (4-11) is integrated, the result is
y
2T D
The constant C is determined by the choice of axes. In this case, when
x is equal to zero, y is equal to zero; therefore C is equal to zero, and the
equation of the loaded cable is
V = (4-12)
which is a parabola with its vertex at the lowest point of the cable.
The elimination of 6 from Eq. (4-9) gives
T = (T* + q*x*)* (4-13)
Equation (4-13) shows that the tension in the cable varies from the mini
mum value, Td, at the lowest point in the cable when x is equal to zero,
to maximum values at the supports or towers. By substituting the
values of x and y at the supports in Eq. (4-12) and using Eq. (4-13),
the tensions at the supports are
I a? I
T a = qa y / l + T b = (4-14)
One method of construction of power lines is to pull the wire tight

enough to give the prescribed tension in the cable and then to check the
sag in certain spans to be sure the line is ready to fasten in place. Equa
tions (4-14) can be used to determine the sag for a given tension and
span.
Sometimes it is desirable to determine the length of cable, s, between
the origin and one of the supports. The length of the curve from D to
A, 8 , is given by the following expression as in any calculus text:
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
qa2
From Eq. (4-12), T o and thus
1+
f0 / 7§y‘ fc “ /. <4-15’
J V \2/J
When Eq. (4-15) is integrated directly, the result is a cumbersome hyper
bolic or logarithmic function. A more useful expression for 8a can be
obtained by expanding the integrand by the binomial expansion and
integrating term by term as follows:
a )i
(4-16)
\ 3a 2 5a 4 7a 6
This series converges to the correct length of for all values of f a/ a less
than Similarly, the length of the cable 8c from the origin to the left
support is
Sb 0 1 + 3&2 5fr4 + 7fc6 (4-17)
The series converges to the correct length of sB for all values of fB / b

less than £. Usually the ratio /x/a or fB /b is quite small, and the first
two terms of the series give a sufficiently close approximation to the
actual length.
Example 4-11: A piece of chain weighing 0.500 lb per ft is suspended between two
poles with the same elevation, spaced 20 ft apart. The pull of the chain on the poles
is 8.00 lb. Determine the sag and the length of the chain, assuming the weight to be
uniformly distributed along a horizontal axis.
Solution: In Eq. (4-14),
q = 0.500 lb per ft, a — V = 10 ft
and T/ = 8.00 lb.
Therefore 8.00 - 0.50(10) J l + 4

V /a
and /a = 4.00 ft.
The value of /x/a is 0.400, which assures that the series in Eq. (4-16) is convergent.
Thus
2
8a = 10[l 4- i(0.400) - 2(0.400)* + 1(0.400)® - • • •]
= 10(1 4- 0.1067 - 0.0102 4- 0.0023 - • • •)
= 10(1.099) = 10.99 f t
for half the chain, and the total length of the chain is
=
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
28a 22.0 ft.
PROBLEMS
4-84. A high-voltage transmission, line of No. 6 solid hard-drawn copper wire
which weighs 79.5 lb per 1000 ft is strung on poles of the same elevation with a
horizontal span of 274 ft. When the temperature is 30°F, the sag is 8 ft. Deter
mine, for this temperature, the maximum and minimum tension in the cable
and the length of the cable between two adjacent poles.
4-85. A uniform cable 110 ft long weighing 1 lb per ft is suspended between
two points in the same horizontal plane 100 ft apart. Determine approximately
the sag and the tension in the cable at the supports.
4-86. The center span of the Mid-Hudson Suspension Bridge is 1500 ft. The
design tension in the 16.75-in.-diameter cables is 6000 tons at the towers, and the
sag is 150 ft. Determine the design load per ft on the cable and the length of the
cable for the center span.
4-15. Catenary cables. Let ADB in Fig. 4-22a represent a flexible

cable having a weight of q lb per ft length of cable. The origin is selected
at a distance C below point D to simplify the final results. The distance

C will be determined later. A free-body diagram of the portion of the
cable of length s from D to any point P is shown in Fig. 4-22b. When the
equations of equilibrium are applied to the free-body diagram, the results
are
T cos B = T D , T sin 6 = qs. (4-18)
When T is eliminated from Eq. (4-18), the result is
tan B = or@seismicisolation
s = — tan B,
@seismicisolation
(4-19)
Id q
which is the equation of the curve in terms of s and 0 and the constants
q and Td. The equation may be written in terms of Cartesian coordi
nates by using the following relationship, which applies to any plane
curve:
dy dy ds . ds
d 0 ~ dstt~ dff
since is equal to sin 0 for the curve in Fig. 4-22b.
ds 2 zj
From Eq. (4-19) = — sec 2 0
d0 q
dy . .T ,A
and thus = sm 0 —d sec 2 0,
9
d0 q
from which y = 1 — sec 0 tan 0 d0 = — sec 0 + Ci.

J Q Q
The value of 0 is zero when x is equal to zero and y is equal to C, and the
magnitude of C can be selected in such a manner that Ci is equal to
zero. Thus
c=
and y = -----7 ’ or cos 9 = — (4-20)
v
cos 0 y '
The slope of the curve is
dy _ tan 0 _ y/y 2 - c *
dx C
and d x - - ™ ” 2 .....,
Vy - &
from which x = C cosh -1 + C2.
When x is equal to zero, y is equal to C and cosh -1 1 is equal to zero;

therefore C2 is equal to zero, and the preceding equation can be written
y = C cosh (4-21)
c
Equation (4-21), the equation of the curve in Cartesian coordinates,
is called a catenary.
When C is substituted for T D /q in Eq. (4-19), the resulting equation
can be combined with Eq. (4-20) to obtain the relationship between y
and 8 as follows:
C — y cos 0
\/y 2 - C 2.
s = C@seismicisolation
tan 0
@seismicisolation
From the accompanying figure representing the equation
c
cos 0 = — ,
y
it is evident that
tan 0 = -----q -----
C
Thus a =C * = Vy 2 - C2
or y = V« 2 + C\ (4-22)
An equation relating x and 8 can be obtained by combining Eqs. (4-21)
and (4-22) to eliminate y as follows:
2
y = C cosh = \A + C 2,
from which «2 + C2 = C2 cosh
or «2 = C2 cosh 2 — 1 = C2 sinh 2
and 8 = C sinh • (4-23)
The sag f in the cable is the difference between the value of y at the
support (y A( and C. For the right-hand section of the cable in Fig.
4-22a the sag is
/a = yA — C = C (cosh — 1Y (4-24)
\ V /
2
Also fA = yA — C = Vsl + C — C.
If 0 is eliminated from Eq. (4-18), the result is
2
T = VT + q1s i = VC 2q2 + g2s 2
2
= q \/C + s2 = qy = qC cosh (4-25)
Equation (4-25) indicates that the tension in the cable at any point is
equal to the product of the load per ft of cable and the vertical distance
of the point from the x axis.
The use of Eqs. (4-21) to (4-25) requires the determination of the
length C, which must usually be determined by a trial- and-error process
or a graphical solution. The following example illustrates this procedure.
Example 4-12: Solve Example 4-11, using the exact solution.
Solution: In Eq. (4-25),
y - Va @seismicisolation
=*@seismicisolation
fA + C
is the distance from the x axis to the support, and T ■» Ta is the tension in the chain
at the support. Therefore
8.00 = 0.500i/a
8.00 x
and yA - C + fA— u.OUU
n r nn - 16.00 ft - C cosh U
In this equation, x is equal to 10 ft when y is equal to z/a. Therefore

10
C cosh -T7 = 16
c
16 v 10
or = C08h
~C ~C'
The value of C can be determined graphically by plotting values of 16/C against
C and also by plotting values of cosh 10/C against C on the same graph. The inter
section of the curves will determine the value of C. The
following table of values is plotted in Fig. 4-23, and the
value of C as determined from the point of intersection
of the curves is approximately 11.27 ft.
16 10
C cosh
“c
10.0 1.600 1.543
10.5 1.524 1.489
11.0 1.454 1.442
11.5 1.390 1.403
12.0 1.333 1.368
The value of C can also be determined by successive trials as shown in the following
table :
10 10 10
C cosh C cosh
~C
10.0 1.000 1.543 15.43
11.0 0.909 1.442 15.86
11.4 0.877 1.410 16.07
11.3 0.885 1.418 16.02
11.27 0.887 1.420 16.00
The value of C for which C cosh 10/C = 16 is the solution of the equation and is
seen to be approximately 11.27 ft, which checks the graphical solution.
The sag is
f A = Va - C - 16.00 - 11.27 = 4.73 ft
as compared with a value of 4.00 f t in Example 4-11, indicating an error of 0.73/4.73, or
15.43 per cent. If the chain is drawn tighter so that the sag is decreased, the differ
ence in the two results will decrease, and for small ratios of sag to span (less than
5 per cent) the difference in the two results can usually be neglected.
In Eq. (4-23), s is the length of the chain from D to any point (x,y). When
x = a = 10
@seismicisolation ft
@seismicisolation
the corresponding value of s, which equals is one-half the length of the chain. The
value of sa. is
a 10.00
8a - C sinh ~C - 11.27 sinh 11.
••• -—
£1
= 11.36 ft.
Therefore the length of the chain is 22.7 ft as compared with a length of 22.0 ft from
the approximate solution.
The diagram in Fig. 4-24 will
aid in deciding when it is necessary
to use the exact method for com
puting stresses, sags, and similar
components in flexible cables.
The error in the maximum tension
is the difference between the ap
Rotlo of Span to Sag
proximate tension, computed by
Fig. 4-24
means of Eq. (4-14), and the exact
value, computed by means of Eq. (4-25). The variations of the percent
age error with the ratio of the span to sag is indicated in the figure.
PROBLEMS
4-87. A high-voltage transmission line of No. 6 solid hard-drawn copper wire
which weighs 79.5 lb per 1000 ft is strung on poles of the same elevation with
a horizontal span of 325 ft. When the temperature is 90°F, the sag is 164 in.
Determine for this temperature the maximum and minimum tension in the cable.
4-88. Solve Problem 4-85, assuming the load to be uniformly distributed
along the length of the cable.
4-89. A flexible cable that weighs 0.20 lb per ft has a span of 60 ft and a
sag of 20 ft. The supports are at the same elevation. Determine the maximum
tension in the cable and the length of the cable. Would the method of Art. 4-14
be justified in this case?
4-16. Equilibrium of a concurrent, noncoplanar force system. The
resultant of a concurrent force system in space
(Art. 2-6) is a single force through the point
of concurrence. When the resultant is zero,
the force system is in equilibrium. The equa
tions necessary to guarantee a zero resultant
are the equations of equilibrium for the system.
If the sum of the x components of the forces
Fi, F 2, F 3, and F 4 in Fig. 4-25 is equal to zero,
the resultant of the system can lie only in the
yz plane. If, in addition, the sum of the y
components of the forces is equal to zero, the
Fig. 4-25
resultant can act only along the z axis. Finally,
if the sum of the z components of the forces is also zero, the resultant will
be zero. Consequently, one complete set of equations of equilibrium
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
for a concurrent, noncoplanar force system is

5F Z = 0, SF y = 0, SF, = 0 (4-26)
where x, y, and z are any three nonparallel, noncoplanar, intersecting
axes. Mutually perpendicular axes are usually selected.
Different sets of equations of equilibrium for concurrent, noncoplanar
force systems can be obtained by replacing one or more of the force equa
tions of (4-26) by a corresponding number of moment equations. For
example, if the x, y, and z axes are selected as indicated in Fig. 4-25 and
if the first two equations of (4-26) are satisfied, the only possible resultant
is a force along the z axis. If the equation
AB = 0,
where AB is not parallel to and does not intersect the z axis, is also satis
fied, the resultant will be zero. A more convenient line might be one
parallel to the x or y axis, such as CD or DE in Fig. 4-25.
In the same manner, either or both of the remaining force equations
of Eq. (4-26) can be replaced by moment equations. Equilibrium can
thus be assured by means of three force equations, three moment equa
tions, or a combination of three force and moment equations. When
ever a force equation is to be replaced by a moment equation, the resulting
set of equations will be independent only if the moment axis meets cer
tain requirements. For example, the summation of moments about any
axis through the point of concurrence is zero because all forces pass
through it; thus no information would be obtained from such an equation.
Limitations can be placed on the moment axes for each special case, but
the restrictions are so involved that it is impractical to attempt to remem
ber all of them. It is recommended that any three equations which
seem to provide the most direct solution be written. When one equation
or one pair of equations reduces to the third expression, an independent
set of equations has not been used, and one of the equations must be
replaced by a different one obtained by using a different moment axis
or by summing forces in a different direction.
The following example illustrates the use of the equations of equilib
rium for a concurrent, noncoplanar force system.
Example 4-13: The block W in Fig. 4-26a weighs 1000 lb and is supported by
three wires as shown. The wires AD and BD are in the horizontal plane. Deter
mine the stresses in each of the wires.
Solution: Each of the wires is a two-force member, and a free-body diagram of the
joint or connection at D is shown in Fig. 4-26b. The force system contains three
unknown magnitudes, which can be determined from the three equations of equilib
rium available for a concurrent force system in space.
Consider first Eq. (4-26) to see if any of them can.be used to obtain one of the
stresses directly. The second equation,
@seismicisolation
= 0,
@seismicisolation
involves only one unknown force, Tc t and therefore it is used first. The length of
CD is
CD - V 3 s + 7« + 4« - 8.60 ft.
The y components of the forces are
1
1000
from which
T c = (1000) 1229 lb T .
Each of the other two equations of (4-26) includes

both Ta and Tb, and thus the two would need to be
solved simultaneously.
Frequently the solution of simultaneous equations
can be avoided by the use of a moment equation.
The equation
ZMbe = 0
does not involve Tg, and therefore Ta can be ob
tained directly. The length of A D is
AD - V6’ + 4’ - 7.21 ft.
The force Ta is resolved into rectangular components
— Ta outward and Ta to the left intersecting
7.21 7.21 *
at D. The force Tc is resolved into components intersecting at C. The moments
with respect to line BE are tabulated as
7.51
24 T — T _j_ _24 V( 122 g)

Tx
7T1 7.21 8.60 ’
24-12 „
from which ■1 A =
7.21 ‘ ‘ SJo (1229 <
and T a = 2060 lb T .
The force Tb can be determined from the equation
XMaf - 0.
With Tb resolved into components at D and Tc resolved into components at C, the
moments are tabulated as
ITbW JTb(6)
ra « 9<
12 m 1 36 m 24-,
Tb + Tc
~S T Tb
3M@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
138 EQUILIBRIUM [J4-16
24-12 36
from which ■ 8SS - -
and T b = 2140 lb T .
The solution can be checked by summing forces in either the x or the z direction.
The x components of the forces are tabulated as
T + Tc
7.21 * 8.60
from which O
S ‘ 40 > - 73i (2
°“ ) +
8S> I' 22 ’)
1712 = 1143 + 571 = 1714.
The three equations used in the solution were independent equations and were
sufficient to determine the three unknowns. However, the equations
SF V = 0 and 'XMbg -0
are not independent and would each give the same information, namely, Tc ® 1229
lb. Either of these equations demonstrates the same result: that the resultant, if
there is one, must lie in the xz plane. Hence the equations are not independent and
could not be used with a third equation to determine all three unknowns.
PROBLEMS
4-90. In Fig. P 4-90, AB, AD, and AE are rigid members of a wall bracket
connected to the wall and to each other with ball-and-socket joints. Neglect
the weights of the members. Determine the stresses in AB, AD, and AE.
4-91. A 6000-lb crate is supported by three wires as shown in Fig. P 4-91.
Determine the tension in each wire.
12'
CL
Jbl
Fig. P 4-90 Fig. P 4-91

4-92. The shear-leg derrick in Fig. P 4-92 supports a load W of 3000 lb.
Determine the stresses in legs BE and CE and in the guy AE. Member AE and
the vertical load are in the xy plane. The weights of the members may be
neglected, and all connections@seismicisolation
are ball-and-socket joints.
@seismicisolation
H-16] EQUILIBRIUM 139
4-93. A 5000-lb box of tools is supported by the three cables A, B, and C as

indicated in Fig. P 4-93. Determine the tension in the cables.
Fig. P 4-93
4-94. Will the equations

SAf, = 0, = 0, SAL = 0
assure equilibrium of a concurrent, noncoplanar force
system if x f y, and z are three mutually perpendicular
concurrent axes, none of which pass through the point
of concurrence of the forces? Indicate how these three
equations eliminate any possible resultant; or if there is
a possible resultant, state how one of the equations or
axes might be altered to ensure equilibrium.
4-95. A balloon is held by three mooring cables as
indicated in Fig. P 4-95. If the resultant upward force
developed on the balloon is 5000 lb, determine the
tension in cable AB. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
140 EQUILIBRIUM 154-17
4-17. Equilibrium of a parallel, noncoplanar force system. The

resultant of a parallel force system in space is either a single force or a
couple (see Art. 2-7). The equations which ensure elimination of all
possible resultants are the equations of equilibrium.
Consider any parallel force system in space with
forces parallel to the y axis as shown in Fig. 4-27.
If the equation
XFV = 0
is satisfied, the resultant cannot be a force. If, in
addition,
M = 0
Fig. 4-27
the resultant can only be a couple in a plane paral-
lei to the xy plane. Finally, if the equation
2M, = 0
is also satisfied, all possible resultants are eliminated. Therefore a com
plete set of independent equations of equilibrium for a parallel, non
coplanar force system is
XFV = 0, = 0, IM, = 0 (4-27)
where the y axis is parallel to the forces. The x and z axes are usually
selected so that x, y, and z are three mutually perpendicular axes.
Again with reference to the force system in Fig. 4-27, another set of
equations of equilibrium can be obtained as follows. If
= 0,
the resultant can be only a vertical force intersecting the x axis or a
couple in a plane parallel to the xy plane. If the equation
= 0
is also satisfied, the resultant cannot be a couple, and any resultant
force must act along the y axis. Finally, if
SMx = 0,
where A is any axis that does not intersect the y axis and is not parallel
to the y axis, the resultant must be zero. Hence another complete set
of independent equations of equilibrium for a parallel force system in
space is
’ = 0, ZM, = 0, = 0, (4-28)
where A is an axis not intersecting or parallel to the y axis and where
the forces of the system are parallel to the y axis.
In any case, there are only three independent equations of equilibrium
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
for any parallel force system in space. If a parallel, noncoplanar force

system has more than three unknowns (magnitudes or distances), that
force system is statically indeterminate. The following example illus
trates the use of the equations of equilibrium for a parallel force system
in space.
Example 4-14: A homogeneous triangular steel plate, 6 in. thick, is supported in a
horizontal position by vertical cables at the vertices as indicated in Fig. 4-28a and is
acted on by a 300 ft-lb couple in the yz plane as shown. Determine the tension in
each cable. The specific weight of steel is 490 lb per cu ft.
Fig. 4-28
Solution: A free-body diagram of the plate is shown in Fig. 4-28b. The plate is
divided into two right triangular plates by a vertical plane through EC. The resultant
weight of each part acts downward through a point on line HJ which is 2 ft to the right
of the z axis. The force IF i acts 2 f t from the x axis, and W 2 acts 0.667 ft from the
x axis. The volume of part EBC is 4.5 cu ft and W\ equals 2200 lb. The volume of
part AEC is 1.5 cu ft and W 2 equals 735 lb. The parallel, noncoplanar force system
contains three unknown magnitudes, and three equations of equilibrium are available.
The force Tc can be determined from the equation
2M, - 0,
and the moments are tabulated as
(W t )2 = 1470
= 4400
5870,
from which 6T C = 5870
and Tc - 978 lb T .
With Tc known, the force Tb can be determined from the equation
SAf, - 0.
and the moments are tabulated as
300 = 300
W 2(0.667) - 490 4T =■4T S
S
17,(2.00) - 4400 T - 978
c
5190 @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
978 -I- 4T a ,
142 EQUILIBRIUM 154-17
from which 5190 “ 978 + 4Tb

and T b - 1053 lb T.
With Tc and Tb known, Ta can be determined from the equation
SF, = 0,
and the forces are tabulated as
T I
Ta = T a Vi = 2200
T b = 1053 W 2 = 735
T c - 978
Ta + 2031 2935
from which Ta + 2031 ■« 2935
unci Ta = 904 lb T.
PROBLEMS
4-96. The homogeneous horizontal plate ABC in Fig. P 4-96 weighs 600 lb
and is supported as indicated. Determine all unknown forces acting on the plate.
Fig. P 4-96 Fig. P 4-97

4-97. Determine all unknown forces acting on the rigid horizontal frame
shown in Fig. P 4-97. Neglect the weight of the frame.
4-98. The circular plate of Fig. P 4-98 is supported by three vertical cables at
A, B, and C. The 12,000-lb vertical force acting 6 in. from the center as shown
includes the weight of the plate. Determine the tension in each cable.
Fig. P 4-98
4-99. A chute in a granary is closed by a door as shown in Fig. P 4-99. The
door is held closed by a turn button at C. The grain exerts a normal pressure
on the door which is assumed@seismicisolation
to vary uniformly from 1.00 psi along AB to 1.30 psi
@seismicisolation
along DE. Determine the reactions on the door at A, B, and C. Neglect the
weight of the door and any components of the hinge reactions at A and B not
normal to the door.
4-100. The top view of a Vultee-Stinson L-5 Sentinel is shown in Fig. P 4-100.
The airplane weighs 1472 lb empty and the resultant weight acts through point G.
The wheels are located at Ri and F 2 ; Rz represents the tail wheel.
(a) Determine the downward force at A required to tilt the airplane
when it is standing on the field.
(b) Determine the upward force at A required to tilt the airplane.
4-18. Equilibrium of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar force
system. The resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar
force system is a single force, a couple, or a force and a couple (see Art.
2-9). Any set of equations which ensures the elimination of all possible
resultants is a set of equations of equilibrium for the system.
Consider the equations
2F X = 0, 2F y = 0, SF, = 0 |
(4-29)
ZM S = 0, 2M y = 0, SJf, = 0 J
where x, y, and z are any three mutually perpendicular axes. If the
three force equations are satisfied, the resultant cannot be a force. If
the three moment equations are satisfied, the resultant cannot be a
couple. Consequently, if all six equations are satisfied for any noncon
current, nonparallel, noncoplanar force system, the system must be in
equilibrium.
Any or all of the force equations of Eq. (4-29) can be replaced by
additional moment equations, provided the moment axes are so selected
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
that six independent equations are obtained. Because there is no simple
or convenient way to state the necessary restrictions for selecting these

additional moment axes, the best procedure is to use any convenient
axes and simply discard any redundant equations. This procedure will
be used in the following illustrative example. In any case not more than
six unknowns (magnitudes, distances, or slopes) can be determined from
one free-body diagram of a body in space, since there are only six inde
pendent equations of equilibrium for the general case.
Example 4-15: The body in Fig. 4-29a is supported by a ball and socket at A,
two vertical cables B and C, and the horizontal cable D. The weight of the body can
be neglected. Determine the tension in each of the cables and the components of the
reaction on the body at A,
Fig. 4-29
Solution: The free-body diagram, Fig. 4-29b, shows the known forces and the six
unknown magnitudes. The equations of equilibrium are used in the following order
with results as shown:
2AG = 0
800(6) = 4800 200(2) - 400

q)T(ll) - 8.8T P
4800 400 + 8.8Td
from which 4800 = 400 4- 8.8T P

4400
and Td — “ 500 lb*
0.0
= 0
Tb4 = 4T b 800(2) - 1600

200(3) = 600
(f)Tp(D = Q.8T d
2200 4-
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation 0.8T P
H-18I EQUILIBRIUM 145
from which 4Tb “ 2200 4- 0.8Tn
and Tb “ 650 lb
- 0
Tc(H) - UTc 500(6) - 3000

(i)Tn(D - 0.6Td
Tb(6) - 6Tb
117 c 3000 4- 0.6Td 4- 6T«
from which HT’c ” 3000 4" 0.6To 4" 6Tb

and T c - 655 lb.
SF. - 0
Ax 200
800 (I)Td
A* 4- 800 200 4- 0.8T D
from which 4- 800 - 200 4- 0.8Td

and A x - -200 - 2001b
SF« - 0
A, (DTp
from which A, - (i)T D - 300 lb /.
XMbj ■■ 0
4,(1) - A, 4,(6) - 64,

Tc(5) - 5T C
At 6 A V 4- 5Tc
from which A, - 64, 4- 5T C = 6A, 4- 3275

and 6A, = -2975
or A v ~ -496 = 4961b T.
A convenient check on some of the calculations is to verify that ZF, is equal to

aero. The vertical forces are tabulated as
T I
Tc = 655 T b = 650
Ay = 496 500 = 500
1151 1150.
Thus the results check to three significant figures.
PROBLEMS
4-101. The rigid member CDE of Fig. P 4-101 is supported by a ball and
socket at C and by flexible wires AD and@seismicisolation
BD. Determine all unknown forces
@seismicisolation
acting on member CDE. Neglect the weight and thickness of the member.
4-102. The boom DE in Fig. P 4-102 carries a 12004b load and is supported
by a ball and socket at E and the two wires AB and CD. The vertical plane
BoD a Socket
Fig. P 4-103 Fig. P 4-104

ACE is perpendicular to the boom. Determine any two of the unknown forces
acting on the boom.
4-103. The structure ABEF shown in Fig. P 4-103 is one rigid body. Neglect
the weights of the two cables and of the
body. Determine the components of the
force on the body at B. The 3004b force
is parallel to DC.
4-104. Determine any three of the un
known forces which act on the body in Fig.
P 4-104. The 24004b force includes the
weight of the member.
4-105. The weight of the shaft-and-
pulley mechanism of Fig. P 4-105 can be
neglected. Determine (a) the tension in
the cable; (b) the components of the force
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exerted on the shaft by the bearing at B.
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4-106. A 900-lb homogeneous block is loaded and supported as shown in

Fig. P 4-106. Determine all unknown forces acting on the block.
4-107. Figure P 4-107 represents a windlass used for lifting heavy weights.
The 1000-lb weight W is held in equilibrium by the force P, which makes an
angle of 45° with the vertical and lies in a plane normal to the axis of the cylinder.
Determine the components of the reactions developed in the smooth bearings
at A and B.
4-108. The 6-ft homogeneous rod AB of Fig. P 4-108 is held in position by
two strings AD and BC, At A the rod rests against a smooth vertical wall, to
which the end D of the rope is also attached. At B the rod rests on a smooth
horizontal floor. A and C are on the same vertical line. The rod has a uniform
cross section and weighs 20 lb. Deter
mine any two of the unknown forces
acting on the rod.
4-109. Bar AB in Fig. P 4-109 is 7 ft
long and weighs 210 lb. It is supported
by a smooth vertical plane at A, a smooth
Fig. P 4-108
horizontal plane at B, and three cords @seismicisolation

AE, BC, and BD as shown. Determine
all unknown forces acting on the bar. @seismicisolation
4-110. The frame in Fig. P 4-110 is supported by a ball-and-socket joint at

A and the flexible cables CG, DG, and DH. Body P weighs 12,000 lb and body
Q weighs 6000 lb. The weights and thicknesses of all members may be neglected.
Determine the components of the reaction at A on the frame.
Fig. P 4-110
4-111. The boom OE of the simplified stiff-leg derrick in Fig. P 4-111 is in

the xy plane. The legs AD and CD are pinned to the foundation at A and C
in the xz plane. The vertical mast OD with the boom attached is supported in
a ball and socket at 0. Determine the stresses in the legs and the components
of the reaction at 0 due to the given load.
4-112. Pulleys B and E are keyed to a shaft and subjected to belt tensions
as shown in Fig. P 4-112. The diameter of B is 2 ft and the diameter of E is
Fig. P 4-112
18 in. The shaft is supported by smooth bearings at A and C. The weights

of the pulleys and shaft can be neglected. Determine the belt tension T and
the components of the bearing reactions at A and C when the assembly is in
equilibrium.
4-113. The boom CDE Qi Fig. P 4-113 is supported by a ball-and-socket
@seismicisolation
joint at C and by the flexible cables AD and BE. Points A, B f and C are all
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in the same vertical plane. The weights of

the boom and cables can be neglected.
Determine the tensions in the cables.
4-19. Closure. The solution of

problems in the equilibrium of force
systems requires:
1. A means of identifying correctly
and easily all the forces that act on a
given body or portion of a body. A
free-body diagram is an excellent tool
for this purpose.
2. A knowledge of the available
equations of equilibrium for each type
Fig. P 4-113
of force system. These equations can
be derived as the necessary conditions for the elimination of all possible
resultants.
3. A logical, orderly method of procedure for analyzing and solving
problems. One such method is outlined in Art. 4-4.
It is important to remember that the forces acting on a two-force
member are collinear.
PROBLEMS
4-114. Figure P 4-114 represents a chain hoist used to lift heavy bodies.
The two pulleys of radii n and r 2 are rigidly fastened together and have projec
tions on their circumferences which prevent the chain from
slipping on either of them. The 1000-lb load B can be lifted
by a 50-lb pull on the chain at A. Determine the ratio of r x
to r 2. Neglect friction and the weight of the chain and pulleys.
4-115. The cross section of a hydraulic gate and the fluid
OU Surface
Fig. P 4-114 Fig. P 4-115

forces acting upon it are shown in Fig. @seismicisolation
P 4-115. The gate weighs 500 lb and its
@seismicisolation
mass center is at G. If the hinge at A is smooth, determine (a) the vertical force
P required to open the gate; (b) the horizontal and vertical components of the
reaction of the hinge on the gate when the force in part (a) is applied.
4-117. The rectangular bin in Fig. P 4-117 is filled with a material whose
density changes in such a manner that the pressure against the sides of the bin
Fig. P 4-117
varies from zero at the top to a maximum at the bottom according to the equation
q2 = lOOy, where y is the depth in feet and q is the intensity of pressure in pounds
per foot. Determine the tensions in the rods AB and CD. Assume that there
is no stress in the rods when the bin is empty.
4-118. The locomotive crane shown in Fig. P 4-118 weighs 88,000 lb and has
a rated capacity of 7900 lb. The maximum permissible load on any one of the
four wheels (two wheels are directly behind the two shown) is 61,000 lb.
(a) Determine the load (reaction) on each wheel when W is 7000 lb.
(b) Determine the ratio of the moments of the weight of the crane and
of the rated load with respect to the left' axle. This ratio is called the factor of
safety against overturning.
(c) Will the greatest load on any one wheel occur when the crane
is unloaded or when it is carrying its rated load?
4-119. The 500-lb body Q in Fig. P 4-119 is supported by the four flexible
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cables A, B, C, and D. Determine the tension in cable D.
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4-121. In the pin-connected structure shown in Fig. P 4-121, the weights of all
of the pin reactions at A and C on member ABC.
4-122. The homogeneous plate CEK of uniform thickness shown in Fig. P

4-122 weighs 60 psf. It is pinned to AD and C, and it rests against the roller on
BD at E. The weights of all other members can be neglected. Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at B on member BD.
4-123. In Fig. P 4-123, determine the tension in the cable EG and the hori
zontal and vertical components of the reaction of the pin at A on the member AC.
Neglect the weights of the members.
Fig. P 4-124
4-124. Three empty 100-lb, 3-ft-diameter drums are shown in Fig. P 4-124,
Neglect friction at all contact surfaces. Determine all unknown forces acting
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on drum C.
4-125. In the pin-connected structure in Fig. P 4-125 the weights of alii mem
bers can be neglected. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of
the pin reactions at A and C on the member AC.
Fig. P 4-125
4-126. For the pin-connected structure of Fig. P 4-126, determine the hori
zontal and vertical components of the force at B on member BD. Neglect the
weights of all members.
4-127. In the coplanar structure shown in Fig. P 4-127, the weights of all
members may be neglected. Determine the tension in the cable at C and the
horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at A on the member AC,
4-128. Determine the stresses in members UtLz, UiL and of

the Warren truss with verticals shown in Fig. P 4-128.
4-129. Figure P 4-129 represents a coplanar pin-connected truss for an engine
mount. The loads shown are due to the engine weight, thrust, and torque.
Determine algebraically the @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
stresses in members BE and DE,

8o“
Fig. P 4-129
4-131. Determine the stresses in members A l , C J , and C D of the inclined-
chord Pratt truss shown in Fig. P 4-131.
Fig. P 4-131 Fig. P 4-132

4-132. Themembers of the space frame shown in Fig. P 4-132 are connected
at their ends with ball-and-socket joints. The weights of the members may be
neglected. Determine the stress in member AB.
4-133. Neglecting the weight of the rigid body in Fig. P 4-133, determine the
tension in the cables AB and DE and the reaction at F.
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4-134. The solid homogeneous block in Fig. P 4-134 weighs 2000 lb. Deter
mine the components of the reaction on the block at H and all other unknown
forces acting on the body.
4-135. The wall bracket in Fig. P 4-135 consists of two flexible cables AC
and BC and the compression member CD, which is connected to the wall at D by
means of a ball and socket. Points A, B, and D are in a vertical plane and the
600-lb load is vertical. Determine the stresses in the members of the structure.
Neglect the weights of the members.
4-136. Determine all the unknown forces acting on the rigid horizontal frame
shown in Fig. P 4-136. Neglect the weight of the frame.
4-137. The shaft-and-pulley mechanism in Fig. P 4-137 is in equilibrium.
Determine (a) the force P on the crank; (b) the components of the force exerted
on the shaft by the ball and socket at B.
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@seismicisolation
Fig. P 4-137
4-138. Determine the tension in each of the three wires AO, BO, and CO in
Fig. P 4-138.
Fig. P 4-138
4-139. Bodies A and B in Fig. P 4-139 weigh 100 lb and 200 lb, respectively.
Determine the angle 6 at which the bar will be in equilibrium. Neglect the
weight of the bar.
Fig. P 4-140
4-140. Figure P 4-140 represents a vertical windlass which weighs 60 lb and
is supported by a ball and socket at A and a frictionless bearing at B, A cable
is wrapped around the windlass at D, comes off the windlass parallel to the
z axis, and passes over the frictionless pulley, Q, and down to the 1200-lb weight
W . Radius OC is 30° forward from the xy plane. The force P acts normal to OC
at the indicated slope with the horizontal. Determine all unknown forces acting
on the windlass.
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@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 5
Friction
5-1. Nature of friction. When a body slides or tends to slide on
another body, the force tangent to the contact surface which resists the
motion, or the tendency toward motion, of one body relative to the other
is defined as friction.
People could not walk or skate or drive automobiles without the
beneficial effects of friction to make tractive forces possible. Belt
drives, friction clutches, and brakes all require frictional forces in order
to function.
In contrast, friction can produce detrimental effects. There is always
a change of mechanical energy into heat energy when one body slides on
a second one. The tremendous amount of money spent for lubricants
to reduce the friction between rubbing surfaces indicates a disadvantage
of friction. Wheels and rollers are also used to limit frictional resistance
to desired movements.
In the preceding articles, when two bodies were in contact, the surface
of contact was assumed to be smooth and the reaction of one body on
the other was a force normal to the contact surface. In most instances
in actual practice the contact surface is not smooth and the reaction of
one body on the other is not normal to the contact surface. When the
reaction' is resolved into two components, one perpendicular and the
other tangent to the contact surface, the component tangent to the surface
is called the frictional force or the friction. Therefore, free-body diagrams
for problems involving friction are the same as those for problems with
smooth surfaces except that a frictional force tangent to the contact
surface must be included.
When there is no relative motion between two bodies, that is, when
neither body moves or both bodies move as one, the resistance to any
tendency toward relative motion is called static friction. When one
body moves relative to another body, the resisting force between the
bodies tangent to the contact surface is called kinetic friction. The
kinetic frictional force is less than the maximum static frictional force
for any given pair of surfaces with the same normal force. It is rather
difficult to obtain reliable data on either the kinetic frictional force or
the maximum static friction between bodies of any two materials because
any slight variation in the condition of the contact surfaces has an
appreciable effect on the @seismicisolation
resulting frictional force. Different investi-
@seismicisolation
156
§5-2] FRICTION 157
gators seldom obtain identical results for the same materials, probably
because of varying traces of moisture, dirt, or lubricant on the contact
surfaces. However, the average of a series of tests indicates that the
maximum static friction is greater than the kinetic friction for any pair
of surfaces if the normal force is constant.
In dealing with frictional forces, it is important to realize that the
frictional force between two bodies always opposes the relative motion of the
bodies or the tendency to move. Furthermore, with static friction the fric
tional force between two bodies will increase as the force tending to separate
the bodies increases. In other words, the static frictional force is always
the minimum force required to maintain equilibrium or prevent relative
motion between the bodies. It is
an adjustable force that changes
with the situation.
As will be discussed in Art. 5-9,
kinetic friction varies somewhat
with velocity. These properties are
shown in a general way in Fig. 5-1.
As the force P in Fig. 5-1 is in
creased from zero, the frictional
force, F, increases just enough to
prevent motion. This balance is
maintained as P increases until the
force F reaches a maximum or limiting value. When the frictional force
has reached its maximum value, motion impends, or a condition of unstable
equilibrium exists. Any slight increase in P will produce motion, and the
force F becomes a function of the velocity. As indicated in the figure, the
frictional force rapidly decreases for a very small increase in velocity until
it reaches a fairly constant value. Another decrease of F is shown for very
high velocities.
5-2. Coefficient of friction. The maximum static frictional force
which exists when motion impends between any two surfaces is denoted
by F'. The coefficient of static friction, p, is defined as the ratio of the
maximum static frictional force, F', to the normal force, N , between the
two surfaces. In mathematical form,
F'
M =
N (5-1)
The coefficient of static friction is an experimentally determined con
stant which depends on the material from which the contacting bodies
are made and on the condition of the contact surfaces. The variation
caused by the condition of the surfaces was reported by Campbell* to be
♦Campbell, W. E., 14 Variables Influencing the Coefficient of Static Friction
between Clean and Lubricated Metal Surfaces,” Trans. A.S.M.E. Vol. 61, pp. 633-641,
@seismicisolation
158 FRICTION [§5-3
from 0.78 for clean steel on steel to 0.11 for steel on steel with a solid
film of oleic acid between the steel surfaces. He cites published values
of the coefficient of static friction for steel on steel from 0.146 to 0.82
and concludes that this variation is probably due to the presence of
different amounts of grease or other film on the contact surfaces.
The values of the coefficients of static friction listed in the following
table indicate the general range of published results obtained by experi
ment on dry surfaces.
Approximate Coefficients of Static Friction for Dry Surfaces
Steel on steel 0.4-0. 8
Wood on wood *0 . 2 -0 . 5
Wood on metal .............................................................................. 0.2 -0.6
Metal on stone .............................................................................. 0.3 -0.7
Metal on leather 0.3 -0.6
Wood on leather 0.2-0. 5
Earth on earth ............................................................................... 0.2 -1.0
Cast iron on cast iron 0.3 -0.4
Rubber on concrete 0.6 -0.8
Rubber on if e 0 .05-0 . 2
In general when the contact surfaces are moving with reference to
each other, the coefficient of friction decreases. For this situation the
ratio of the frictional force to the normal force is defined as the coefficient
of kinetic friction. Tests on square-threaded screws at the Illinois
Experiment Station* indicate that the coefficient of kinetic friction is
approximately three-fourths the coefficient of static friction for the
materials tested. Since the range of values for the
coefficient of static friction is usually greater than the
difference between the average coefficients of static and
kinetic friction for given materials, the values given in
problems in this text are to be used for either static or
kinetic friction as needed, unless both values are given
Fig. 5-2
in one problem.
5-3. Angle of friction. The block shown in Fig. 5-2
has impending motion to the right, and R is the resultant of F' and N .
Thus R is the reaction of the plane on the block, and its components are
the normal force and the friction force. The angle </> which R makes with
N is defined as the angle of friction. From the figure it is evident that
R cos 0 = N , R sin <t> = F', tan </> = = /x. (5-2)
When motion is impending, the reaction of one body on the other at

the surface where motion impends can be shown on the free-body dia
gram as two separate forces (normal and tangent to the plane) or as a
single resultant force inclined at the angle of friction with the normal.
For algebraic solutions the use of two component forces is usually simpler
@seismicisolation
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* Engineering Experiment Station Bulletin No. 247, University of Illinois, 1932.
§5-4] FRICTION 159
and will be emphasized in the following work. A single inclined reaction
is particularly useful when the solution is to be obtained graphically.
When a block of weight W is placed on a rough plane inclined upward
to the right at an angle 0 with the horizontal, it will be held in equilibrium
by the reaction, R, of the plane as shown in Fig. 5-3, provided the angle
0 is small enough.
As the angle between the plane and a horizontal line is increased to
some limiting value, motion of the block will impend down the plane.
The angle at which motion of the block impends is defined as
the angle of repose. From the equations of equilibrium,
Ff
N = W cos 0, F = F' = W sin 0, tan 0 = = /x.
(5-3)
By comparing Eq. (5-2) and (5-3), it is evident that
the angle of friction is equal to the angle of repose. The
coefficient of static friction can be obtained experimentally
Fig. 5-3
by measuring the angle of repose for any pair of surfaces.
5-4. Types of problems involving frictional forces. In problems
involving frictional forces, three different motion conditions are possible.
Motion may not be impending , motion may be impending, or relative
motion may exist. When the first condition is true, the frictional force is
less than the limiting friction; and when either of the other conditions
exists, the frictional force is equal to the limiting value.
When analyzing problems involving frictional forces it is usually con
venient to classify them according to the available data and information
to be secured and most problems can be classified as one of the following
types:
(a) Impending motion is not assured from the statement of the problem.
(b) Impending or relative motion is specified at all contact surfaces
where there are frictional forces.
(c) Impending motion is stated to exist but either the type of impending
movement (slipping or lipping) is not specified or the surface or surfaces
where motion impends are not specified.
The third type of problem includes all those in which there is more
than one possible way or place for motion to start. Examples are :
(1) A block which can either slide or tip.
(2) Two blocks, one on top of the other, which can slide together on
a plane or the top block of which can slide on the stationary bottom
block.
The following examples illustrate the types of problems and the
method of solution for each type. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
160 FRICTION (§5-4
Example 5-1: A 10-lb block is initially at rest on a horizontal plane, when a hori
zontal force of 2 lb is applied to the block. The coefficient of friction between the
block and the horizontal plane is 0.40. Determine the frictional force on the block.
Solution: Impending motion is not assured from the statement of the problem,
which is of type (a); therefore it is assumed that motion does not impend and that
the block is in equilibrium. Before the solution can be accepted the assumption must
be verified. The equations of equilibrium for the free-body diagram of Fig. 5-4 give
F = 2 lb , A T - 101b T.
The maximum value of the frictional force is
F' = nN = 0.40(10) = 4 lb,
which is more than the required 2 lb for F. Therefore equilibrium is assured, and the
frictional force is 2 lb to the left along the bottom of the block.
Fig. 5-4 Fig. 5-5

Example 5-2: A 10-lb block is at rest on a horizontal plane, and the coefficient of
friction between the block and the plane is 0.40. Determine the least horizontal force
P required to start the block sliding to the right.
Solution: The free-body diagram of the block is shown in Fig. 5-5. Since impend
ing motion is specified for problems of type (b),
F = F' - nN - 0.40A.
The direction of the frictional force is to the left because it always opposes the impend
ing motion. The equations of friction and of equilibrium for the free-body diagram
give
N = 10 lb f , F = F' = 4 lb P = 4 lb — .
The force P can be applied anywhere on the block as long as it is not high enough to
tip the block, and therefore the location of
its action line is not specified.
Example 5-3: The coefficient of fric
tion between the 10-lb block A and the
20-lb block B of Fig. 5-6a is 0.40. The
coefficient of friction between B and the
horizontal plane is 0.15. Determine
the force P required to cause motion of
A to impend to the right.
(a) (b) (cl Solution: Block A has impending
Fig. 5-6 motion, but whether it slides on B or the
two blocks slide together on the plane is
not stated; therefore the problem is of type (c). A free-body diagram of block A
is shown in Fig. 5-6b, and a free-body diagram of the two blocks together is shown in
Fig. 5-6c. Either one of these diagrams could be replaced by a free-body diagram
of block B, but there is no advantage in using all three free-body diagrams. There
are five unknown forces and only four summation of force equations of equilibrium.
Moment equations provide no help because the positions of the lines of action of the
normal forces are unknown. It is therefore evident that an assumption must be
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@seismicisolation
made as to where motion impends in order to obtain a solution. Consequently, the
§5-4] FRICTION 161
assumed solution must be checked before it is accepted. For a first trial assume that
motion impends between B and the plane, in which case
F b - F' B = ulNb - O.15ATa.
The force equations of equilibrium for Fig. 5-6c and the preceding friction
equation give
Nb — 3 0 1 b f , 4.5 lb P -4.51b—.
The force equations of equilibrium for Fig. 5-6b give
F A - 4.51b N a = 101b |.
The necessary check between Fa and F'a can now be made. The maximum value
of the frictional force is
F'a = »Na - 0.40(10) - 4 lb.
Since Fa is greater than F'a, the assumption that motion impends between B and the
plane is incorrect. Consequently, motion impends between A and B, and
=
Fa = F'a pNa “ OAQNa-
This equation and the equations of equilibrium for Fig. 5-6b give
Na = 10 lb T, Fa = 4 lb P - 4 lb — .
The force P can be applied anywhere on block A as long as it is not high enough
to cause either block to tip. Therefore the position of the action line of force P is
not specified.
' Alternate solution: The problem can also be solved by determining the force P
for two conditions: (1) assuming that motion impends between A and B but not
between B and the plane, and (2) assuming impending motion between B and the
plane. The smaller of these two forces is the desired force, since motion will impend
when this force is applied.
* When motion is assumed to impend between A and B, the force Fa on Fig. 5-6b is
Fa = F'a - nN A .
The force equations of equilibrium and the friction equation give
Na = 10 lb, P - Fa - i*Na = 0.4(10) - 4.0 lb — .
If motion is assumed to impend between B and the plane, the force Fb on Fig.
5-6c is
F b - F'b - uNb,
which with the equations of equilibrium gives
N b - 301b f ,
p = F b - *Nb = 0.15(30) - 4.5 lb — .
Since A will move on B if P exceeds 4 lb and
B will not move until P exceeds 4.5 lb, the force
to cause motion of A to impend to the right is
4.0 lb to the right.
Example 5-4: The solid homogeneous 400-lb
block A in Fig. 5-7a rests on a horizontal plane. Fig. 5-7
The coefficient of friction between the block and
the plane is 0.34. Determine the force P applied as shown which will cause motion
of A to impend.
Solution: In this type (c) problem, it is evident that the block can either slide or
tip, and therefore both possibilities must be checked. If the line of action of the
resultant normal force lies within the base of the block when slipping impends, that
is, when
@seismicisolation
F — F'@seismicisolation
=
162 FRICTION [§M
the block will slip before it will overturn. If N lies outside the base of the block when
the friction is assumed to be
F = F' = nN,
the block will overturn before it will slip, N will act at the comer of the block, and F
will be less than nN when motion (overturning) impends. If the block is assumed to
slip, the equations of equilibrium and friction give
N = 400 lb T, P = F = nN = 136 lb
The equation 2Mb — 0
gives xN — 25P
(25)136 .
or x = — — = 8.5 m.
Since 8.5 in. is less than half the width of the block, the action line of N intersects the
base of the block, and slipping will occur before the block will
tip. Therefore the required value of P is 136 lb as shown.
Alternate solution: The force P can be determined on the
assumption that the block will slip before it will tip, and a
different value can be determined assuming the block will tip
before it will slip. The smaller of these two values is the desired
force. The first value is the one determined by the first method ;
that is, P = 136 lb. To obtain the second value of P, the normal
force is assumed to act at the comer of the block and the equa
tions of equilibrium are applied. The free-body diagram of the
block when it is ready to tip is shown in Fig. 5-8. The force P
necessary to cause tipping is obtained by equating the sum of the
moments of the forces with respect to C to zero, and the result is
P = 1601b— >.
Since the block will slide when P = 136 lb and will not tip until P = 160 lb, the force
to cause impending motion is 136 lb to the right, and the block will slide instead of
tipping.
The preceding discussion of friction problems can be summarized by

outlining a suggested procedure for solving each type of problem. It is
important to determine the type of problem from the statement of the
problem before attempting the solution.
Procedure when impending motion is not assured:

1. Assume the system to be in equilibrium.
2. Determine the frictional and normal forces, using the equations of
equilibrium.
3. Check the initial assumption by comparing F with n N , where n is
the coefficient of static friction, for each contact surface. If F is less
than or equal to nN, the assumption is correct, and the problem is
solved. If F is greater than nN, equilibrium does not exist, and a com
plete solution involves the principles of dynamics.
Procedure when impending or relative motion is specified at all contact
surfaces with frictional forces:
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§5-4] FRICTION 163
1. Write the equation

F = F' = pN
for all surfaces where motion impends. Make sure that the sense of the
friction force is correct, that is, that the friction force opposes the motion
or the tendency to move.
2. Determine the unknown quantities, using the equations of equilib
rium together with the friction equations (accelerated motion is not con
sidered here). No check is necessary for this type of problem because
no assumptions are required.
Procedure when impending motion is specified but either the type of
impending motion or the surface or surfaces where motion impends is not
specified:
1. Assume that the body or bodies will start to move in one of the
two or more possible ways they can move. Set
F = F' = pN
at each pair of surfaces where sliding is assumed to impend, or place

the normal force at the corner about which the body is assumed to tip
when tipping is assumed. At all other surfaces motion is assumed not
to impend.
2. Determine the frictional and normal forces at all other surfaces.
3. Check the initial assumption by comparing F and pN for all sur
faces where slipping was assumed not to impend, or check the position of
the normal where tipping was assumed not to impend. If F is less than
or equal to pN for all such surfaces and if none of the normal forces acts
outside the base of the body, the initial assumption was correct. If
F is greater than pN for any of the surfaces or if any of the normal forces
acts outside of the base of the body, the original assumption was incorrect,
and a different assumption must be made as to where motion impends.
Alternate procedure for Type (c);
1. Determine the unknown quantity (usually a force) required to
produce the specified impending motion in each one of the possible ways
the motion can exist.
2. Select as the correct solution the value which satisfies the minimum
or maximum condition as stated in the problem.
PROBLEMS
5-1. A 100-lb block rests on a plane inclined upward to the right at a slope of
3 vertical to 4 horizontal. The coefficient of friction between the block and
plane is 0.2. Determine the horizontal force necessary to cause motion of the
block to impend (a) up the plane, (b) down the plane.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
164 FRICTION [§5-4
5-2. The crate in Fig. P 5-2 weighs 520 lb. The coefficient of friction between
the crate and the plane is 0.4. Determine the frictional force acting on the body.
Fig. P 5-2 Fig. P 5-3
5-3. In Fig. P 5-3, block A weighs 600 lb and block B weighs 100 lb. The
coefficient of friction between A and the plane is 0.4. Determine the range in
magnitudes of the force P for which A will be in equilibrium. Assume that the
block A will not tip.
5-4. In Fig. P 5-4, the 120-lb block is acted upon by the 60-lb force and the
unknown force P as shown. The normal force of the plane on the block is 180 lb,
and the coefficient of friction between the plane and the block is 0.2. Determine
(a) the frictional force; (b) the unknown force P.
5-5. The cylinder in Fig. P 5-5 weighs 500 lb. The vertical wall is smooth
and the coefficient of friction between the body and the horizontal plane is 0.3.
(a) Determine the greatest value the force P can have without causing
the cylinder to turn.
(b) If the cylinder is at rest and P is 600 lb, determine all the unknown
forces that act on the body.
5-6. In Fig. P 5-6, the 200-lb cylinder is acted upon by the 50-lb force and
the 240-in-lb couple. The radius of the cylinder is 8 in., the vertical wall is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
FRICTION 165
smooth, and the coefficient of friction between the body and the horizontal sur
face is 0.3. Determine all the unknown forces acting on the body.
5-7. In Fig. P 5-7, the coefficient of friction between the 100-lb box and the
plane is 0.3. Determine the magnitude and line of action of each unknown force
acting on the box.
Fig. P 5-7 g. P 5-8
5-8. The homogeneous rod AB of Fig. P 5-8 weighs 60 lb. The coefficient
of friction at A is 0.4, and the surface at B is smooth. Determine the unknown
forces on the rod at A.
5-9. The ladder of Fig. P 5-9 weighs 60 lb, and its center of gravity is at the
mid-point. The coefficient of friction between the ladder and the floor is 0.3,
and that between the ladder and the vertical wall is 0.1. A man weighing 150 lb
climbs the ladder. How close to the wall can the man get without having the
ladder slip?
Fig. P 5-9
5-10. A rectangular block of wood 10 X 8 X 20 in. stands on end on a rough

horizontal floor as indicated in Fig. P 5-10. The block weighs 40 lb and the
coefficient of friction between the block and floor is 0.30. If the force P is grad
@seismicisolation
ually increased until motion ensues, will @seismicisolation
the block slide or will it tip?
166 FRICTION [§5-4
5-11. In Fig. P 5-11, the uniform homogeneous member AB weighs 100 lb

and the homogeneous cylinder weighs 50 lb. The coefficient of friction is 0.20
between AB and the cylinder and- 0.40 between the cylinder and the 'plane.
Determine the minimum value of the force P which will cause the cylinder to
move. Neglect the thickness of AB.
Fig. P 5-11
5-12. The two uniform bars in Fig. P 5-12 are welded together and their com
bined weight is 40 lb. The coefficient of friction between the horizontal bar and
the wall is 0.4. Determine all unknown forces acting on the bars.
5-13. The rod AC in Fig. P 5-13 weighs 120 lb. The contact surfaces at A
are smooth, and at B the coefficient of static friction is 0.3. Determine the
components of the force on the rod at B.
5-14. A 100-lb homogeneous box rests upon a frame as shown in Fig. P 5-14.
@seismicisolation
Determine the value of 0 that@seismicisolation
will cause the box to have impending motion down
§5-4) FRICTION 167
the plane toward A. The coefficient of friction between the box and the plane
AB is 0.2, and the surface at C is smooth.
5-15. The weight of the body shown in Fig. P 5-15 can be neglected. The
ccfefficient of -friction between the body and the plane is 0.4. Determine (a)
the tension in the cord; (b) the components of the force exerted on the body by
5-16. Member AB in Fig. P 5-16 weighs 500 lb, BC weighs 200 lb, and D
weighs 50 lb. The coefficient of friction is 0.30 between C and D and 0.25 between
D and the plane. Determine the largest force P which can be applied as shown
without moving bar BC.
5-17. A homogeneous block 1 ft square by 3 ft tall weighs 100 lb. The block
is supported by an inclined plane and the horizontal force P as indicated in Fig.
P 5-17. The coefficient of friction between the block and the plane is 0.50.
Determine the maximum value of P that can act on the block and still maintain
equilibrium.
5-18. In Fig. P 5-18, block A weighs 3600 lb and block B weighs 1000 lb.
The coefficient of friction between block B and the horizontal plane is 0.10, and
all other contact surfaces are smooth. Determine the frictional force on block B.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
168 FRICTION [§5-4
5-19. Determine the minimum force P which will cause motion of wedge B
in Fig. P 5-19 to impend to the right. The coefficient of friction for all surfaces
of contact is 0.25. Neglect the weights of the blocks.
JO*
B
......\
Fig. P 5-19 Fig. P 5-20
5-20. In Fig. P 5-20, block A weighs 50 lb and block B weighs 100 lb. The
coefficient of friction is 0.35 between B and the plane and 0.20 between A and B.
Determine the minimum horizontal force P which will cause block A to move
to the left.
5-21. In Fig. P 5-21, A weighs 200 lb and the weight of B can be neglected.
The coefficient of static friction for all surfaces is 0.20. Determine the least
weight of C necessary to prevent motion.
Fig. P 5-21
5-22. Body A in Fig. P 5-22 weighs 5000 lb and body B weighs 1000 lb.
The coefficient of friction between A and B and between B and the plane is
0.20, and the coefficient of friction between A and the surface is 0.5. Deter
mine the force P required to cause motion of B to impend to the right.
4’ £
Fig. P 5-22
5-23. In Fig. P 5-23, A weighs 1400 lb and body B weighs 4000 lb. The
center of gravity of B is located as shown. The coefficient of friction is 0.20
@seismicisolation
between A and B, 0.10 between@seismicisolation
A and the horizontal plane, and 0.30 between
§6-4] FRICTION 169
B and the horizontal plane. Determine the force P which will cause motion
of B to impend to the left.
CjG.
Fig. P 5-23
5-24. In Fig. P 5-24, the uniform bar A weighs 100 lb and the block B weighs
40 lb. The coefficient of friction for all surfaces of contact is 0.40. Determine
the minimum horizontal force which must be applied to B to cause it to move
(a) to the left; (b) to the right.
Fig. P 5-24
5-25. Block A in Fig. P 5-25 weighs 500 lb and is pushed up the incline by
means of the horizontal jack braced against block B. The weight of the jack
can be neglected. The coefficient of static friction between both blocks and
their surfaces of contact is i. Determine the minimum weight of B if it is to
remain stationary until A starts to move.
Fig. P 5-25 Fig. P 5-26
5-26. Body A in Fig. P 5-26 weighs 50 lb and B weighs 100 lb. The coeffi
cient of static friction for all surfaces is 0.25. Cord C is parallel to the inclined
plane. Determine the angle 6 and the tension in the cord when motion of B
impends down the plane.
5-27. The homogeneous body A shown in Fig. P 5-27 weighs 1500 lb and
the drum C weighs 1200 lb. The coefficient of friction is 0.40 between C and A
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and 0.20 between A and the support at D. Determine the largest force P which
170 FRICTION [§5-4
can be applied as shown without causing the drum to rotate counterclockwise
around the smooth axis at 0.
5-28. In Fig. P 5-28, the cylinder B weighs 250 lb and the weight of the
bar AC can be neglected. The coefficient of friction between B and AC is
0.10 and the friction between B and the wall is negligible. Determine the hori
zontal and vertical components of the force acting on member AC at C.
5-29. In Fig. P 5-29, A and B are two cylinders which weigh 250 lb each
and are held together by two springs which are connected to the ends of smooth
axles extending through the cylinders. The coefficient of friction is 0.45 between
the cylinders and the plane and 0.25 between the two cylinders. Determine
the least total tension in the two springs which will prevent the cylinders from
rolling down the plane. Neglect the weight of the springs.
Fig. P 5-29 Fig. P 5-30
5-30. Determine the minimum compressive forces in each of the springs

shown in Fig. P 5-30 that will prevent block B from sliding downward. Blocks
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§5-4] FRICTION 171
P and Q are in smooth slots, and the coefficient of friction for all other sliding
surfaces is 0.25. Blocks A and B weigh 48 and 80 lb, respectively.
5-31. The small block on the inclined plane abed in Fig. P 5-31 weighs 6.5
lb. Lines ad and be in the plane are horizontal. The coefficient of friction
between the plane and the block is 0.50. The horizontal force P parallel to
the plane is increased gradually until motion impends. Determine (a) the angle
0, indicating the direction in which motion will impend; (b) the magnitude of
the force P,
5-32. The braking mechanism in Fig. P 5-32 consists of two members AB

and BC of negligible weight. The connections at A and B are made with smooth
pins. ' The drum D is supported on a smooth bearing at 0. The coefficient of
friction between the two members and the drum is 0.20. If motion of the drum
impends clockwise, determine the components of the pin reaction at A and B
on the member AB,
5-33. The machine in Fig. P 5-33a, called a roll grab, is used to handle rolls of
paper or other materials. The machine can also be used for moving boxes and
crates by substituting plane gripping surfaces for curved. The gripping arms A
in Fig. P 5-33b are forced downward and inward by means of the screws B. The
body W weighs 5000 lb, and the weights of the members of the grab can be
neglected. The angle 0 is equal to 60° when the body W is gripped.
(a) Determine the minimum coefficient of friction between the weight
and the gripping arms which will permit the weight to be lifted with no compres
sion in the screws B and B',
(b) Determine the least force in each of the screws B and B' necessary
to lift the crate when the coefficient of friction between the weight and the
gripping arms is 0.40. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
172 FRICTION [§5-4
Courtesy Cleveland Crane and Engineering Co.,Wickliffe, Ohio.

(a)
(b)
Fig. P 5-33
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§5-5] FRICTION 173
5-5. Flexible band or belt friction. The friction that is developed
between a flexible band or belt and a pulley can be used for the trans
mission of power and also for brakes. The relationship between the
two belt tensions when dipping of a belt on a pulley impends can be devel
oped by use of the conditions of equilibrium and the relationship between
jw
(c)
Fig. 5-9
the normal and frictional forces. The weight W in Fig. 5-9a is suspended
from the belt which passes over the fixed drum and is acted on by a force
Tl. If T l is large enough motion will impend between the belt and the
fixed drum, and the body W will have impending motion upward. From
the free-body diagram in Fig. 5-9c, it is evident that the weight W is
equal to the belt tension Ts. The free-body
diagram of the belt in Fig. 5-9b shows that
the belt tension T L is greater than W (or T fl),
since it must overcome the frictional force F
developed between the belt and drum as well
as lift the weight. A free-body diagram of
the element of the belt subtended by the angle
dO in Fig. 5-9a is shown in Fig. 5-10.
The thickness of the belt is considered to
be negligible in comparison with the radius, r,
of the pulley. Likewise, the weight of the
belt is neglected in comparison with the other forces acting upon it. The
equation of equilibrium
2M o = 0
for the free-body diagram of Fig. 5-10 gives
( T + dT)r = (T + dF)r,
which reduces to
dT = dF = u d N (5-4)
for impending slipping of the belt. The equation of equilibrium
= 0
for the free-body diagram of Fig. 5-10 gives
dN - ( T + d T ) sin + T sin
A A
• dO , . dO
= 2T sin + dT sin
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
174 FRICTION [§5-5
The sine of a small angle is approximately equal to the angle in radians.

Consequently, the expression for dN reduces to
dT de
dN = T de +
2
When second-order infinitesimals are neglected in comparison to first-
order infinitesimals the last term is negligible, and
dN = T de. (5-5)
When the value of dN from Eq. (5-5) is substituted in Eq. (5-4), the
result is
dT = iiT de
dT = M
t>r y
This differential equation can be integrated in the following manner:
and [In = g[<

or In Tl — In Ts = In = nfi. (5-6)
1 8
The symbol “In” is the abbreviation for “natural logarithm.” Equa

tion (5-6) can also be written as
Tl= T se (5-7)
where e, equal to 2.718 . . . , is the base of natural logarithms. When
common logarithms are used, Eq. (5-6) or (5-7) will be more convenient
if written in the form
T
log 5tF = rt? log e
1 8
= m£(0.4343), (5-8)
where “log” represents the common logarithm.
The relationship between the large tension, T L, and the small tension,
Ts, when motion impends between the belt and drum can thus be
expressed as Eq. (5-6), (5-7), or (5-8). These equations do not take into
account the inertial effect of the mass of the belt when the belt and pulley
are moving. The angle ft is the angle of contact, in radians, between the
belt and drum. When slipping occurs between the belt and drum the
coefficient of kinetic friction must be used for //•
The use of Eq. (5-7) is demonstrated in the following example.
Example 5-5: The mass center of the 25-lb body B of the braking mechanism in
Fig. 5-11 is at G. The pulley@seismicisolation
A weighs 75 lb, and the coefficient of static friction is
@seismicisolation
§6-5] FRICTION 175
0.40 between A and B and 0.30 between A and the brake band. Determine the
moment of the couple C required to produce impending motion of A counterclockwise.
Solution: In this problem, motion impends
simultaneously between A and the band and
between A and B. When motion impends, it
is necessary to determine the correct sense of
the frictional forces as they act on each body.
After these directions have been determined,
it is possible to distinguish between the large
and small belt tensions.
The correct sense of the frictional forces Fig. 5-11
can be determined by drawing a sketch of the
body which has impending motion, indicating the direction of motion and showing
the frictional forces opposing the motion. In this example, pulley A has impend
ing motion counterclockwise, and therefore the frictional forces on A have a clock
wise sense as indicated in Fig. 5-12a. The friction of A on the belt has a counter
clockwise sense as shown in Fig. 5-12b and thus assists the tension on the left side,
which is therefore T s in Eq. (5-7), whereas the right-hand tension is the large tension.
After it has been determined which tension is the larger, the free-body diagrams of the
belt and body A and of body B in Fig. 5-13 can be drawn with the frictional forces in
Fig. 5-13
the proper directions. There are eight unknown quantities in the two diagrams: the
two tensions, the components of the reaction at 0, the frictional and normal forces
between A and B, the moment of the couple C, and the reaction R. The eight
unknowns can be determined from the six equations of equilibrium and two friction
equations, one between F and N and one between T l and Ts. From Fig. 5-13b, the
moments of the forces with respect to D are tabulated as
2F 12*(60)
5N
2F 4- 5N = 720
and since motion impends F is eqdal to O.4O2V, so that
2(O.42V) 4- 52V = 5.82V = 720
and 2V = 124.2 lb as shown.
On the same free-body diagram, the y components of the forces can be tabulated as
T I
T s 60
25
124.2
T s 209.2
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
from which T s — 209 lb as shown.
176 FRICTION [§5-6
The large tension T l is determined from Eq. (5-7) as

Tl - Tse - 209(2.718)°”* = 536 lb.
The moments of the forces in Fig. 5-13a

with respect to the 0 axis are tabulated as
5(536) (?
5(0.4) (124.2) 5(209)
2680 4- 248 1045 + C,
from which C - 2680 + 248 - 1045 = 1883

in-lb J .
The belts used for belt drives are

frequently V-shaped. When V belts
are used, they are in contact with the
sides of the grooves of the pulley and
they do not touch the bottom of the
grooves. Thus the normal and fric
tional forces act on the inclined sides
of the belt.
The relationship between the two
belt tensions when motion impends
between the belt and pulley is derived
in a manner similar to that used for
flat belts. Figure 5-14a represents
a V belt and pulley in which motion
of the belt impends clockwise on the
pulley; that is, T l is greater than T s .
A free-body diagram of an element of
the belt is shown in Fig. 5-14. The
weight of the belts and inertial effects
due to any motion are neglected.
The angle between the two sides of
the belt is 2 . From symmetry, the
Fig. 5-14 two normal forces dN\ and dN\are
equal. The equation of equilibrium
SF, = 0
T 1
gives dNi sin </> T sin z
dAT, sin 4> (T + d sin z
(dNt + dN t( sin * = (2T + dT sin z

@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§«] FRICTION 177
Since dT and de are infinitesimals and dNi = dN t , the equation becomes
dtfi - (5-9)
2 sin 4
when second-order infinitesimals are neglected in comparison with first-

order infinitesimals.
The equation of equilibrium
SF, = 0
gives ( T + dT) cos (dtf/2) T cos (dd/2)

dFx
_________________________dF t ________f
( T + d T ) cos = T cos + dFi + dF t
from which dT cos = dFi + dF t . (5-10)
Since the angle dO is small, cos (dQ/2) is approximately equal to 1 ; and

since motion is assumed to be impending,
dFi = iriNi, dF% = fidN2 = iriNi.
Consequently, Eq. (5-10) reduces to
dT = (5-11)
When the value of d N i from Eq. (5-9) is substituted in Eq. (5-11), the
result is
TdO
dT = 2g
2 sin </>
or = -A; de.
T sin $
This differential equation can be integrated as follows:
'’’’'■dT P udO
=
Tt 1’ Jo sin
T_l _ nP
(5-12)
T a ~ sin 4
Ti = Tsd™ * (5-13)
When the angle <t> is 90°, Eq (5-13) reduces to Eq. (5-7) for a flat belt.
The angle </> is usually between 17° @seismicisolation
and 20° although for small pulleys it
@seismicisolation
may be as small as 13°.
178 FRICTION [§5-5
PROBLEMS
5-34. Determine the range of values of the weight of Q in Fig. P 5-34 which
will hold a weight P of 1 ton in equilibrium. The coefficient of friction between
the cable and the fixed drum is 0.30.
Fig. P 5-34
5-35. Body A in Fig. P 5-35 weighs 500 lb, and the minimum force P required
to raise A is 2000 lb. Determine the coefficient of friction between the belt and
the fixed drum B,
5-36. A lathe is driven from a flat belt passing over a pulley attached to a
jack shaft as shown in Fig. P 5-36. If the resisting torque developed by the
lathe while in operation is 30 ft-lb, what is the minimum tension required in the
portion of the belt from A to B, provided no slippage of the belt with respect to
the pulleys is to occur? The coefficient of friction between the belt and pulleys
is 0.30. Neglect the inertial effect of the mass of the belt.
kwwwvwwi
Fig. P 5-36 Fig. P 5-38

5-37. Solve Problem 5-36 if the flat belt and pulleys are replaced by a V belt
and pulleys. The coefficient of friction is the same as in Problem 5-36, and the
angle between the side of the belt and the axis of symmetry of the belt cross sec
tion is 19°.
5-38. Determine the maximum torque which can be transmitted from pulley
A to pulley B in Fig. P 5-38 if the compressive force in the spring is 2000 lb.
Each pulley has a diameter of 10 in., and the coefficient of friction between the
pulleys and the belt is 0.30. Neglect the inertial effect of the mass of the belt.
5-39. Determine the least force in the spring in Problem 5-38 if the trans
mitted torque is 5000 in-lb and the flat belt is replaced with a V belt. The coeffi
cient of friction between the @seismicisolation
belt and drum is 0.30, and the angle between either
@seismicisolation
side of the belt and the axis of symmetry is 18°. Neglect the inertial effect of
the mass of the belt.
§5-5] FRICTION 179
5-40. In Fig. P 5-40, body A weighs 350 lb and body B weighs 200 lb. The
coefficient of friction between the cord and fixed drum is 0.20. The angle 0 is
varied by rotating the arm CD. At what value of B will B start to move?
5-41. Figure P 5-41 represents a band brake. The coefficient of friction for
the band and brake is 0.21. Determine the maximum counterclockwise couple,
M , to which the pulley can be subjected without causing it to rotate.
5-42. The braking mechanism shown in Fig. P 5-42 consists of a body B
whose weight can be neglected and a flexible belt D which passes around the
pulley and is fastened as shown. The pulley weighs 100 lb and is supported by a
smooth pin at 0. The coefficient of friction for the pulley and belt is l/(2r) and
for the pulley and body B is 0.25. The moment of the couple M causes motion
of the pulley to impend counterclockwise. Determine (a) the moment of the
couple M ; (b) the components of the pin reaction on the pulley at 0.
Fig. P 5-43
5-43. In Fig. P 5-43, body B weighs 1200 lb and body C weighs 680 lb. The
coefficient of friction is 2/tt between the rope and fixed drum, 0.40 between A
and B, and 0.30 between B and the horizon
tal surface. Determine the minimum
weight that A must have to prevent C from
moving downward.
5-44. In Fig. P 5-44, the weight W is
suspended by a cable which passes over the
drum and is attached to the 400-lb block
A. If the coefficient of friction is 0.50
between the cable and the drum and 0.40
between the block and the plane, determine@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the minimum weight of W which will keep Fig. P 5-44
block A in equilibrium.
180 FRICTION 155-5
5-45. Block B weighs 200 lb and rests on a smooth plane as shown in Fig.
P 5-45. The coefficient of friction between blocks A and B is 0.30, and that
between the cord and drum C is 1/r. Determine the weight of block A if motion
of B impends down the plane.
Fig. P 5-45 Fig. P 5-46
5-46. Block A of Fig. P 5-46 weighs 1300 lb.

The coefficient of friction is
0.40 between A and the inclined plane and between the rope and the fixed
circular drum. Determine the minimum force P which will start A up the
plane.
5-47. In Fig. P 5-47, block B weighs 100 lb. The coefficient of friction is
0.20 between each of the blocks and the inclined planes. The coefficient of
friction between the cord and C is 1/t. Determine the weight of A which will
cause motion of A to impend down the plane.
5-48. The weights of all members shown in Fig. P 5-48 can be neglected.
The coefficient of static friction is 0.40 between A and the drum and 1/t between
the belt and the drum. The friction at C and E can be neglected. Determine
the force Q which will produce impending motion of
the drum clockwise.
5-49. The homogeneous block A in Fig. P 5-49 is
1 ft square by 2 ft high and weighs 350 lb. The
coefficient of friction between the block and the
horizontal plane is 0.30. The coefficient of friction
between the flexible belt and the fixed drum is
B 0.20. Determine the maximum weight block B
can have without disturbing the equilibrium of the
Fig. P 5-49 @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
bodies.
§5-5] FRICTION
5-60. In Fig. P 5-50, A weighs 100 lb, B

weighs 200 lb, and C weighs 25 lb. The
coefficient of friction is 0.30 between A and
B and between B and the plane, and 0.12
between the cord and the fixed drum D,
Determine the minimum force P necessary
to cause the block B to move to the
left.
5-61. In Fig. P 5-51, the coefficient of static friction between the rope and
the fixed drums A and B is 0.50; between the block C and the vertical wall the
coefficient is 0.20; all other sliding surfaces can be considered smooth. Deter
mine the force P that will cause block C to have impending motion downward.
The weights of blocks C and D can be neglected.
5-52. Determine the minimum weight of body E which will just prevent the
600-ft-lb twisting moment from turning the drum D in Fig. P 5-52v, The coeffi
cient of static friction is 0.30 between the flexible cable and the drum and 0.40
between the rigid angle ABC and the drum. Neglect the weights of the drum and
the angle ABC. The pins at A and 0 are smooth.
5-53. In Fig. P 5-53, body A weighs 1200 lb and body B weighs 800 lb. The
coefficient of friction between the rope and the fixed drum is 1/t; the pin D is
smooth; and the coefficient of friction for all other surfaces of contact is 0.30.
Determine the force P which will just prevent motion of body A to the right. The
weight of member DEF may be neglected.
1 - —
2’ 10’ 2‘
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation Fig. P 5-54
182 FRICTION [§5-5
5-54. A beam 14 ft long and weighing 300 lb is supported by a cable passing
over a pair of fixed drums as shown in Fig. P 5-54. The coefficient of friction
between the cable and drums is 0.30. A 200-lb man stands at the center of the
beam. Determine the distance he can walk along the beam in either direction
without causing the beam to tip.
5-55. In Fig. P 5-55, the drum at A is rigidly attached to the bar AB, and the
weights of both may be neglected. Block C weighs 1000 lb. The coefficient
of friction is 0.30 between C and the fixed plane and 0.21 between the drum and
the cord. Bar AB is smooth. Determine the least value the force P can have
to prevent the block C from sliding down the plane.
Fig. P 5-55
5-56. The weights of all bodies except A in Fig. P 5-56 can be neglected.
A flexible belt, fastened to the multiple drum C at G, passes around the smooth
pulley B, passes over the smaller drum C around the smooth pulley H , and is
attached to DE at F as shown. The coefficient of friction between the belt and
C is 0.10, and between C and the brake DE it is 0.30. The two drums C are
rigidly fastened together. All pins are smooth. Determine the greatest weight
A can have without moving.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§5-6] FRICTION 183
5-57. Body A m Fig. P 5-57 weighs 550 lb and body C weighs 150 lb. The
coefficient of friction is 0.30 between A and C, 0.20 between C and the fixed plane,
and 0.20 between the belt and fixed drum D. The vertical wall is smooth.
Determine the maximum weight B can have without causing body A to rotate.
Fig. P 5-57 Fig. P 5-58

5-58. The two drums D in Fig. P 5-58 are rigidly fastened together and are
free to rotate about a smooth pin at 0. Body B weighs 100 lb. A flexible belt
runs from C over D, around the smooth pulley E, over the small part of drum D,
and down to B. The coefficient of friction is 0.10 between the belt and the large
drum and 0.20 between the belt and small drum. Determine the greatest weight
A can have without lifting B. Neglect the weight of the drums and pulley.
5-6. Square-threaded screws. A square-threaded screw can be
regarded as an inclined plane wound around a cylinder on which a block
is moved by a horizontal force. There are three common types of threads
used for power transmission and jackscrews, namely, square, acme, and
buttress, as shown in Fig. 5-15. V-shaped threads are widely used for
Buttress
Fig. 5-15
bolts and other fastenings. Only square-threaded screws will be con
sidered in this text.
The lead, L, of a screw is the distance the nut will advance in the direction
of the axis of the screw in one revolution. The pitch, p, is the distance
between similar points on adjacent threads. The jackscrews considered
here are single-threaded, and L is @seismicisolation
equal to p. For multiple-threaded
@seismicisolation
184 FRICTION l§5-6
screws, L is equal to mp, where m is the multiplicity of the threads.

Figure 5-16a shows a portion of a square-threaded jackscrew. The
thread A of the screw is represented in the inset figure by a block that
slides up or down the inclined plane representing the thread of the base
B. The horizontal force Q is the
force which, if applied at the mean
radius r of the screw as in Fig. 5-16b,
would be necessary to slide the block
up the plane, thus raising the weight
W . If the weight is to be lowered,
the friction shown in the free-body
diagram inset in Fig. 5-16a, and usu
ally the force Q, are reversed. By
unwinding one turn from C to D in
Fig. 5-16a of the thread, it is seen that
the slope of the equivalent inclined
plane is equal to the lead divided by
the mean circumference of the screw;
that is,
tan 0 = F- = (5-14)
With the angle 0 determined from Eq.
(5-14), the force Q shown in the free-
body diagram inset of Fig. 5-16a can
be determined for any given load W
from the equations of equilibrium and
friction for block A. After the force Q has been determined, the actual
force P required at the end of the jack handle as shown in Fig. 5-16b can
be evaluated from the relation for equivalent moments; that is,
Pa = Qr. (5-15)
The angle 0 is normally small for jackscrews, to prevent unloading when

no force is acting on the jack handle. When the slope of the plane (tan 0)
is less than 0.1, the approximations cos 0 = 1 and sin 0 = tan 0 give
results w i t h i n the l i m i t s of slide-rule
accuracy.
Example 5-6: The mean diameter of the screw
of a square-threaded jackscrew is 2 in., the pitch of
the thread is 0.50 in., and the coefficient of static
friction for the screw and nut is 0.30. Determine
the force which is required at the end of a 15-in. lever
to raise a 2000-lb load.
Solution: Figure 5-17 is the free-body diagram Fig. 5-17
showing a 2000-lb load on a block which is being
pushed up an equivalent inclined plane by the horizontal force Q, From the figure,
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§5-61 FRICTION 185
tan 9 - - 0.0796,
2»
and the approximations
sin 9 = 0.0796 and cos 9 — 1.000
are justified for slide-rule computations. The vertical components of the forces are
tabulated as
T I
N cos 9 2000
O.3O2V sin 9
N cos 9 2000 4- O.3O2V sin 9
from which 2V - 2000 + O.3O2V 0.0796 - 2050 lb as shown.
The horizontal components of the forces are tabulated as
Q N sin 9
O.3O2V cos 9 ______
Q N sin 9 + O.3O2V cos 9
from which Q = 2V 0.0796 + O.3O2V » 778 lb as shown.

Equation (5-15) gives
P15 - 778(1)
or P = 51.9 lb
to raise the load.
PROBLEMS
5-59. The mean diameter of the screw of a square-threaded jackscrew is
2 in. The lead of the thread is 0.50 in., and the coefficient of friction for the screw
and the nut is 0.20. Determine the force which must be applied at the end of a
20-in. lever to lower a weight of 5000 lb.
5-60. The mean diameter of a jackscrew is 4 in., the pitch is 0.50 in., and the
coefficient of friction between the screw and nut is 0.20. Determine the maxi
mum load that can be raised by a force of 100 lb applied at the end of a 15-in.
handle.
5-61. The mean diameter of the screw of a square-threaded jackscrew is 3 in.,
the pitch of the thread is 0.40 in., and the coefficient of friction for the screw
and nut is 0.20. How long must the lever be in order to raise a load of 3000 lb
with a force of 45 lb?
5-62. A 12,000-lb load is to be supported by a square-threaded jackscrew
which has a mean diameter of 3 in. The coefficient of friction for the screw and
nut is 0.10. Determine the maximum allowable pitch of the thread if the screw
is not to turn down by reason of the weight of the load itself.
5-63. A jackscrew has a mean diameter of 2.0 in. and a lead of 0.40 in. A
force of 32 lb is required at the end of a 15-in. handle in order to lift a load of
1 ton. Determine the coefficient of friction between the screw and nut.
5-64. Body A in Fig. P 5-64 weighs 1500 lb and is connected to the 1000-lb
body B by a flexible belt passing over the fixed drum C. The coefficient of fric
tion between the belt and drum is 0.20. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The jack beneath body A has a square-
186 FRICTION [55-7
threaded screw with a lead of 0.40 in. and a mean diameter of 2.00 in. The
coefficient of friction between the screw and nut of the jack is 0.10.
(a) Determine the least force which must be applied to the lever at P
to start A moving upward.
(b) If the jackscrew is removed, will the system remain in equilibrium?
Fig. P 5-64
5-7. Frictional moments on thrust bearings and disk clutches.
Frictional moments are developed in thrust bearings, such as step or end
(a)
Fig. 5-18
bearings, collar bearings, and disk-type clutches, as a result of the normal
pressure exerted by one plane circular area on another. The end of a
shaft with a vertical load P is shown in a step or end
bearing in Fig. 5-18a. The center portion of the
shaft is frequently cut away to avoid excessive pres
sure there, since the outer portion wears faster because
of its higher velocity. A collar bearing is shown in
Fig. 5-18b.
The moment of the couple T required to produce
impending rotation of the hollow shaft in Fig. 5-19 on
a step bearing depends on the thrust P, the coefficient
of friction, and the distribution of the normal pressure
Fig. 5-19 over the contact area. The pressure will be assumed
over the contact area although wear of bearings
to be uniformly distributed @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§5-7) FRICTION 187
and flexibility of shaft collars usually alter this pressure distribution. The
normal force per unit area is equal to the total thrust, P, divided by the
area of the end of the shaft. The normal force on the element of area is
equal to the product of the unit pressure and the element of area; that is,
dN =
rifil - RD d A =
- RD T de dr
'
The frictional force on the element of area when motion impends is

equal to the normal force multiplied by the coefficient of static friction.
Thus
pPr d& dr
dF = ndN
*(Rl - Rl)
The moment of the frictional force on the element of area about the axis
of the shaft is
_ pPr* dr dO
dMo = rdF
The total frictional moment on the shaft is

_ f2r [R t P' P(Rl - R») dO
Jo J Rt <Rl - RD Jo 3t(R? - RD
g
Mn0 = r - n. (5-16)
3
Equation (5-16) gives the frictional moment on the shaft when that
motion impends which is equal to the torque T necessary to produce
impending motion. For a solid shaft the inner radius, Ri, is zero, and
Eq. (5-16) reduces to
M o = ifiPRt. (5-17)
When At represents the coefficient of kinetic friction, these equations give
the resisting kinetic frictional moment.
Multiple-disk clutches and brakes, such as those used for bicycle
coaster brakes, make use of the frictional moment occurring between each
pair of a series of disks. Half of the disks turn with one shaft (the bicycle
wheel hub, for example), whereas the other disks, which are alternated
with the first set, turn with the second shaft (or are stationary, as with
the bicycle brake). The normal forces applied to the outside disks cause
a frictional moment to be developed between each pair of disks as
given by Eq. (5-16). The total frictional moment is equal to the sum of
the moments developed by each pair of disks, and thus a small normal
force can cause a relatively large frictional moment to be developed by
the clutch or brake. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
188 FRICTION [§5-8
PROBLEMS
5-65. A l.OO-in.-diameter vertical shaft weighs 80 lb and is supported by a
3.00-in.-diameter collar bearing as indicated in Fig. P 5-65. The coefficient of
friction between the collar and the bearing surface is 0.06. Determine the
frictional moment developed when the shaft is turning.
Fig. P 5-65 Fig. P 5-66
5-66. The three disks in Fig. P 5-66 act as a brake on the shaft. Disk A is
fastened rigidly to the end of the shaft; disk B is keyed to the shaft but is free
to slide on it; and disk C is restrained from turning by the two lugs. The brake
is actuated by a spring which forces B and C against A. The outer diameter of
the disks is 10.0 in., and the inner diameter of disk C is 2.00 in. The coefficient
of friction for the disks is 0.25. Determine the compressive force in the spring
necessary to produce a frictional moment of 200 in-lb.
5-8. Rolling resistance. When a rigid cylinder or wheel rolls along a
rigid horizontal plane with no forces acting on it other than its weight
and the reaction of the plane, in theory it will continue to roll indefi
nitely, since there will be no resisting force acting on the cylinder (see
Fig. 5-20 Fig. 5-21

Art. 9-8). Experience indicates, however, that the cylinder will slow
down and eventually come to rest unless a force is applied to the wheel
to keep it rolling. The resistance to the motion is due to the fact that
no wheel or plane is rigid , so that there will always be some deformation
of the wheel and plane as indicated in Fig. 5-20. The horizontal force
P is the force required to keep the wheel moving with a constant velocity.
The free-body diagram of the wheel in Fig. 5-21 shows the reaction
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
55-91 FRICTION 189
of the plane at an angle 0 with the vertical. The equations of equilibrium
give
P = R sin B and W = R cos 6,
from which P = W tan 0 = W -•
c
For most materials, the angle 0 is found to be small, and the value of c
is approximately equal to the radius r. Hence the preceding equation
can be written as
P = -w.
r
The distance b is called the coefficient of rolling resistance. Unlike
the coefficient of friction, however, b is not a dimensionless constant but
has the dimensions of length. Coefficients of rolling resistance for various
materials have been obtained experimentally and published, although
they are not generally used. For most materials which are fairly rigid
the rolling resistance is usually much smaller than other forces acting
on the wheel and it is therefore neglected.
5-9. Laws of friction. The results of a rather large number of
experiments on friction of dry surfaces published by C. A. de Coulomb
in 1781 provided some of the earliest information on the laws of friction.
A. J. Morin’s experiments published in 1831 confirmed Coulomb’s results.
Their work led to the following laws of friction for dry surfaces:
1. The maximum frictional force which can be developed is propor
tional to the normal force.
2. The maximum frictional force which can be developed is independ
ent of the size of the contact area.
3. The limiting static frictional force is greater than the kinetic fric
tional force.
4. The kinetic frictional force is independent of the relative velocity
of the bodies in contact.
As a result of more recent experiments, the following additions and
modifications of these laws should be made:
1. For extremely low pressures and for pressures high enough to
produce excessive deformation, the coefficient of static friction increases
somewhat.
2. For extremely low relative velocities, the coefficient of kinetic
friction increases and apparently becomes equal to the coefficient of
static friction without any mathematical discontinuity.
3. For very high velocities, the coefficient of kinetic friction decreases
appreciably.
4. Ordinary changes in temperature do not materially affect the
coefficient of friction. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
190 FRICTION 155-9
The laws of friction for lubricated surfaces are very different from the
laws for clean dry surfaces. For lubricated surfaces the frictional force
depends primarily on the lubricant instead of on the magnitude of the
normal pressure and the type of material of the contacting bodies.
The only safe policy for selecting a coefficient of friction for any given
situation is to make tests approximating as closely as possible the surface
conditions, materials, pressures, and other factors which are to exist in the
machine or structure in question.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 6
Second Moments or Moments of Inertia

6-1. Introduction. In the analysis of the angular motion of rigid
bodies, an expression is developed which Euler* called the moment of
inertia of mass or more simply the moment of inertia of the body. In
determining stresses and deflections in beams and shafts, an expression
is encountered which is similar to the moment of inertia of mass except
that it involves an area rather than a mass. Since the two expressions are
similar in form, it is common practice to refer to both of them as moments
of inertia. However, an area has no mass and hence no inertia, and a
more appropriate term would be the second moment of an area, as indi
cated in the following article. For either a mass or an area, the moment
of inertia is a mathematical expression, and it is difficult to obtain a
physical concept of the quantity. Because the moments of inertia of
areas and masses appear so frequently in analytical equations, it is desir
able that the engineer be familiar with and able to determine them.
PART I— PLANE AREAS

6-2. Definitions. The second moment or moment of inertia of an
element of area, such as d A in Fig. 6-1, with respect to any axis is defined
as the product of the area of the element and the square of the distance from
the axis to the element. For example,
dl v = x2 dA,
where dl v is the second moment of the element of area dA with respect

to the y axis. The sum of the second moments of all the elements of an
area is defined as the moment of inertia of the area; that is,
Zy = fx2 dA.
Similarly, dl x = y* dA
and I 9 = fy* dA.
When the moment axis is in the plane of the area, the second moment
of the area is called the rectangular moment of inertia. If the moment axis
is perpendicular to the plane of the area, the second moment of the area
is called the polar moment of inertia. The second moment of the element
* Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), a noted @seismicisolation

@seismicisolation
Swiss mathematician and physicist.
191
192 MOMENTS OF INERTIA l§ 3
of area in Fig. 6-1 with respect to an axis through 0 perpendicular to the

plane of the area is
dJo = r 2 dA = (x 2 + y2( dA,
where dJo is the polar moment of inertia of the element with respect to
an axis through 0 perpendicular to the plane of the area. The polar
moment of inertia of the area is
J O = J( X 2 + yl) dA = f X 2 dA + fy2 dA
= Z, + z x. (6-1)
Thus the polar moment of inertia of an area is
equal to the sum of the rectangular moments of
inertia with respect to any two perpendicular
axes intersecting the polar axis.
The second moment of an area has dimen
sions of length raised to the fourth power, L 4, and common units of in. 4,
ft 4, cm 4, and so on.
An element of area is inherently positive. Since the square of the
length of its moment arm is also positive, the second moment of an ele
ment of area is always a positive quantity. The moment of inertia of an
area is the sum of the second moments of the elements of the area;
consequently, it is always positive.
6-3. The parallel-axis theorem for areas. After the moment of
inertia of an area has been obtained with respect to one axis, it is fre
quently necessary to determine the moment
of inertia of the area with respect to a parallel
axis.
The parallel-axis theorem (sometimes
called the transfer formvia) provides a con
venient relationship between the moments of
inertia of an area with respect to two parallel
axes. The moment of inertia of the element
of area dA in Fig. 6-2 with respect to the b
axis is
dl b = (d + x)2 dA,
where d is the distance between the y axis and the parallel b axis. When
the preceding equation is expanded and integrated over the area, the
result is
Ib = J(d + x) 2 dA
= d 2$dA + 2d$x dA + $x 2 dA
= Ad2 + 2d f x d A + Iv . (6-2)
The integral of x dA evaluated over the area is the first moment of the
area with respect to the y axis. If the y axis passes through the centroid
of the area, the expression jxdA is zero. Consequently, Eq. (6-2)
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§0-4] MOMENTS OF INERTIA 193
reduces to
lb = Ad2 + I ei (6-3)
where I e is the second moment of the area with respect to an axis through
the centroid parallel to the b axis. In a similar manner, it can be shown
that
J b = Ad2 + J c. (6-4)
The parallel-axis theorem can be stated as follows: The moment of
inertia of an area with respect to any axis is equal to the moment of inertia
with respect to a parallel axis through the centroid of the area plus the product
of the area and the square of the distance between the two axes.
From the preceding statement it is apparent that the moment of
inertia of any area with respect to an axis through its centroid is less than
that for any parallel axis.
PROBLEMS
6-1. The area in Fig. P 6-1 is symmetrical with respect to the x and y axes.
The area is 160 sq in., and the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the
b axis is 4320 in.4 Determine the moment of inertia of the area with respect to
the d axis.
Fig. P 6-1 Fig. P 6-2 Fig. P 6-3

6-2. The area in Fig. P 6-2 has a moment of inertia with respect to the d
axis of 800 in.4 and a polar moment of inertia with respect to an axis through
the centroid, C, of 1000 in.4 Determine the moment of inertia with respect to
the e axis.
6-3. The area in Fig. P 6-3 has a moment of inertia with respect to the d axis
of 2300 in.4 and an area of 100 sq in. The centroid of the area is located at
point C. Determine the moment of inertia of the area with respect to the b axis.
6-4. Second moments of areas by integration. In determining the
moment of inertia of an area by integration, it is necessary to select an
element of area. When all parts of the element selected are the same
distance from the moment axis, the moment of inertia of the element
of area is obtained directly from the definition of a second moment as
the product of the square of this distance and the area of the element.
@seismicisolation
When any other element of area is selected, the moment of inertia of that
@seismicisolation
194 MOMENTS OF INERTIA 1564
element must either be known or be obtainable from a known result by

the parallel-axis theorem. In summary, the element chosen should
satisfy one of the following requirements:
1. All parts of the element are the same distance from the moment
axis.
2. The second moment of the element with respect to the moment
axis is known.
3. The second moment of the element with respect to an axis through
the centroid of the element parallel to the moment axis is known, and
the area and distance between the parallel axes are known.
When selecting an element of area, the choice between double and
single integration should be made. If double integration is used, all
parts of the element will always be the same distance from the moment
axis. The expression for the moment of inertia of the element can usually
be set up more readily by the use of double integration, whereas the limits
can be selected with less possibility of error with single integration. In
general, the choice between single and double integrals is either a matter
of personal preference or of previous training.
In some problems there will also be a choice of coordinate systems.
For circular areas or portions thereof, polar coordinates are frequently
advantageous.
The following examples illustrate the procedure for determining
second moments of plane areas by integration.
Example 6-1 : Determine the second moment of a rectangular area with respect to
an axis through the centroid parallel to the base of the rectangle.
Solution: The rectangular area is shown in Fig. 6-3 with the x axis as the moment
axis. The element of area is selected as indicated in Fig. 6-3, and all necessary
dimensions are on the figure, The following sequence of steps, similar to those listed
in Art. 3-5, is recommended :
d A = b dy,
dig = y*dA = yl b dy
rh/2
and
S
3L8 \ 8
@seismicisolation / J “ 12* (6-5)
@seismicisolation
Example 6-2: Determine the moment of inertia of a circular area of radius R with
respect to a diameter of the circle.
Solution: A circular area of radius R is shown in Fig. 6-4. The x axis is the moment
axis. Double integration and polar coordinates are convenient for this problem,
although rectangular coordinates could also be used. The element is indicated with
the necessary dimensions in the figure. The dashed lines indicate that the first inte
gration is to be performed with respect to r to complete the sector of the circle.
Fig. 6-4
Again it is recommended that the expressions for the element of area and the
second moment of the element of area be written first as follows:
d A - dr(r de),
di, — (r sin e)* d A = r 1 sin* 6 dr de
f2r ( R f2rr r 4-lft R> [2t
and I. - Jo J o r* sin* 0 dr de - JQ ] j J o sin’ 0 de - JQ sin’0d0
R 4 [ 2r 1 — cos 26 , R 4 1" e sin 26 ~|2t

”TJo ------2------- dfl ” T l 2 - —
4~ Jo
Example 6-3: Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by the line
x =» 9a and the parabola y* » 4ax with respect to the x axis.
Fig. 6-5
Solution: The element of area is selected as shown in Fig. 6-5, and all necessary
dimensions are included. The element is a rectangle of height 2 y and width dx,
and the x axis is the centroidal axis of the rectangle. Thus, from Eq. (6-5), the
moment of inertia of the element is
bh* w dx Zdx 2
d L “ 17 To
1a O* '
1 @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
196 MOMENTS OF INERTIA (§64
Also y - 2atypH
Therefore dig — }8a x dx
fQa r 19a
and Zx = dx » Va** I I*** I — 518a 4.
Example 6-4: Determine the second moment of the area in Fig. 6-6 with respect
to the x axis. In the equation of the curve, A = 1 in. and b •* 1 rad per in.
Solution: In this problem either a double integral or a single integral with a ver
tical element of area can be used advantageously. A single integral with a horizontal
element is not used because y = sin x has an infinite number of values of x for a given
value of y. The shaded element of area selected is shown in Fig. 6-6, and all necessary
dimensions are included. The equations for the element of area and the necessary
moments of inertia follow :
dA y dx = sin x dx,
bh 3 dx z s dx . ,
dl e — = — (i/ (J = — sin* x.
12 12 “ 12
where the c axis is parallel to the x axis and passes through the centroid of the element.
The moment of inertia of the element about the x axis is
dl x — dl c + (dA) d* = sin’ x 4* sin x dx (£\ = i sin* x dx

12 \2/ 3
and I x = - I sin’ x d x = - / (1 — cos 2 x) sin x dx

3 Jo 3 Jo
in. 44
1 2
F
—cos x 41-----
COS
-— n A 44 •
— 0.444
3L 3 Jo
Fig. 6-7
Example 6-5: Determine the polar moment of inertia of a hollow circular area of
inner radius Ri and outer radius R* with respect to the axis through the center of the
area.
Solution: The shaded element of area selected is shown in Fig. 6-7 with all necessary
dimensions. The polar moment of inertia can be obtained as follows:
dA = 2?rr dr
dJo = r 2 d A = 2rr 3 dr
Jo 2r - 5 (RJ - RJ).
A
Sometimes it is desirable to express a second moment of an area in terms of the ares.

In this example,
A = 2tt / r dr = t r 2 = r(Ztf - R\).
@seismicisolation
JRi L JRi
@seismicisolation
A convenient way to express J as a function of A is to multiply J o by
Therefore
PROBLEMS .
6-4. Determine the moment of inertia of any triangular area of altitude h
and base b with respect to an axis through the centroid parallel to the base.
6-5. (a) Determine by integration the polar moment of inertia of the shaded
area shown in Fig. P 6-5 with respect to an axis through its center.
(b) Determine the rectangular moment of inertia of the area of Fig. P 6-5
with respect to a diameter of the circles.
Fig. P 6-5
6-6. Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by y = x3 (x and y
are in feet), y = 0, and x = 1 ft with respect to the y axis.
6-7. Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by a 2?/ = bx\
x = a, and y = 0 with respect to the x axis.
6-8. Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by the curves
y 2 = ax and a*y = x3 with respect to the y axis.
6-9. Determine the moment of inertia of the shaded area in Fig. P 6-9 with
respect to the line y = 2a.
6-10. Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by x = y3 4- 1

@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
(z and y are in feet), y = 2 ft, and the coordinate axes with respect to the x axis.
198 MOMENTS OF INERTIA [56-5
6-1L Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by the parabola
I/ 2 = 4z and the line y + 2z = 4 with respect to the x axis. All lengths are in
inches-
6-12. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area bounded by one loop
of the curve r 2 = sin 0 (r is in inches) with respect to an axis through the origin.
6-13. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area shown in Fig. P 6-13
with respect to an axis through the origin.
6-14. Determine the second moment of the elliptical area in Fig. P 6-14 with
respect to the x and y axes.
6-16. Determine the second moment of a semicircular area of radius r (a) with
respect to the axis of symmetry of the area; (b) with respect to an axis tangent
to the semicircle and parallel to the axis of symmetry.
6-16. Determine the moment of inertia of the area included between the curve
y1 = 4 — x(x and y are in inches) and the y axis with respect to the y axis.
6-6. Radius of gyration of areas. It is frequently desirable to express
the moment of inertia of an area as a function of the area and a length.
Since the second moment of an area has dimensions of length to the
fourth power, it can be written as the area multiplied by a length squared;
that is,
h = Akf
(6-7)
or Jb = Akl.
The length kb of Eq. (6-7) is defined as the radius of gyration of the area
with respect to the b axis. The radius of gyration
is not the distance from the reference axis to some
specific fixed point in the area (such as the
centroid), but it is a useful mathematical concept.
The radius of gyration forany axis is always greater
than the distance fromthe axis to the centroid. The
proof of this statement is apparent from the
parallel-axis theorem. From Fig. 6-8, the follow
ing equations can be written:
klA = k*A + Ad*,
and k„ = (d» +
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation k*)»
Therefore kb must always be greater than d. If the b axis is moved up

1 in. in Fig. 6-8, kb will be decreased by an amount somewhat less than
1 in., indicating that the radius of gyration is not the distance to the
same point in the area from different axes.
The radius of gyration of an area can be considered as the distance
from a given axis at which the entire area can be conceived to be concen
trated without changing the second moment of the area about the given
axis. When the area is so concentrated, its first moment with respect
to the given axis will not be the same as the first moment of the actual
area. Usually, however, there is no particular advantage in associating
a radius of gyration with any particular distance in an area.
The radius of gyration of an area is used for convenience in many
problems in mechanics, as in the formulas for the determination of the
strength of columns.
PROBLEMS
6-17. Determine the radius of gyration of the shaded area in Fig. P 6-17 with
respect to (a) the x axis; (b) the y axis.
Fig. P 6-17
6-18. Determine the polar radius of gyration of the area in Fig. P 6-18 with
respect to an axis through the origin.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
200 MOMENTS OF INERTIA [56-6
6-19. Determine the radius of gyration of the shaded area in Fig. P 6-19
with respect to the x axis.
»ILM.,i 6-20. Determine the polar radius of gyration
of the shaded area in Fig. P 6-19 with respect to
an axis through a.
6-6. Moments of inertia of composite

areas. Frequently a composite area can be
resolved into a number of simple areas such
as rectangles, triangles, and circles. The
moment of inertia of the composite area with
o
2” respect to any axis is equal to the sum of the
moments of inertia of the component areas
Fig. P 6-19
with respect to the same axis. If an area is
removed from a larger area, its moment of inertia is subtracted from the
moment of inertia of the larger area to obtain the net moment of inertia.
The moment of inertia of the composite area can be determined by integra
tion, but a number of elements would usually be needed that would require
more time than to consider the area to be made up of the simple shapes.
The simple shapes most frequently encountered in engineering prob
lems are the rectangle, triangle, and circle. From Eq. (6-5) and Problem
6-4, the moments of inertia of a rectangle and triangle with respect to
centroidal axes parallel to the bases are 6A*/12 and 6A8 /36, respectively,
and the moment of inertia of a circle with respect to a diameter is w7J 4 /4,
from Eq. (6-6). Extensive tables listing values of moments of inertia
of the cross-sectional areas of various structural shapes such as angles,
I beams, and channels will be found in engineering handbooks and in
data books prepared by industrial organizations such as the American
Institute of Steel Construction and
the Carnegie Steel Company. In
the following problems, it is assumed
that moments of inertia will be ob
tained by integration for all areas
or component areas other than rec
tangles, triangles, circles, semi
circles, and quarter circles.
Example 6-6: Determine the moment
of inertia of the shaded area in Fig. 6-9
Solution: The composite area can be
divided into a 10-in. by 6-in. rectangle A
and a semicircle B with the triangular area
C removed. The locations of the centroidal axes of the three areas are indicated by
the dimensions to the right of the area. The position of the centroid of area B was
determined as in Example 3-4 and that of area C from Problem 3-6. The moments
of inertia of the three areas with respect to the x axis can be obtained as follows.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§6-61 MOMENTS OF INERTIA 201
For area A:
bh* 10(6)’
I. - I . + Ad* - + Ad* ------ 4- 10(6) (3)’ = 720 in.‘
For area B:
I e is not known directly and must be computed. By symmetry, the moment of
inertia of the semicircle with respect to the diameter is one-half the moment of inertia
of a full circle. Thus
Im*™ «■ I e 4- Ad*
from which I e = jxR* - Ad 1 = br(5)* - jir(25)(2.12) 1
- 68 in.*
and Ix = I e 4- Ad* = 68 4- Jr (25) (8.12)« - 2658 - 2660 in.*
For area C: I x = &bh* 4- Ad* - A(6)(6)« 4- 18(4)« - 324 in.*
For the composite area:
I, = 720 4- 2660 - 324 = 3056 = 3060 in.*
PROBLEMS
6-21. The two rectangles shown in Fig. P 6-21 are each 2 in. wide by 6 in. long.
(a) Determine the spacing of the areas so that I x and of the shaded
area will be equal.
(b) Determine the radius of gyration of the shaded area with respect to
the x axis.
6-22. Determine the moment of inertia of the area in Fig. P 6-22 with respect
to the x axis.
6-23. Determine the radius of gyration of the area in Fig. P 6-23 with respect
to the bottom edge a.
0 4
Fig. P 6-23 Fig. P 6-24
6-24. Compute the moment of inertia of the area in Fig. P 6-24 with respect
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
to the horizontal centroidal axis.
202 MOMENTS OF INERTIA (§6-6
6-25. A T section has the dimensions indicated in Fig. P 6-25. Determine

the moment of inertia of the area of the section with respect to the horizontal
centroidal axis.
Fig. P 6-25 Fig. P 6-26

6-26. Determine the radius of gyration of the area in Fig. P 6-26 with respect
to the y axis.
6-27. A column is made of two 1-in. by 8-in. and two 2-in. by 8-in. pieces of
lumber arranged as shown in Fig. P 6-27. Determine the radii of gyration with
respect to the horizontal and vertical centroidal axes of the cross section.
6-28. Determine the radii of gyration of the H section in Fig. P 6-28 with
respect to the two axes of symmetry.
6-29. Determine the radius of gyration of the
shaded area in Fig. P 6-29 with respect to the x axis.
6-30. Determine the moment of inertia of the area
shown in Fig. P 6-30 with respect to the a axis. The centroid of a semicircle is a
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
distance of 4r/3ir from the diametral base line.
§&-6] MOMENTS OF INERTIA 203
6-31. Determine the polar radius of gyration of the shaded area in Fig. P 6-31
with respect to an axis through the origin.
Fig. P 6-31
6-32. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area in Fig. P 6-32 with
respect to an axis through the origin.
6-33. Determine the polar moment of inertia of the area in Fig. P 6-32 with
respect to an axis through a.
6-34. Determine the moment of inertia of the area in Fig. P 6-34 with respect
to the y axis.
6-36. Determine the moment of inertia with respect to the y axis of the
shaded area in Fig. P 6-35.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
204 MOMENTS OF INERTIA 156-7
6-36. For the area shown in Fig. P 6-36, determine the radius of gyration
with respect to the y axis.
6-37. Determine the second moment of the area in Fig. P 6-36 with respect
to the b axis.
6-38. Determine the second moment of the area in the first quadrant bounded
by the curve x2 = 3y, the line x + y = 6, and the y axis with respect to the x axis.
All lengths are in inches.
6-39. Determine the moment of inertia of the area bounded by x 2 = 3y and
x + y = 6 with respect to the x axis. All lengths are in inches.
6-7. Products of inertia of areas. The rectangular moment of inertia
of an area with respect to an axis passing through a fixed point in the
area usually varies with the orientation of the axis. For many applications
it is necessary to determine (a) the direction of the axis through a point
in the area for which the moment of inertia is a maximum or a minimum
and (b) the corresponding second mome'nts. The moment of inertia
of an area with respect to any inclined axis can be determined by integra
tion, but usually it is simpler to express it in terms of the moments of
inertia with respect to two perpendicular axes (x and ?/), the product of
inertia of the area with respect to the x and y axes, and the angle between
the inclined axis and the x axis.
The differential product of inertia, dP , of
the element of area dA in Fig. 6-10 with re
spect to the x and y axes is defined as the
product of the area and the two coordinates
of the element; that is,
dPxy = xy dA.
The product of inertia of the total area A in
Fig. 6-10 with respect to the x and y axes is
the sum of the products of inertia of all the elements of the area. Hence
@seismicisolation
P*y = jxydA.
@seismicisolation
The dimensions of the product of inertia of an area are length raised

to the fourth power, (L) 4, and common units are in. 4, ft 4, cm 4, and so on.
The element of area dA is inherently positive, but the product xy may
be either positive or negative. Consequently, the product of inertia of
an area may be positive, negative, or zero, as contrasted to a moment of
inertia, which is always positive.
The product of inertia with respect to any two rectangular axes is zero
when either or both of the axes is an axis of symmetry. To prove this state
ment, consider the area in Fig. 6-11, which is symmetrical with respect
to the y axis. For every element dA there is an element dA' which has a
product of inertia equal in magnitude but opposite in sign to that for
dA because the x coordinates are opposite in sign. Therefore the sum
of the products of inertia of all the elements is zero with respect to the x
and y axes.
Fig. 6-11
The parallel-axis theorem for products of inertia of areas can be

derived as follows. Let xc and ye in Fig. 6-12 be a set of rectangular
axes through the centroid of the area A, and let the x and y axes be any
set of rectangular axes parallel to xc and yc , respectively. The product
of inertia with respect to the x and y axes is obtained as follows:
dPzv = xy dA = (x + x')(y + y') dA
= xy d A + x'y' dA + xy' dA + x'y dA
and Pxy = fxy dA + fx'y' dA + fxy' dA + fx'y dA
= xyA + Pc + xfy' dA + yfx' dA,
where Po is the product of inertia with respect to the centroidal axes xc
and ye . The integrals of y' dA and x' dA over the area are zero because
they are the first moments of the area A with respect to the centroidal
axes xc and ye . Consequently,
Pxv = Pc + xyA. (6-8)
The parallel-axis theorem for products of inertia can be stated as
follows: The product of inertia of an area with respect to any two perpen
dicular axes, x and y, is equal to the sum of the product of inertia of the area
@seismicisolation
with respect to a set of axes through the @seismicisolation
centroid of the area (parallel to the x
206 MOMENTS OF INERTIA [§6-7
and y axes) and the product of the area and the two centroidal coordinates
of the area from the x and y axes.
Either single or double integration can be used for products of inertia.
The product of inertia of the element is simpler to set up by using double
integration, whereas the limits are usually simpler when single integra
tion is used. The following examples illustrate the procedure for deter
mining products of inertia of areas.
Example 6-7: Determine the product of inertia of the triangular area in Fig. 6-13
with respect to:
(a) The x and y axes.
(b) A pair of axes through the centroid parallel to the x and y axes.
Solution: (a) The element of area shown in Fig. 6-13 is a rectangle of length (b— x)
and height dy. From symmetry, the product of inertia
y
_X b-x of this element with respect to a pair of axes through the
centroid of the element parallel to the x and y axes is
zero. The product of inertia of the element with respect
to the x and y axes is thus the product of the area and the
b 4- x
h two coordinates of its centroid, — -— and y; that is,
A
dP z y = (b y - i(&* - x*)y d y .
s From similar triangles, x is equal to 7 y. which can be

n
substituted in the preceding expression to give
Fig. 6-13
b* f h f y*\ . b*[y* y4 1 h b*h*

and
” 2 Jo V h'J dy " 2 L 2 4A’j0 “ 8 '
(b) The parallel-axis theorem can be used to determine the product of inertia
with respect to the centroidal axes as follows:
= P«cVe 4- A x y
or T - p
--+“(b)(s‘)'
WP b*h* b*h*
Therefore Px v
9 “ 72 ’
' ‘ “ 8
The product of inertia of a right triangle with respect to a pair of centroidal axes
parallel and perpendicular to the base will have a
magnitude of bJ/is /72 no matter how the triangle is
oriented, but the sign will be positive only when the
right angle is in the second or fourth quadrants of
the centroidal axes, being negative when the right
angle is in the first or third quadrants (see Problem
6-41, below).
Example 6-8: Determine the product of inertia
of the area of the quadrant of the circle in Fig. 6-14
with respect to the x and y axes.
Solution: Double integration and polar coordi
nates will be used with the element of area selected,
as indicated in Fig. 6-14. Since the limits of the
@seismicisolation
integration with respect to r and@seismicisolation
6 are independent,
the order of integration is immaterial. In the following solution the first integration
is made with respect to 6:
dA = r d& dr,
dP xv — xy d A =» r* sin 6 cos 9 d9 dr,
p/2 l ( R r s inM>/2
and P xy = jQ JQ r sin 9 cos 9 d9 dr - J o r* dr
“ I /o* “ [?]o “ T
PROBLEMS
6-40. Determine the product of inertia of the triangular area of Fig. P 6-40
with respect to the x and y axes.
6-41. Determine the product of inertia of the triangular area of Fig. P 6-40
with respect to a set of axes through the centroid of the area parallel respectively
to the x and y axes.
6-42. Determine the product of inertia of the 7-in. by 4 -in. by 1-in. angle
section of Fig. P 6-42, with respect to the x and y axes.
6-43. Determine the product of inertia of the angle section of Fig. P 6-42
with respect to a pair of axes through the centroid of the area parallel to the
x and y axes, respectively.
6-44. Determine the product of inertia of the semicircular area of Fig. P 6-44
with respect to (a) axes through the centroid parallel respectively to the x and y
axes; (b) the x and y axes.
6-45. Determine the product of inertia of the area of the Z section in Fig.
P 6-45 with respect to the horizontal and vertical axes through the centroid of
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the area.
6-46. Determine the product of inertia of the area in Fig. P 6-46 with respect
to the x and y axes.
6-8. Maximum and minimum second moments of areas. The

moment of inertia of the area A in Fig. 6-15 with respect to the u axis
through the point O varies with the orientation of that axis; that is, Iu
will, in general, have a different value for each value of 0. In stress
analysis and in other situations it is
sometimes necessary to determine the
maximum and m i n i m u m second
moments with respect to axes through
some point 0. The x and y axes used
in obtaining Eq. (6-1) were any pair
of rectangular axes in the plane of the
area which pass through point O; there
fore the equation can be written as
= =
Jo lx “t" ly lu “I” Iv,
where u and v are any pair of rectangu

lar axes through point 0. Since the
sum of I u and I v is equal to a constant,
that is, equal to J o , I u will be the maxi
mum second moment, and I v will be the minimum second moment for one
particular orientation of the axes through point 0.
The rectangular axes u and v with respect to which the second mom
ents are maximum and minimum are called the principal axes of the area
through the point 0, and I u and I v are called the principal moments of
inertia of the area. There is only one pair of principal axes for any
point in an area unless all axes have the same second moment as, for
example, the diameters of a circle. The moment of inertia of the area
with respect to one of these axes is the maximum for all axes in the plane
of the area passing through the point, and the moment of inertia with
respect to the other axis @seismicisolation
is the minimum.
@seismicisolation
A convenient way to determine the maximum and minimum second

moments for an area is to express I u in terms of 0, I x , I y, and P , and then
to set the derivative of I u with respect to 0 = 0 to obtain the values of
0 which give the maximum and minimum values of the second moment.
From Fig. 6-15,
dl u = v 2 d A = (y cos 0 — x sin 0) 2 d A
and Iu = cos 2 0 f y 2 dA — 2 sin 0 cos 0$xy d A + sin 2 0/i 2 d A
= I x cos 2 0 — P 2 sin 0 cos 0 + I v sin 2 0. (6-9)
The angle 0 for which I u is a maximum can be determined by differentiat
ing Iu with respect to 0 and setting the derivative equal to zero; thus
= — 21 x cos 0 sin 0 — 2P xy (cos 2 0 — sin 2 0) + 2I V sin 0 cos 0

and 0 = — Z z sin 20 — 2Pxy cos 20 + I v sin 20,
2P
from which tan 20 = j — (6-10)
Equation (6-10) gives two values of 20 which are 180° apart, and thus
two values of 0 which are 90° apart. These two values of 0 locate the
principal axes u and v. The .maximum and minimum values of the
moment of inertia can be obtained by substituting these values of 0 in
Eq. (6-9).
The product of inertia of the element of the area in Fig. 6-15 with
respect to the u and v axes is
dP uv = uv d A
= (x cos 0 + y sin 0)(y cos 0 — x sin 0) d A
and
Puv = (cos 2 0 — sin 2 0)fxy d A — sin 0 cos 0fx 2 d A + sin 0 cos 0j*2/ 2 d A
= Pgy cos 20 — tl v sin 20 + £Z X sin 20. (6-11)
The angle 0 for which the product of inertia is zero can be obtained by
setting P uv in Eq. (6-11) equal to zero and solving for 0. The result is
tan 6 =
ly Lx
which is the same as Eq. (6-10).
Therefore the product of inertia is zero with respect to the principal axes.
Since the product of inertia is zero with respect to any axis of symmetry,
it follows that any axis of symmetry of an area is a principal axis for any
point on the line of symmetry.
The following example illustrates the procedure for determining the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
second moments with respect to the principal axes.
210 MOMENTS OF INERTIA 1§M
Example 6-9: Determine the maximum and minimum second moments of the area
of the unequal-leg angle in Fig. 6-16 with respect to axes through the centroid of the
area.
Solution: The area is divided into two
rectangles A and B f and the location of the
centroid of each area is indicated by dimen
sions. The centroid of the composite area
is at C. The values of Z, and I v for the
two areas are obtained by jise of Eq. (6-3)
and (6-5).
For part A:
Z, = Ze 4- Ad*
- + 1(8)(1.346)« - 57.2 in?
For part B:
I. ” "vT" + 5(1)(2.154)* - 23.6 in?
1A
For the total area:
h - 57.2 + 23.6 = 80.8 in. 4
7, - +8(1)(1.154)« - 11.32 in. 4

12
For part B:
7, = 1 * + 1(5)(1.846)‘ - 27.5 in. 4
12
For the total area:
Zy =* 38.8 in. 4
The products of inertia of the areas are determined as indicated in Art. 6-7.
For pari A:
Pzy = = 0 + )—1.154) (1.346) (1) (8) = -12.43 in. 4
Far part B:
P zv = 0 4- (1.846) (-2.154) (5) (1) - -19.88 in. 4
For the composite area:
- -32.3 in. 4
From Eq. (6-10),
tan 2. - - 1.538,
38.8 - 80.8 42.0
29 - 57.0° or 237°,
and 9 - 28.5° or 118.5°.
From Eq. (6-9) with 9 = 28.5°, the maximum second moment is
ZM = (80.8)(0.879)« - (-32.3) (2) (0.477) (0.879) 4- (38.8)(0.477)«
- 62.4 4- 27.1 4- 8.83 - 98.3 in. 4
With 9 «■118.5°, the minimum second moment is
Zv - (80.8) (— 0.477) 1 - (—32.3) (2) (0.879) (—0.477) 4- (38.8) (0.879) 4
- 18.38 - 27.1@seismicisolation
4- 30.0 = 21.3 in. 4
@seismicisolation
JOI MOMENTS OF INERTIA 211
PROBLEMS
6-47. Determine the minimum radius of gyration of a 4-in. by 3|-in. by i-in.
angle section with respect to an axis through the centroid of the area. Neglect
the fillets and rounded corners of the section.
6-48. Determine the moments of inertia of the Z section in Fig. P 6-48 with
respect to the principal axes through the centroid of the area.
0.75
T
*-0.75 6
0.75
3.5’
T
Fig. P 6-48
6-49. Locate the principal axes through the centroid of the triangular area in
Fig. P 6-49 and determine the second moments of the area with respect to these
axes.
6-50. The moments of inertia of the cross section of the 10-in. 40-lb I beam in
4 4
Fig. P 6-50 with respect to the x and y axes are 158.0 in. and 9.40 in. , respec
tively. Determine the second moments of the area of the section with respect
to the u and v axes.
Fig. P 6-51
6-51. Locate the principal centroidal axes of the composite area in Fig. P 6-51
and determine the second moments of the area with y
respect to these axes.
PART 2— MASSES
6-9. Definitions. The moment of inertia or
second moment of an element of mass dm (as in Fig.
6-17) with respect to any plane or axis is defined
as the product of the mass of the element and the
square of the distance from the element to the plane
or axis. Thus the moment of inertia@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of the ele- Fig. 6-17
ment of mass with respect to the yz plane is
dl vt = x 2 dm,
where dl v« is the second moment of the element of mass with respect to

the yz plane. The moment of inertia of the element of mass with respect
to the x axis is
dl x = r 2 dm = (y 2 + z 2( dm.
The sum of the moments of inertia of all the elements of mass of the
body with respect to any plane or axis is defined as the moment of inertia
of the mass of the body with respect to the given plane or axis. For
example,
Zy j = Jx 2 dm (6-12)
is the moment of inertia of the mass of the body in Fig. 6-17 with respect
to the yz plane, and
I x = f(y 2 + z 2( dm (6-13)
is the moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect to the x axis.
Equation (6-13) can be expanded to give the following result:
l x = J(t/ 2 + z 2( dm
= Jy 2 dm + Jz 2 dm = 4- 1 . (6-14)
Equation (6-14) can be stated in words as follows: The moment oj
inertia of the mass of a body with respect to any axis is equal to the sum of
its moments of inertia with respect to two perpendicular planes which inter
sect along the axis.
In the study of the motion of bodies, the moment of inertia of the
mass of the body with respect to an axis is used more frequently than
that with respect to a plane. The principal use of second moments with
respect to planes is to determine the second moment with respect to the
axis of intersection of two planes.
The moment of inertia of the mass of a body has the dimensions of
mass multiplied by a length squared, mL 2 . When the fundamental
FT 2
quantities selected are force, length, and time, mass is -7— (see Art. 1-11),
p'pz
and the second moment of mass is (L) 2 , or FT 2L. The units of
b
moment of inertia of mass are lb-sec 2-ft, dyne-sec 2-cm, or any other set
of units having the proper dimensions. If the mass of a body, w/g, is
expressed in slugs (lb-sec 2 /ft) it is usually desirable to express the moment
the body in slug-ft 2 rather than slug-in. 1 , to
of inertia of the mass of@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
avoid a combination of feet and inches. The moment of inertia of mass
is always a positive quantity, since it is the sum of the products of ele
ments of mass, which are inherently positive, and distances squared.
The squares of the distances are always positive whether the distance
is positive or negative.
6-10. Parallel-axis and parallel-plane theorems for masses. The
moment of inertia of the mass of a body with respect to any axis can be
expressed in terms of the moment of inertia of mass of the body with
respect to a parallel axis through the mass center as indicated in the fol
lowing development. In Fig. 6-18, the x0 , yG , and zG axes are parallel
to the x, yf and z axes and pass
through the mass center, G f of the
body. The moment of inertia of
the element of mass, dm, with re
spect to the z axis is
dl 9 = (x 2 + y2( dm
= [(2 + x') 2 + ( g + y')2[ dm
= [(* 2 + y2( + (*' 2 + y' 2(
•+ 22x' + 2yy'] dm
and I 9 = (£ + y2 )fdm + J(x' 2
2
+ y'2 )dm + 255Jx' dm + 2yfy' dm.

From Fig. 6-18, (£ 2 + y2( is equal
to d 2. Also, J(x' 2 + y'2( dm is the
moment of inertia of the mass of g
the body with respect to the zG (cen
troidal) axis, and the two expressions Jx' dm and fy' dm are both equal
to zero, since they represent the first moment of the mass with respect
to the centroidal planes parallel to the yz and xz planes, respectively.
Thus the equation can be written
I , = I* + md 2 = I Q + md 2, (6-15)
where la is the moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect to
an axis through the mass center parallel to the z axis. In general, the
moment of inertia of the mass of a body with respect to any axis is equal
to the sum of the moment of inertia of the mass with respect to a parallel
axis through the mass center and the product of the mass and the square of
the distance between the two axes.
A similar theorem can be proved for the moment of inertia of the mass
of a body with respect to a plane. The theorem states that the moment of
inertia of the mass of a body with respect to any plane is equal to the
sum of the moment of inertia of the mass with respect to a parallel plane
through the mass center of the body and the product of the mass of the
body and the square of the distance @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
between the two planes.
PROBLEMS
6-52. Prove the parallel-plane theorem for masses as stated above.
6-53. The homogeneous right circular cylinder in Fig. P 6-53 weighs 1288 lb.
Its moment of inertia of mass with respect to the diameter a is 20 slug-ft 2. Deter
mine the moment of inertia of mass with respect to the parallel diameter b.
Fig. P 6-53
6-54. In Fig. P 6-54, the body C weighs 500 lb and has a moment of inertia
of mass with respect to the z axis of 4000 slug-ft 2. Determine the moment of
inertia of the mass of the body with respect to the b axis. Point G is the mass
center of body C.
6-55. The moment of inertia of the mass of the 100-lb hollow circular homo
geneous cylinder shown in Fig. P 6-55 with respect to the b axis is 0.90 slug-ft 2.
Determine the moment of inertia of the mass with respect to the a axis.
6-56. A 644-lb body has its mass center on the vertical z axis 2 ft above the
xy plane. The moments of inertia with respect to the xz and xy planes are 50 and
100 slug-ft 2, respectively. Determine the moment of inertia of mass of the body
with respect to a line parallel to the x axis and 1.5 ft directly below it.
6-57. Bodies which may be considered as particles and which weigh 6.44 lb,
12.88 lb, and 16.10 lb are placed at the points (0,3,4), (2,— 5,12), and (10,15,-8),
respectively. The coordinates are measured in feet. Determine the moment of
inertia of the mass of the system with respect to (a) the x axis, (b) the xz plane.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
6-58. The body in Fig. P 6-58 weighs 100 lb. The moment of inertia of the
mass of the body with respect to the zg axis through the mass center and parallel
to the z axis is 3.00 slug-ft 2. The moment of inertia of the mass of the body with
respect to the yz plane is 13.60 slug-ft 2. Determine the moment of inertia of the
mass of the body with respect to the xz plane.
6-11. Moments of inertia of masses by integration. In determining
moments of inertia of mass by integration, the element can be selected
for single, double, or triple integration. The choice of element will
depend on whether the moment of inertia is to be obtained with respect
to a reference axis or a reference plane and the orientation of the refer
ence axis or plane. The element should be chosen in such a manner that
either (a) all parts of the element are the same distance from the reference
axis or plane or (b) the moment of inertia of the element with respect to
the reference axis or plane is known or can be determined. When triple
integration is used, the element always satisfies the first requirement,
but this condition is not necessarily true for single and double integration.
It will be helpful if the element selected is shown on a sketch of the
body and dimensioned completely.
Example 6-10: Determine the moment of inertia of the
mass of a homogeneous right circular cylinder with respect to
the geometrical axis. Express the result in terms of the mass
of the cylinder.
Solution: A cylinder of radius R and height h is shown in
Fig. 6-19. A thin cylindrical element, all parts of which are
the same distance from the geometrical axis, is selected, and
its dimensions are shown in the figure. The mass of the
element can be expressed as the product of the volume and
the density (mass per unit volume):
dm = p dV = p2*rh dr
where p is the density of the material.
The mass of the cylinder is Fig. 6-19
/*»
m = / p2*rh dr — prR'h.
The moment of inertia of the mass of the element with respect to the y axis is
dl v — r* dm = p2*r*h dr
and r
Iv =
P a 2rrn @seismicisolation
jh dr = pirR*h
@seismicisolation
jo P —2 ~
216 MOMENTS OF INERTIA
The moment of inertia of the mass is thus expressed in terms of the density and
dimensions of the body. The moment of inertia can be expressed in terms of the
mass by multiplying by m and dividing by its equivalent in terms of the density and
dimensions of the body as follows:
prR'h m 1
=
“S’" “ 2 ’
Example 6-11: Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of a homogeneous
cylinder with respect to a diameter in the base of the cylinder.
Solution: A cylinder of radius R and height h is shown in Fig. 6-20. The x axis is
a diameter in the base. Unless double or triple integration is used, an element having
all points the same distance from the x axis would be quite involved. However, the
moment of inertia with respect to the x axis is equal to the sum of the moments of
inertia with respect to the zj/*and xz planes; that is,
=
Z* Ixy 4“ Zx*.
The value of I zv is equal to Zva , from symmetry, and
Zv = Zxy 4- Zva = 2Zx F = \mR*
from Example 6-10. Therefore
83
ZxV \mR*.
All points of the element, in the shape of a flat disk as shown, are the same distance
from the xz plane. The mass of the element is
dm — p dV = prR* dy,
and its moment of inertia about the xz plane is
dZx* = y* dm = prR*y* d y .
The moment of inertia of the mass of the cylinder is
fh prR'h' m mh*
= /„ dy - -3-
Finally,
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation - = w + «•>.
4 O La
Example 6-12: Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of a solid homogeneous
sphere with respect to any geometrical axis.
Solution: Figure 6-21 represents a section of
the sphere in the xy plane. The element shown
is the section of a thin cylindrical disk with the y
axis as its geometrical axis. The moment of
inertia of the mass of the element with respect to
the y axis is known from Example 6-10. The
mass of the element is
dm — prX* dy = pr(fi* ~ y*) dy
since the equation of the circle is x* + y* ft1 .
The mass of the sphere can be obtained by
integration or by multiplying the volume of the
sphere by the density of the material. In either
case
m = 4prft’/3.
The moment of inertia of the mass of the cylindrical element is
dl v - - i(przMy)x» - jpr(ft 4 - 2R*y* + y<) dy,
and the total moment of inertia is
fR
I 9 - ] _ R ip (ft 4 - 2ft V + y*) dy
SpirR* m 2mR*
“ 15 iprft* “ 5
Example 6-13: A solid of revolution is formed by revolving the area bounded by
the curve y* “ 4x (x and y in inches), the
line x - 4, and the x axis around the x axis
(see Fig. 6-22). The density of the material
in the solid is a variable and is proportional
to the distance from the x axis.
(a) Determine the moment of inertia of
the mass of the body with respect to the x
axis. Express the result in terms of the mass
of the body.
(b) If the body weighs 16.1 lb, determine
the moment of inertia of mass of the body
Solution: (a) The hollow cylindrical ele
ment of mass in Fig. 6-22 is selected because
the density of the element is constant and
all parts of the element are the same dis
tance from the moment axis. The mass
of the element is
dm =* p dV ” p2ry(4 — x) dy
and since P — K y and x = y*/4,
dm —
The total mass is
m = K2r
r T
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4(5) Jo 15
The moment of inertia of the mass of the dement with respect to the z axis is
di. = y*dm = K2r (iy* “ 7)
4
f / y*\ , r 4y* y~ ~| 4 (4) T/Gr ml5
and I , = K2r dy = y - Jq =— (4)>Kr
48
= y m = 6.86m.
(b) The mass of the body is equal to its acceleration of

gravity; that is,
W 16.1 Ib-sec* ~ ,
m =— = 05 = 0 5 81ug
9 321 “ “nr -
The expression for I x obtained in part (a) is a (length)* multiplied by a mass, and
since the equation of the curve and all limits were given in inches, the number 6.86
has units of (in.)*. In order that all units in the result be consistent, either the mass
must be expressed in units of lb-sec*/in. or the factor 6.86 must be expressed in (ft)*.
When the second alternative is used, the result is
6.86
Z z = — (0.5) = 0.0238 slug-ft*.
144
PROBLEMS
6-69. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of the solid homogeneous
block in Fig. P 6-59 (a) with respect to the x axis; (b) with respect to the xg axis
through the mass center of the block
6-60. (a) In Example 6-11 it was shown that the moment of inertia of a solid
homogeneous cylinder with respect to an axis in the base of the cylinder perpendic
ular to the geometrical axis is m(3R 2 + 4A2)/12. Determine the moment of
inertia of the mass of the cylinder with respect to an axis through the mass center
perpendicular to the geometrical axis.
(b) For a long slender rod an approximate value for the moment of
inertia of mass with respect to an axis through the mass center perpendicular to
the rod can be obtained by neglecting the effect of the radius of the rod; that is,
2
I g = mA /12. Determine the minimum ratio of the length, A, to the diameter, D,
of the cylinder if the error when using the approximate formula is not to exceed
1 per cent. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
6-61. A homogeneous solid is formed by revolving the area bounded by the
curve y = (b/a 4 )x\ the line x = a, and the x axis about the y axis. Determine
the moment of inertia of mass of the body with respect to the y axis. Express
the result in such form that the mass of the body is one of the factors.
6-62. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of the homogeneous
slender rod of constant cross section shown in Fig. P 6-62, with respect to the
a axis through the center of the bar. The rod is 6 ft long and weighs 64.4 lb.
Fig. P 6-62
6-63. (a) A homogeneous solid is formed by revolving the area bounded by
the parabola y* = 4ax and the line x = a about the x axis. The volume of this
body is 2ira8 . Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of this body with
respect to the yz plane in terms of the total mass of the body.
(b) By means of the parallel-plane theorem, determine the moment of
inertia of the mass of the above body with respect to the plane x = a.
6-64. The homogeneous hollow cylinder whose cross section is shown in Fig.
P 6-64 has a mass of 20 slugs. Determine by integration the moment of inertia
of the mass of this body with respect to the geometrical axis through 0.
Fig. P 6-64
6-66. The area bounded by the curve y = x3 (x and y are in inches), the line
y = a, and the y axis is rotated about the x axis, generating a homogeneous
solid of revolution.
(a) Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of the body with
respect to the x axis in terms of the total mass of the body.
(b) The body in part (a) is made of cast iron, which weighs 450 lb per
cu ft, and a is 8 in. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of the body
6-66. The ellipse z’/a* + y*/b* = 1 is rotated about the x axis, generating
a homogeneous solid of revolution. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass
of this body with respect to the x axis. Express the result in such form that the
mass of the solid is one of the factors.
6-67. The area bounded by the curve y* = a — x and the y axis is rotated
about the x axis to form a homogeneous solid of revolution. Determine the
moment of inertia of the mass of this solid with respect to (a) the yz plane ; (b)
the x axis; (c) the y axis. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
6-68. A homogeneous solid of revolution is formed by revolving the area

bounded by the parabola y = ax 2 /b 2 and the line y = a about the y axis. Deter
mine the moment of inertia of the mass of this body with respect to the line x = c
in terms of the total mass of the body.
6-69. The homogeneous solid in Fig. P 6-69 is formed by revolving about the
line x = a the area bounded by the semicubical parabola x* = ay 2 and the line
x = a. Determine the moment of inertia of mass of the body with respect to
the line x = a in terms of the total mass of the body.
6-70. The area bounded by the parabola y2 = tax and the line x = a is
revolved about the x axis. A cylindrical hole of radius a is bored completely
through this solid. The axis of the hole is the x axis. Determine the moment
of inertia of mass of the remaining homogeneous solid with respect to the x axis.
Express the result in such form that the mass of the solid is one of the factors.
6-71. The area bounded by the curve y2 = ax and the line x = a is rotated
about the x axis to form the solid homogeneous body shown in Fig. P 6-71.
Determine the moment of inertia of mass of the body with respect to the y axis
in terms of the total mass of the body.
6-72. A homogeneous solid is formed by revolving the area bounded by the

curve ay 2 =» x8 , the line x = a, and the x axis about the x axis as shown in
Fig. P 6-72. Determine the@seismicisolation
moment of inertia of the mass of the body with
@seismicisolation
respect to the y axis. Express the result in such form that the mass of the body
is one of the factors.
6-73. A homogeneous solid is formed by revolving the shaded area in Fig.
P 6-73 about the line x = 2 ft. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of
the body with respect to the y axis. Express the result in such form that the
mass of the body is one of the factors.
6-74. (a) The area bounded by the curve Sy — x* (x and y are in inches),
the line y = 8 in., and the y axis is rotated about the y axis to form the solid
homogeneous body shown in Fig. P 6-74. Determine the moment of inertia
of mass of the body with respect to the y axis. Express the result in such form
that the mass of the body is one of the factors.
(b) The body in part (a) weighs 64.4 lb. Determine its moment of
inertia of mass with respect to the y axis.
Fig. P 6-74
6-75. Determine the radius of a 644-lb solid homogeneous sphere which will
have a moment of inertia of mass with respect to an axis tangent to the surface
of the sphere of 56 slug-ft 2.
6-76. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of a right circular cylinder
with respect to its geometrical axis if the density of the material at any point in
the body varies directly as the square of the perpendicular distance of the point
from the geometrical axis. Express the result in such a form that the mass of
the solid is one of the factors.
6-77. The triangle bounded by the lines 2y » x, y = 0, and x — 2a is revolved
@seismicisolation
about the x axis to generate a right circular cone. The density of the material
@seismicisolation
of the cone varies directly as the distance from the x axis. Determine the
moment of inertia of mass of the cone with respect to the x axis and express the
result in such form that the mass of the solid is one of the factors.
6-78. The homogeneous circular ring in Fig. P 6-78 has a mean radius R, and
the section has a radius r. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of the
ring with respect to its geometrical axis.
6-12. Radius of gyration of mass. As was pointed out in Art. 6-9,

the dimensions of the moment of inertia of mass are mass multiplied by
length squared. The radius of gyration of the mass of a body with respect
to an axis is defined as the length which must be squared and multiplied by
the mass of the body to give the moment of inertia of the body with respect to
the axis. The radius of gyration of the mass of a body with respect to a
plane is defined as the length which must be squared and multiplied by
the mass of the body to produce the moment of inertia of the body with
respect to the plane. These definitions are expressed mathematically
in the following equations:
= =
k m? 1 xy
The radius of gyration does not indicate the
distance from the given axis to a fixed point in
the body (such as the mass center). The par
allel axis theorem can be used to demonstrate
that the radius of gyration of the mass of a body with respect to any axis
is greater than the distance from the axis to the mass center of the body.
From Fig. 6-23,
I x = I G + md\
k*m = k%m + md* f
k* = k * + d\
and k x = (fil + d*)»,
which indicates that k x is greater than d. The radius of gyration of the

mass of a body with respect to an axis or plane is the distance from the
axis or plane at which the @seismicisolation
entire mass of the body can be imagined to be
@seismicisolation
concentrated and still have the same moment of inertia as the distributed
mass.
The radii of gyration of the mass of a body with respect to two parallel
lines one foot apart do not in general differ by one foot. In fact, there is
no particularly useful physical interpretation or meaning of a radius of
gyration. It is merely a convenient means of expressing the moment of
inertia of the mass of a body in terms of its mass and length.
PROBLEMS
6-79. Determine the radius of gyration of mass of a solid homogeneous sphere
of radius r with respect to (a) an axis tangent to the surface of the sphere; (b) a
plane tangent to the surface of the sphere.
6-80. Determine the radius of gyration of the mass of a solid homogeneous
cone with respect to its axis of symmetry. The cone has a height h, and the
radius of its base is r.
6-81. Determine the radius of gyration of the mass of the solid homogeneous
pyramid in Fig. P 6-81 with respect to the xz plane.
Fig. P 6-81
6-13. Moments of inertia of composite masses. When the moment

of inertia of a body is to be determined, it is frequently possible to resolve
the mass into a number of simple shapes such as cylinders, spheres, and
rods. The moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect to
any axis or plane is equal to the sum of the moments of inertia of the com
ponent masses with respect to the same axis or plane.
Example 6-14: The flywheel in Fig. 6-24 is made of steel weighing 490 lb per cu ft.
The spokes have an elliptic cross section. Determine the moment of inertia of the
mass of the wheel with respect to the geometrical axis, 0, of the wheel.
Solution: The rim and hub can be considered as solid cylinders with smaller
cylinders removed, and the spokes can be assumed to be slender rods. The density of
the material is
490
p— — 15.22 slugs per cu ft.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The moment of inertia of the mass of the rim with respect to the geometrical axis is
m 1
Io = g nolidCr Ud)’ “ g hol.(n>ol«)
If /38\* 14 1 /38\* li /35VU e i /35\«

= (15-22) T (15-22)
2 [’(12/ 12 J (12) 2[_ (12/ 12 J (12/
= 2804 - 2018 - 786 slug-ft’.
The moment of inertia of the mass of the hub is
'•-IP (H) -] (a)’

1
- 1 [' (b)' CD -] ©■
- 0.721 - 0.0185 - 0.703 slug-ft .
Fig. 6-24
The moment of inertia of the spokes is
+ [’ (ij) (a) (b) > 1522

< [ (“)’} - » l»»» + «1> - 32.Sdu.-ff,
The total moment of inertia of the mass of the flywheel is
Io - 786 4- 0.7 + 32.8 = 820 slug-ft 1 .
Notice that the moment of inertia of the hub had a negligible effect on the result
and that the spokes contributed only about 4 per cent of the total moment of
inertia. It is thus apparent that the shape of the hub and spokes is relatively unim
portant in calculating the moment of inertia of the mass of the flywheel.
PROBLEMS
6-82. A uniform, homogeneous slender rod AB is 6 ft long, weighs 18 lb,
and has a small weight of 2 lb which can be regarded as a particle attached to
end B. Determine the moment of inertia of the mass of the combined bodies
with respect to an axis perpendicular to the rod and 2 ft from A (4 ft from B).
6-83. Two homogeneous wooden spheres 12 in. in diameter are fastened
@seismicisolation
together by a 3-ft uniform, homogeneous slender rod made of steel. The weight
@seismicisolation
of each sphere is 32.2 lb, and the weight of the rod is also 32.2 lb. Determine the
moment of inertia of this system with respect to the y axis shown in Fig. P 6-83.
6-84. The shaded area in Fig. P 6-84 is rotated about the x axis to form a body
of homogeneous material having a unit weight of 64.4 lb per cu ft. Determine
the moment of inertia of mass of this body with respect to the x axis. Express
the result in slug-ft 1 .
6-86. A homogeneous wooden cylinder whose cross section is indicated in
Fig. P 6-85 is 12 in. in diameter and 6 in. long. The cylinder is drilled with 4
holes, 2 in. in diameter, for its entire length. Homogeneous steel rods 2 in. in
diameter and 6 in. long are inserted in the holes. Determine the moment of
inertia of mass of the composite body with respect to an axis through 0 per
pendicular to the section shown. The wood weighs 49.0 lb per cu ft and the steel
weighs 490 lb per cu ft.
Fig. P 6-85
6-86. The homogeneous solid in Fig. P 6-86 can be considered a cylinder with
a hemisphere removed at each end and with a hole drilled through the center.
The material weighs 0.25 lb per cu in. Determine the moment of inertia of the
mass with respect to its geometric axis c.
Fig. @seismicisolation
P 6-86
@seismicisolation
226 MOMENTS OF INERTIA 15M3
6-87. The hollow homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 6-87 weighs 128.8 lb.
Determine the moment of inertia of mass of the body with respect to the y axis.
6-88. The hollow circular cylinder shown in Fig. P 6-88 is to be 2.00 ft long,
weigh 966 lb, and have a moment of inertia of mass with respect to the geometrical
axis of 30.0 slug-ft*. It is to be made of a material which weighs 150.0 lb per
cu ft. Determine the two diameters di and d 2 .
6-89. A sphere 1 ft in diameter has a 3-in.-diameter hole drilled through it as
shown in Fig. P 6-89. The hollow sphere weighs 96.6 lb. Determine the mom
ent of inertia of mass of the body with respect to the x axis.
6-90. A long slender rod of constant cross section, whose density varies
directly as the square root of the distance from the left end, is welded to a solid
homogeneous sphere (Fig. P 6-90). The rod weighs 128.8 lb, and the sphere
weighs 966 lb. Determine the moment of inertia of the total mass with respect
to the a axis.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
6-91. Determine the moment of inertia of mass of a hollow homogeneous

circular cylinder with respect to its geometrical axis. Express the result in
terms of its mass m and its inner and outer radii, r and R, respectively.
6-92. In Fig. P 6 92, A is a uniform, homogeneous slender rod which weighs
18 lb, and body B is a sold homogeneous cylinder which weighs 100 lb.
Determine (a) the moment of inertia with respect to the a axis of the mass of
the combined cylinder and rod; (b) the radius of gyration with respect to the a
axis of the mass of the combined cylinder and rod.
6-93. The body shown in Fig. P 6-93 is symmetrical with respect to the x axis
and is composed of a solid homogeneous sphere weighing 128.8 lb and two uni
form, homogeneous slender bars weighing 16.1 lb per linear foot. Determine (a)
the position of the mass center; (b) the moment of inertia of the mass of the body
with respect to the y axis.
6-94. Determine the moment of inertia of mass of the body in Fig. P 6-94
with respect to the y axis. Each of the homogeneous spheres is 6 in. in diameter
and weighs 20 lb. The rods are each 8 in. long, and their weights can be neglected.
The homogeneous cylinder is 4 in. in diameter, 12 in. high, and weighs 35 lb.
The spheres lie in a horizontal plane perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder.
Fig. P 6-94 Fig. P 6-95

6-95. The two balls and rods of a governor shown in Fig. P 6-95 are made of
brass weighing 0.310 lb per cu in. The rods have a diameter of 0.500 in., and the
balls have a diameter of 3.00 in. Determine the moment of inertia, with respect
to the vertical axis, of the mass of the balls and rods when the angle 6 is 20°.
How great an error is introduced if the mass of the rods is neglected?
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 7
Kinematics— Absolute Motion
7-1. Introduction. Kinematics is that branch of mechanics which
deals with the motion of particles, lines, and bodies without consideration
of the forces required to produce or maintain the motion. A working
knowledge of the relationships between position, time, velocity, accelera
tion, displacement, and distance traveled for particles, lines, and bodies
is essential to the study of the effects of unbalanced force systems on
bodies. Kinetics deals with the force systems that produce accelerated
motion of bodies, the inertial properties of the bodies, and the resulting
motion of the bodies.
The term “ particle” is used for any body whose size can be neglected
without introducing appreciable errors when studying or describing its
motion. In planetary motion the earth is considered as a particle,
whereas the balance wheel of a watch must be treated as a body in an
analysis of the motion of the watch mechanism.
The word “linear,” as in linear velocity or linear displacement, is
used to describe the motion of particles or points. Angular motion is
restricted to lines and bodies because two lines are necessary to define
an angle.
Particles are said to have rectilinear motion when they move along
straight lines and curvilinear motion when they travel on curved paths.
Uniform motion of a particle is defined as a motion such that equal distances
are traversed during equal intervals of time, regardless of how small the time
intervals may be.
Many of the quantities considered in kinematics are vector quantities.
In order to obtain the derivatives and integrals of these vector quantities
without vector calculus, it is frequently necessary to differentiate and
integrate magnitudes of vectors (scalars). In order to avoid confusion or
misunderstanding in kinematics, letters representing vector quantities are
set in boldface* type to indicate and emphasize the complete vector, whereas
letters in regular lightface type will be used to indicate the magnitudes of
the vectors. This procedure is not followed in kinetics, since there is much
less possibility of confusion once the principles of kinematics are thor
oughly understood.
The vector quantities of kinematics can be added or subtracted by
means of the parallelogram law just as forces were added in statics.
* For purposes of writing, a symbol such as a line, dot, or caret above a letter will
be found convenient to distinguish a vector from a scalar.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
228
§7-2) KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 229
Equations indicating vector additions and subtractions are written in
the following manner:
A-hB = C for addition
and A—>B = D for subtraction.
Figure 7-1 shows the indicated addition by the parallelogram law.
Vector subtraction is equivalent to reversing the sense of the vector to
be subtracted and adding. Figure 7-2 shows the indicated subtraction
by the parallelogram law.
Fig. 7-1 Fig. 7-2

7-2. Rectilinear motion ot a particle. Rectilinear motion of a particle
is defined as motion along a straight line. The instantaneous position of a
particle moving in a plane is completely determined when the path of
the particle is known and the distance, s, measured along the path from
some fixed point on the path to the particle, is specified as a function of
time. The position of a particle can also be completely determined at
any instant if its coordinates (rectangular, polar, and so on) are known
as functions of time. When a point has rectilinear motion, the two
methods of locating the point are the same if the axis is selected along
the path. In either case the position functions s, x, y, r, 0, and so on,
as used here, are scalar functions of time that can be differentiated with
respect to time without use of the principles of vector calculus.
In the following discussion the positive direction is to the right.
However, sometimes it is convenient to select the positive direction to
the left, and each problem should be analyzed to determine the positive
sense if sufficient data are available. When insufficient data permit a
choice of positive directions, the sense assumed to be positive should be
indicated. s .
2
The linear displacement of a particle, q, during | n
any time interval is defined as the change of position o a p b c
of the particle during the time interval. Thus, if P y
in Fig. 7-3 moves from position A to position B
during a certain time interval, its displacement, q, will be the directed dis
tance from A to B and will be equal in magnitude to the change in s. If
the particle moves from A to C and then back to B, its displacement, q, is
still the vector from A to B, but the total distance traveled, represented by
@seismicisolation
Q, is equal to AC + BC. In other words, the total distance traveled is the
@seismicisolation
230 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION [§7-2
total accumulated length of path traversed. It is apparent that the total
distance traveled can never be less than q, the magnitude of the dis
placement, but will be larger whenever a reversal of motion is involved.
The displacement, q, is a vector quantity and is not completely specified
unless both its direction and magnitude are given. The total distance, Q,
is a scalar quantity possessing only magnitude.
Linear displacement and total distance traveled involve a definite
interval of time. They represent changes which take place from a time
h to a time J2, whereas position is a continuous function of time with a
definite value for each instant of time. All three quantities have funda
mental dimensions of length and common units of ft, in., cm, and so on.
The linear velocity , v, of a particle is defined as the time rate of change
of position. The average velocity of a particle during an interval of
time t is
v —- 4? - A. (7-1)
AZ " AZ
As
The limit of the ratio — as At approaches zero is the magnitude of the
velocity at any instant; that is,
..As ds
v = hm — = (7-2)
Al—>0 At at
Linear velocity is a vector quantity directed along the path for
rectilinear motion and, as will be shown in Art. 7-5, tangent to the path
for curvilinear motion. The magnitude of the velocity, v, is frequently
called speed. For any time interval the average speed multiplied by the
time gives the total distance traveled, or
Vm
~ (7-3)
If the particle P of Fig. 7-3 travels from A to C and back to A
in time A£, its average velocity, from Eq. (7-1), is zero because its dis
placement is zero. However, the average speed from Eq. (7-3) is 2AC
divided by At. From this discussion it is apparent that is not always
equal to the magnitude of vavg-
If the position function s for particle P of Fig. 7-3 is increasing, the
particle will be moving to the right and the magnitude of the velocity,
ds
v = will be positive. Consequently, a positive sign for the mag-
(11
nitude of the velocity indicates that the velocity is to the right, just as a
positive value for s means a position to the right of the origin.
Equation (7-1) or (7-2) indicates that linear velocity has dimensions
of length divided by time, LT" 1 , and common units of feet per second
(fps), miles per hour (mph), and so on.
The linear acceleration,@seismicisolation
a, of a particle is defined as the time rate of
@seismicisolation
change of the linear velocity of the particle. Since linear velocity is a vector
§7-2] KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 231
quantity, it can change in both magnitude and direction. For rectilinear

motion, however, the only possible change of velocity is in magnitude,
since the direction is always parallel to the path. The magnitude of the
acceleration of a particle with rectilinear motion is
.. Av dv d 2s
a = lun — = 3- = -J75’ (7-4)
A/ dt dt 2
Linear acceleration is a vector quantity in the direction of the change
of velocity, and for the special case of rectilinear motion its direction is
along the path. The positive direction for the acceleration is the same
as the positive direction for the velocity and position functions. When
the absolute value of v is decreasing, the sense of the acceleration is
opposite to that of the velocity, and it is frequently called a deceleration
or a negative acceleration.
Sometimes it is convenient or desirable to change the independent
variable in Eq. (7-4) from t to s by multiplying both sides of the equation
by ds as follows:
. dv j ds f f
a d s = -77 ds = -yr dv = v dv
at at
dv
or a = v -r (7-5)
ds
Equation (7-4) shows that the dimensions of linear acceleration are
length divided by time squared, LT" 2. Common units are feet per
second per second (fps 2), miles per hour per second (mphps), and so on.
When some of the kinematical quantities (position, displacement, dis
tance traveled, time, velocity and acceleration) are known and others are
to be found, there are, in general, two methods of procedure available:
1. Relations between s, t, v, and a can be obtained by integration or
differentiation of the appropriate functions by using Eq. (7-2), (7-4),
and (7-5). With these relations available, the
specific value of any kinematical quantity can
be obtained directly from its definition.
2. Instead of a mathematical solution of the
differential equation of motion as explained in (1),
motion curves can be used. The most useful
motion curve for many problems is called the v-t
diagram, which is obtained by plotting the magni
tudes of the linear velocity as ordinates against
the time as abscissas. For rectilinear motion the
dv
slope of the v-t curve, J for any time represents the magnitude and
dt
sense of the linear acceleration of the point or particle at that instant. A
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typical v-t diagram is shown in Fig. 7-4. The area under the curve between
any two ordinates at h and h is given by the definite integral of v dt.
232 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION f§7-2
In order to determine what this area represents, write Eq. (7-2) as
ds = v dt,
from which I ds = / v dt
and 82 — si = area under the curve from h to
The quantity 82 gives the position at time fa, and Si gives the position
at time fa. Consequently, for rectilinear motion the linear displacement,
q, during the time interval from fa to fa is represented by the area under the
v-t curve for this time interval. If the velocity reverses direction, the curve
will cross the t axis. The area above the t axis indicates the distance
traveled in one direction, and the area below the axis represents the dis
tance traveled in the opposite direction. Thus, the total distance traveled
during any time interval is the sum of all areas (both above and below the
t axis') between the ordinates representing the time interval, whereas the
displacement during the interval is the difference between the areas on the
two sides of the t axis.
The solution of problems by means of the v-t diagram might be
described as a semigraphical or pictorial method of solution as con
trasted to the mathematical solution illustrated in Examples 7-1 to 7-3
below. Frequently a better understanding of the actual motion can be
obtained from the v-t diagram than from the differential equations and
their solutions. A v-t diagram is especially
useful in p r o b l e m s i n v o l v i n g constant
accelerations.
Position-time (s-t) and acceleration-time
(a-t) diagrams are sometimes useful. They
can be plotted directly from given data or
derived from a previously constructed v-t dia
gram for the same motion. All three curves
are shown in Fig. 7-6 for Example 7-4 below.
For some types of motion which recur frequently, it is desirable to
develop formulas relating velocity, acceleration, and so on. These
formulas eliminate the necessity of solving the differential equations for
each problem. When a point with rectilinear motion has a constant
acceleration, the v-t diagram is a straight line as indicated in Fig. 7-5,
since the slope of the v-t diagram is the acceleration. From the diagram,
the acceleration (slope) is
(7-6)
or Vf = Vi + a(A/). (7-7)
The area under the v-t curve represents the change of position during
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the time interval consequently,
» = (7-8)
_ 4- <.(2M>
it
= v*(A<) + (AO*. (7-9)

Another convenient formula can be obtained by multiplying the two
sides of Eq. (7-6) by the corresponding sides of Eq. (7-8) to eliminate
(A/). Thus
= - »<)
or v} = vl + 2aq. (7-10)
Equations (7-6) through (7-10) could also have been developed by
solving the differential equations mathematically. Since Eq. (7-6)
through (7-10) can be readily obtained from a v-t diagram or from the
defining differential equations, it is usually not necessary to memorize
them or treat them as formulas. However, if one or more of them occurs
repeatedly in routine work, their use as formulas may be justified.
The following examples illustrate the procedure for solving problems
by the mathematical method and by the use of motion curves.
Example 7-1: The position, a, of a particle moving along a horizontal straight line
is given by the equation a = 6t 2 — 4, where 8 is in ft and t is the time in sec. The
particle is 4 ft to the right of the origin when i is zero.
(a) Determine the displacement of the particle during the time interval from
t « 2 sec to I = 4 sec.
(b) Determine the velocity and acceleration of the particle when t is 4 sec.
Solution: (a) When t is zero, a is equal to —4 (from the equation for a). Since
the particle is to the right of the origin, the negative sign indicates a quantity directed
to the right, and the positive direction is to the left. When f is 2 sec, a is 4-20, that
is, 20 ft to the left of the origin; when t is 4 sec, a is 4-92, that is, 92 f t to the left of the
origin. During the time interval from t » 2 sec to t = 4 sec, the particle moves from
a point 20 ft to the left of the origin to one 92 ft to the left of the origin, and the dis
placement (the change of position) is
q = — 8i = 92 — 20 = 72 ft .
(b) From Eq. (7-2),
d8
v — 37 = 1%
al
and when t 4 sec,
v = 48 fps <— .
Another differentiation gives
dv
a = 12
- dt -
Thus, for all values of f,
a = 12 fps* .
Example 7-2: The magnitude of the linear acceleration of a point moving along
= — 24, where a is in fps 2 and t is in
a vertical path is given by the equation a@seismicisolation
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234 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION (§7-2
sec. The acceleration is upward when t = 5 sec; the point is 4 ft below the origin
when t = 0 and 23 ft above the origin when t ® 3 sec. Determine:
(a) The velocity when t = 3 sec.
(b) The displacement during the time interval from t = 0 to t = 4 sec.
(c) The total distance traveled during the time interval from t = 0 to t = 4 sec.
Solution: (a) The acceleration when t is 5 sec is
a = 30 — 24 = 4-6.
Therefore a positive sign indicates an upward direction. From Eq. (7-4),
or dv = a dt,
and v = Ja di = 3t s - 24Z + Ci.
Similarly s = t v di = I s - 12t« + Cit + C,.
When t — 0, 8 = —4; therefore C2 = —4. Also, when t = 3 sec, 8 = 23, from

which Ci = 36. Thus
v = 3/ 2 - 24/ 4-36, s = /’ - 1 2Z« 4- 36/ - 4.
When / = 3 sec, v = — 9, and
v = 9 fps 1.
(b) When / = 0, s = —4; and when / = 4 sec, s = 12. Therefore
q = S2 Sl = 12 - (-4) = 16 f t f .
(c) The initial and final positions of a particle are sufficient for determining its
displacement, but the actual path traversed during the time interval must be known
in order to determine the total distance traveled. For rectilinear motion the values
of / for which v = 0 should be determined by plotting, factoring, or other means in
order to determine any possible reversals of motion. In this problem, v = 3(/ — 6)
(/ — 2), and v = 0 when t = 2 sec. The velocity is also zero when t = 6 sec, but
that value does not affect the interval from t «= 0 to t = 4 sec. The velocity is posi
tive (upward) from t — 0 to / — 2 sec and negative (downward) from / = 2 sec to
/ = 4 sec. When t = 0, 8 = —4; and when / = 2 sec, 8 = 4-28. Therefore the
particle moves 32 ft upward during this time interval. When / = 4 sec, s = 4-12;
therefore the particle moves 16 f t downward in this time interval, and the total dis
tance traveled from / = 0 to / = 4 sec is 48 ft.
Example 7-3: The magnitude of the acceleration of a point moving along a hori
zontal straight line varies according to the equation a — 12s , where a is in fps’ and
8 is the distance of the point from the origin in ft. When the time / is 2 sec, the point
is 16 ft to the right of the origin and has a velocity of 32 fps to the right and an accelera
tion of 48 fps 2 to the right. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the point when
the time is 3 sec.
Solution: The positive direction is obtained by observing that 8 must be positive
in order to have the acceleration be real (not imaginary), and the problem specifies
that the acceleration is real (48 fps 2( when 8 = 16 f t to the right. Therefore the
positive direction is to the right.
When the magnitude of the acceleration is known as a function of the position 8,
it is convenient to write the acceleration in the form given in Eq. (7-5), as follows:
a ds = v dv,
12s ds = v dv,
8»« - $ + <?■•
£
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§7-2) KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 235
When s =* 4-16, v = 4-32; therefore
Ci = 0
and v2 = 16s**
or v = 4s*< (7-11)
ds . ,,
But v — — = 4s ,
dt
from which
and 4sW = 4 / 4 -
When 8 = 4-16, / = 2; therefore

C 2 = 0, s = t*. (7-12)
From Eq. (7-12), s = 81 f t when t — 3 sec; and from Eq. (7-11), v = 4-108, or
v = 108 fps—
Finally, when t = 3 sec, a = 12s** = 12(81 )*2 = 4-108
and a = 108 fps 2—>.
Example 7-4: Draw the a-/, v-t t and s-t curves
for Example 7-2.
Solution: The acceleration equation, a = 6t — 24, 6_sec t
is the equation of a straight line and is shown as the

top curve in Fig. 7-6. Similarly, the velocity and
position curves are plotted from the corresponding
equations. The slope of the v-t curve at any time t
represents the corresponding acceleration as indicated
by the ordinate of the a-t curve. The magnitude of
the velocity (ordinate of the v-t curve) is the slope of
the s-t curve. The area between any two ordinates
of the a-t curve represents the change in magnitude A c 45 ,p ’
of the velocity during the corresponding time interval.
In general, the order of construction of the three
motion curves will depend on the data available.
(a) The area A under the a-t curve from t = 0 v= 3t - 2 4 t * 36
to t — 3 sec is 45 fps (downward), and the velocity
changes from 36 fps upward when t = 0 to 9 fps
downward when t = 3 sec.
(b) The area B under the v-t curve is 32 ft and
represents the distance traveled upward during the
time interval from I «■ 0 to t — 2 sec, and the area
C, equal to 16 ft, is the distance traveled down
ward from t = 2 sec to t = 4 sec. Thus the dis
placement during the time interval from t = 0
to t = 4 sec is
q = B - C = 32 - 16 = 16 f t f . Fig. 7-6
(c) The total distance traveled during the same time interval is
Q = B + C = 32 4- 16 = 48 ft.
Example 7-5: A particle moves along a horizontal straight line with a constant
acceleration. The velocity of the particle changes from 10 fps to the right to 25 fps
to the left during a time interval of 7 sec. Determine the displacement, the total
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distance traveled, and the acceleration of the particle during the 7-sec interval.
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Solution: The v-t diagram for this motion is shown in Fig. 7-7. The magnitude
of the acceleration is equal to the slope of the diagram
at any instant. In this case the slope is constant, and
10+25 , . , _
— - — = 5 fps’
The direction of the acceleration is obtained from the

fact that the velocity is changing from right to left.
The distance traveled is the sum of the areas A and
B, and the displacement is the difference of these areas.
These areas can be readily determined after the time
intervals h and t* are found, as follows:
— = slope = 5
l\
or h = 2 sec.
Similarly h = 5 sec.
Then A - = 10 ft, B = = 62.5 ft.
2 2
The displacement is
q = B - A = 62.5 - 10 = 52.5 ft
and the total distance traveled is
Q = A + B = 72.5 ft.
PROBLEMS
7-1. During the period from 8 a.m. to 12 noon a man walks west 9 miles and
then east 3 miles. Determine (a) his displacement during this time; (b) the
distance he traveled; (c) his time average speed.
7-2. The position of a particle moving along the x axis is given by the equation
8 2
x = I — 9< + 24f, where x is the distance from the origin in ft and t is the
time in sec. The particle is 16 ft to the right of the origin when t = 1 sec. Deter
mine (a) the position of the particle when the velocity is 0; (b) the acceleration
when t = 2 sec; (c) the distance traveled during the interval from t = 0 to
t = 5 sec.
7-3. The magnitude of the velocity of a particle moving along a horizontal
path is given by the equation v = 6Z 2 — 8/, where v is the magnitude of the
velocity in fps and I is the time in sec. The particle is 2 ft to the right of the
origin and moving to the left when t = 1 sec. Determine (a) the displacement
from t = 0 to t = 3 sec; (b) the distance traveled from t = 0 to t = 3 sec;
(c) the acceleration when t = 0.5 sec.
7-4. The magnitude of the velocity of a particle which starts from rest 2 ft
below the origin when t = 0 and moves along a vertical axis is directly propor
tional to the time after starting. The displacement of the particle during the
time interval from t = 1 sec to t = 2 sec is 3 ft upward. When t = 3 sec,
determine (a) the location of the particle; (b) the acceleration of the particle.
7-5. The magnitude of the acceleration of a particle having rectilinear motion
is given by the equation a = 4<, where a is acceleration in fps 2 and t is time in sec.
If the particle starts from rest when t = 1 sec, determine the magnitude of its
velocity when t = 3 sec. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§7-21 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 237
7-6. The acceleration of a point moving along the x axis varies according to
the equation a = 12$ 2 4- K, where a is in fps’ when t is in sec and A is a constant.
The right is positive. When t = 0, the point is 2 ft to the right of the origin and
has a velocity of 4 fps to the left. When I = 1 sec, the point is 3 ft to the
right of the origin. Determine the acceleration of the point when t = 2 sec.
7-7. The velocity of a particle having rectilinear motion is given by the
expression v = 3t 2 — 8, where v is velocity in fps and t is time in sec. When
t = 0, the velocity is 8 fps to the right and the particle is 2 ft to the right of the
origin. Determine the position of the particle with respect to the origin when
t = 3 sec.
7-8. A particle moves along a straight line according to the law a = 6$ — 2,
where a is the magnitude of the acceleration in fps 2 and t is the time in sec.
When t = 0, the acceleration is 2 fps 2 to the right, the velocity is zero, and
the particle is 5 ft to the left of the origin. Determine the position of the par
ticle when t = 4 sec.
7-9. The velocity of a point which moves along a horizontal straight line
varies according to the equation v = Kt 2 — 24, where v is the magnitude of the
velocity in fps, t is the time in sec, and K is a constant (positive is to the right).
The point is 4 ft to the left of the origin when t =■0 and is 28 ft to the right of
the origin when t = 4 sec. Determine (a) the acceleration of the point when
t = 3 sec; (b) the total distance traveled by the point during the time interval
from t = 1 sec to t = 3 sec.
7-10. The magnitude of the velocity of a particle moving along the x axis is
given by the equation v = x/2, where v is in fps and x is in ft. When t = 0,
the particle is 1 ft to the right of the origin. Determine the acceleration and
position of the particle when t = 3 sec.
7-11. The magnitude of the velocity of a point which moves along a straight
line varies according to the equation v = 2s2 + s’, where v is in fps when s is
in ft. Determine the magnitude of the acceleration when s = 2 ft.
7-12. The magnitude of the velocity, v, of a point which has rectilinear
motion varies according to the equation v = 3$ 2 — 10$, where v is in fps and t
is the time in sec. When t = 1 sec, the point is 5 ft to the right of the origin
and has a velocity of 7 fps to the right. Determine (a) the displacement of the
point during the interval from t = 2 sec to t = 4 sec; (b) the linear acceleration
of the point when t = 4 sec.
7-13. The position of a particle moving along the x axis is given by the equa
tion x = 12$ — 3$ 2, where x is in ft and $ is in sec. Positive is to the right.
(a) By the mathematical method determine (1) the velocity of the
particle when $ = 1 sec and 5 sec; (2) the displacement of the particle from $ = 1
sec to $ = 5 sec; (3) the total distance traveled from $ = 1 sec to $ = 5 sec.
(b) Check (1), (2), and (3) of part (a) with a v-t diagram.
7-14. A point moving on a straight horizontal line with an initial velocity
of 60 fps to the right is given an acceleration of 12 fps 2 to the left for 8sec. Deter
mine (a) the total distance traveled during the 8-sec interval; (b) the displace
ment during the 8-sec interval.
7-15. A point starts from rest and moves along a straight line with a con
stant acceleration of 5 fps 2 to the right until it has traveled 90 ft. The accelera
tion then changes to a different constant value. At the end of 15 sec (after
starting from rest) the velocity is 40 fps@seismicisolation
to the left. Determine (a) the accelera-
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tion during the second interval; (b) the total distance traveled during the 15-sec
interval.
7-16. The acceleration of a particle moving along a horizontal path is con
stant and equal to 4 fps 2 to the left. During a certain time interval the particle
has a displacement of 42 ft to the right and travels a total distance of 58 ft.
Determine the initial and final velocities of the particle and the time interval.
7-17. A point moves along a straight line. At a given instant it has a velocity
of 10 fps to the right. It is immediately subjected to a constant acceleration
for a certain interval of time. During this interval the displacement of the point
is 25 ft to the left, and the total distance traveled is 65 ft. Determine (a) the
time interval; (b) the final velocity.
7-18. The acceleration of a particle moving along a horizontal path is 4 fps2
to the left, and the initial velocity is to the right. If the particle travels a total
distance of 58 ft in 7 sec, determine (a) the initial velocity; (b) the final velocity;
(c) the displacement during the 7-sec interval.
7-19. A particle with rectilinear motion starts from rest and is given an
acceleration of 10 fps 2 to the right for a distance of 180 ft. It is then given an
acceleration of 20 fps 2 to the left for 4 sec. The particle then travels at a con
stant velocity for 8 sec, after which it is uniformly brought to rest in 12 sec.
Determine (a) the total time; (b) the total distance traveled during the total
time interval; (c) the displacement during the total time interval.
7-20. A particle with rectilinear motion has an initial velocity of 30 fps to
the left. The particle is given a constant acceleration of 5 fps 2 to the right during
a 4-sec time interval. Determine (a) the total distance traveled by the particle
during the 4-sec interval; (b) the velocity of the particle when it has traveled
half the total distance in part (a).
7-21. A freight elevator is moving upward at a constant rate of 20 fps when it
passes a passenger elevator discharging passengers. Two seconds after the
freight elevator passes, the passenger elevator starts with a constant acceleration
of 10 fps 2 upward. When the velocity of the passenger elevator is 50 fps, the
acceleration becomes zero. Determine (a) the time required by the passenger
elevator to overtake the freight elevator; (b) the distance the passenger elevator
travels in overtaking the freight elevator.
7-22. A stone is thrown downward into an abandoned mine shaft with a
velocity of 12 fps. Four seconds later the sound of the stone striking water is
heard. If sound travels at 1120 fps, air resistance on the stone is neglected,
and the, acceleration of gravity is 32.2 fps 2, determine the distance from the top
of the mine shaft to the water surface in the shaft.
7-23. A particle has rectilinear motion with a constant acceleration of 5 fps 2
to the left. Initially it has a velocity of 30 fps to the right, and during a certain
period of time it travels a total distance of 100 ft. Determine the final velocity.
7-24. A point moves along a straight line with constant acceleration. At
a given instant it has a velocity of 12 fps to the left. During the next t sec the
point is displaced 40 ft to the right and travels a total distance of 88 ft. Deter
mine t.
7-25. A point moves along a straight line. It is uniformly accelerated from
rest to 48 fps to the right in 2 sec. The acceleration is then changed to a different
constant value such that the displacement for the entire period is 48 ft to the
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right, and the total distance traveled is 192 ft. Determine (a) the total time
interval; (b) the final velocity.
7-26. A man jumped from a stationary balloon at an elevation of 3000 ft.
The man’s parachute started to open 10 sec after he jumped. Assume his vertical
velocity then decreased for 6 sec according to the law v = 8.3(16 — t) 2 + 23.2,
where v is in fps and t is time in sec measured from the instant the man left the
balloon. After this deceleration his vertical velocity remained constant until he
reached the ground. How long did it take him to reach the ground?
7-3. Angular motion of a line. A line has angular motion when the
angle between it and a fixed reference line changes. The line may turn
about some fixed point on the line or the line extended as in the case of a
hand of a clock; or it may be that no point on the line remains fixed, as
in the case of a spoke of a wheel rolling along on the ground. In the
general case the line will not remain in a plane, but only coplanar angular
motion will be considered here. Particles are dimensionless, and any
angular motion they might have cannot be measured or described; there
fore, angular motion will be considered a property
restricted to lines and bodies. a
The angle 0, Fig. 7-8, between the fixed x A p
A
axis and the moving line OP varies with time
and completely defines the angular position of K
0
OP at any instant. The angular position June-
tion 0, as used here, is a scalar function of time Fig. 7-8
that can be differentiated without vector calculus.
A positive sign will be used to represent counterclockwise positions
in the following discussion. However, sometimes it is convenient to
select the clockwise direction as positive, and each problem should be
analyzed to determine the positive sense if sufficient data are available.
When insufficient data permit a choice of positive directions, the sense
assumed to be positive should be indicated.
The angular displacement of a line during any time interval is defined
as the change of angular position of the line during that time interval. If
OP turns from position OA to position OB during a certain time interval,
the angular displacement of the line during that time interval is the
directed angle 0 (a counterclockwise vector). If OP turns from position
OA to position OC and then back to position OB during a time interval,
the angular displacement for that time interval is still 0, although the
total angle turned through is not equal to 0 as in the previous case but
is 0i + 02. The total angle turned through, represented by <£>, is a
scalar quantity, whereas the angular displacement is a vector quantity
having both sense of rotation and magnitude of the net angle turned
through. For motion involving more than one revolution, values of 4>,
0, and 0 will continue to increase; for example, for two revolutions 0
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will be 4ir rad and not zero. The common units used for angular measure
ment are radians (rad), revolutions (rev), and degrees.
There is a direct analogy between (a) the angular position, angular
displacement, and total angle turned through for a line and (b) the posi
tion, linear displacement, and total distance traveled for a point that has
rectilinear motion. Likewise, the differential equations for angular
velocity and angular acceleration of a line are analogous to the corre
sponding equations for rectilinear motion of a point.
The angular velocity, w, of a line is defined as the time rate of change
of the angular position of the line. The magnitude of the average angular
velocity during an interval of time AZ is
_ Aa
In the limit as AZ approaches zero, the magnitude of the angular velocity

at any instant becomes
V —
(a = lim A0 = -r-
de (7-13)
AZ dt
Angular velocity has the dimensions of an angle per unit time; that is,
T -1 , since an angle is dimensionless. Common units for angular velocity
are radiahs per second (rad per sec), revolutions per minute (rpm), and
so on.
The angular acceleration of a line, a, is defined as the time rate of change
of the angular velocity of the line. Since angular velocity is a vector quan
tity, it can change in either magnitude or direction or both. However,
only coplanar angular motion is considered here; consequently, the only
possible change of angular velocity is in magnitude and sense. The
magnitude of the angular acceleration of a line can be written as
.. Aw da> d 2e
a = hm — = -r = 1 (7-14)
dt dt
Sometimes it is helpful to change the independent variable in Eq.
(7-14) from Z to 0 by multiplying both sides of the equation by d0, as
follows:
a de = de = • dw = w dw. (7-15)
Angular acceleration has the dimensions of an angle divided by a

time squared, T~ 2 , and its common units are radians per second per second
(rad per sec 2), revolutions per minute per second (rpm per sec), and so on.
Angular displacement, angular velocity, and angular acceleration are
quantities involving both magnitude and direction and as such are vector
quantities. The vector representing
@seismicisolationthe angular motion of a line is
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perpendicular to the plane* of motion of the line and is in the direction
a right-hand screw would travel when turning with the same sense as the
corresponding angular quantity (see Art. 1-8). It is necessary to indicate
only the magnitude and sense of rotation of the angular quantities con
sidered here because the lines all have coplanar motion and the directions
of the vectors do not change.
Problems involving angular motion of lines can be solved by methods
analogous to those used in the solution of problems in rectilinear motion
of particles. If 0, w, or a is known as a function of time, the other two
quantities as well as the angular displacement and total angle turned
through can be obtained by differentiation or integration and by a careful
analysis of the motion.
Motion curves a-t, v-t, and 0-t, particularly the diagram, frequently
can be used effectively as a supplement to the differntial equations, and
sometimes they eliminate the necessity of solving the differential equa
tions. Motion curves are especially useful when a is constant and the
motion reverses. In an <a-t diagram the ordinate at any point represents
the magnitude of the angular velocity, the abscissa represents the time,
and the slope represents the magnitude of the angular acceleration.
The magnitude of the angular displacement during any time interval is
indicated by the net area under the o>-t diagram (the difference between
the areas above and below the I axis), and the total angle turned through
is given by the sum of these areas during the corresponding time interval.
Example 7-6: The magnitude of the angular velocity of a line in rad per sec varies
according to the equation w » 6P — lOf, where t is the time in sec. The line is
turning clockwise when t =■ 2 sec. Determine:
(a) The angular acceleration of the line when t — 2 sec.
(b) The angular displacement of the line during the time interval from t = 1 sec to
t — 3 sec.
(c) The total angle turned through during the time interval from t = 1 sec to
t — 3 sec.
Solution: (a) When t — 2 sec, w is positive; therefore a positive sign indicates a
clockwise sense. From Eq. (7-14), the magnitude of the angular acceleration is
dta
a - — = 121 - 10.
al
When t — 2 sec, a = 4-14. Thus
a “ 14 rad per sec 1 ( .
de
(b) Since w » from Eq. (7-13), the angular position function 6 is
0 = dl - 2P - 5P 4- C.
If the fixed reference line is selected so that 6 — 0 when t — 0, the constant C will be
zero. Therefore 0 = 2t 3 — 51*.
When t = 1 sec, 6 =■ —3 — 3 rad counterclockwise, and when t — 3 sec, 0 = 4-9
— 9 rad clockwise. Therefore <|> =■12 rad { .
* When the line rotates in space, the vector is perpendicular to the plane tangent
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
to the surface generated by the motion of the line.
(c) In order to determine the total angle turned through, the direction of rotation
for the entire time interval must be determined. The equation for the angular
velocity, w = 6P — lOi, can be solved for values of t to make w — 0. The equation
for w indicates that the angular velocity is zero at t = 0 and at t — 1.667 sec. During
the interval from t » 0 to t - 1.667 sec, the angular velocity is negative or counter
clockwise, and for t greater than 1.667 sec, w is clockwise. The greatest counter
clockwise position occurs when t ~ 1.667 sec; thus when t ■« 1.667 sec, 9 ■■ —4.63
— 4.63 rad counterclockwise. During the time interval from t =■1 sec to t = 3 sec,
the line turns through a total angle of
* - (4.63 - 3) + (4.63 + 9) - 15.26 rad.
The diagram, Fig. 7-9, for the line is a definite aid in visualizing the motion just
described.
velocity GJ- rod per sec
Angular
Fig. 7-9 Fig. 7-10
Example 7-7: The velocity of pin C in Fig. 7-10 is constant and is equal to 12 fps
to the right. Determine the angular velocity of the rod AB when 9 — 40°. Solve
by writing an expression for the position of C and differentiating for the velocity.
Solution: Measure sc as shown in Fig. 7-10 and assume it to be positive to the right.
Also let 9 be positive when measured clockwise from the vertical. From triangle
A B E , the position function sc can be expressed either in terms of the variable length
BE or the constant length A B. In order to eliminate the extra variable, 8c is expressed
in terms of AB. Thus
8c
— = 6 sin 9, or «c - 12 sin 9.
£
Differentiation gives
dsc d0
vc = ” 12(cos 0) -jj =" 12w cos 9.
When 0 — 4-40°, vc — 4-12 fps, and
12
w 3,1 To ------7m m 4-1.305.
12 cos 40
Therefore was — 1.305 rad per sec ( .
PROBLEMS
7-27. A line rotates in a vertical plane according to the law 0 = 4$* — 12P,
where 0 gives the angular position of the line measured in radians and t is the
time in seconds. The line is turning clockwise when t = 1 sec. Determine
(a) the values of t when the line changes direction of rotation; (b) the angular
displacement during the interval from t = 1 sec to t = 4 sec; (c) the total angle
turned through during the interval from t = 1 sec to t = 4 sec.
the angular acceleration of a slender rod rotating
7-28. The magnitude of @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
in a plane about an axis through one end of the rod varies according to the law
a = 2t — 8, where a is the magnitude of the angular acceleration in radians per
sec* and t is the time in sec. The angular position function, 0, is zero and the
angular acceleration is counterclockwise when t = 0, and 0 = 3 rad clockwise
when t = 3 sec. Determine the angular velocity when t = 1 sec.
7-29. The magnitude of the angular velocity, «, of a line is given by the
equation w = 32* — 27, where w is in rad per sec and t is the time in sec. The
angular position of the line is 5 rad clockwise (clockwise is positive) when I = 1
sec. Determine the angular displacement and the total angle turned through
during the time interval from t = 2 sec to t = 4 sec.
7-30. Construct the diagram for the motion described in Problem 7-29.
7-31. The angular velocity of a line rotating in a plane changes uniformly
from 30 rpm counterclockwise to 90 rpm clockwise in 8 sec. Determine the
angular acceleration of the line and the total angle turned through during the
8-sec interval.
7-32. The initial angular velocity of a line rotating in a plane is 5 rad per sec
clockwise. This angular velocity is increased uniformly for 4 sec, during which
time the angular displacement of the line is 60 rad clockwise. Determine the
angular acceleration of the line.
7-33. During a certain interval of time, a line with a constant angular accelera
tion has an angular displacement of 45 rad counterclockwise and turns through
a total angle of 53 rad. At the beginning of the time interval the angular
velocity is 4 rad per sec clockwise. Determine (a) the angular velocity of the
line at the end of the time interval; (b) the angular acceleration during the
time interval.
7-34. The angular acceleration of a line rotating in a vertical plane varies
according to the expression a = 6/ — 12, where a is measured in rad per sec 1
and t is in sec. The line is turning clockwise when t = 1 sec. The angular
velocity is zero and 0 = 2 rad counterclockwise when t = 0. Determine the
total angle turned through during the time interval from t = 0 to t = 5 sec.
7-35. Block B of Fig. P 7-35 is constrained to move in a vertical slot. Block
A is pinned to B and moves in the slot in member OE. The constant angular
velocity of OE is 2 rad per sec counterclockwise. Determine the velocity and

acceleration of a point on B when 0 = 30°. Solve by writing an expression for
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the position of B and differentiating for the velocity and acceleration.
7-36. Solve Problem 7-35 if OE has an angular acceleration of 6 rad per sec’
clockwise and an angular velocity of 2 rad per sec counterclockwise when 0 «= 30°.
7-37. An observer stationed 0.50 mile south of an east-west highway watches
a car traveling east along the highway. When the car is in the position shown
in Fig. P 7-37, the line of sight from the observer to the car is rotating clockwise
at the rate of 1.2 rad per min.
(a) Determine the velocity of the car.
(b) If the car is traveling at a constant velocity, determine the angular
velocity of the line of sight when the car reaches the intersection.
Solve both parts by writing an equation for the position of the car at any
time and differentiating for the velocity.
7-38. An airplane is flying in a straight horizontal path at an elevation of

3000 ft directly above a searchlight, the beam of which is following the airplane
(see Fig. P 7-38). When the airplane is at B, the angular velocity of the search
light beam is 180 rad per hr counterclockwise. By writing an expression for
the position of the airplane at any time and differentiating, determine the velocity
of the airplane in mph when it is at B.
7-39. The crank OC of Fig. P 7-39 rotates at a constant counterclockwise
angular velocity of 3 rad per sec. Determine the velocity and acceleration of any
point A on the sliding arm when 0 = 30°. Solve by writing an expression for the
position of A at any time and differentiating for the magnitudes of the velocity
and acceleration.
7-40. Point A in Fig. P 7-40 moves along the circle, and B is the projection
of A on the horizontal diameter of the circle. When B is 4 ft to the right of 0,
the line OA has an angular velocity of 3 rad per sec counterclockwise and an
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
angular acceleration of 2 rad per sec 2 clockwise. Determine for this position
(a) the linear velocity of B; (b) the linear acceleration of B, Solve by writing
an expression for the position of B and differentiating.
Fig. P 7-40
7-41. Rod AB t Fig. P 7-41, rotates about an axis at A and is connected to

E by a flexible and inextensible cable. As AB turns from the horizontal position
through the angle 6, body E moves upward from line ab to line cd through the
distance s (neglect the size of pivot c).
(a) Write an expression for the angular position of AB in terms of the
position of E.
(b) By differentiation of the equation from (a), obtain a relation
between the magnitudes of the velocities of B and E at any time.
(c) When the angle & is 60°, the angular velocity of AB is 0.5 rad per
sec clockwise and the acceleration- of E is 10 fps 2 upward. Determine the
angular acceleration of AB for this position.
Q_| _______J>
Fig. P 7-41
7-4. Position of a particle with curvilinear motion. A particle has

curvilinear motion when it moves along a curved path. The position and
displacement of a particle which has curvilinear motion can be deter
mined from data expressed in several ways, as indicated in the following
discussion.
When a particle moves along a curved path in space, its position at
any instant is completely determined by its rectangular coordinates when
they are given as functions of time. The position of particle P of Fig.
7-11 as it moves in the xy plane @seismicisolation
is given by its x and y coordinates
@seismicisolation
expressed as functions of time.
The linear displacement of a particle during any time interval, as
defined in Art. 7-2, is the change of position of the particle during that time
interval. The linear displacement of the particle P in Fig. 7-11 as it
moves from position A to position B is the vector from A to B which can
be expressed in terms of the changes in the x and y coordinates of P as
q = Ax +> Ay. (7-16)
The total distance traveled, Q, in curvilinear motion is the total accumu
lated length of path traversed. The magnitude of the displacement of a
particle for curvilinear motion is always less than the total distance
traveled even though the particle does not reverse its direction of motion
along the path.
The position of a particle which moves along a curved path in space is
completely specified when the path is known and when the distance, measured
along the path, of the particle from some fixed point on the path is known
as a function of time. The position of particle P in Fig. 7-12 as it moves
along the circular path is given by the distance s measured along the
curve from the fixed point 0. The distance s is related to the angular
position of line CP by the equation
s = rd, (7-17)
where 0 is measured in radians.
As the particle P in Fig. 7-12 moyes from position A to position B,
its linear displacement is the vector q from A to B. The magnitude of
the linear displacement, q, is related to the magnitude of the angular
displacement of the line CP, </>, by the equation
q = 2r sin (7-18)
For an infinitesimal time interval the magnitude of the displacement,
from Eq. (7-17) or (7-18), is
q = ds = rd6 = reft, (7-19)
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and the displacement is directed tangent to the circle.
The total distance traveled by the particle is
where is the total angle turned through by the line CP.

When a particle travels on a curved path, it is sometimes convenient
to express its position in polar coordinates. The position of the particle,
P, in Fig. 7-13 can be specified at any instant
by giving the values of r and 6 as functions
of time. The displacement of the particle as
it moves from A to B can be resolved into two
components which are perpendicular and
parallel to the radius vector; thus
q = Qr +> Qr,
where q? and q R are the transverse and radial

components, respectively, of the total dis
placement. As the angle AQ decreases, the
magnitude of q? becomes r dO in the limit, and q« becomes dr. Therefore,
for an infinitesimal increment of time,
q = r do 4-> dr. (7-20)
When the pole is located at the center of curvature of the path, Eq.
(7-20) reduces to Eq. (7-19).
7-5. Velocity of a particle with curvilinear motion. The linear velocity
of a particle at any instant, as defined in Art. 7-2, is the time rate of change
of position of the particle, and it is a vector quantity. When the position
of a particle at any instant is specified by giving its rectangular coordinates
as functions of time, the time rate of change of position of the particle
can be conveniently expressed as the vector sum of the time rates of
change of its coordinates. The magnitudes of the x and y components
of the velocity are
and for motion in the xy plane the total velocity is
v = v x +> v y . (7-22)
When the position of a particle is determined from its path and the
distance s measured along its path from a fixed point on the path, the
magnitude of the velocity can be obtained by differentiating the position
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
function s with respect to time; that is,
where $ is the distance along the path as indicated in Fig. 7-12. To

determine the direction of the velocity in curvilinear motion, consider
the point P shown in Fig. 7-12. As the time interval for the point to
move from A to B is decreased and B approaches A, it is apparent that
the displacement vector AB approaches the tangent to the curve at A.
For an infinitesimal time interval the motion of the particle is in the
direction of the tangent to the path; therefore the velocity at any instant
is always tangent to the path.
When a point is moving on a circular path, an important relationship
between the magnitude of the linear velocity of the. point and the mag
nitude of the angular velocity of the line from the point to the center of
the path can be derived by substituting the value of s from Eq. (7-17)
into Eq. (7-23), which gives
where w is the angular velocity of the radius to the point on the circle
in radians per unit time.
Linear velocity can also be expressed in terms of radial and transverse
components. Since linear velocity is defined as the time rate of linear
displacement, it can be expressed as the vector sum of the time rates of
the radial and transverse components of the displacement. Thus, from
Eq. (7-20),
and v = v T +> v , (7-25)

where v r is the transverse component of the velocity perpendicular to the
radius vector r, v« is the radial component of the velocity along the radius
vector, and w is the magnitude of the angular velocity of the radius vector.
The dimensions of linear velocity are length divided by time, whether
the point has rectilinear or curvilinear motion.
Since the velocity of a point with curvilinear motion can be expressed
in various forms, it is necessary to select a particular form for solving
a given problem. No general rule can be stated governing the selection
of the most convenient velocity expression for any problem. Each
problem must be analyzed and solved on the basis of the given data and
the quantities to be obtained. Some problems can be solved with equal
ease by more than one method. The following example illustrates the
procedure. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Example 7-8: The 6-ft rod in Fig. 7-14 moves with its ends in contact with the
x and y axes. When the angle 0 is 60°, the angular velocity of the rod is 5 rad per
sec counterclockwise. Determine the velocity of point
G when 0 = 60°.
Solution: The x and y components of the position of
G can be expressed in terms of 0 as follows:
x = 3 cos 0 and y «= 3 sin 0,
where the positive directions for x and y are to the right
and upward, respectively, and the positive direction for
0 is clockwise. The magnitudes of the x and y com
ponents of the velocity of G, from Eq. (7-21), are
vx = —7 = —3 sin 0 =* — 3w sin 0
dt di
and vv = = 3 cos 0 ~ = 3w cos 0 Fig. 7-14
dt dt
When the angle 0 is 60° clockwise, the angular velocity of the bar is 5 rad per sec
counterclockwise; that is, w = —5, and the velocity components become
v, = — 3(— 5)(0.866) - 12.99 fps —
and v„ = 3( -5) (0.500) - -7.50 = 7.50 fps | .
The total velocity of G is
VO = Vx +> v„ - 12.99 44 7.50
I
= 15.00 fps 30 *-
AUemaU solution: This example can also be solved by identifying the path of G
and locating G on its path by determining the distance s from a fixed point on the
path to G. Since G is the mid-point of AB, the distance OC is equal to CB, and the
two triangles OGC and BGC are equal. Therefore OG — BG = 3 ft, and point G must
travel along a 6-ft-diameter circle with its center at 0. The distance » from D to G is
s = (OGjQ 30,
where the angle 0 is measured in radians and the positive directions for s and 0 are
clockwise. From the figure, the angle 0 is
0 = x /2 - 6 = r/2 - 0,
therefore » «■3(r/2 — 0).
The magnitude of the velocity of (?, as determined by differentiation, is
’ “ I “ 3 (- T) ■ -3
"’
where w is the angular velocity of the rod AB and is equal to —5. Thus the velocity
of G is
v = — 3(— 5) “ 15 fps <
which checks the preceding solution. The direction of the velocity is determined from
the position of G on the path; since the velocity is always tangent to the path, and the
ds
value of is positive, indicating that s is increasing.
Notice that points on AB other than the mid-point do not travel on circular paths
but .rather on ellipses. In this case the@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
alternate method of solution would be quite
involved, since the distance along an ellipse cannot be determined as readily as the
length of the arc of a circle.
PROBLEMS
7-42. A point P, on the rod AB in Example 7-8 is 2 ft from the end B. Deter
mine the velocity of point P when 0 = 30° and the angular velocity of AB is
8 rad per sec clockwise.
7-43. A particle travels in a vertical plane on a circular path of 5-ft radius.
Its distance along the path from the bottom of the circle is 8 = where
8 o
8 is measured in feet and t is measured in sec. The radius vector to the particle
turns counterclockwise for positive values of t. Determine the velocity of the
particle when t = 2 sec.
7-44. A point moves along the curve y* = 16x (x and y in ft) in such a manner
that the y coordinate of its position at any time is y = P — 4f, where y is in ft
and t in sec. Determine the velocity of the point when t = 5 sec.
7-45. A particle moves along a plane curve having the parametric equations
x = 2t, y = 2t 2 — 4, where the rectangular coordinates x and y are measured in
ft and t is the time in sec. Determine (a) the displacement of the particle during
the time interval from t = 0 to t — 2 sec; (b) the velocity of the particle when
t = 2 sec.
7-46. A point moves in the xy plane according to the law vx = 2t and v v = 4,
where the velocity components are measured in fps and the time in sec. If
the point is at x = 0, y = 4 ft when t = 1 sec, determine (a) the equation of the
path in terms of x and y; (b) the location of the point when t = 2 sec.
7-47. A point moves in the xy plane according to the law v z = 2t — 6, v, =
3P — 18f + 27, where v z and v v are the magnitudes of the rectangular components
of the velocity. If the point is at (9,-27) when t = 0, determine the equation
of the path.
7-48. A particle travels on a circle with a 5-ft radius according to the law
vy = cos where vv is in fps and t is in sec. With the origin at the center
12 12
of the circle, the particle is at (5 ft, 0), and the radius vector to the particle is
turning counterclockwise when t = 0. Locate the particle when t = 2 sec.
7-49. The mechanism in Fig. P 7-49 consists of a fixed rod bent in the shape
of the curve r = 10 sin 26 and the moving rod OC which is pinned at 0. The
two blocks A and B are pinned together, and A slides along the curved rod as
B slides along OC. The rod OC turns with a constant angular velocity of 10
rad per sec counterclockwise. Determine the velocity of the blocks A and B
when the angle 0 is (a) 45°; (b) 60°.
7-50. The equation of the center line of the fixed cam in Fig. P 7-50 is r =
1 + cos 0. The follower, P, of the cam slides along the rotating member OA
as OA turns about an axis at 0. When the angle 6 is 30° counterclockwise,
the radial component of the velocity of P is 20 ips directed from 0 toward A.
Determine (a) the angular velocity of OA ; (b) the total velocity of P.
7-51. Blocks D and F in Fig. P 7-51 are pinned together at B. Block F
moves along the fixed vertical slot, and D moves along the slot in E A as member
E A rotates. When the angle 0 = 30°, the velocity of A is 30 fps as shown.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Determine the velocity of point B when in this position. Solve by writing an
Fig. P 7-49
expression for the position of B and differentiating to determine the magnitude

of the velocity.
7-6. Acceleration of a particle with curvilinear motion. The linear
acceleration of a particle at any instant, as defined in Art. 7-2, is the time
rate of change of the linear velocity of the point. When a point has recti
linear motion, only the magnitude of the velocity can change. In
curvilinear motion the velocity changes in direction as well as in mag
nitude, and both changes contribute to the resultant acceleration.
When the rectangular coordinates of the moving point are known
functions of time, the motion can be readily analyzed as two simultaneous
rectilinear motions. For this case
■=.
dv x d*x ,
= ...
dv y dfty ,, z~
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
dt dt*
252 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION [57-6
Equations (7-26) are direct and are easily used. They have the disad
vantage of not isolating the acceleration components resulting from the
change in direction and the change in magnitude of the velocity. The
normal component of acceleration, due to a change in direction of the
velocity, and the tangential component, due to a change of magnitude
of velocity, are developed in the following paragraph and are frequently
the most convenient ones to use, particularly in circular motion.
Consider a point moving on a curved path from A to B during a time
interval A/ with a velocity Vi at A and v 2 at B as shown in Fig. 7-15a.
The average linear acceleration
during the time At for the motion
from A to B can be expressed as
Av
— that is,
At
AV
a
— - a?
Fig. 7-15 where Av = v2—< Vi,
is the change of velocity during the time interval At. This change in
velocity is represented by the vector ED in Fig. 7-15b, where v2 is repre
sented by GD and Vi by GE. The point F is located on GD so that GF
is equal in length to GE and ED is resolved into the two components EF
and FD. When these components are divided by the time At, the cor
responding components of the average acceleration are obtained as
EF v FD
~ AZ
In the limit as At approaches zero, the angle AO also approaches zero,
the vector FD approaches the direction of the velocity, Vi, and its mag
nitude becomes equal to the change in the magnitude of the velocity dur
ing the time interval dt. Also as At approaches zero, point B approaches
point A, the angle GEF approaches 90°, and the vector EF becomes
perpendicular to the velocity, Vi. The magnitude of EF becomes equal
to th dO as At approaches zero, since the chord length is equal to the arc
length for an infinitesimal angle. The angle dO must be expressed in
radians. When the magnitudes of these components of the change of
velocity are divided by the time dt, the magnitudes of the components
of the acceleration are found to be
.. FD dv r EF dO „
<7 2
°--Js s -’di - "
where at and a n are the magnitudes of the tangential and normal compo
nents of the acceleration, respectively. It is further seen that the normal
component of acceleration is always directed towards the center of curva
ture of the path. Thus the @seismicisolation
resultant linear acceleration of a particle
@seismicisolation
with curvilinear motion is
a = a t +> a*. (7-28)
The tangential component of the acceleration indicates a change in
the magnitude of the velocity and is always tangent to the path, whereas
the normal component of the acceleration indicates a change in the direc
tion of the velocity and is always normal to the path (toward the center
of curvature).
When a point moves on a circular path, then v = rw, in accordance
with Eq. (7-24), and the magnitude of the tangential component of the
acceleration becomes
dv du
at== = r (7-29)
dt dt = ra<
where a is the magnitude of the angular acceleration of the radius vector,
r, to the moving point. Also, for circular motion, the magnitude of the
normal component of the acceleration is
a n = vu = ru* = —• (7-30)
The angular quantities in Eq. (7-27), (7-29), and (7-30) must be

expressed in radians.
When the pole for polar coordinates (r t 0) is selected at any point 0
as indicated in Fig. 7-13 and not at the center of curvature as in Fig.
7-15, general radial and transverse components of linear acceleration
can be obtained. In some instances these components of acceleration
are more useful than either the normal and tangential components or’ the
horizontal and vertical components. From Fig. 7-13, the rectangular
coordinates of the point P in terms of the polar coordinates are
x = r cos 0, y = r sin 0,
with counterclockwise as the positive direction for 0, Differentiation
with respect to time gives the components of velocity as
v9 = cos 0— r(sin 0)u, v9 = sin 0 + r(cos 0)u f .
du di
. . d0
where w is -Tr
ue
The x and y components of the velocity of P can each be resolved
into radial and transverse components. The algebraic sum of the trans
verse components of v s and v v gives the transverse component of the
velocity of P as
vT = — sin 0 + v v cos 0
dr 2 dr 2
= “ -77
du (sin 0)(cos 0) + r(sin 0)w + -7-
di (sin 0)(cos 0) + r(cos 0)w
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
= ru.
In a similar manner, the sum of the radial components of v x and v v is
vr = v x cos 0 + v y sin 6
dv dr
= "jT cos2 0 — r(sin 0)(cos 0)« + -j? sin 2 0 + r(sin 0)(cos 0)w
dv dv
dr
~ dt
The above procedure is another and perhaps more direct way of obtaining
Eq. (7-25). The positive directions for the radial and transverse com
ponents are in the directions P moves as r and 0, respectively, increase.
The radial and transverse components of velocity change in direction
as well as in magnitude; therefore it is desirable to use the x and y com
ponents of velocity to obtain the acceleration of point P, since these
components change in magnitude only. Differentiation of v x and v y with
respect to time gives the acceleration components as
dr dr dr
dx cos 0— 7 (sin 0)« — -77 (sin 0)w — r(cos 0)w 2— r(sin 0)a
at dv dv
and
dr dr dr
dy -772 sin 0 + -7; (cos + -77 (cos 0)u>— r(sin 0)w 2 + r(cos 0)a,
dv at ai
. dw
where a is -77•
at
The magnitudes of the transverse and radial components of the accel
eration can be obtained by resolving the x and y components of acceleration
into components in the transverse and radial directions. The transverse
component of the acceleration is
dr = — d x sin 0 + dy cos 0,
and when the expressions for a x and a v are substituted, the transverse
component can be reduced to the form
dr
a r = ra + 2 w. (7-31)
. at
In a similar manner, the radial component of the acceleration is
d R = a x cos 0 + dy sin 0,
which reduces to
d 2r 2
08
= & - r "• (7-32)
The acceleration of P is
a= Ar ar. (7-33)
Two general methods of procedure are available for solving problems
involving acceleration in @seismicisolation
curvilinear motion.
@seismicisolation
1. The required quantities can be obtained mathematically by solving
the appropriate equations. Equations (7-26) through (7-33), together
with the relations developed in Art. 7-3, 7-4, and 7-5, provide the neces
sary equations for a mathematical solution.
2. In many problems, motion curves similar to those used for rec
tilinear motion can be used. When the magnitude of the velocity is
plotted against time as shown in Fig. 7-16, the slope of the curve corre
sponding to any time t represents the change in magnitude of the velocity,
dv, during the time interval dt, which
from Eq. (7-27) is seen to be the
magnitude of the tangential com
ponent of the acceleration. The area
under the curve between any two
ordinates indicates the change of s
during the time interval which, if the
velocity does not reverse, is equal to
the distance traveled. Thus in Fig.
7-16, Qi = v dt is the distance
traveled during the interval from t = 0 to t = fc. Also, Qi + repre
sents the total distance traveled in the time t\ + k, but it is necessary to
integrate from 0 to h for Qi and from h to tz for Qz. With curvilinear
motion, however, the displacement of the point during any time interval
cannot be obtained directly from the v-t diagram as it was for rectilinear
motion. The displacement must be determined as the vector from the
initial position to the final position of the point on the curved path. The
difference of the areas, Qi — Qz, gives the net distance along the path
between these two positions.
Example 7-9: The position of a particle moving on a circular path with a radius of
32 ft varies according to the law s = St* + 4t, where s is the distance in feet from a
fixed point to the particle measured along the path and t is the time in seconds. The
line from the center of the path to the particle is turning counterclockwise when t — 1
sec and the particle is at the top of the path when t =* 2 sec. Determine the accelera
tion of the particle when t — 2 sec.
Solution: The positive direction of motion along the path can be determined from
the value of the velocity when t -• 1 sec. The magnitude of the velocity is
t» - = 6t + 4.
al
Thus v is positive when t — 1 sec and P is moving counterclockwise along the path;
therefore counterclockwise is the positive direction . The magnitude of the normal com
ponent of the acceleration is v’/r, and when t = 2 sec the magnitude of the velocity is
v = 6(2) + 4 = 16 fps.
16* *
Therefore a n » — = 8 fps*.
H
32
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The vector On is directed toward the center of the circle, which is downward when
t =■2 see. The magnitude of the tangential component of the acceleration is
dv
“ dT “ 6 fp8’’
which is positive for all values of t and shows that the velocity is increasing in mag
nitude and that the direction of the tangential component of acceleration is the same
as the direction of the velocity, that is, to the left when t — 2 sec. The acceleration
when t = 2 sec is
a = a, +> a n
- *6 +> 8 = 10 fps 2
Example 7-10: Rod AB in Fig. 7-17 rotates in a horizontal plane about a vertical
TOP VIEW
axis through B with a constant angular acceleration of
1.0 rad per sec 2 clockwise. As the rod rotates, a washer
A
- “H slides out along the rod from the pinned end B. The dis
tance from B to the washer increases uniformly at the rate
of 2.0 fps. When the angular velocity of the rod is 3.0
rad per sec clockwise, the washer is on the rod 2.0 ft to
Fig. 7-17 he left of B as shown in the figure. Determine, for this
position, the acceleration of the washer.
Solution: Since the motion of the washer is specified with reference to the rotating
bar, radial and transverse coordinates with B as the pole are used. In the derivation
of Eq. (7-31) and (7-32), the positive directions were outward from the pole for r
and counterclockwise for 0. The positive transverse direction is perpendicular to the
radius with a sense in the direction of motion of a point on the radius as the radius
turns counterclockwise. The magnitude of the radial component of the acceleration
is, from Eq. (7-32),
aR = - r« 2 = 0 - 2(3) 2 = -18
and a« — 18 fps 2 -*.
The magnitude of the transverse component of the acceleration is, from Eq. (7-31).
dr
a T = ra + 2 » = 2 ( - l ) + 2(2)(-3) » -14
and ar — 14 fps 2 f .
The values of a and w are negative, since they are clockwise; and ar is upward, since
the positive transverse direction for W is downward when it is to the left of the pole.
The total acceleration of the washer is
-* T
a » a« +> ar =
18
Example 7-1 1 : A point P travels on a circle with a radius

of 8 ft. The magnitude of the velocity of P increases uni
formly from 20 fps to 80 fps while P travels a total distance
of 200 ft. Point P is in the position shown in Fig. 7-18 at
the beginning of the time interval, and the angular velocity
of OP is clockwise. Determine:
(a) The acceleration of P when it is in the given position.
(b) The linear displacement of P during the first second
of the interval.
Solution: (a) The v-t diagram for this motion is shown in Fig. 7-19. The area
under the diagram is equal to the total distance traveled; that is,
20 4- 80
A - —J— t - 200,
@seismicisolation
&
@seismicisolation
from which t 4 sec. The magnitude of the tangential acceleration, a h of P is
equal to the slope of the v-t diagram; thus
at - —j ™ 15 fps*.
The velocity is increasing; therefore a t is in the same direction as the velocity. At

the beginning of the time interval the magnitude of the normal acceleration is
v* 20*
a n = — = — = » 50 fps*,
r o
and the resultant acceleration is
a = a<-Ha B — 15 +>50 — 52.2 fps* .
(b) The magnitude of the velocity, th, at the end of the first second can be deter
mined from the slope of the diagram in Fig. 7-19 as follows:
th - 20
— - ---- = a t — 15,
from which th » 35 fps.
The distance traveled during the first
second is
20+35
< 2 - — y—
A
(1) =27.5 ft.
From Art. 7-4,
Q = r4>.
27 5
Therefore <t> = 3.44 rad.
That is, the line OP turns 3.44 rad clockwise during the 1-sec interval, and the final
position of OP is OP' in Fig. 7-18. The displacement of P is the vector from P to P'
and its length can be determined as follows:
Angle ROP' = (3.44 - 3.14)
— - 17.2°,
T
Length RO ® 8 cos 17.2° = 7.64 ft,
Length RP' - 8 sin 17.2° - 2.37 ft,
from which the displacement of P is
q - 15.64 +>2.37 - 15.81 ft
PROBLEMS
7-52. A particle moves in the first quadrant along the curve x = 0.481/*
according to the law x = 3$*, where x and y are expressed in ft and t in sec.
Determine (a) the displacement of the particle during the interval from t = 0
to t — 2 sec; (b) the velocity of the particle when I = 2 sec; (c) the acceleration
of the particle when t = 2 sec.
7-53. A point moves along the curve y* = 16® (x and y in ft) in such a manner
that the y coordinate of its position at any time is y = f* — 4f, where y is in ft
and t in sec. Determine the acceleration @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of the point when t = 2 sec.
7-54. A particle moves on a circle which has a radius of 40 ft. The time
rate of change of the magnitude of velocity of the particle at any instant is equal
to 4f, where t is time in sec. The magnitude of velocity is equal to 10 fps when
t is 2 sec and is decreasing. Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of the
particle when t is 3 sec.
7-55. A point moves on a circle with a radius of 10 ft according to the law
s = t l + 2/*, where s is the distance in ft measured along the arc of the circle
from a fixed point on the path to the moving point and t is the time in sec. Deter
mine the magnitude of the acceleration of the point when t = 2 sec.
7-56. Point A moves on a circle with decreasing magnitude of velocity. At
a given instant the point has the acceleration and the position shown in Fig.
P 7-56. Determine the velocity of point A.
7-57. The magnitude of the velocity of a point changes uniformly from 10 fps
downward at A to 4 fps upward at B, Fig. P 7-57, as the point moves clockwise
along the path from A to B. Determine the acceleration of the point when it is
at C.
7-58. A particle travels on the circular path in Fig. P 7-58 with a constant
rate of change of magnitude of velocity. Initially the particle is moving in a
counterclockwise direction around the path with a magnitude of velocity of
50 fps. It travels a total distance of 85 ft in 4 sec and is in position B at the
end of the 4-sec interval. Determine the velocity and acceleration of the particle
at the end of the 4-sec interval.
Fig. P 7-58 Fig. P 7-59
7-59. The line AQ in Fig. P 7-59 has an initial angular velocity of 4 rad per
sec clockwise. Its angular velocity Is increased uniformly for 3 sec, during which
time the line sweeps through a total angle of 60 rad. If the line is in the position
shown at the beginning of the 3-sec interval, determine, for this instant, the
acceleration of point Q,
7-60. The angular velocity of the line OB in Fig. P 7-60 changes uniformly
from 10 rad per sec clockwise to 50 rad per sec counterclockwise. During this
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
57-6] KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 259
change the line turns through a total angle of 52 rad. Line OB is in the position
shown in the figure 0.10 sec after its angular velocity was 10 rad per sec clockwise.
Determine, for this position, the acceleration of point B.
___2Q‘ <
Fig. P 7-60 Fig. P 7-61
7-61. A point A moves on a circular path of 10-ft radius as indicated in Fig.
P 7-61. When the point was in the initial position shown, the angular velocity
of the line OA was 2 rps clockwise, and it changed uniformly in such a manner
that the angular displacement during a certain interval of time was 3 revolutions
clockwise and the total angle turned through was 5 revolutions. Determine the
linear acceleration of point A 3 sec after it was in the initial position.
7-62. A slender rod 6 ft long rotates in a horizontal plane about a vertical
axis through one end of the rod in such a manner that its angular velocity changes
uniformly from 240 rpm clockwise to 180 rpm counterclockwise in 7 sec. Deter
mine the magnitudes of the velocity and acceleration of the center of the rod 2.5
sec before the end of the 7-sec interval.
7-63. Friction disks B and C of Fig. P 7-63 rotate without slipping on each
other. Drum A is fastened securely to disk B, and as B rotates counterclockwise
the cord to D winds up on A, raising body D. The angular velocity and angular
2
acceleration of disk C are 2 rad per sec and 6 rad per sec , respectively, both
clockwise. Determine the velocity and acceleration of any point on body D.
Fig. P 7-64
7-64. The rigid bar AB rotates about a fixed axis at one end as shown in Fig.
P 7-64. The angular velocity of the bar changes uniformly from 4 rad per sec
clockwise to 2 rad per sec counterclockwise while AB sweeps through a total
angle of 40 rad.
(a) Determine the angular displacement of AB during the first 12 sec
after the angular velocity was 4 rad per sec clockwise.
(b) Determine the least time after the change in velocity starts at
point B makes an angle of 45° with the
which the direction of the acceleration of@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
moving arm AB.
260 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 157-7
7-65. Rod CE in Fig. P 7-65 rotates counterclockwise about E and pulls A

upward. A is fastened to C by means of a cord, and the dimensions of the roller
at B can be neglected.
(a) Write a general relation for the length of cord, x, between C and B
in terms of 0.
(b) Determine a general relation between the magnitudes of the
velocities of points A and C.
(c) Determine the velocity of A when 0 = 90° and Vc = 15 fps to the
right.
Fig. P 7-65 Fig. P 7-66

7-66. Particle A in Fig. P 7-66 travels on a circular path with a constant
magnitude of velocity of 6 fps. Using the polar coordinates shown, determine
the radial and transverse components of the acceleration of A when h = 1.8 ft
and is increasing, by (a) computing the normal acceleration of A and taking
components in the radial and transverse directions; (b) using Eqs. (7-31) and
(7-32).
7-67. Determine the transverse and radial components of the acceleration
of the blocks in Problem 7-49 when the angle 0 is 60°. The data are the same
as for Problem 7-49.
7-68. In Problem 7-50, the radial component of the velocity of P is 5 ips
directed from A toward 0 and the radial component of its acceleration is 60 ips 1
from A toward O when the angle 0 is 30°. Determine (a) the angular acceleration
of OA ; (b) the transverse component of the acceleration of P.
7-7. Motion of projectiles. The motion of a projectile in flight can
usually be considered as curvilinear motion of a particle. When air
resistance is neglected, the only force acting on the projectile is the weight;
therefore the horizontal component of acceleration is zero, and the vertical
component of acceleration is the acceleration due to the weight of the
body, approximately 32.2 fps 2 directed vertically downward. Later in
this article it will be shown that a projectile follows a parabolic path
when air resistance is neglected. Since the horizontal and vertical com
ponents of the acceleration of a projectile are known, it is advantageous
to study the motion as two simultaneous rectilinear motions, one hori
zontal and the other vertical. When the magnitudes of the horizontal
and vertical components of velocity are each plotted against the time,
the components of displacement and position can be readily determined
in a manner similar to that for rectilinear motion. The following example
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
illustrates the procedure for using v-t diagrams to solve projectile problems.
Example 7-12: The initial velocity of a projectile is 2000 fps at a slope of 3 upward
to 4 to the right. The objective is a target 16,000 ft above the gun and 17 miles from
the gun, measured horizontally. The target and the path of the projectile are in the
same vertical plane. When air resistance is neglected, determine:
(a) The vertical distance the projectile misses the target.
(b) The velocity of the projectile when it is vertically above or below the target.
Solution: (a) A sketch showing the approximate trajectory of the projectile, Fig.
7-20a, aids in the construction and use of the v-t diagrams. Figure 7-20b shows the
horizontal component of the velocity plotted against time, and Fig. 7-20c shows the
vertical component of the velocity plotted against time. Although the horizontal
distances on the v-l diagrams and on the sketch of the path do not represent the same
quantities, frequently it is helpful to select scales that will make points on the v-l
diagrams line up vertically with corresponding points on the sketch of the path. For
example, when the projectile is at the top of its path, v v = 0 is the corresponding point
on the vv -t diagram. Since the horizontal acceleration is zero, the v x-t diagram is a
horizontal straight line. The vertical acceleration has a constant value of 32.2 fps*
downward, thus the vv -t diagram in Fig. 7-20c is a straight line with a slope of 32.2.
The area A under the v x-t diagram represents the horizontal distance traveled during
the time interval. Therefore
A - 1600(h + G) = 17(5280) ,
from which h + h — 56.10 sec.
The area Qi represents the vertical distance traveled during the time interval l\ and
thus represents the maximum elevation of the projectile above the gun. The time h
is determined from the slope of the vv -t diagram, thus
1200
Slope - — - 32.2
•i
or fi — 37.27 sec,
and the distance Qi is
1200(37.27)L
@seismicisolation
Qi = ------ ------ = 22,360 ft.
@seismicisolation
The area Q* represents the distance the projectile drops during the time interval t*.
The time interval G, as determined from the total time interval and t i, is
G » 56.10 - 37.27
“ 18.83 sec.
The velocity (tyh can be determined from the slope of the diagram as follows:
- 32.2
or (vF )» - 32.2(18.83) - 606.3 fps
606(18.83)
from which = ------ z------ = 5710 ft.
The actual height above the gun of the projectile at the target is
Qi - - 22,360 - 5710
- 16,650 ft.
Therefore the projectile passes 650 ft above the target.
(b) The velocity of the projectile is the vector sum of the x and y components of
the velocity, and when it is directly above the target the velocity is
V ” V, +> v„
- I
- 1600 +> 606
— 1711 fps
These results are highly inaccurate, since the effect of air resistance was neglected
in the solution. The air resistance tends to reduce both components of velocity and
thus produces a considerable reduction in the range of the projectile. A more accurate
solution might also include the effects of the spin of the projectile and of the rotation
and curvature of the earth, but these topics are beyond the scope of this text.
In some instances it may be desirable to solve the differential equations
of motion instead of using v-t diagrams with projectile problems. The
differential equations are
-32.2. (7-34)
where x and y are the rectangular coordinates of the position of the pro
jectile at any time t and the positive directions are to the right and
upward. Integration of Eq. (7-34) gives
. v x = Ci and v v = — gt + c 2 .
If u represents the velocity of the projectile when t is zero, these equa
tions become
v x = ux and v y = Uy — gt. (7-35)
Integration of Eq. (7-35) gives
/2
X = u j + c3, y = uv t — g + c<.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
If the origin is selected at the position of the projectile when t is zero,
the constants of integration C3 and are zero, and
x— tlx/, y = Uyt g—• (7-36)
Equations (7-36) are the parametric equations of the path, and they give
the x and y coordinates of the position of the particle at any time t.
When the parameter t is eliminated from Eq. (7-36), the rectangular
equation of the path becomes
2
y =—u x x — 2u\ z
or * 2u*y = 2u xu*x — gx\ (7-37)
which is the equation of a parabola.
The differential equations (7-34) or their solution in the form of Eq.
(7-35), (7-36), and (7-37) can be used to solve projectile problems when
desired.
PROBLEMS
Note. Neglect air resistance in the following problems.
7-69. A ball is thrown horizontally from a 300-ft building with an initial
velocity of 100 fps.
(a) Determine the distance from the bottom of the building to the
point where the ball strikes the ground.
(b) What is the height of the ball from the ground when the horizontal
distance is 400 ft?
7-70. A projectile is fired from a gun at an angle of 30° with the horizontal.
The muzzle velocity of the projectile is 2000 fps. The projectile falls on a
horizontal plane 1000 ft above the gun. Determine the horizontal distance
traveled by the projectile.
7-71. An airplane 500 ft above a level field is flying horizontally at a rate of
150 fps. A sack of mail is dropped from the plane. Where will it strike the
ground with reference to the point directly below that from which it was dropped?
7-72. A projectile is fired from a gun with an initial velocity of 2600 fps at an
inclination upward of 5 vertical to 12 horizontal. The projectile strikes an object
2000 ft below the gun. Determine the horizontal distance traveled by the
projectile.
7-73. A ball is thrown from a cliff with an initial velocity of 80 fps inclined
downward at a slope of 3 vertical to 4 horizontal. Determine the horizontal
distance traveled by the ball before it strikes the ground 400 ft below the starting
point.
7-74. A rocket is projected vertically upward until it is 30.0 miles above the
launching site, at which instant it is turned so that its velocity is directed 3
upward and 4 horizontal and the power is shut off. The velocity when the
power is shut off is 3820 mph (5600 fps). The rocket strikes the earth at the
same elevation as the launching site. Determine (a) the horizontal distance
traveled by the projectile; (b) the speed @seismicisolation
with which the rocket strikes the earth.
@seismicisolation
264 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION l§7-8
7-75. Determine the minimum speed a Jeep must have at A, Fig. P 7-75, to
clear the stream and land on the opposite bank at B.
Fig. P 7-75
7-76. A golf ball is driven from a tee which is 48 ft above a level fairway.
The maximum height of the ball in flight above the tee is 80 ft, and the horizontal
distance traveled by the ball before it strikes the fairway is 700 ft. Determine
the magnitude of the initial velocity of the ball.
7-77. A man standing on the roof of the grandstand at a ball park throws a
ball with an initial speed of 60 fps (see Fig. P 7-77). As the man throws the ball
a player runs from position A with an average speed of 20 fps to catch the ball
at B. If the player catches the ball just as he arrives at B, 4 sec after the ball is
thrown, determine (a) the angle B; (b) the height h.
7-8. Simple harmonic motion. When the acceleration of a particle

having rectilinear motion is always proportional to the distance of the par
ticle from a fixed point on the path and is directed toward the fixed point,
the particle is said to have simple harmonic motion. This relationship can
be expressed in the form of the equation
a = -Kx, (7-38)
in which a is the magnitude of the acceleration of the particle moving

along the x axis, x is the position coordinate, and K is a constant. The
negative sign indicates that the acceleration is to the left when the particle
is to the right of the origin, and vice versa.
Some common examples of simple harmonic motion are (a) the ver
tical vibratory motion of body A in Fig. 7-21a when it is displaced a short
distance vertically from its equilibrium position on a helical spring and
then released; (b) the vertical vibratory motion of body B of Fig. 7-21b
when it is displaced slightly from its equilibrium position on a flexible
springboard (cantilever beam) of negligible weight and released; and (c)
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the motion of the pendulum bob C in Fig. 7-21c as it swings in a vertical
plane through a small angle when supported by a cord of negligible
weight.
Simple harmonic motion can be readily obtained and studied from the
uniform motion of a point on a circular path. The line OQ in Fig. 7-22
rotates about point 0 with a constant angular velocity, co, and point P
moves along the x axis in such a manner that its x coordinate is always
the same as the x coordinate of the point Q. The angle 0 which gives the
Fig. 7-21
angular position of OQ is measured counterclockwise from OX, and 0 is
zero when the time, t, is zero. The angle 0 is equal to w/, and the velocity
and acceleration of Q are rw and rw 2, respectively, as shown on the figure.
The position of P at any instant as indicated by its position coordinate,
x, is
x = OP = r cos (at. (7-39)
The magnitude of the velocity of P can be obtained either as the time
derivative of the position function or as the x component of the velocity
of Q. In either case
v P = —ria sin cat. (7-40)
The negative sign indicates that the velocity is to the left for values of
cat from 0 to r rad, from 2r to 3r rad, and so on. Similarly, the magnitude
of the acceleration of P can be obtained either by differentiating v P or
by taking the magnitude of the x component of the acceleration of Q.
The acceleration of P is
a P = —red2 cos (at. (7-41)
The negative sign indicates that the acceleration is to the left for values
of (at from 0 to r/2 rad, from 3r/2 to 5r/2 rad, and so on. From Eq.
(7-39) and (7-41), the magnitude of the acceleration of P can be expressed
in terms of the position coordinate as
ap =■— (a fx. (7-42)
When Eq. (7-42) is compared with Eq. (7-38), they are seen to be the
same if w2 = K = a constant, that @seismicisolation
is, if the angular velocity of OP is
@seismicisolation
the square root of the constant.
Simple harmonic motion is a vibratory or periodic motion. In the
example just discussed, P travels back and forth from C to D.
The amplitude of a simple harmonic motion is represented by the letter
A and is defined as the maximum distance the particle moves from the center
of the path. From Fig. 7-22, it is seen to be equal to r. The time to
complete one cycle of motion is defined as the period, T , of the motion.
From Fig. 7-22, it is seen that during one cycle the point P moves from
D to C and back to D. The angle 0 changes from 0 to 2x rad for one
cycle. Therefore <aT = 2t, and the period is
T = —• (7-43)
<a
The number of cycles per unit of time is defined as the frequency, denoted
by f,and can be expressed as
(7-441
! ~ 7 ‘ S
From Fig. 7-22, it should be noted that when the point P is at the
center of the path, the acceleration is zero and the velocity has its maxi
mum value of rw, and when P is at either end of the path, the velocity
is zero and the acceleration has its maximum value of rw 2.
A mathematical solution of the simple harmonic motion problem can
be obtained from the differential equation used to describe the motion.
From Eq. (7-38) and (7-4),
d 2x
a= 2 ~ A.X
dt
is the differential equation of simple harmonic motion. If the accelera
tion is written in terms of v and x from Eq. (7-5), the differential equation
becomes
v dv = a dx = — Kx dx.
When both sides of this equation are integrated, the result is
t>2 _ -Kx 2
2 ------2~ + C o
or v 2 = —Kx2 + 2C0,
and v = = ± K (Ci - x3 )*,
etc
where C? = 2Co/K.
The variables can again be separated, giving
— ____ = K dt
± ( C ? - x 2)«
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation “
which when integrated with the positive sign becomes
sin-* = K*t + C t
x = Ct sin (K»t + Ci). (7-45)
The constants of integration Ci and C 2 can be obtained from the starting
conditions. If t = 0 when the particle has its maximum displacement
from the origin, that is, x = A and v = 0 when t = 0, the equation for v
gives Ci = A, and Eq. (7-45) gives C2 = 90° = r/2 rad. Equation
(7-45), when integrated with the negative sign, becomes
x = Ci cos (K*t + Cs ),
and with the same starting conditions C8 is zero. Thus in either case the
position x can be written as
x = A sin I K*t + £ ( = A cos K t.
This is the same form as the solution obtained with the related circle.
The value of w for the circle is the same as K*. The period T, the time
for one oscillation, is
and the frequency is J

T 2t
A more general solution is obtained if the value of x is neither zero

nor a maximum when I = 0. It can be written as follows:
x = Ci sin (Kty + C2(
y
= Bi sin K t + B 2 cos K *t,
where Bi = Ci cos C2, B 2 = Ci sin C 2.
The constants Bi and B 2 or Ci and C 2 are determined from the initial
or starting conditions.
A v-t diagram for one cycle of the
motion of point P in Fig. 7-22 is shown
in Fig. 7-23. The points Z), 0, and C
are shown in Fig. 7-23 to correlate the f
U)t«rr
motion of P along DOC in Fig. 7-22 \ /

with the velocity for that position. -—
Since the magnitude of the acceleration „
is given by the slope of the v-t diagram,
it is evident that the acceleration is zero for position 0 and attains its
maximum value for positions C and Z), whereas the velocity attains its
maximum value at position 0. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
268 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION [§7-S
Example 7-13: A point has simple harmonic motion. When the point is dis
placed 0.6 of the amplitude from the center of the path, the magnitude of the velocity
is 8 fps and the magnitude of the acceleration
is 18 fps*. Determine:
(a) The m a g n i t u d e of the maximum
acceleration.
(b) The m a g n i t u d e of the maximum
velocity.
(c) The period of the motion.
(d) The amplitude.
Solution: (a) By the related circle method,
the magnitudes of the velocity and accelera
tion are given for the particle in position P as
shown in Fig. 7-24, from which
vp — 8 = rw sin 9 = rw(0.8)
or rw = 10, ‘
and ap — 18 ■* rwa cos 0 = rw a (0.6)
Fig. 7-24 or rw a = 30.
The simultaneous solution of these equations gives
w = 3 rad per sec
and r — 3.33 ft.
The magnitude of the maximum acceleration is
s
Tu 30 fps*.
(b) The magnitude of the maximum velocity is
Vm*x = ru> = 10 fps.
(c) From Eq. (7-43), the period is
2r
T = — = 2.09 sec.
(d) The amplitude is
A = r = 3.33 ft.
It will be noted that once r and w are determined, all other properties of the motion
can be obtained directly from them.
Example 7-14: A 4Q-lb weight is suspended from the ceiling as shown
in Fig. 7-25 by a spring whose modulus (the force required to stretch or
compress the spring a unit distance) is 100 lb per ft. It will be shown in
Chapter 12 that when such a weight is displaced from its equilibrium
position and released, the resulting motion is simple harmonic motion if
air resistance is neglected. If the weight shown in Fig. 7-25 is pulled
downward 3 in. from its equilibrium position and then released from rest,
the differential equation for the resulting motion can be shown (by
methods developed in Chapter 9) to be
a = —80.5t/
where y is the position of the weight in ft, measured (with the positive
direction downward) from the equilibrium position. Determine the
period, the frequency, and the amplitude of the motion.
Solution: From Eq. (7-38) and (7-42), Fig. 7-25
w s = 7C 80.5.
Therefore w@seismicisolation
= 8.97 rad per sec,
@seismicisolation
80
from which T =■—
<a — o.V7 0.700 sec
and f =*= “ 1.429 cycles per sec.
The amplitude equals the initial displacement from the equilibrium position when
the body is released from rest. Thus A — 3 in.
PROBLEMS
7-78. The acceleration of a point moving with simple harmonic motion varies
according to the equation a = —9s, where a is in fps 2 when s is in ft. If the
amplitude of the motion is 5 ft, determine (a) the magnitude of the velocity when
the point is displaced 4 ft from the center of the path; (b) the magnitude of the
acceleration when the point is displaced 3 ft from the center of the path.
7-79. A point has simple harmonic motion. The magnitude of the maximum
velocity is 10 fps, and the magnitude of the maximum acceleration is 20 fps 2.
(a) When the point is displaced one-half of its amplitude, determine
(1) the magnitude of the velocity; (2) the magnitude of the acceleration.
(b) Determine the period of the motion.
7-80. A point moves along a straight line with simple harmonic motion,
and its velocity is given by the equation v = t cos xf/2, where v is in fps when
t is in sec. Determine the total distance traveled by the point during the interval
from t = 0 to t — 3 sec.
7-81. The acceleration a, in fps 2, of a point moving with simple harmonic
motion varies according to the equation a = —16s, where s is the position of
the point (in ft) measured from the equilibrium position. If the point is 2 ft
to the right of the origin and the velocity is zero when t is zero, determine (a) the
time for one complete oscillation; (b) the maximum speed.
7-82. The magnitude of the maximum velocity of a point moving with simple
harmonic motion is 10.0 fps. When the point is displaced 3 in. from the position
of maximum velocity, the magnitude of the acceleration of the point is 2.50 fps 2 .
Determine (a) the frequency of the motion; (b) the magnitude of the maximum
acceleration of the point.
7-9. Motion of rigid bodies. The preceding articles dealing with
kinematics have been concerned with the motion of points and the lines
connecting points. When the dimensions of a body are small compared
to the dimensions of the path of motion of the body, it is usually possible
to treat the body as a particle in kinetics. When the dimensions of the
body are not negligible compared to the dimensions of the path, it becomes
necessary to investigate the relationships between the positions, veloci
ties, and accelerations of various points of the body. In this article cer
tain common types of rigid body motion are defined and discussed.
From the definition of a rigid body in Art. 1-2, it can be shown that
all lines in a rigid body that move in any fixed plane or in planes parallel
to the fixed plane must undergo the same angular displacement during a
definite time interval and must therefore have the same angular velocity and
angular acceleration at any instant. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Points A, B, and C are points in the
rigid body in Fig. 7-26, and they all move in the same plane. If line AC
turns 30° clockwise (not necessarily about a fixed point), line AB and
line BC must also turn 30° clockwise because angles CAB and ACB do
not change. Since all lines of the body that move in parallel planes
turn through the same angle in the same time interval, the angular
velocities of all the lines must be the same at any instant. Similarly, the
angular accelerations of the lines must be the same at any instant.
Fig. 7-26
Translation. When a rigid body moves in such a manner that all lines
in the body remain parallel to their original positions, the body has a motion
of translation. For such motion the angular velocity and angular accel
eration of all lines in the body must be zero. If the mass center of the
body remains in one plane (called the plane of motion) the motion is
defined as coplanar translation. Most bodies having a motion of trans
lation will be found to have coplanar translation. Some examples of
translation are (a) the piston rod of a locomotive running along a straight
level track and also the parallel rod connecting the drivers of the loco
motive, (b) the bumper of an automobile traveling in a straight line
along a road, and (c) a sliding door whose rollers run on straight tracks.
From the definition of translation, it is apparent that all points of
the body must have the same displacement during any time interval and
consequently must have identical velocities and identical accelerations
at any instant. In other words, the motion of any particle of a rigid body
having a motion of translation determines the motion of every particle of
the body.
Rotation. A rigid body has a motion of rotation if one line in the body
or the body extended is fixed and all particles in the body not on the fixed
line travel in circular paths with centers on the fixed axis. The fixed line
is called the axis of rotation and each particle not on the axis moves in a
plane perpendicular to the axis of rotation. The plane in which the mass
center moves is referred to as the plane of motion. Sometimes this
motion is called pure rotation, to distinguish it from motion in which no
line is fixed but in which the body turns or rotates about a moving line
as in plane motion (to be defined later).
The rotor of a stationary steam turbine, a water wheel, the hands of
a clock, and the crankshaft of an automobile when the car is standing
still and the motor is running are examples of rotating rigid bodies. If
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the car is traveling along a straight road, the crankshaft does not have
rotation because the points travel along helical paths instead of circular
paths.
The velocity and acceleration of any point on a rotating rigid body
can be determined in terms of the angular motion of the body. Figure
7-27 represents a rigid body rotating about a fixed axis at 0 with an
angular velocity, co, and an angular acceleration, a, as shown. The
point P moves along a circular path with a linear velocity of rw perpen
dicular to the line OP and with two components
of linear acceleration, one equal to rw 2 along OP
directed toward 0 and the other equal to ra per
pendicular to OP. Since all lines parallel to the
plane of motion have the same angular velocity and
angular acceleration at any instant, the angular
quantities are usually spoken of as referring to the
body, although, strictly speaking, the angular
quantities refer to lines in the body. In general,
then, if the angular motion of a rigid body having
a motion of rotation is known, the linear motion of any point on the body
can be determined.
Plane motion. When a rigid body moves in such a manner that every
particle of the body remains a constant distance from a fixed reference
plane, the body has plane motion. Thus all particles in a rigid body with
plane motion move in the same plane or in parallel planes. Rotation is a
special case of plane motion, and coplanar translation is also plane motion.
In general, plane motion is a com
bination of rotation and translation.
Two common examples of plane
motion are the connecting rod of a
stationary engine and the wheel of an
automobile running straight along a
road.
The various particles of a rigid
body having plane motion all travel
along plane curves but not on circular
paths, and there are no simple equa
tions relating the angular motion of
the body to the velocities and ac
celerations of these points, as is the
case with rotation. Plane motion
can be analyzed by treating it as a combination of a rotation of the body
.about some convenient reference axis in the body and a translation of the
body in which all points have the same motion as the reference point.
@seismicisolation
Member BC of the link mechanism @seismicisolation
in Fig. 7-28 has plane motion. As
272 KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION 157-9.
arm AB rotates to position AB', member DC rotates to DC and BC

moves to B'C. The motion of BC can be visualized as a rotation about
an axis at C to position B"C followed by a curvilinear translation to B'C'
with all particles of BC moving along curved paths similar to CC from
B"C to position B'C'. The motion can also be thought of as a curvi
linear translation of BC to position B'C" in Fig. 7-29 followed by a
rotation about B' to position B'C. The angular displacement of BC when
moving from BC to B'C is <]> counterclockwise whether the rotation is con
sidered as occurring about an axis at C or one al B or about any other axis
perpendicular to the plane of motion. Furthermore, it is immaterial
c‘
K
/ X
Fig. 7-29
whether the rotation or the translation is considered as occurring first.
When a wheel with plane motion rolls along a plane surface, the
center of the wheel has rectilinear* motion. This fact leads to the
observation that the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the
center of the wheel must all be parallel to the plane. If there is no
slipping between the wheel and a fixed plane, it is possible to develop
useful relationships between the angular motion of the wheel and the
motion of the center of the wheel. As the center of the wheel 0 in Fig.
7-30 moves to O', the position of 0 at any instant, measured from its
initial location, is given by the distance $o. During this same interval
the line OA moves to the position O' A'; and since there is no slipping, the
arc length A'B must equal AB = s0 , which leads to the equation
s0 = 00' = re. (7-46)
If So is positive to the right, 6 must be positive clockwise.
The displacement of 0 during a time interval is equal to the change of
its position s0 , and the angular displacement of the wheel is equal to the
change in 6. Therefore
qo «
where qo is the linear displacement of 0 during a time interval and <|> is
the corresponding angular @seismicisolation
displacement
@seismicisolation of the wheel.
The magnitude and sense of the velocity and of the acceleration of
point 0 c&a be determined by differentiation of the position function s0 .
Thus
Vo =
dso = r dO = r (7-4z)
~di dt “
and do = = = ra. K(7-48)
dt dt
The same sign convention must apply for linear and angular velocities
and accelerations as for the position functions.
Equations (7-46), (7-47), and (7-48) apply to the motion of the center
of a wheel rolling without slipping along a fixed plane surface. If the
wheel slips on the surface, these equations do not apply. If the surface
is curved (not plane), Eq. (7-48) must be modified to account for both
components of acceleration (see Problem 7-89). If it is desired to study
the motion of a point not at the center of the wheel, the equations of
relative motion which are developed in the next chapter can be used.
The equations of relative motion are also useful in studying other prob
lems in plane motion, as will be seen in Chapter 8.
PROBLEMS
Note. Classify the motion of the bodies described in Problems 7-83 to 7-88 as
(a) translation; (b) rotation; (c) plane motion but not translation or rotation;
(d) none of these.
7-83. A bicycle is at rest on a stand. The back wheel is caused to move by
grasping a pedal and turning the crank. Classify the motion of (a) the back
wheel; (b) the pedal if it remains horizontal; (c) the pedal if its bearings are
frozen.
7-84. A bicycle is being pedaled along a straight path. Classify the motion of
(a) the back wheel; (b) the pedal if it remains horizontal; (c) the pedal if its
bearings are frozen.
7-85. An electric fan (nonoscillating) is running under three circumstances.
Classify the motion of the blades when (a) the fan stands on a fixed table; (b) the
fan is on a moving train with the shaft parallel to the straight tracks; (c) the fan
is on a moving train with the shaft perpendicular to the straight tracks.
7-86. A car is at rest with the engine idling. Classify the motion of (a) the
fan; (b) the pistons; (c) the connecting rods.
7-87. A car is traveling straight along a level road with the engine running.
Classify the motion of (a) the body; (b) the wheels; (c) the fan; (d) the pistons;
(e) the connecting rods.
7-88. All particles of links 1 to 7 in Fig. P 7-88 move in vertical planes. For
the positions shown, with link 2 turning counterclockwise, state the type of
motion possessed by each of the rigid bodies 1 to 7, inclusive.
7-89. When a wheel rolls along a circular surface, the center of the wheel
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
also moves along a circular path as indicated in Fig. P 7-89. Determine the
KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION [§7-10
Fig. P 7-88 Fig. P 7-89

relationships between the angular velocity and acceleration of the wheel and
the linear velocity and acceleration of the center 0 when the wheel rolls without
slipping. Hint: Write an expression for the position of the point 0 in terms of the
angiilar position of the wheel and differentiate to determine the magnitude of the
velocity and of the tangential acceleration of 0.
7-90. Body CB slides in the fixed horizontal slot as arm 0A rotates as indi
cated in Fig. P 7-90. In the position shown, the arm OA has an angular velocity
of 4 rad per sec counterclockwise and an angular acceleration of 5 rad per sec 1
clockwise. By setting up an expression for the position of B at any instant and
differentiating, determine for the given position (a) the linear velocity of B;
(b) the linear acceleration of B.
7-91. Bodies A and C are connected by a flexible inextensible cord as shown

in Fig. P 7-91. As A rolls to the right, C is lowered. The dimensions of the
pulley E can be neglected. When 0 = 30°, the velocity of C is 10 fps downward
and the acceleration of C is 6 fps 2 upward. By writing an expression for the
position of B at any instant in terms of the position of C and differentiating,
determine, for 0 = 30° (a) the angular velocity of A ; (b) the angular acceleration
of A.
7-10. Closure. The kinematical quantities used to describe the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
absolute motion of a particle are time, position, displacement, total dis-
tance traveled, velocity, and acceleration. Likewise, the quantities used
to describe the absolute angular motion of a line are time, angular posi
tion, angular displacement, total angle turned through, angular velocity,
and angular acceleration. The absolute motion of bodies is described
in terms of the motion of particles and lines in the bodies. The problems
of kinematics consist of determining one or more of the above quantities
from given data. The two general methods of procedure available for
the solution of kinematical problems are:
1. The mathematical solution of the defining differential equations
and related definitions.
2. The use of motion curves.
For simple harmonic motion, the related circle can be used instead of
motion curves.
PROBLEMS
7-92. The magnitude of the acceleration of a particle which starts from rest
from a position 6 ft to the right of the origin when t = 0 and moves along the
x axis is directly proportional to the square of the time after starting. If the
displacement from t = 6 to t = 2 sec is 2 ft to the left, determine the velocity of
the particle the next time it is 2 ft to the right of the origin.
7-93. A particle moves along a straight line with an initial velocity of 30 fps
to the right. The velocity of the particle is changed uniformly until its velocity
is 70 fps to the left. During this period of time the particle travels a distance of
290 ft. Determine (a) the total time; (b) the acceleration.
7-94. A ship moving with a constant speed of 14 mph passes a searchlight on
her west-east course and sails due east 4 miles, then turns north. If the beam of
the searchlight follows the ship, how fast will the beam be rotating and with what
angular acceleration half an hour after the ship passes the light? Solve by writing
an expression involving the angular position of the beam and differentiating for
the angular velocity and angular acceleration.
7-95. The rod AB rotates about an axis at 0 as indicated in Fig. P 7-95.
The angular velocity of AB changes uniformly from 30 rpm counterclockwise to
90 rpm clockwise in a period of 2 sec. When the rod is in the position shown, its
angular velocity is 30 rpm clockwise. Determine the acceleration of point A at
this instant.
Fig. P 7-95
7-96. A projectile is in flight 30 sec before striking a target 4830 ft above and
25,800 ft from the gun measured horizontally. Determine the magnitude of the
initial velocity of the projectile. Assume that the target is hit after the projectile
has reached its maximum altitude.
7-97. Two planes are flying at the same altitude with constant velocities of
200 mph due west for plane A and 300@seismicisolation
mph due south for plane B. At a given
@seismicisolation
instant, B is 50 miles north of A’s path and A is 87.5 miles east of B’s path.
Determine the distance between the planes when they are closest to each other.
7-98. The angular velocity of link CD in Fig. P 7-98 is 2 rad per sec clockwise.
Determine the angular velocity of AB for the position shown. Solve by writing
an expression for the angular position of AB and differentiating for the angular
velocity.
Fig. P 7-98
7-99. Twenty seconds after a PT boat left an enemy shore from position A,
Fig. P 7-99, it received a direct hit from a mortar shell fired from a hill as shown.
If the average speed of the boat was 60 mph, the initial speed of the shell was 300
fps, and they started at the same instant, determine (a) the angle 6; (b) the
altitude h.
7-100. A particle moves on a straight line and has an acceleration that is
always directed towards a fixed point O on the line and is proportional to the square
of the distance from 0, When the particle is at 0 it has a velocity of 16 ips to
the right, and when it is 3 in. to the right of 0 it has an acceleration of 54 ips 1
to the left. Determine the greatest distance from the particle to point O.
7-101. A point moving on a straight line has an initial velocity of 20 fps to
the right. Determine the constant acceleration that the point should have if
the total distance traveled in 10 sec is to be a minimum.
7-102. A flexible inextensible cord 27 ft long runs from block A over a peg B
to block C as shown in Fig. P 7-102. Block C slides along the horizontal bar
and A moves vertically. The dimensions of the peg B may be neglected.
(a) Write an equation giving a general relation between the positions
of A and C. Hint: The change in the length of BC is the change in position of A.
Fig. P 7-102
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
(b) Determine the displacement of A which occurs while C is being
displaced 7 ft from Ci to C 2.
(c) Determine the velocity of A when C is at Ci and has a velocity of
5 fps to the right.
(d) Determine the angular velocity of BC for the conditions of part (c).
7-103. A point moves with simple harmonic motion which has a period of
2.00 sec and an amplitude of 1.00 ft. Determine the magnitude of the velocity
and acceleration when the point is 0.60 ft from the center of the path.
7-104. A ball is dropped with zero velocity from a helicopter which is hovering
at rest 110 ft above the ground, and at the same instant a stone is thrown upward
from the ground with an initial velocity of 44 fps. Neglect air resistance and
use g = 32.2 fps’. When the ball and stone reach the same elevation, determine
(a) the time the ball has been falling; (b) their distance above the ground; (c) the
velocity of the stone.
7-105. Determine the height h from which a perfectly elastic ball must be
dropped so that the total time of flight to reach a height of 6 ft on the first rebound
will be a minimum.
7-106. The 12-ft bar AB in Fig. P 7-106 moves in a vertical plane with its
ends in the guides as shown. In the given position the bar has an angular
velocity of 3 rad per sec clockwise and an angular acceleration of 2 rad per sec’
counterclockwise. By writing expressions for the coordinates of the position of
the center, C, at any instant in terms of the angular position function 0 and
differentiating, determine the components of the acceleration of C for the position
indicated.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 8
Kinematics—Relative Motion
8-1. Introduction and definitions. Motion that is specified with
reference to a system of coordinate axes fixed in space is defined as abso
lute motion. When such data as velocity and acceleration are measured
with respect to moving axes, the motion is defined as relative motion
(relative to the moving axes). When the moving axes remain parallel to
their original (initial) positions, it is convenient to refer to the motion of
any particle with respect to these axes as motion relative to the origin of the
moving coordinate system. Thus the motion of point A with respect to
point B is the motion of point A measured relative to a system of axes
which do not turn and whose origin moves with B. Motion specified
with respect to a point fixed on the earth is actually relative motion, since
the earth is rotating about its axis and moving along its orbit about the
sun. For problems in elementary engineering mechanics the motion
(including rotation) of the earth can be neglected. Therefore, in this
text, motion of a particle measured relative to points fixed on the earth is
defined as the absolute motion of the particle.
Since quantities measured with respect to both fixed and moving
points (axes) will occur in the same equations, it is essential that the
notation adopted clearly indicate the difference between absolute and
relative quantities. When a fraction is used as a subscript, it signifies
a relative motion. For example, the symbol v A/ b is used to indicate the
velocity of A relative to B. A single subscript is used for absolute motion.
Thus, the symbol vA represents the absolute velocity of A-
8-2. Relative displacement During a certain interval of time,
particle A in Fig. 8-1 moves from position A to position A' and particle
0 , B moves from position B to position B' . The
*A —— absolute displacement of A is q A and the
** .x*" / absolute displacement of B is q B. The initial
i /% position of B relative to A is indicated by the
A | i / line AB and the final position of B relative to
** A is shown by the line A'B'. The change in
the position of B relative to A is defined as the
"Pin R-1
* displacement of B relative to A and is repre
sented by the symbol qs /A . If BB" is drawn parallel to A A' and A'B"
is drawn parallel to AB, A'B" will be equal in length to AB. The initial
position of B relative to @seismicisolation
A can be represented by the line A'B", and
@seismicisolation
278
§8-2] KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 279
therefore the change in position of B relative to A is seen from Fig. 8-1
to be the vector B"B'. This relationship can be expressed by the fol
lowing vector equation:
Qb = BB" +> B"B' = Qa Qb/a = Qb/a Qa- (8-1)
Equation (8-1) was developed for the motion of two points or particles
in a plane, and the following examples and problems will be limited to
coplanar motion. However, the equation is valid for any motion of two
points in space.
Any coplanar vector equation is equivalent to two scalar equations. The
two equivalent equations can readily be obtained by summing the com
ponents of the vectors in any two nonparallel (usually perpendicular)
directions. Thus the vector equation (8-1) can be solved if there are
only two unknown quantities (two magnitudes, two directions, or one
magnitude and one direction) in the equation. In a special case where
all vectors are parallel, only one unknown magnitude can be determined
from the vector equation. The following example illustrates the use of
Eq. (8-1) in solving relative displace
ment problems.
Example 8-1 : A man walks from position
A in Fig. 8-2 to position B on the deck of a
boat while the boat moves forward 60 ft to the
position shown by the dashed lines. Deter
mine the absolute displacement of the man Fig. 8-2
during this time interval.
Solution: The absolute displacement of point A (or any other point on the boat) is
=
Qa 60 ft—* .
The displacement of the man relative to point A is
- T
QiW/a = 10 +> 30.
The absolute displacement of the man is, from Eq. (8-1),
T — T
qx = Qm/a +> Qa = 10 +> 30 +> 60 = 50 +> 30
= 58.3 ft .
5
PROBLEMS
8-1. Cars A and B are approaching each other on a highway. Car A has
a constant velocity of 30 mph east and car B has a constant velocity of 60 mph
west. Determine the displacement of A with respect to B in 1 sec.
8-2. A car passes a bicycle on the street. The car is traveling north at a
constant rate of 45 mph and the bicycle is traveling north at a constant rate of
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
15 mph. Determine the displacement of the car relative to the bicycle in 2 sec.
280 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION (§8-3
8-3. A man walks from A to B in the box car in Fig. P8-3 .while the car moves
forward 10 ft to the position indicated by the dashed lines. Determine the
absolute displacement of the man during this time interval.
i
A
Fig. P 8-3
8-4. A and B in Fig. P 8-4 are two points on the platform of a merry-go-round.
Determine the displacement of B relative to A while the platform rotates 90°
counterclockwise from the position indicated.
8-3. Relative velocity. The velocity of B relative to A, v B/a, is defined
as the velocity of B measured with respect to a coordinate system that moves
with A but does not rotate. The velocity of B relative to A can also be
defined as the time rate of change of the position of B relative to A. If
the motion indicated in Fig. 8-1 occurs during a time interval Al and if
Eq. (8-1),
Qb = Qbz a +> Qa,
is divided by this time interval, the following results are obtained:
Qb __ Qbz a Qa
Al Al Al
or (v fl ) m = (vb za).v. -H (v x ) m . (8-2)
In the limit as Al approaches zero, Eq. (8-2) becomes the relation between
the velocities at any instant, that is,
= Vfl/A +> v A .
Vb (8-3)
Equation (8-3) can be written as
► Va.
Vb/a = Vb — (8-4)
A helpful interpretation of Eq. (8-4) can be obtained by consid
ering the motion of a rigid or nonrigid
system of particles as follows. Let the veloc-
ities at any instant of any two particles,
! A and B, be as shown in Fig. 8-3. If
a
•i ' 7 velocity (— Va) equal and opposite to
• i * Va is added to the velocities of every particle
* of the system, the resultant velocity of A
Fig 8-3 ’ s zer0, From Fig. 8-3, the new velocity of
B is Vb +> ( — Va) =■ Vb —< Va> which, by Eq.
(8-4), is the velocity of B relative to A. In other words, the velocity
@seismicisolation
of B with respect to A is@seismicisolation
the velocity B would appear to have to
58-31 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 281
an observer moving with A but not rotating. It is the velocity B
would have if both A and B were given equal velocities of such mag
nitude that the resultant velocity of A would be zero. The concept or
device of considering A fixed (or having an observer move with A but
not rotate) is very useful in visualizing relative motion. In fact, a sketch
showing A fixed will frequently aid in determining correctly the direction
of the velocity of B with respect to A. If the two particles A and B
are in a rigid body, it is apparent that they cannot move any closer
together or any farther apart. If the body has plane motion, the only
possible motion of B relative to A is along a circular path of radius equal
to the length AB with A as the center of the circle. In other words, the
relative velocity of B with respect to A at any instant is perpendicular to
the line AB when A and B are both particles of a rigid body which has plane
motion.
The following examples illustrate the procedure for determining
velocities using the equations of relative motion.
Example 8-2: The link mechanism in B
Fig. 8-4 moves in a vertical plane, and mem
ber CD when in the position shown has an
angular velocity of 6 rad per sec clockwise.
Determine :
(a) The linear velocity of B for this
position.
(b) The angular velocity of BC for this
position. Fig. 8-4
Solution: (a) The magnitude of the velocity of C is
vc — r<0 — 5(6)
and vc “ 30 ips
Equation (8-3) for points B and C (on the same rigid body) becomes
vs vb/c
(•) (e)
The sketches in Fig. 8-5 show the slopes and senses of the velocities beneath the cor
responding terms of the vector equation. Since B is traveling on a circular path
about A, its velocity must be tangent to the path, and its sense is assumed to be to
the left in Fig. 8-5a. If vb is found to have a negative sign, the assumed sense is
wrong and B is actually moving to the right. In Fig. 8-5b, C is not actually a fixed
point, but it is considered fixed for indicating the velocity of B relative to C. This
sketch shows the slope of the velocity of B@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
relative to C, and the sense is assumed to be
282 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION [§8-3
downward and to the left. A negative value for vb/c will indicate an incorrect assump
tion for the sense of vb/c. The vector equation contains only two unknown quantities,
the magnitude of the velocity of B and the magnitude of the velocity of B relative to
C. A coplanar vector equation is equivalent to two algebraic (scalar) equations;
therefore the two unknowns can be obtained by solving the vector equation in the
following manner.
Since the velocities satisfy the vector equation, the components of the velocities
in any direction must satisfy the corresponding algebraic equation. It is convenient
to establish an algebraic sign convention for each of the component equations and to
indicate the positive direction near the equation. The left is assumed to be positive
for the algebraic equation representing the horizontal components from the vector
equation for this example. The algebraic equation is
vb " 4- (i)»c
a
(A)®a/c + 18.
The algebraic equation representing the vertical components of the vector equation is
© 0 = (H)v b / 0 - (i)t>c
“ — 24.
The solution of these two algebraic equations is vb/c " 26 and vb — 28. Both results
have positive signs, indicating that the sense of each of the quantities as assumed in
Fig. 8-5 is correct. Therefore vb — 28 ips .
(b) Points B and C cannot move toward or away from each other, since they are
points on a rigid body; therefore any motion of B relative to C must be due to a rota
tion of the member BC. Since the motion of B relative to C is along a circle of radius
BC with its center at C, the velocity of B relative to C is equal to the product of the
length BC and the angular velocity of BC. The angular velocity of BC can be deter
mined as follows:
a
vb/c (BC)wbc
8=8
or 26 13<i>bc
=
from which «bc 2 rad per sec ( .
The fact that the moving point C is shown fixed in Fig. 8-5b does not affect the solu
tion for «bc because C can be considered fixed by imagining a linear velocity of 30 ips
4 downward and 3 to the right (negative vc), superimposed on the entire mechanism.
When C is so fixed, points A and D become moving points with velocities of 30 ips
downward toward the right, and links CD and BC rotate
about C. That this added linear motion does not affect
c ___ the actual angular motion of the mechanism can be seen
v w= 4 mph ’’ r— from the fact that point D turns about C in such a manner
1/2 mile that link CD retains the same clockwise angular velocity.
f I Example 8-3: Figure 8-6 represents a river 1 mile
-------------------------1— wide with an average velocity of 4 mph south as shown.
i mi i e A motor boat is used to go from A to C. The boat has
■* ~ a speed of 10 mph in still water. In what direction
In does the boat head to go directly to C, and how much
time is required for the trip?
Fig. 8-6 Solution: The relative velocity equation is written
between a point B on the boat, and a point W on the
water (a floating stick or leaf, for example). Points B and W are not shown on the
figure. The boat passes the leaf with a speed of 10 mph whether in still or moving
water; that is, the magnitude of the velocity of the boat relative to the water is 10
mph. The absolute velocity of the boat must be in the known direction from A to
C, but the magnitude of the absolute velocity is unknown. The absolute velocity of
the water is given. Equation (8-3)@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
for the boat and water is
m
vs Vb/jf 44 v»r
or vb 10 44 4.
The two unknowns in the vector equation are &b and &. Two simultaneous equa
tions can be obtained by writing the equations for the horizontal and vertical com
ponents. Thus
vb = 10 cos 9
and
The solution of these simultaneous equations results in a quadratic equation with

the two roots
vb = +7.55 mph and vb — — 11.13 mph.
The second root obviously does not apply to this problem. The angle 6 for vb =
7.55 mph is 0 — 47.5° north of due east, the direction the boat heads.
The distance traveled by the boat is Q — \/l* 4- 0.5* — 1.118 miles, and the
absolute velocity is 7.55 mph. Therefore the time required is
t = - = = 0.1482 hr =« 8.89 min.

V 7.00
The relative velocity equation can be solved graphically as indicated in Fig. 8-7.
Starting at any point Et the line ED is drawn proportional to the velocity of the water,
that is, 4 mph south. The relative velocity of the boat with respect to the water
(10 mph) must-be added in such a direction as to give the absolute velocity of the
boat in a direction 1 north and 2 east. The velocity of the boat is proportional to
the length EF, and the relative velocity is represented by the line DF at the indicated
angle 0, which is the direction the boat heads.
1732’
Fig. 8-8
Example 8-4: In Fig. 8-8, blocks F and D are pinned together. F moves in the
vertical slot and D moves in the slot in member AE. Determine by relative motion,
the velocity of F when 0 = 30° and vA = 30 fps as shown.
Note: Problem 7-51 requires a solution of this example by writing an expression
for the position of F and differentiating with respect to time. The following solution
affords an opportunity to compare the solution using the equations of relative motion
with the solution obtained by differentiation.
Solution: Point B is on F at the center of the pin connecting the two blocks, and
C is a point on the rotating arm AE (extended over the slot) which is coincident with
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
B when S «■30°. A relative motion equation can be written between the points B
and C. The absolute velocity of B is upward, since it is constrained to move in the

vertical groove. The absolute velocity of C is always perpendicular to the rotating
arm, and when Q — 30°,
Va
v c = 2« “ 2 — = 20 fps,
o
from which v c « 20 fps \60° .
The velocity of B relative to C can be resolved into two components, one along the
rod and the other perpendicular to the rod caused by the rotation of the rod. When
C is considered fixed (for relative motion), the rod rotates about C; and if B is coin
cident with C at that instant, the relative velocity perpendicular to the rod is zero
and the only way that B can move is along the rod. Therefore when 0 — 30°, the
velocity of B with respect to C is along the rod. Equation (8-3) for these two points
when 0 — 30° is
vb = Vs/c 44 vc
or vb = Wc 44 20.
The vector equation contains only two unknowns, the magnitudes vb and vb/c. The
sense of each of these velocities is assumed as indicated, and positive results will
indicate that the assumptions are correct. The horizontal and vertical component
equations from the vector equation are:
@ 0 = 0.866%/c - 0.500(20)
and Vb = 0.500»b/c 4" 0.866(20)
The solution of these equations is

=23.1 fps T■
PROBLEMS
8-5. Cars A and B are approaching each other along a highway. Car A is
going east with a constant velocity of 30 mph and car B is going west with a
constant velocity of 60 mph. Determine the velocity of A with respect to B.
8-6. A car passes a bicycle on the street. Both have constant velocities and
both are traveling north, the car at 45 mph and the bicycle at 15 mph. Deter
mine the velocity of the bicycle relative to the car.
8-7. The points R and Q have the components of velocity indicated in Fig.
P 8-7. Determine the velocity of point Q with respect to point R.
Fig. P 8-7
8-8. A man wishes to row straight across a river which is { mile wide. The
@seismicisolation
velocity of the river is 1 mph. The man can row 2 mph in still water. If he
@seismicisolation
JS-3J KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 285
rows at a constant velocity, what direction should he row and how long will it
take him to cross the river?
8-9. An airplane is flying from A toward B, which is due north of A, The
airplane has an air speed of 150 mph. A steady 25-mph wind is coming from
60° west of due north.
(a) In what direction does the airplane head in order to travel a straight
path from A to B?
(b) What is its ground speed?
8-10. An airplane is flying from A toward B, which is 400 miles due northeast
of A. The airplane can fly 250 mph in still air (air speed). A steady 30-mph
wind is coming from 60° north of due west. Determine (a) the direction the
airplane heads in order to travel a straight course from A to B; (b) the time
required to fly from A to B.
8-11. The crank in Fig. P 8-11 turns with a constant angular velocity of
30 rpm counterclockwise. The crankpin, C, slides in the vertical slot in the yoke,
AB. Determine the velocity of point P.
Fig. P 8-1 1
8-12. The velocity of a point on body A in Fig. P 8-12 with respect to a point
on body B is 4 fps to the left. The two pulleys are rigidly connected. Determine
(a) the radius of the smaller pulley; (b) the angular velocity of the pulleys.
Fig. P 8-12 Fig. P 8-13

8-13. Two pulleys are fastened together as indicated in Fig. P 8-13. The
angular velocity of BQ changes uniformly from 360 to 120 rpm, both clockwise,
in 6 sec. Determine (a) the displacement of a point on block A during the 6-sec
interval; (b) the velocity of point B relative to point C at the end of the time
interval if B and C are in the positions @seismicisolation
shown at this instant.
@seismicisolation
286 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION (88-3
8-14. In the mechanism in Fig. P 8-14 the angular velocity of member OQ is

termine the velocity of P with respect to Q.
8-15. A simplified version of the
mechanism for operating the hydraulic
dump truck illustrated in Fig. P 8-15a
is shown in Fig. P 8-15b. When the
truck body is in the position shown, the
angular velocity of the triangular link A
is 0.035 rad per sec clockwise. Deter
mine the angular velocity of the truck
Fig. P 8-14 body for this position.
HERCULES
oaoiirtH w
Courtesy Hercules Steel Products Corp., Galion, Ohio

(a)
Truck Body
66”
(b)
Fig. P 8-15
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§*4] KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 287
8-16. In the mechanism illustrated in Fig. P 8-16 the angular velocity of

AB is 8 rad per sec clockwise. Determine for the indicated position (a) the
angular velocity of BC; (b) the angular velocity of CD.
Fig. P 8-16 Fig. P 8-17

8-17. The wheel shown in Fig. P 8-17 rolls without slipping on an elevated
track with an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec clockwise. Determine the linear
velocity of points B f C, D, and E.
8-18. The length of the connecting rod of the engine in Fig. P 8-18 is 24 in.
Determine the velocity of the crosshead, P, when it is in the position shown, if
at that instant the angular velocity of the crank OA is 600 rpm clockwise.
Fig. P 8-18 Fig. P 8-19
8-19. The cord connecting body B and wheel A in Fig. P 8-19 remains taut
at all times. Wheel A rolls and slips on the horizontal plane. The velocity of
C is 27 ips to the right and the angular velocity of A is 3 rad. per sec clockwise.
Determine the velocities of B and D.
8-4. Instantaneous centers. Frequently it is necessary to determine
the linear velocity of some point on a rigid body or the angular velocity
of a line in a rigid body when the body has plane motion. These velocities
can usually be obtained from Eq. (8-3) for relative velocities. Thus
Vb = Vb/o +> Vo
where B and 0 are two points on the rigid body. If a point 0 with zero
velocity can be located, the velocity of B becomes
= @seismicisolation
=
@seismicisolation
Vb == Vs/O 0B<&ob rw, (8-5)
288 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION [JM
where r is the distance from B to the point of zero velocity and u is the
angular velocity of the body.
Equation (8-5) provides a convenient method for determining the
velocity of any point B on a rigid body, pro
vided a point (on the body, or the body ex
tended) whose velocity is zero at the instant in
question can be readily located. For kinemat
ics a body such as the rod CD in Fig. 8-9 can
be considered to be extended or enlarged in any
manner, provided the enlarged body remains
a
Fig. 8-9 gid body. The concept of a body extended
is needed because the point with zero velocity
is not necessarily a point on the actual body.
When a rigid body has plane motion, the axis in the body, or the body
extended, whose particles, at any instant, have zero velocity is defined as
the instantaneous axis of zero velocity or the instantaneous axis of the
body. The instantaneous axis of zero velocity is always perpendicular
to the plane of motion of the body. The point of intersection of the
instantaneous axis and the plane of motion is defined as the instantaneous
center of zero velocity. The velocity of any point of the body not on
the instantaneous axis is perpendicular to the line from the point to the
instantaneous axis of the body. Thus the velocities (but not the accelera
tions) of points on a body with plane motion can be obtained by con
sidering the body to be rotating about the instantaneous axis of zero
velocity at any instant. At the next instant
the instantaneous center is usually another
point in the rigid body or body extended. The
instantaneous axis is not a fixed axis in the body,
nor is it a fixed axis in space.
The point in the plane of motion of the body,
or body extended, which at any instant has zero
velocity can be readily located if the directions
of the velocities of any two points in the plane
of motion of the body are known, provided the
velocities are not parallel. The rigid body in Fig. 8-10
Fig. 8-10 has plane motion, and the directions
of the absolute velocities of two points A and B are as shown. Since at
the instant in question the velocity of A is perpendicular to the line from
the instantaneous center to A, the instantaneous center must be some
where on the line ac through A perpendicular to Vx. Likewise, the
instantaneous center must be somewhere on the line bd through B and
perpendicular to vfi . Consequently, the instantaneous center of zero
velocity is the intersection of these lines at point 0. The magnitude of
the angular velocity of the@seismicisolation
body is
@seismicisolation
Va Vb
w (8-6)
" r/
Thus if the directions of two nonparallel velocities in the plane of motion
and the magnitude of one of them are known, the location of the instantaneous
center and the angular velocity of the body can be obtained, and consequently
the linear velocity of any other point on the body can be determined.
When the velocities of two points in the plane
of motion of a rigid body with plane motion are
parallel and equal in magnitude, the instantaneous
center is at infinity and all points on the body have
the same velocity. When the velocities of the two
points are parallel and unequal in magnitude, lines
drawn through the two points perpendicular to their
velocities will be collinear and the instantaneous
center of the body will be on this line. If the sense
and magnitudes of the velocities are known, the
instantaneous center can be located by using Eq.
(8-6). If the velocities of C and A in Fig. 8-11 are
to the right and if v c is less than Va, the instantaneous center will be a
distance r c below C on ab. The distance r c can be obtained from Eq.
(8-6) as follows:
Vc Va Va
rc Ta d + rc
and if v A , v c , and d are known, r c can be determined.

The instantaneous center of zero velocity of a rigid body can also be
located if the velocity of one point on the body and the angular velocity
of the body are known for the instant in question.
If the velocity of point A on the rigid body in Fig.
8-12 has a known value to the right and if the angular
velocity of the body has a known value counterclock
wise, the distance from A to the instantaneous center
is
rA --------
(O
from Eq. (8-6). The instantaneous center must be

Fig. 8-12
on the line ab, and if the velocity of A is to be to the
right when the angular velocity of the body is counterclockwise, the
instantaneous center must be above A.
Once the instantaneous center of zero velocity is located, the mag
nitude of the velocity of any particle of the body at that instant is given
by Eq. (8-5), where mob is the angular velocity of any line in the body in
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
or parallel to the plane of motion and r is the distance from the instan-
taneous axis to the particle whose velocity is to be found. The value of

co can be obtained from Eq. (8-6) if it is not given. The direction of the
velocity is obtained by inspection, since it is perpendicular to the line
from 0 to the point and its sense is consistent with the sense of w.
The instantaneous center of zero velocity is, in general, not a point
of zero acceleration. No convenient method is available for locating
the point of zero acceleration. The principles of relative motion as
developed in Art. 8-3 for velocities will be extended in Art. 8-5 to apply
to the accelerations of particles of a rigid body. It should be emphasized
that the instantaneous center of zero velocity cannot he used to obtain accel
erations because the instantaneous center does not, in general, have zero
acceleration.
The instantaneous center of zero velocity as presented in this article
is the instantaneous center of a body or member with respect to the earth.
For use in courses in kinematics, this concept can be readily extended to
determine the instantaneous center of one moving member of a mecha
nism relative to another moving member of the mechanism. The instan
taneous center of two bodies with plane motion is the point common to
D
the two bodies, or bodies extended, which has the
same linear velocity n each body. The relative
velocity of the instantaneous center on one body with
respect to the corresponding point on the second
body is therefore zero.
Example 8-5: The wheel shown in Fig. 8-13 rolls without
slipping on a horizontal elevated track with an angular velocity
of 5 rad per sec clockwise. Locate the instantaneous center
Fig. 8-13 of zero velocity and determine the velocities of points A, Dt
and E.
Solution: The magnitude of velocity of C, as determined by Eq. (7-47), is
vc — ru = 80 ips
and ►.
vc = 80 ips—
The instantaneous center of zero velocity must therefore be on a vertical line through
C. Furthermore, from Eq. (8-5),
vc = rc«
where rc is the distance from C to the instantaneous center. Thus rc ” 16 in. and
point B is the instantaneous center of zero velocity. This result could have been
determined by inspection in this case, since the track is stationary and B must have
zero velocity at the instant of contact; otherwise slipping would occur.
Again from Eq. (8-5),
va = va<* = 4 ( 5 ) = 20 ips
and Va = 20 ips
In a similar manner,
vr — tru — 16 \/2 (5) = 113.1 ips
and vs — 113.1 ips
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Also, v D — rout — 36(5) — 180 ips
and vd =• 180ips->.
Example 8-6: The angular velocity of member AB of the link mechanism in Fig.
8-14 is 8 rad per sec clockwise. Determine for the given position:
(a) The location of the instantaneous center of zero velocity of member BC.
(b) The angular velocity of BC.
(c) The angular velocity of CD.
Fig. 8-14
Problem 8-16 requires a solution of this example by use of Eq. (8-3). The following
solution affords an opportunity to compare the two methods of solution.
Solution: For the position indicated, point B has a horizontal velocity; therefore
the instantaneous center of member BC is on a vertical line through B. Point C has a
velocity perpendicular to DC, and the instantaneous center of BC is also along line CD.
These lines intersect at 0, the instantaneous center of member BC, located as shown
in Fig. 8-15. The magnitude of the velocity of point B is
vb =* ABwab =* 3(8) = 24 fps
and vs = 24 fps <—.
Vb 24
From Eq. (8-6), wob =■ = — = 4A radJ per sec
==
and wbc <&OB = <*>oc = 4 rad per sec ( .
Again from Eq. (8-6), vc = OCuoc = 5(4) = 2 0 fps
and vc = 20 fps .
20 = 8 rart
Finally, wen “ CD ™ 2 5 P61* 860
and wen 8 rad per sec ( .
PROBLEMS
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
8-20. The mechanism in Fig. P 8-20 moves in a vertical plane. The end H
of the link GH slides on the horizontal plane. At the instant indicated, the
velocity of H is 15 fps to the right. Determine for this instant the velocity of
point G. Neglect the thickness of the members.
Fig. P 8-20
8-21. The wheel in Fig. P8-21 rolls without slipping along the horizontal plane.
The velocity of C, the center of the wheel, is 4 fps to the right. Determine for
the given position the velocities of points A and M .
8-22. Block C in Fig. P 8-22 moves along the horizontal plane. When the
angle 0 = 40°, the velocity of C is 12 fps to the right. Determine the angular
velocity of AB for this position.
Note: Example 7-7 illustrates the solution of this problem by differentiation
and thus affords an opportunity to compare this method with that of instan
taneous centers.
8-23. Rods AB and CD are pinned at B and move in a vertical plane with the
angular velocities shown in Fig. P 8-23.
(a) Locate the instantaneous center of zero velocity of rod CD for the
given position.
(b) Determine the velocity of particle C for this position.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
$8-4] KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 293
8-24. Rigid member BCD in Fig. P 8-24 is pinned to AB, and the two bodies
move in a vertical plane. The angular velocity of AB is 3 rad per sec clockwise.
Determine the velocity of D for the position indicated.
8-25. Disk A of Fig. P 8-25 rotates with an angular velocity of 2 rad per sec
clockwise. Disk B rolls without slipping on disk A. Arm C connects the disks
as indicated and turns with an angular velocity of 3 rad per sec counterclockwise.
Determine for the position shown (a) the instantaneous center of disk B; (b) the
angular velocity of disk B.
8-26. The links of the mechanism in Fig. P 8-26 are connected by smooth
pins. If the angular velocity of CD is 30 rpm clockwise, determine for the
position shown (a) the angular velocity of link BC; (b) the angular velocity of
link AB.
pins. The angular velocity of the link CD is 60 rpm clockwise. For the posi
tion shown determine (a) the angular velocity of BC; (b) the angular velocity of
BA.
Fig. P 8-27 Fig. P 8-28

8-28. In Fig. P 8-28, the angular velocity of OQ is 25 rad per. sec counter
clockwise. Determine for the position indicated the angular velocity of the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
link PQ by the method of instantaneous centers.
294 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION l§8-5
8-29. In the mechanism in Fig. P 8-29, link CD has an angular velocity of

2 rad per sec counterclockwise. When the mechanism is in the position shown,
determine (a) the location of the instantaneous center of link BC; (b) the angular
velocity of link BC- (c) the velocity of point B.
8-30. Point A of the 20-ft rod in Fig. P 8-30 moves along 04, and B moves
along OB. The angular velocity of the rod is 0.50 rad per sec counterclockwise.
Determine for the given position the velocity of the mid-point of 4B.
8-31. The wheel shown in Fig. P 8-31 rolls and slips in such a manner that
the angular velocity of the wheel is 4 rad per sec clockwise for the position shown,
and the velocity of the center O is 24 ips to the right. Determine the velocity of
point B by the method of instantaneous centers.
Fig. P 8-32
8-32. The disks A and B in Fig. P 8-32 are connected by smooth pins to the
horizontal arm C at E and D. Arm C revolves with a constant angular velocity of
3 rad per sec clockwise. The disk B rolls without slipping on the fixed track.
Determine the velocity of point P on disk A in the position shown if there is no
slipping between A and B.
8-5. Relative acceleration. The acceleration of point B relative to

point A is defined as the acceleration of B measured with respect to a coordi
nate system which does not rotate and whose origin moves with A. The
acceleration of B relative @seismicisolation
to A can also be defined as the time rate of
@seismicisolation
§MJ KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 295
change of the velocity of B relative to A, and an expression for the rela
tive acceleration can be developed in a manner similar to that used in
obtaining Eq. (8-3). In either case the absolute acceleration of B is the
vector sum of the acceleration of B relative to A and the absolute accel
eration of A ; that is,
&B =
&B/A &A» (8-7)
Equation (8-7) can also be written as
&b/a = slb-> sla. (8-8)
Equation (8-8) has the same interpretation for accelerations that

Eq. (8-4) has for velocities. The acceleration of B with respect to A is
the acceleration B would have if A were fixed,* or the acceleration B
would appear to have to an observer moving with A but not rotating.
A sketch showing A fixed will usually aid in determining correctly
the directions of the components of the relative acceleration. If par
ticles A and B are in a rigid body that has plane motion, the motion of
B relative to A will be along a circular path with A at its center. There
fore the acceleration of B with respect to A consists of a normal com
ponent along AB from B toward A and a tangential component perpen
dicular to AB. If the two points are not on a rigid body, the motion of
one of the points relative to the other usually will not be along a circular
path, and the relative acceleration is generally more difficult to obtain.
The following example illustrates the procedure for determining accelera
tions by use of the equations of relative motion.
Example 8-7: The links of the mechanism in Fig. 8-16 move in a vertical plane.
When they are in the position shown, CD
has an angular velocity of 6 rad per sec
clockwise and AB has an angular accelera
tion of 30 rad per sec 2 clockwise. Deter
mine the linear acceleration of C for the
position indicated.
Solution: Points B and C are on a rigid
body which has plane motion; thus the mo
tion of B relative to C is along a circular
path with C at the center. The motion of
C relative to B is also along a circle with
B at the center, and either motion can be
used to solve the problem. Point B moves along a circle about A and C travels around
D. The relative acceleration equation for points B and C is
* Actually, Eq. (8-8) requires only the elimination or subtraction of the accelera
tion of A r and A could still have any velocity. However, it is iust as correct and
much simpler to consider A as being fixed (with zero velocity and zero acceleration)
for use in visualizing the relative motion and determining the directions of the com
@seismicisolation
ponents of the relative acceleration. @seismicisolation
The sketches in Fig. 8-17 show the absolute and relative motions of points B and C
below the corresponding terms of the vector equation. The directions of the two
unknown angular accelerations are assumed to be in the directions shown. If either
sense is assumed incorrectly, a negative value will be obtained for the corresponding
magnitude. The directions of the angular velocities have no effect on the results
because the angular velocities are squared.
The general vector equation can be written in terms of the angular velocities and
accelerations of the three links from Fig. 8-17 giving
2
4(ma) 44 120 = 13(wbc)* 44 13ct.bc 44 180 44 5aco. (3-9)
There are four unknown magnitudes in Eq. (8-9), two angular velocities and two
angular accelerations. The angular velocities can be determined by using instantane
ous centers, by applying the relative velocity equation, or by some other means leaving
only two unknown quantities, the angular accelerations. The angular velocities for
this problem were determined in Example 8-2 to be wxs = 7 rad per sec and «bc
-= 2 rad per sec, both counterclockwise.
The equations representing the horizontal and vertical components of Eq. (8-9) are
@ 120 - H(13)(2)« 4- A(13aBc) 4- f (180) 4- i(5acn)

and @ 4(7)» - A(13)(2)« - H(13a ac ( - i(180) + |(5ac B ).
When these two algebraic equations are solved simultaneously, the result is
2
«bc = —20.4 = 20.4 rad per sec (
2
and «cd = 4-9.93 = 9.93 rad per sec ( .
The acceleration of C is
ac = 18044 5(9.93)
A- - t
= 173.8 44 68.3 = 186.7 ips 2 .
This example illustrates the use of the equation of relative acceleration as applied
to two points on a rigid body. The relative acceleration of two points not on the same
rigid body usually cannot be determined as normal and tangential components, since
the path of the motion of one point relative to the other is not a circle. For such
problems the unknown acceleration can more readily be obtained by writing an expres
sion for the position of the point or line and differentiating with respect to time as in
Chapter 7, or by using the Coriolis’ component of acceleration, as discussed in Art. 8-6.
PROBLEMS
8-33. The wheel in Fig. P 8-33 rotates about a horizontal axis through 0.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
In the position shown, the angular velocity of OB is 20 rpm clockwise and the
angular acceleration of OB is 14 rad per sec* counterclockwise. Determine the
relative acceleration of A with respect to B.
Fig. P 8-33 Fig. P 8-34
8-34. The angular velocity of the rod OD in Fig. P 8-34 changes uniformly
from 35 to 5 rpm, both clockwise, in 3 sec. When OD is in the position shown,
its angular velocity is 15 rpm clockwise. Particle C (not on the rod) has a
constant downward acceleration of 4 fps 2. Determine the acceleration of D
with respect to C when D is in the position indicated.
8-35. At a particular instant particle A has a velocity of 20 fps with a slope
of 3 upward to 4 to the right and an acceleration of 30 fps 2 in the same direction.
At the same instant particle B is at the top of a circular path with a 2-ft radius.
The angular velocity and angular acceleration of the radius to B are 3 rad per sec
counterclockwise and 5 rad per sec 2 clockwise, respectively. Determine the
acceleration of B with respect to A.
8-36. The rod in Fig. P 8-36 is 2 ft long and rotates in a vertical plane with
increasing angular velocity about a fixed axis through 0. When the rod is in the
position shown, the acceleration of point G (not on the rod) with respect to D
is 40 fps 2 to the right. Determine for the indicated position (a) the angular
velocity of DO; (b) the angular acceleration of DO.
Fig. P 8-36 Fig. P 8-37
8-37. Bar AD in Fig. P 8-37 rotates with decreasing angular velocity. At

a given instant point A has the acceleration and position indicated. At the same
time point B is in the position shown, and the angular acceleration and angular
velocity of the line BC are as indicated. Determine (a) the velocity of point A ;
(b) the acceleration of B with respect to A.
8-38. Disk A in Fig. P 8-38 rotates about a fixed axis through 0. Another
disk B, 1 ft in diameter, is connected to A with a smooth pin. When in the
position shown, A has an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec counterclockwise and
an angular acceleration of 6 rad per sec 2 @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
clockwise, and B has an angular velocity
of 12 rad per sec counterclockwise and an angular acceleration of 4 rad per sec 1
counterclockwise. Determine the acceleration of point Q on disk B.
4* ... 4*
Fig. P 8-39
8-39. A locomotive with 6-ft driving wheels as shown in Fig. P 8-39 has a
velocity on a straight level track of 15 mph to the right and is slowing down at the
rate of 6 fps 2. Determine the absolute velocity and acceleration of point A on
the parallel connecting rod. The wheels roll without slipping.
8-40. The two friction disks of Fig. P 8-40 rotate without slipping on each
other. The acceleration of point A is shown. Determine the acceleration of A
with respect to B.
Fig. P 8-40
8-41. A wheel 6 ft in diameter rolls without slipping along a straight hori

zontal track. At a given instant the center has a velocity of 9 fps to the right
and an acceleration of 4 fps 2 to the left. Determine the acceleration of point A,
which is on a horizontal diameter 2 ft to the left of the center.
8-42. The rigid body in Fig. P 8-42 has plane motion. The velocity and
acceleration of point C are 10 fps upward and 60 fps 2 to the left, respectively, for
the position shown. The body has an angular velocity and acceleration of 10
rad per sec clockwise and 30 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise, respectively, when in
the given position. Determine (a) the velocity of point A ; (b) the acceleration
of point B,
Fig. P 8-42
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
$M) KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 299
8-43. The wheel in Fig. P 8-43 rolls without slipping. The velocity and
acceleration of the point 0 are indicated on the figure for the position shown.
Determine (a) the velocity of point A; (b) the acceleration of the point B.
Fig. P 8-43
8-44. The wheel in Fig. P 8-44 rolls without slipping along the horizontal
plane with decreasing angular velocity. The absolute acceleration of point A
is 14 fps’ to the left when the wheel is in the position shown. Determine the
velocity and acceleration of point 0.
Fig. P 8-44
8-45. The body in Fig. P 8-45 rolls without slipping. The velocity of its
center, G, is 2 fps to the right and the body has an angular acceleration of 40
rad per sec* counterclockwise for the indicated position. Determine (a) the
velocity of point Q; (b) the acceleration of point Q.
8-48. In Fig. P 8-46, AB is a rigid rod 20 ft long. Point A moves along the
line OA and B moves along OB. The rod has an angular velocity of 0.50 rad
per sec counterclockwise and an angular acceleration of 0.20 rad per sec 2 counter
clockwise when in the position shown. Determine the acceleration of point A.
Fig. P 8-46
8-47. The bottom of the ladder, point A in Fig. P 8-47, is sliding with a
@seismicisolation
of 5 fps 2 to the left when in the
@seismicisolation
velocity of 3 fps to the left and an acceleration
position shown. The top of the ladder remains in contact with the vertical wall.
Determine, for the given position (a) the velocity of the mass center, G; (b) the
acceleration of the mass center, G.
Fig. P 8-47 Fig. P 8-48
pins. When in the position shown, the angular velocity and angular acceleration
of AB are 10 rad per sec clockwise and 20 rad per sec* clockwise, respectively.
Determine (a) the angular velocities of CD and BC; (b) the angular acceleration
of CD.
8-49. In Fig. P 8-49, arm AB rotates in a vertical plane about an axis through
A. When in the position shown, the angular velocity of AB is 4 rad per sec
clockwise, and the angular acceleration of AB is 5 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise.
Arm BC is pinned to AB at B and fastened to a roller at C which slides in the
horizontal slot as indicated. Determine (a) the velocity of C; (b) the acceleration
8-50. In Fig. P 8-50, the small disk rolls inside of the circular track without
slipping. The arm OA has an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec clockwise and
an angular acceleration of 20 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise for the given position.
Determine (a) the velocity of point B; (b) the acceleration of point B.
8-51. In Fig. P 8-51 is shown a disk of 2-ft radius which rolls without slipping
inside of a fixed circle of 6-ft radius. The disk has a constant clockwise angular
velocity of 30 rpm.
(a) Determine the time required for the center, 0, of the disk to make
one complete revolution about the fixed point B.
(b) Determine the acceleration of point A when the disk is in the
position shown. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
iwi KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 301
(c) If, in addition to the above angular velocity, the disk has a counter
clockwise angular acceleration of 4 rad per sec1 , determine the acceleration of
point A when the disk is in the indicated position.
Fig. P 8-51 Fig. P 8-52

8-52. Body A in Fig. P 8-52 rolls without slipping. Point 0 has a velocity of
8 fps and an acceleration of 16 fps1 , both toward the right, for the position shown.
Determine the acceleration of B with respect to point C,
8-53. A wheel with a 2-ft radius rolls along a horizontal track without slipping.
It has an initial angular velocity of 3 rad per sec counterclockwise. During a
certain time interval the angular velocity is changed uniformly to 6 rad per sec
clockwise while the wheel turns through a total angle of 3.75 rad. Determine the
acceleration of the point at the right-hand end of the horizontal diameter of the
wheel when the angular velocity is 3 rad per sec counterclockwise.
8-54. Solve Problem 8-53 if the total angle turned through is 4.5 rad instead
of 3.75 rad.
8-55. The angular velocity of the wheel in Fig. P 8-55 changes uniformly
from 30 rad per sec clockwise to 15 rad per sec counterclockwise while 0 travels
a total distance of 112.5 ft. Point B is in the position shown when the angular
velocity of the wheel is 6 rad per sec clockwise. Determine the acceleration of
point B at this time. The wheel rolls without slipping.
Fig. P 8-55 Fig. P 8-56

8-56. The angular velocity of AB in Fig. P 8-56 is 6 rad per sec clockwise
and the angular acceleration is 10 rad per sec 1 counterclockwise. Determine
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the acceleration of point B.
8-57. The angular velocity and angular acceleration of AB in Fig. P 8-57 are
5 rad per sec clockwise and 10 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise, respectively. Deter
mine (a) the velocity of C by the method of instantaneous centers; (b) the angular
acceleration of BC.
Fig. P 8-57 Fig. P 8-58
8-58. In the link mechanism in Fig. P 8-58, point C has a velocity of 24 ps

to the right and link AB has an angular acceleration of 5 rad per sec 2 counter
clockwise when the mechanism is in the position shown. Determine (a) the
angular velocity of link A B ; (b) the components of the acceleration of point C.
8-59. The wheel in Fig. P 8-59 rolls without slipping with an angular velocity
of 4 rad per sec clockwise and an angular acceleration of 6 rad per sec 2 counter
clockwise when in the position shown. Determine the velocity and acceleration
of point P.
Fig. P 8-59
8-60. The wheel in Fig. P 8-60 rolls and slips along the horizontal plane. In
the position shown, the angular velocity of the wheel is 4 rad per sec clockwise,
the velocity of point 0 is 10 ips to the left, and the acceleration of G is 40 ips3
to the left. Determine the acceleration of point B.
Fig. P 8-60
8-61. The link mechanism in Fig. P 8-61 moves in a vertical plane. The link
AB has an angular velocity@seismicisolation
of 2 rad per sec counterclockwise and an angular
@seismicisolation
acceleration of 30 rad per see 2 clockwise when in the position indicated. Deter
mine the acceleration of the block C.
Fig. P 8-61
8-6. Acceleration with respect to rotating axes. The use of the
equation of relative motion for determining the acceleration of a particle
was explained in Art. 8-5. The method of Art. 8-5 related the absolute
accelerations of two particles and the acceleration of one of the particles
measured with respect to a set of nonrotating axes moving with the other
particle. In some instances it is desirable to measure the acceleration
of a point with respect to rotating
axes. If the absolute acceleration of
the point is needed, it becomes neces
sary to develop an expression for the
absolute acceleration of the point in
terms of the motion of the point
relative to the axes and the motion
of the axes.
Body A in Fig. 8-18 has plane
motion, and the x&i plane is its plane
of motion. The x and y axes are
fixed in the body, and they rotate
with respect to the fixed axes Zi and y i
while the origin O moves in the x x yi
plane. Point P moves along some path, such as that indicated by the
dashed line, on body A, and x and y are its position coordinates measured
relative to the x and y axes on A. C is a point fixed on A which is coin
cident with P at the instant. The absolute position of P at any instant
is given by the coordinates Zi and y as follows:
Zi = xo + x cos B — y sin B
and yi = yo + x sin 6 + y cos B,
where counterclockwise, to the right, and upward are the positive direc
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
tions. The magnitudes of the components of the absolute velocity of P
304 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION
can be obtained by differentiating the position coordinates with respect
to time. Thus:
dxx dx o . Q d0 . ' d x a d6 . a dy
= xsin e + cos e ycose sme
dT -df ~ dt di ~ di - dt
andj dyi dy o +
, x cos 0a 37
d0 +, sm 0A 37
dx — y sm
. 0„d6
37 +. cos 0A dy
37
at at at at
dt at at
If P were a point fixed on the body, x and y would be constants and the
dx du
four terms in 37 and 37 would be zero. C is fixed on A and coincident
at at
with P at the instant: therefore the terms that do not involve ~ and
at at
give the velocity of C ; that is,
( y c)xi = ~n
at ---- (x sin 0 + y cos 0)w x
and (vc)Vl = ° + (x cos 8 — y sin 6)u> A ,
de
where 03 A
dt
dx du
The four terms in 37 and 37 give the horizontal and vertical components
Cvv CLit
of Vp/A , the velocity of particle P measured with respect to axes moving
with body A ; that is,
/ \ dx „ dy . „
(vpm)xi = cos 0 — sm 0
and (r ) V1 = sin 0 4- cos 0.
Since =
IT
dy
and ' - („
the preceding equations for the components of the velocity of P become
) p)xi = (yc) + (yp M )sl

and (vp) yi = (Vc) yi + (vp M ) Vl ,
from which Vp = Vc +> Vp M . (8-10)
Equation (8-3) gives the relationship between the velocities of two

points and the relative velocity of one point with respect to a nonrotating
set of axes moving with the other point. Equation (8-3) is
Vb = Vb z x +> V4.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
58-6] KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 305
If Eq. (8-3) is compared with Eq. (8-10), it is apparent that when points
A and B or P and C are coincident, the relative velocity measured with
respect to rotating axes must be the same as the relative velocity meas
ured with respect to nonrotating axes. This fact was explained in
another manner in Example 8-4. When the points are not coincident,
the relative velocities measured with respect to rotating and nonrotating
axes are not the same.
The magnitudes of the rectangular components of the absolute
acceleration of P are obtained by differentiating the rectangular com
ponents of the velocity of P with respect to time.
With aa = the components are:
Uv
— z s n
(«/■)..= -fir ~ (’ ~ X(C08 0)"* ~ (sin
dx du
+ cos 0 -772 “ (sin 0)«a — y(cos + (sin 0)wj — (cos 0)wa
dr at at
- sin fl (cos fl)a>a
and
z cos
(Of)iri = Z&r
ai z “ “J7T
dr + ( •)«* ~ *( sin fl)“’ + (cos 0)"-* 57
dt
d x dx dy
+ sin fl (cos 0)a> A - y(sin 0)a A - j/(cos fl)«J - (sin fl)w 4 g*
+ cos fl (sin e)a> A.

dr dt
The terms of the preceding equations may be rearranged to give
(a P ) xl = —---- (x sin 0 + y cos 0)cu — (x cos 6 — y sin 0)wj

dt
. d 2x A d*y . A o ( d x . a . d ]
+ dt 2 cos 0— dt 2 sm 0 - 2 \dt
I sm 0 + di7 WA
and
(ap) = + (x cos 0— y sin 0)a A — (x sin 0 + y cos 0)wj

dr
, d 2x . » . d 2y , dx dy . A
+ 375- sm 0 + 37? cos 0n + )dt
37 COS 0 — 37 sm 0 I OJa.
dt /
The absolute acceleration of P can be obtained as tne vector sum of

these components. Corresponding terms from the two components are
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
added to simplify the result.
306 KINEMATICS—RELATIVE MOTION [§845
a P = (ap) xi 44 (Ap )]tt
- T
d 2 Xo d*yo << . * , ~ ~ A .
= - -H i/z sin 0 4- y cos 0) 44 (x cos 0 — y sin 0)]cu
d-x
+> \(x cos 0 — y sin 0) 44 (x sin 0 4- y cos 0)]cc* 44 (cos 0
d 2v d x . „ , dy
44 sin 0) 44 (sin 0 44 cos 0) 44 2 3- Sin 0 + 37 cos 0
at at
dx ~ dy .
-rr
fit cos 0 — 37 sin
at
= a o 44 ra A +> rw\ 44 a P/A 44 2vp/a&a

where the brackets reduce to r and v P/ a as indicated by taking the square
root of the sum of the squares in adding the mutually perpendicular
vectors. The second and third terms on the right side of Eq. (8-11) are
the tangential and normal components of the acceleration of C (on the
body) with respect to 0. Consequently, from Eq. (8-7), the sum of the
first three terms on the right side of Eq. (8-11) is the absolute accelera
tion of C (a point on body A coincident with P at the instant), and Eq.
(8-11) can be written as
Ap = Ac 44 AP/ A 44 2vP/AOa. (8-12)
Again referring to Eq. (8-11), if P does not move relative to body
A, the last two terms of the equation are zero, and the equation reduces
to
Ap = ao 44 Tot a 44 T<a\ = Ao 44 Ac/O)

which is the same as Eq. (8-7) relating the acceleration of 0 and either
C or P, since C and P would have the same motion. If 0 is a constant
(nonrotating or translating axes), the second, third and fifth terms on
the right side of Eq. (8-11) become zero, and the equation reduces to
Ap = Ao 44 Ap/Af
which is again the same as Eq. (8-7) for nonrotating axes relating the
accelerations of 0 and P, since all points of A will then have the same
motion. ’
Equation (8-12) provides a convenient means of obtaining the abso
lute acceleration of a particle in terms of its acceleration with respect to
rotating axes. It is important to realize that the point P is traveling
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
along a path on body A as the path rotates with the body. It is evident
$8-6] KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 307
from Eq. (8-12) that the absolute acceleration of any particle P is the
vector sum of three accelerations as follows:
1. The absolute acceleration of a point C, on the body or path, which
is coincident with P at the instant for which the acceleration of P is
to be determined.
2. The acceleration of P measured relative to a set of axes rotating
with the body or path. Any angular velocity or acceleration used in
obtaining this component of the acceleration of P must be measured
relative to the axes moving with body A.
3. The Coriolis’* or supplementary acceleration, which is equal to
twice the product of the absolute angular velocity of the body or path
multiplied by the velocity of P measured relative to axes fixed in the
body and rotating with the body or path. The Coriolis’ acceleration is
always perpendicular to v p/ a, with its sense in the direction the tip of
V p / a would move when rotated about its tail in the direction of gja. A
detailed study of the equation just preceding Eq. (8-11) is required in
order to verify the statement just made regarding the direction and sense
of the Coriolis’ acceleration. Since body A is rotating, an angular
velocity or angular acceleration measured with respect to the axes
rotating with A will be a relative angular quantity instead of an absolute
quantity.
The use of Eq. (8-12) as compared with Eq. (8-7) is illustrated in the
following examples.
Example 8-8: Solve Example 7-10 by the use of Eq. (8-12). The problem is
restated here for convenience. Rod AB in Figs. 8-19 and
7-17 rotates in a horizontal plane about a vertical axis
TOP VIEW
through B with a constant angular acceleration of 1.0
rad per sec* clockwise. As the rod rotates, a washer I. 2.0*
slides out along the rod from the pinned end B, The A c
distance from B to the washer increases uniformly at the
rate of 2.0 fps. When the angular velocity of the rod is w
3.0 rad per sec clockwise, the washer is on the rod 2.0 ft
to the left of B as shown in the figure. Determine, for Fig. 8-19
this position, the acceleration of the washer.
Solution: Equation (8-12) for this problem is
Bjf = ac 4+ Aw/ab 4+ 2v»f/abw,
where W is the washer and C is the point on the rod AB coincident with W for the
position indicated. The washer has uniform rectilinear motion relative to body
AB as AB rotates, and therefore o,w/ab “ 0. Point C has circular motion about the
center B; thus
- T — T
ac = 2(3)’ +>2(1) = 184+2.
The angular velocity of AB is 3 rad per sec clockwise and the velocity of the wrasher
relative to AB is 2 fps to the left, from which the Coriolis’ acceleration is
* Named after G. C. Coriolis (1792-1843), a French scientist, who was the first to
@seismicisolation
publish a discussion of this acceleration. @seismicisolation
308 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION [§S-6
2vw/ab« - 2(2) (3) = 12 fps* T-

The sense is upward because a clockwise rotation of vw/ab about its tail moves
@ the tip upward as shown in the accompanying sketch. When values are sub
stituted in Eq. (8-12), the acceleration of the washer is found to be
- T T - T
aw - 18+>2+>0+>12 = 18 +>14 = 22.8 fps*
Example 8-9: Rods AB and CD in Fig. 8-20 are con

nected by a pin at B and rotate in a vertical plane. For
the position shown, wab is 2 rad per sec counterclockwise,
<kab is 5 rad per sec* counterclockwise, wen is 3 rad per sec
clockwise, and aco is 8 rad per sec* counterclockwise.
Determine the absolute linear acceleration of point D
for the position indicated.
Solution: (a) By relative motion with respect to non
rotating axes. The relative acceleration equation for
points B and D on body CD is
Fig. 8-21
From the sketches of Fig. 8-21, it is evident that
- T I -
a D = 40 +> 45 +> 30 +> 24
64 +> 15 = 65.7 fps* iscSi
(b) By the use of the Coriolis’ acceleration. Point D travels on a circular path
with its center at B as the path, on AB extended, rotates about an axis through +
with an angular velocity of 2 rad per sec counterclockwise and an angular acceleration
of 5 rad per sec* counterclockwise for tEe indicated position. Let point E be the
point on the rotating path on AB, which is coincident with D at the instant. Point
E is 7.81 ft from the axis of rotation at A. Therefore
I - T -
a* = 7.81 (5) +> 7.81(2)* = 30 +> 25 +> 20 +> 24
1 -
= 10 +>49.
Point D travels on a circular path, of radius BD, relative to body AB. The angular
velocity and angular acceleration of BD relative to the rotating axes on AB are 5 rad
per sec clockwise and 3 rad per sec* counterclockwise, respectively. Thus
-* T —< T
Sd/ab@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
- 5(3) +>5(5)* = 15 +>125.
(8-6] KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 309
Rod CD rotates about B with an angular velocity of 5 rad per sec clockwise relative
to axes that rotate with AB. Therefore the velocity of D relative to the circular path
is 5(5) — 25 fps to the left, and the Coriolis’ acceleration becomes
2vz>/4j>u - 2(25) (2) - 100 fps* I . @
Equation (8-12) becomes

a© “ as +> Ad/ab +> 2v©/a©o>as
I - - T 1
= 10 +> 49 +> 15 +> 125 +> 100
-* T
- 64 +> 15 = 65.7 fps’
Example 8-10: Solve Problem 7-35 for
the acceleration of B by:
(a) The use of the Coriolis’ acceleration.
(b) The use of the equations of relative
acceleration. The problem is restated here
for convenience. Block B of Fig. 8-22
(P 7-35) is constrained to move in a verti
cal slot. Block A is pinned to B and
moves in the slot in member OE. The
constant angular velocity of OE is 2 rad per sec counterclockwise. Determine the
velocity and acceleration of a point on B when 6 =« 30°.
Solution: (a) Let C represent a point on OE coincident with point P at the center
of block A when 9 » 30°, and consider that P moves along OE as the path OE rotates.
The distance from O to C is 2.77 ft. Equation (8-12) for the acceleration of P is
Bp = Ac +> Ap/OB +> 2Vp/o«WOJ.
0
Fig. 8-23
From the sketches in Fig. 8-23, it is evident that vp/os must be obtained before the
remaining unknowns can be determined from the vector equation. The direction
of the Coriolis’ acceleration can be determined when vp/os is known. The equation
of relative velocity for points P and C is
Vp = Vp/c +> Vc-
This becomes vp =■ vp/c +>2.77(2),

from which Vp/C — 3.20 fps = Vp/o/f.
Since ?p/oe is directed up toward the right and <a©s is counterclockwise, the Coriolis’
component of acceleration is directed up toward the left. The vector equation for
ap is
a P = 2.77(4.00) 4+ a@seismicisolation
P /0 E +>2(3.20) (2.00)
@seismicisolation
310 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION [§&$
and the component equations can now be written as follows:
(r) 0 - -2.77(4.00) (0.866) + 0.866aP /OB - 4.00(3.20) (0.500)
and 0) a P - -2.77(4.00) (0.50) + 0.500aj>/ OB + 4.00(3.20)(0.866).

a P = 14.77 fps* T •
(b) Equation (8-7) for points P and C is
Fig. 8-24
where ap/c is measured with respect to nonrotating axes.

From the sketches in Fig. 8-24, it is evident that there are three unknowns in the
vector equation. Point P moves past C on a curved path with respect to nonrotating
axes at C; therefore the acceleration of P with respect to C cannot be readily resolved
into normal and tangential components and the radial and transverse components
would have to be used. Consequently, the solution of this example by use of Eq.
(8-7) is not practical. In fact the method of Art. (7-3) gives a more direct solution
than that given above by the use of the Coriolis’ acceleration.
PROBLEMS
8-62. The mechanism in Fig. P 8-62 rotates in a vertical plane. Block A is

pinned to arm AC, and A slides along arm OB as OB turns. For the given
position, AC has an angular velocity of 3 rad per sec clockwise and an angular
acceleration of 2 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise. Determine the angular accelera
tion of arm OB when in the position shown.
Fig. P 8-62
8-63. Body C in Fig. P 8-63 rotates about an axis through 0. When the
body is in the position indicated, it has an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec
counterclockwise and an angular acceleration of 2 rad per sec 2 clockwise. Body
AB is pinned to C at A and has an angular acceleration of 4 rad per sec 2 counter
clockwise. For the given position, the angular velocity of AB relative to C is 11
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
rad per sec clockwise. Determine the acceleration of point B for this instant by
use of: (a) equation (8-7); (b) equation (8-12).
8-64. A 20-ft ladder leans against a wall as shown in Fig. P 8-64, and a cat
is on the ladder 6 ft from end B. For the given position, the velocity of end B is
6 fps downward and the acceleration of B is 7 fps 1 downward. The cat has a
velocity relative to the ladder of 9 fps along the ladder toward B and an accelera
tion relative to the ladder of 2 fps 2 along the ladder toward A, Determine the
acceleration of the cat.
8-65. The mechanism in Fig. P 8-65, consisting of rigid members AB, BC,
DE, and EF, is pinned at A, D, B, E, and F, and it moves in a vertical plane.
End C of member BC is pinned to a block which slides on member DE. For the
given position, the angular velocity of AB is 2 rad per sec clockwise and the
angular acceleration of AB is 3 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise. Determine the
horizontal and vertical components of the acceleration of C for this position.
Fig. P 8-65
8-66. Figure P 8-66 (a) is a photograph of the rocker arm and bull gear for the
quick-return mechanism of a shaper. The line drawing in Fig. P 8-66(b) shows
the mechanism connected to the ram, F. The bull gear H operates with a
constant angular velocity of 45 rpm counterclockwise. When the rocker arm,
AD, is in the position shown determine:
(a) The angular velocity of AD.
(b) The velocity of the block B pinned to the gear H relative to point C.
Point C is a point on the rocker arm AD which is coincident with B at the instant.
(c) The angular acceleration of AD by use of the Coriolis’ acceleration.
(d) The acceleration of a point on the ram F by relative motion.
(e) The acceleration of a point on the ram F by writing an expression
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
for its position and differentiating.
312 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION IJM
Courtesy Sheldon Machine Co. Inc., Chicago

(a)
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
8-7. Closure. The absolute position, displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of a particle can be expressed in terms of the motion of the
particle relative to a set of moving axes and the motion of the axes.
When the relative motion is expressed with respect to a set of translating
(nonrotating) axes, Eq. (8-1), (8-3), and (8-7) give the relationship
between the absolute motion of the particle and the motion of the origin
of the translating axes. When the relative motion of the particle is
expressed with respect to a set of rotating axes, the absolute acceleration
must include the Coriolis’ component as described in Art. 8-6. The
velocities, but not the accelerations, of points and lines of rigid bodies
with plane motion can be obtained by the utilization of instantaneous
centers.
Kinematic relationships between position, velocities, and accelera
tions of points and lines can also be obtained by writing an expression for
the position of the point or line and differentiating, as was explained in
Chapter 7. This mathematical approach to the problem provides an
independent check on the solution by relative motion and sometimes
leads to a more direct solution to the problem.
PROBLEMS
8-67. An airplane has an air speed of 160 mph. The wind is blowing from
the northwest, 3 from the north to 4 from the west, at 40 mph. What course
should be set and how long will it take to fly 300 miles due south?
8-68. The link AB in Fig. P 8-68 has an angular velocity of 5 rad per sec
clockwise. Determine for this position the following: (a) the location of the
instantaneous center of zero velocity of link BC', (b) the angular velocity of
link BC.
Fig. P 8-68
8-69. Two meshed gears, A and B, are rotating as indicated in Fig. P 8-69.
When body A is in the given position, its angular velocity is 40 rpm clockwise
and its angular acceleration is 8 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise. Determine the
acceleration of the point D with respect@seismicisolation
to point C.
@seismicisolation
314 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION I§8-7
8-70. The rigid body in Fig. P 8-70 has plane motion. When the body is in
the position shown, P has a velocity of 20 fps to the left and an acceleration of
16 fps 1 downward, and the body has an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec counter
clockwise and an angular acceleration of 10 rad per sec* clockwise, respectively.
Determine (a) the velocity of point R; (b) the acceleration of point Q.
3’
3'
Fig. P 8-70
8-71. The bar AB in Fig. P 8-71 rotates about a fixed axis through 0. The
bar CD is pinned to bar AB with a smooth pin at Q, When the assembly is in
the position shown, the angular velocity and angular acceleration of AB are 4 rad
per sec clockwise and 6 rad per sec* clockwise, respectively, and the angular
velocity and angular acceleration of CD are 3 rad per sec counterclockwise and
10 rad per sec* clockwise, respectively. For this position determine (a) the
velocity of point C ; (b) the acceleration of point C.
Fig. P 8-71
8-72. The angular velocity of link CD in Fig. P 8-72 is 30 rpm clockwise.

Determine for the given position (a) the angular velocity of link BC; (b) the
angular velocity of link AB.
8-73. Rod CA in Fig. P 8-73 rotates with a constant angular velocity of
3 rad per sec clockwise and is pinned to the block at A. Rod OB extends through
a hole in the block at A and turns about 0 as CA rotates. For the position shown,
determine the angular velocity of OB.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Fig. P 8-73
§8-71 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION 315
8-74. In the link mechanism in Fig. P 8-74 the angular velocity of CD is
4 rad per sec clockwise. Determine for the given position the angular velocity of
BC and the velocity of point B.
Fig. P 8-74 Fig. P 8-75
8-75. The body shown in Fig. P 8-75 rolls without slipping. When the body is
in the position shown, its angular velocity is 10 rad per sec clockwise, and the
acceleration of the center, C, is 30 fps 2 toward the left. Determine (a) the
velocity of point B; (b) the acceleration of point D.
8-76. Particle A falls freely from rest under the action of gravity. Point B
is on the wheel indicated in Fig. P 8-76. The wheel rolls along a horizontal plane
without slipping. When the particle has fallen 0.50 sec, the wheel is in the
position shown, and the center 0 has a velocity of 12 fps and an acceleration of
18 fps 2 both to the left. Determine for that instant (a) the velocity and accelera
tion of B; (b) the velocity of A with respect to B.
Fig. P 8-76 Fig. P 8-77

8-77. The crank AB in Fig. P 8-77 rotates with a constant angular velocity
of 10 rad per sec clockwise. Determine the velocity and acceleration of point C
when the crank is in the position shown.
P@seismicisolation
8-78
Fig. @seismicisolation
316 KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION [58-7
8-78. When the mechanism in Fig. P 8-78 is in the position shown, the
velocity of point E is 45 fps to the right. Determine for the position indicated
(a) the angular velocity of AB; (b) the velocity of point C.
Fig. P 8-79
8-79. When member AC of the mechanism in Fig. P 8-79 is perpendicular to

the crank OA and to the arm BCD, the acceleration of A is 64 fps 2 in the direction
indicated. Determine (a) the angular velocity of link ED; (b) the acceleration
of point D with respect to point A.
8-80. Rod BC in Fig. P 8-80 is pinned to the wheel at B in such a manner
that the rim of the wheel does not strike the rod. Block C slides in the horizontal
slot. The wheel rolls without slipping. When the assembly is in the position
shown, the acceleration of point 0 is 20 ips 2 to the right and the angular velocity
of the wheel is 3 rad per sec clockwise. Determine (a) the velocity of C ; (b) the
acceleration of C. *
Fig. P 8-80
8-81. Block A in Fig. P 8-81 slides in the slot in the fixed member D. Mem
bers B and C are pinned to 4 and D and move in the vertical plane. When in
the position shown, member C has an angular velocity of 1.75 rad per sec clock
wise and an angular acceleration of 50 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise. Determine
the velocity and acceleration of block A.
8-82. A vane-type pump or compressor is illustrated in Fig. P 8-82. The
@seismicisolation
smaller circular disk with the slots rotates with a constant angular velocity of
@seismicisolation
1700 rpm. The vanes slide in the slots, and the outer ends of the vanes maintain
contact with the large stationary cylinder. Determine the velocity and accelera
tion of point A on the vertical vane when it is in the position shown.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
CHAPTER 9
Kinetics—Force, Mass, and Acceleration

9-1. Introduction. Methods for determining the resultant of any
force system were developed in Chapter 2. When the resultant of the
forces on a body is zero, the body is in equilibrium. The free-body
diagram, a powerful tool for visualizing the forces acting on a body, and
the equations of equilibrium were studied in Chapter 4. When the
resultant of the forces on a body is different from zero, the body has
accelerated motion. The study of unbalanced forces and the accelerations
they produce is called kinetics. Kinematics, which deals with the geom
etry of motion without considering the forces required to produce the
motion, was discussed in the last two chapters as a preliminary to the
study of the general kinetics problem. In the present chapter, relation
ships between the resultant of an unbalanced force system acting on a
particle or body, the inertial properties of the body, and the resulting
motion are developed.
Although it is obvious that there must be some relationship between
a force acting on a body and the resulting motion, the nature of the rela
tionship was not understood until Galileo (1564-1642) performed experi
ments on falling bodies and pendulums and disproved earlier false theories
about dynamics. Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) developed the theory
of universal gravitation and was the first to state what are known as
Newton’s laws of motion. Great scientific achievements have been made
since Newton’s time, but his laws of motion are still recognized as the
basic laws of engineering kinetics.
The motion of bodies acted on by unbalanced force systems can be
analyzed by various methods. The most useful method for any par
ticular problem depends on the forces acting (constant or variable) and
the results to be obtained (reactions, velocities, accelerations, and soon).
The analysis of kinetics problems by force, mass, and acceleration,
work and energy, and by impulse and momentum is discussed in the fol
lowing chapters.
9-2. Newton’s laws of motion. Newton’s laws can be stated as
follows:
1. If the resultant force acting on a particle is zero, the particle will
remain at rest or move with a constant velocity (in a straight line).
2. If the resultant force acting on a particle is not zero, the particle
will be accelerated in the @seismicisolation
direction of the force, and the magnitude of
@seismicisolation
318
§9-2] KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 319
the acceleration will be directly proportional to the force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the particle.
3. The force exerted by one particle on a second one is equal in mag
nitude and opposite in sense to the force exerted by the second particle
on the first one.
These three laws were developed from a study of planetary motion,
that is, the motion of particles. As stated, Newton’s laws apply only
to the motion of particles. However, bodies are made up of particles
and these laws are extended to apply to bodies.
The first law indicates that a particle has some property called inertia
and that as a result a force is required to produce a change in the motion
of the particle.
The second law is a quantitative statement of the relationship which
must exist between the force acting on the particle, the inertia (mass)
of the particle, and the resulting acceleration.
The following equation is a mathematical statement of Newton’s
second law:
F
a = K-, (9-1)
where a is the acceleration, F is the resultant force, m is the mass of the

particle, and K is a constant. If units of acceleration, force, and mass
are chosen arbitrarily, the dimensionless constant K must be determined
experimentally. It is convenient to have the constant K be unity,
which is possible if the units of either acceleration, force, or mass are
selected in terms of the other two quantities. A unit forcecan be defined
as the force necessary to produce a unit acceleration of a particle having a
unit mass; and if acceleration is* measured in fps 2 and mass in pounds
(mass), the force will be 1 fps 2 times 1 pound (mass) or 1 ft-pound (mass)
per sec 2, which is called a poundal. This system is sometimes used in
physics and is called the English absolute system. The constant K will
also be unity if a unit mass is defined as the mass of a particle which will
have a unit acceleration when acted on by a unit force. In such a system
of units, the unit of mass is the derived quantity; and if acceleration is
measured in fps 2 and force in lb (force), the unit of mass will be 1 lb
(force) divided by 1 fps 2, or 1 lb-sec 2 per ft. The abbreviation lb is
used here for pound (force) but not for pound (mass). The unit of mass
of a lb-sec 2 per ft is frequently called a slug or a g-pound. A system of
unitsTjased on acceleration and force is called a gravitational system.
A thTrcTsystem of units is sometimes used in which the units of mass and
acceleration are selected arbitrarily, and the unit of force is the attraction
of the earth for a unit mass at some standard position on the surface of
the earth. With this last system, when the acceleration is measured in
fps 2, the force in lb (force) and the @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
mass in pounds (mass), K is 32.2
320 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION [§9-3
(approximately). A 1-lb force is approximately equal to the attraction
of the earth for a 1-pound mass.
The second system of units described above will be used in this text,
and the unit of mass will be called a slug (Ib-sec 2 per ft). The mass of
a body can be determined from Eq (9-1) if the acceleration produced by
some known force can be determined. Experiments show that if the
attraction of the earth for the body (the weight of the body) is the only
force acting on the body, the acceleration will be approximately 32.2 fps1 .
The mass of the body is thus equal to its weight divided by the accelera
tion (g) produced by its weight. That is,
F W
m = - = —, (9-2)
a g
and in the English gravitational system of units the weight is measured
in lb (force) and the acceleration of gravity is approximately 32.2 fps 2.
The value of 32.2 fps 2 will be used in this text for the acceleration pro
duced by the weight of a body.
Newton’s third law makes it possible to extend the second law for
particles to bodies, since bodies are made up of a system of particles and
the forces between the particles always occur in collinear pairs which
balance each other.
9-3. Equations of motion for a particle. When a force system acts
on a particle, the system must be concurrent (a particle has no dimen
sions), and the resultant is a single force acting through the particle.
Newton’s second law of motion for a particle can be expressed mathe
matically as
R = ma,
where R is the resultant force, m is the mass of the particle, and a is its
acceleration. This equation is a vector equation, since R and a are
vectors; and if both sides of the equation are resolved into x, y, and z
components, the result is
R x = ma x , Rv = ma*, R t = mat . (9-3)
In Chapter 2, the value of R x was shown to be equal to SF Z, . . . ;
therefore
EF X = ma x , 2F y = may, ZF X = mat . (9-4)
Equations (9-3) or (9-4) are the equations of motion for a particle. In
using these equations it is desirable to establish a sign convention for
the forces and accelerations. A convenient sign convention is to select
the directions of the acceleration components as positive, in which case
any force component in the same direction will be positive. If the direc
tion of the acceleration is unknown, it can be assumed and the assumed
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
direction selected as the positive direction.
9-4. Motion of the mass center of a system of particles. Newton’s
laws of motion for particles (Art. 9-2) can be extended to apply to the
motion of bodies or systems of particles. A group of particles form a
rigid body if the distances between the various particles remain constant.
If the distances between some of the particles vary with time, the system
of particles is not rigid. Any particle of a system is acted on by a system
of concurrent forces consisting of the forces exerted by other particles
of the system on the given particle (internal forces) and of forces exerted
by bodies which are not part of the system being considered, such as the
weight of the particle. These latter forces are called external forces.
From Newton’s second law of motion, the resultant of all the forces
(both external and internal) acting on a particle must be equal to the
product of the mass of the particle and its acceleration. The product
of the mass of the particle and its acceleration is a vector equal in mag
nitude to and having the same line of action as the resultant force acting
on the particle. This vector is called the effective force of the particle.
The effective force, ma, of a particle is not a force,although its magnitude
and line of action are the same as the magnitude and line of action of
the resultant force acting on the particle. The product ma is not a force
because a force is defined as the action of one body on another body which
changes or tends to change the motion of the body acted on.
The resultant of the forces (both external and internal) on all the
particles of a system is the vector sum of the resultants for the separate
particles and is thus equal to the resultant of the effective forces of the
particles. Since the internal forces, be
tween the particles of a system always
occur in collinear pairs which are equal in
magnitude and opposite in sense (from
Newton’s third law), the resultant of the
internal forces is zero, and the resultant
of all the forces is the same as the result
ant of the external forces acting on the
system of particles. Thus the resultant
(magnitude, sense, and line of action) of
the external forces acting on a system of
particles is equal to the resultant of the
effective forces (ma values) of the particles Fig. 9-1
of the system. The preceding statement,
a corollary of Newton’s second and third laws, is called d’Alembert’s
principle, in honor of Jean le Rond d’Alembert (1717-1783), a French
mathematician, who was the first to publish it.
The magnitude of the resultant of the effective forces of a system of
particles can be related to the motion of the mass center of the particles
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
by means of the principle of moments as applied to masses. Three par-
322 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION
tides of a system of particles are shown in Fig. 9-1. The system of
particles can be either rigid or nonrigid. The particles of mass m u m2,
m3, . . . , are located at points (zi, y x , z x), (z 2, J/2, Sa), (x z , yz , z8), . . . ,
respectively; and the mass center, G, of the particles is located at the
point (xG, yQ , za ). The sum of the masses of the particles is denoted by
m. The coordinates of the mass center of the system of particles are
obtained by summing the first moments of the masses of the particles
with respect to the coordinate planes. Thus, summing moments with
respect to the yz plane,
mxo = miXi + ni2X2 + TH3X3 + • • • , (9-5)
with similar equations for y0 and zG .
Both sides of Eq. (9-5) can be differentiated with respect to time to
give the following results:
dxo dxi dX2 dx z
= mtyc) (9-6)
"dt dt dt
and
d 2xG . d 2 Xi d 2x 2 . d 2x z
= m(a<j)z = Tth -w (9-7)
a .
s,nce
dF = («i)x, • • • , the right side of Eq. (9-7) is the sum of the
x components of the effective forces of the particles, which, by d’Alem
bert’s principle, is equal to the x component of the resultant of the
external forces acting on the system. Thus
2F Z(ext) = ??i(ug) x .
Similarly, (9-8)
and \(ext) = (Ug)«. 4
Equations (9-8) express the relationship between the resultant of the

external forces acting on any system of particles and the acceleration
of the mass center of the system regardless of the type of motion. This
relationship is commonly called the principle of motion of the mass center
of a system of particles. Equations (9-8) for a system of particles are
the same as the equations of motion for a single particle located at the
mass center of the system and having a mass equal to the total mass of
the system. Thus any body can be considered to be a particle in apply
ing the equations of motion just developed. One very important dif
ference should be noted, however. With a single particle, the line of
action of the resultant of the force system acting on the particle passes
through the particle, since the force system is concurrent. With a
system of particles, the external force system is not necessarily concurrent,
and the resultant usually does not pass through the mass center of the system
of particles. In order to @seismicisolation
locate the resultant force acting on a body
@seismicisolation
or system of particles, it is necessary to determine the moment of the
force system with respect to one or more axes. Methods of determining
these moments are developed in the articles for translation, rotation,
and plane motion of rigid bodies. If Eq. (9-8) or (9-4) do not supply
sufficient information to solve the problem, the body cannot be treated
as a particle, and moment equations (which take into account the dimen
sions of the body and its angular motion) must be used.
9-5. Procedure for the solution of problems in kinetics. Problems
can usually be analyzed most readily and with less chance of error if a
definite procedure is followed. The following steps have been found to
be very helpful in problems in kinetics and will be emphasized in the
succeeding articles.
1. Determine carefully what data are given and what is required in
the problem.
2. Draw a free-body diagram of one of the particles or bodies involved.
(It is usually desirable to include only one body in a free-body diagram
when using the method of force, mass, and acceleration, instead of com
bining several bodies as was frequently done in statics.)
3. Decide what type of motion is involved (particle motion, transla
tion, rotation, or plane motion of a rigid body) and write the general equa
tions of motion for the particle or body being considered.
4. From the free-body diagram (Step 2) and the general equations of
motion (Step 3), determine the number of unknown quantities involved
(such as forces, acceleration components, and distances). A list of the
unknowns may prove helpful.
5. (a) If the number of equations in Step 3 is equal to (or greater
than) the number of unknowns, proceed to Step 8.
(b) If Step 4 indicates more unknowns than the number of equations
from Step 3, additional equations must be obtained as indicated in Step
6.*
6. Obtain additional equations in one or more of the following ways:
(a) By using the kinematic relationships between the motions of the
various particles, lines, or bodies.
(b) By drawing other free-body diagrams and repeating Step 3.
(c) By using the equations of friction if sliding or impending motion
exists between two rough surfaces.
7. When as many independent equations are available as the total
number of unknown quantities, the analysis is complete. It is usually
desirable to write the kinematic equations to aid in selecting positive
directions for forces and accelerations before substituting values in the
equations of motion.
♦ Special cases may arise in which certain unknowns (but never all of them) may
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
be evaluated even though there are more unknowns than independent equations.
8. Select as positive directions the directions of any known or assumed
accelerations. The positive directions should be shown by drawing
arrows (colored arrows have the advantage of being conspicuous) near
the free-body diagrams.
9. Substitute specific values in the equations of motion from Steps 3
and 6 (if more than one free-body is necessary), with due regard for the
sign conventions established in Step 8. Finally, solve for the desired
unknowns as determined in Step 1.
Example 9-1: The small body A in
Fig. 9-2a weighs 1.50 lb and swings in a
horizontal plane on the end of the cord
AB. The line AO has a constant angular
velocity of 30 rpm. Determine the ten
sion in the cord and the angle 9.
Solution: The free-body diagram of
body A is shown in Fig. 9-2b. The force
equations of motion (as distinguished
from moment equations) are the same for
a particle or for the mass center of a
system of particles, as explained in Art.
Fig. 9-2 9-4. Either Eqs. (9-8) or (9-4) are the
general equations of motion. Equations (9-4) are
SFjr = ma x , SF r =» mo,, EF, = ma*.
In the free-body diagram and the motion equations there is one unknown force T,
an unknown angle 9 t and three components of the acceleration. Since the body is
moving in & horizontal plane, the y component of the acceleration is zero. The
particle moves along a circular path and the angular velocity of the line OA is constant
so the tangential (z) component of the acceleration is zero, and the normal (®) com
ponent of the acceleration is (from kinematics)
A. - rw* = 2.00 f 1* = 19.74 fps’

L OU J
Since there are no forces or accelerations in the z direction, the third motion equation
would yield no information. Thus there are two equations of motion and two
unknown quantities T and 9. The positive directions (to the right and upward) are
shown in Fig. 9-2b. Since = 0, either upward or downward could be selected as
positive. When values are substituted in the first two motion equations, the results
are:
SF. = T sin 8 - (19.74) - 0.920
and SF V = T cos 9 — 1.50 = 0,
from which T = 1.760 lb
and 9 ■» 31.5°.
Example 9-2: Block A in Fig. 9-3 weighs 10.00 lb and block B weighs 6.44 lb.
The blocks are connected by a flexible inextensible cord which passes over a smooth
pulley at C. The weights of the cord and pulley can be neglected. The coefficient
of friction between the plane and block A is 0.30. The blocks are initially at rest.
Determine the tension in the cord and the velocity of A after it has traveled 5.00 ft.
Solution: The velocity of A can be determined by means of a v-t diagram once the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
acceleration is known. A free-body diagram of A is shown in Fig. 9-4a. The fric-
§9-51 ’ KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 325
tional force F must be in a direction opposite to the direction of the velocity. Since
the blocks are released from rest, the velocity a short time after release will be in the
same direction as the acceleration. The direction of the acceleration is unknown and
must be assumed. In this case the acceleration is assumed to be up the plane, which
(a) (b)
Fig. 9-3 Fig. 9-4
means that the velocity will be up the plane. Therefore the frictional force will be
down the plane. The equations of motion of a particle, used for body A, are
SFX = - m(aa)».
The free-body diagram in Fig. 9-4a has three unknown forces (T, N , and F), and there
are two accelerations in the equations of motion. Since block A has rectilinear transla
tion along the plane, the acceleration is along the plane, and it will be convenient to
select one of the axes (the x axis) along the plane and the other axis perpendicular to
the plane. Thus (ax)v = 0, leaving four unknown quantities and two equations of
motion. An additional equation is available from friction, since the block is assumed
to move and the friction is thus equal to the limiting value; that is,
F - nN - 0.3CLV.
Another equation can be obtained by drawing a free-body diagram of body B,
Fig. 9-4b, and writing the motion equation
SF y —
Since the cord is inextensible, (as)* =- aa is equal in magnitude to (ax)« “ <U. Con
sistent positive directions must be selected for these accelerations to avoid the use of
a negative sign when they are equated. When F is set equal to 0.30JV and aa is
equated to ax, three equations of motion are available with two unknown forces, T
and N t and one unknown acceleration, ax.
The positive directions are selected as shown in Fig. 9-4a and 9-4b. If cla were
assumed to be down the plane, aa would be assumed upward to be consistent. The
equations of motion for body A with specific values are:
SF. - T - O.3O2V + 4 (5.00) - f (10.00) - aA

and SF V «= A - i (5.00) - 1(10.00) = 0.
Similarly, for block B,
6 44
TF V - 6.44 - T = (a B )v = 0.200a a .
The solution of these equations is
T - 5.99 lb
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and Qa - 2.23 fps’
326 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION [§9-o
A v-t diagram for block A is shown in Fig. 9-5. The area of the triangle is 5.0 ft and
the slope is 2.23 fps*. Thus
Area ® — =» 5.0
2
and Slope = - 2.23,
4 >
from which »/ — 4.72 fps .
If the acceleration had been assumed to be in the wrong direction, the value of (U
would have had a negative sign and it would have been necessary to solve the problem
again, since the resulting velocity and the direction of the fric
tional force would also have been incorrect.
Another method of solution is to assume that the bodies are
in equilibrium and determine the frictional force necessary to
maintain equilibrium. If the friction thus determined is less
than the limiting value (pAT), the system will remain at rest.
If the frictional force for equilibrium is more than the limiting
value, the system will be accelerated in a direction opposite to
the direction of the friction (since the blocks are initially at rest),
and the direction of the velocity and acceleration will then be
known.
If the velocity of block A had reversed during the time interval, the direction of the
frictional force would also have reversed, and the acceleration would have changed
in magnitude though not necessarily in direction.
PROBLEMS
Note, All cords, ropes, and cables are assumed to be flexible, inextensible,
and of negligible weight.
9-1. A spring-operated platform scales of negligible mass is placed on the
floor of an elevator. A box is placed on the scales which indicate a weight or
load of 20 lb when the elevator is at rest.
(a) Determine the acceleration of the elevator when the scales indicate a
load of 26 lb.
(b) What load will be indicated by the scales when the elevator has
an acceleration of 5 fps 2 downward?
9-2.The block A in Fig. P 9-2 weighs 96.6 lb and is sliding down the plane.
The coefficient of friction between the block and plane is 0.30. Determine the
force, P (not shown), parallel to the plane which will produce an acceleration of
10.0 fps 2 up the plane.
Fig. P 9-2 Fig. P 9-3
9-3. Block A in Fig. P 9-3 weighs 20 lb and B weighs 10 lb. The coefficient
of friction between A and the plane is 0.35. The blocks are initially at rest.
Determine (a) the acceleration of B; (b) the tension in the cord.
9-4. Block A in Fig. P 9-3 weighs 20 lb and the coefficient of friction between
A and the plane is 0.30. The@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
initial velocity of A is 5.0 fps to the right, and
during the next 3 sec the block is displaced 30 ft to the right. Determine the
weight of block B.
9-5. Block A in Fig. P 9-5 weighs 20 lb and has an initial velocity of 10 fps up
the plane. The coefficient of friction between the block and plane is 0.50.
(a) How far up the plane will the block slide before coming to rest?
(b) Will the block slide down the plane?
Fig. P 9-5 Fig. P 9-6

9-6. The coefficient of friction between the 10.0-lb block in Fig. P 9-6 and
the plane is 0.20. If the block has an initial velocity of 20 fps up the plane,
determine its velocity after it has traveled a total distance of 25 ft.
9-7. In Fig. P 9-7, block A is pulled up the incline by block B. A weighs
500 lb and the frictional force between A and the inclined plane is 20 lb. Determine
the weight of B that will cause A to reach the top of the incline with a velocity of
10 fps up the plane, starting from rest at the bottom of the incline. Neglect the
mass of the pulley.
9-8. In Fig. P 9-8, blocks A and B weigh 10 lb and 40 lb, respectively. Deter
mine the acceleration of A and the tension in the cord if the fixed drum is smooth.
9-9. Solve Problem 9-8 if the coefficient of friction between the cord and
the fixed drum is 0.15. Hint: Review belt friction in Art. 5-5 if necessary.
blocks are initially at rest and the horizontal plane is smooth. Determine the
acceleration of block B if the coefficient of friction between A and B is (a) 0.30;
(b) 0.40.
Fig. P 9-10 Fig. P 9-11

9-11. The small body A in Fig. P 9-11 travels on a circular path in a hori
zontal plane with a constant magnitude@seismicisolation
of velocity. With what magnitude of
@seismicisolation
velocity must the body travel if the angle 0 is to be 45° ?
9-12. Determine the angle 0 in Problem 9-11 if AB rotates with an angular
velocity of 50 rpm.
9-13. The particle A in Fig. P 9-13 weighs 1.00 lb and swings in a vertical
plane at the end of a 10-ft cord. When the angle 0 is 30°, the magnitude of the
velocity of A is 10 fps. Determine the tension in the cord and the angular
acceleration of the cord when 0 = 30°.
Fig. P 9-13
9-14. Determine the magnitude of the angular velocity (in rpm) of the cord
in Problem 9-13 which will cause the tension in the cord to be 1.50 lb when
0 - 20°.
9-15. Two homogeneous 322-lb blocks connected by a cord as shown in Fig.
P 9-15 are pulled across a horizontal surface. The bodies are moving toward the
right, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between each block and the plane is
0.20. If block B is accelerated 10 fps’ to the right, determine (a) the force P;
(b) the tension in the cord.
Fig. P 9-15 Fig. P 9-16
9-16. Block A in Fig. P 9-16 weighs 96.6 lb and block B weighs 322 lb. The
coefficient of static friction between the blocks is 0.30, and the coefficient of
kinetic friction between the block B and the plane is 0.10. If A and B have a
velocity of 2.0 fps to the right, determine the maximum value of P that can be
applied as shown without causing A to slide on B.
9-17. In Fig. P 9-17, the 2.00-lb block A is connected by a cord to the 12.00-lb
block B. The coefficient of friction between A and the plane is 0.20, and that
between B and the plane is 0.30. The blocks are moving to the right with an
acceleration of 6.00 fps 2 to the right. Determine the force P.
Fig. P 9-17
9-18. If the force P in Problem 9-17 is 10.00 lb to the right and the blocks are
moving to the right, determine the acceleration of B. The weights and coeffi
cients of friction are the same@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
as in Problem 9-17.
§9-51 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 329
9-19. The turntable in Fig. P 9-19 rotates in a horizontal plane with a con
stant angular acceleration of 5.0 rad per sec* counterclockwise looking downward.
The small block A on the disk weighs 2.00 lb. Determine the magnitude of the
frictional force of the disk on the block when the angular velocity of the disk is
2.0 rad per sec counterclockwise. Assume that the block does not slip on the
disk.
21
Fig. P 9-19
9-20. The coefficient of friction between the block and disk in Problem 9-19
is 0.45. Determine the angular velocity of the disk when the block starts to slip.
The angular acceleration of the disk is the same as in the preceding problem.
9-21. Block A in Fig. P 9-21 weighs 6.44 lb and block B weighs 9.66 lb. All
contact surfaces are smooth. Determine the accelerations of blocks A and B.
9-22. The bodies A and B in Fig. P 9-22 each weigh 32.2 lb and are connected
by a rigid bar whose mass may be neglected. The two planes are smooth and
the velocity of A is 5.0 fps to the right in the position shown. Determine the
acceleration of A at this instant. (Note: Since the mass of AB is neglected, it is
a two-force member.)
Fig. P 9-22 Fig. P 9-23

9-23. The 8.05-lb body A in Fig. P 9-23 is connected to the 16.1-lb body B
by a 7.0-ft cord which passes over the smooth peg at C. The horizontal slot is
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smooth. When the distance x is 4.0 ft, the velocity of B is 5.0 fps to the right
and the force P is 10.0 lb to the right. Determine the acceleration of B and the
tension in the cord.
9-24. Determine the force P in Problem 9-23 which will produce an accelera
tion of B of 10.0 fps 2 to the right when x = 3.0 ft and the velocity of B is 5.0
fps to the right.
9-25. A car is traveling around a highway curve with a constant speed of
50 mph. The radius of curvature of the highway is 400 ft measured horizontally.
Determine the angle of superelevation, angle 0 in Fig. P 9-25, of the roadway
when there is no tendency for the car to slip on the highway.
Fig. P 9-25
9-6. Translation of a rigid body. When every line in a rigid body

remains parallel to its initial position, the motion of the body is defined
as translation. If a rigid body has translation, all particles of the body
have the same acceleration.
The general force equations for a system of particles, Eq. (9-8), apply
to a rigid body having a motion of trans
lation. These equations determine the
magnitude and sense of the resultant in
terms of the mass and acceleration of the
body, but they do not locate the line of
action of the resultant force. The line of
action of the resultant of the external force
system acting on the body must be the
same as the line of action of the resultant
of the effective forces of the particles,
according to d’Alembert’s principle. Fig
ure 9-6 represents a rigid body having a
motion of translation. The axes are
selected in such a manner that the acceler
ation of any particle in the body is in the x direction. The effective
forces of the particles of the body constitute a parallel system of vectors
in space. The resultant of this system is, from Eq. (9-8),
R = ma, (9-9)
where m is the mass of the body and a is the acceleration of any point.
The position of the line of action of the resultant of the effective forces
is determined by the principle of moments. The effective force of any
particle of mass mi at point (xi,yi,Zi) is mia, and its moment with respect
to the z axis is m ayi. The moment of the resultant of the effective
forces with respect to the z axis is the sum of the moments of all the ma
vectors. Thus @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Ryu = miayi + m 2ay 2 + m ay z + • • •

= a(miyi + m 2 y2 + m z yz + • • • ) = amy Gl (9-10)
where yn is the distance from the z axis to the resultant and yG is the dis
tance from the xz plane to the mass center of the body. When Eq.
(9-9) is substituted in Eq. (9-10), the result is
may R = mayo
from which yR = yQ . (9-11)
When moments are summed with respect to the y axis, the z coordinate
of the line of action of the resultant effective force is found to be
Zr = 2g. (9-12)
Equations (9-11) and (9-12) indicate that the resultant effective force
must pass through the mass center of the body. Since the resultant of
the external forces is the same as the resultant of the effective forces, it
also must pass through the mass center of the body, and the sum of the
moments of the external forces about any axis through the mass center
is zero. That is,
S(M O) X = 0, Z(M o )y = 0, S(3f o ), = 0, (9-13)
where ( M o ) x indicates the moment of a force about an axis through the
mass center in the x direction, and so on. Equations (9-13) and (9-8)
are the equations of motion for any rigid body having a motion of trans
lation. In many problems a body may have coplanar translation; and
if the external forces are all in the plane of motion (of the mass center),
only three equations of motion are relevant. If the mass center moves
in the xy plane, these three equations are
SF X = ma x , ZF y = ma,, S(Af 0 )« = 0. (9-14)
In applying Eq. (9-14) to rectilinear translation, usually it is desirable
to select either the x or y axis in the
direction of the acceleration, in which
case the other acceleration compo
nent is zero. For curvilinear trans
lation, it is frequently convenient to
choose the x and y axes in the direc
tions of the normal and tangential
components of the acceleration.
Example 9-3: Body B in Fig. 9-7
weighs 96.6 lb and is moved along the
smooth surface by a horizontal force applied
at O, Body D weighs 64.4 lb and is con Fig. 9-7
nected to B by a pin at E and the inex
tensible cord AC. The tension in the cord is 20.0 lb. Determine:
(a) The horizontal force at 0.
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(b) The components of the reaction at E@seismicisolation
on body B.
Solution: Figure 9-8a is the free-body diagram of body B, The body has a motion
of translation, and the equations of motion are
8=1 =
SF® EF y 0.
The first two equations of motion involve four unknown forces and one unknown
acceleration (the vertical acceleration is zero), and the third equation introduces the
unknown distance x (assuming that the
dimensions of the block are known or can
be measured). Thus there are six un
knowns and three equations of motion.;
therefore additional information must be
obtained.
Figure 9-8b is the free-body diagram of
body D. Body D also has a motion of
translation, and the general equations of
motion are the same as for body B. There
are two unknown forces on the free-body
diagram and one unknown acceleration (the
vertical component of the acceleration is
zero) in the equations of motion; hence all
three unknowns can be determined. Fur
thermore, the force components, E x and
E v , and the acceleration of body D are three
of the unknown quantities for body B.
Thus there are six unknowns and six equa
tions of motion for the two bodies. The
positive directions are shown in Fig. 9-8a
and 9-8b. The value of (aa)* is unknown
and is assumed to be to the left for both
bodies, since both have the same accelera
tion. Since (og) v and the moments about
axes through the mass centers are zero, the
positive senses are chosen arbitrarily as shown. The equations of motion for body
D are
64 4 (ck?)
ZF. - 4(20) “ Fx = 321 ”
SF„ - E y - 4(20) - 64.4 = 0,
and S(M 0 ). = 1.0(B®) - 0.5(B v ( + 1.0(J)(20) + 0.5(|)(20) - 0,
from which (og)* — —4.10 = 4.10 fps*

E z = 20.2 lb —< on D — 20.2 lb <— on B,
and E v - 80.4 lb f on D - 80.4 lb 1 on B.
The negative sign for (og)* indicates that it was assumed to be in the wrong direction
for D and is therefore in the wrong direction for body B.
The force P can be determined by writing the first equation of motion for body B.
Thus
SF. =■ p - 1(20) + E. = (a«).

or P - 12 + 20.2 = 3.00(— 4.10)
and ► on body B.
P = —20.5 lb = 20.5 lb —
The other equations of motion for body B are not needed to solve the problem as
stated.
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PROBLEMS
Note. Unless otherwise specified, all cords, ropes, and cables are assumed to
be flexible, inextensible, and of negligible weight.
9-26. Determine the minimum value of the force P in Fig. P 9-26 necessary
to cause the body to overturn. What is the acceleration of a point on the body
when this force is applied?
A B
Fig. P 9-26
9-27. (a) The sliding door in Fig. P 9-27 weighs 290 lb. The mass and fric
tion of the rollers can be considered negligible. Determine the maximum force,
P, that can be applied without causing the door to tip, and determine the resulting
acceleration of the door.
(b) If the force P in Fig. P 9-27 is 120 lb, determine the reactions at A
and B.
9-28. In Fig. P 9-28, body A is a homogeneous rectangular block weighing
64.4 lb. The coefficient of friction between A and the horizontal plane is 0.30.
The velocity of A changes uniformly from 5 fps to the right to 20 fps to the right
while A is displaced 37.5 ft to the right. Determine (a) the force P; (b) the
resultant normal force of the plane on A.
Fig. P 9-28 Fig. P 9-29
9-29. The body in Fig. P 9-29 weighs 322 lb and slides along the smooth
inclined plane. The body has an initial velocity of 10.0 fps up the plane. Deter-
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mine (a) the reactions on the block at A and B; (b) the total distance traveled
by the block during the next 2.00 sec after the velocity was 10.0 fps up the plane.
9-30. The 40-lb solid homogeneous block of uniform thickness in Fig. P 9-30
has a velocity of 5.00 fps to the right and an acceleration of 8.00 fps* to the right.
The coefficient of friction between the block and plane is 0.40. Determine the
minimum width of the block to prevent tipping as it moves along the plane.
9-31. The wedge-shaped plate in Fig. P 9-31 weighs 0.0300 lb per cu in. and
swings with line BD in the vertical plane ABCD. The plate is suspended by the
two cords AB and CD which are each 2.00 ft long. When the angle 0 is 60°, the
angular velocity of the cords is 5 rad per sec clockwise. Determine for this
position (a) the tension in each cord; (b) the acceleration of the mass center of
the plate.
9-32. The weight of block A in Fig. P 9-32 is 1610 lb and the weight of block
B is 644 lb. Determine (a) the acceleration of a point on block A ; (b) the result
ant normal pressure of the plane on block A.
Fig. P 9-33
9-33. The weight of block A in Fig. P 9-33 is 1610 lb and its acceleration is
10 fps 2 down the plane. Neglecting friction, determine the weight of body B
and the reactions at C and D on body A.
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9-34. The uniform bar AB in Fig. P 9-34 weighs 38.6 lb and is fastened to D
by a smooth pin at B and a cord AC, The acceleration of D is 20 fps* to the
left. Determine the tension in the cord and the components of the pin reaction
at B on AB,
9-35. The homogeneous rectangular block in Fig. P 9-35 weighs 12 lb. The
coefficient of friction between the block and plane is 0.30. The block is moving
to the right. Determine the maximum value of the force P which can be applied
as shown without causing the block to tip. What will be the resulting accelera
tion when this force P is acting?
9-36. The two blocks A and B in Fig. P 9-36 each weigh 50 lb. A small
stop on B prevents A from slipping on B, The constant force P has the maximum
value possible without causing A to tip.
(a) Determine the force P.
(b) If B has an initial velocity of 32.2 fps to the left, determine its
velocity after moving a total distance of 45 ft.
9-37. The crate A in Fig. P 9-37 weighs 1932 lb and is at rest before the 300-lb
force is applied. Body B weighs 322 lb. The coefficients of static and kinetic
friction between A and the horizontal plane are 0.22 and 0.20, respectively.
Determine all unknown forces acting on A after the 300-lb force is applied.
9-38. Body A in Fig. P 9-38 weighs 10.0 lb and body B weighs 6.0 lb. The
coefficient of friction between A and B is 0.60 and that between B and the plane
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
336 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION (§9-6
is 0.10. The two bodies are initially at rest. Determine the maximum force P
which can be applied to A as shown without causing A to tip or to slide on B.
Fig. P 9-38 Fig. P 9-39
9-39. The assembly in Fig. P 9-39 slides on a smooth horizontal plane. The
bar AB, which is homogeneous and has a uniform cross section, is pinned at A
and attached to a cord at B. Bar AB weighs 128.8 lb and body C weighs 322 lb.
Determine (a) the acceleration of the assembly; (b) the tension in the cord at B;
(c) the horizontal and vertical components of the pin reaction at A on the bar.
9-40. In Fig. P 9-40, block A weighs 644 lb and block B weighs 966 lb. When
the velocity of B is 5.00 fps to the right and the acceleration is 1.50 fps 1 to the
left, the force P will just start to tip B about 0. Determine the coefficient of
friction between B and the plane.
Feg. P9-40 Fig. P 9-41
9-41. The 500-lb homogeneous block A in Fig. P 9-41 is placed on a frame as

shown and pushed along the horizontal plane. The support at C is smooth and
the coefficient of friction at D is 0.20. Determine the components of the reactions
at C and D on A when the acceleration of the block is 10 fps 1 to the left.
9-42. The bar AB in Fig. P 9-42 weighs 64.4 lb and is pinned to the frame
D at B. The bar is held in the position shown by the cord AC. The frame D
@seismicisolation
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KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 337
weighs 161 lb. Determine the maximum value of the force P that can be applied
without breaking the cord, which will withstand a maximum tension of 100 lb.
9-43. The homogeneous block A in Fig. P 9-43 weighs 500 lb and is supported
on the block B at C and by the cable. B is pulled along the smooth plane by the
force P. The coefficient of friction at C is 0.30. Determine the maximum
acceleration to the left the assembly can have if A is not to slip on B at C.
9-44. Determine the tension in the cable in Fig. P 9-43 when the acceleration
of the assembly is 15.0 fps 1 to the left.
coefficient of friction between A and B is 0.40 and the plane is smooth. Deter
mine the magnitude of the maximum horizontal force which can be applied at
C without causing A to tip or slide on B (a) if the force is to the left; (b) if the
force is to the right.
coefficient of friction is 0.20 at C, 0.50 at D, and zero at E. The bodies are
initially at rest when the force P = 8.00 lb is applied. Determine the accelera
tion of A with respect to B immediately after the force is applied.
9-7. Rotation of a rigid body. A body has pure rotation when one
line in the body or body extended is fixed and all particles of the body
not on this line travel in circular paths about the fixed axis. The rigid
body in Fig. 9-9 is rotating about a fixed axis through O with a clockwise
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
angular velocity and acceleration as shown. The mass center G is
traveling on a circular path of radius f as indicated by the dashed line.
The normal and tangential compo
nents of the acceleration of G are
(OQ)n = rw 2 Z
and (og): = f a \ .
The equations of motion of the
mass center of any system of parti
cles, as developed in Art. 9-4, apply
to a rigid body which has a motion
of rotation. Since the directions
involved in Eq. (9-8) are not fixed,
usually it is convenient to select
the axes in the directions of the
normal and tangential components
of the acceleration of the mass
center. The force equations thus
become
iG ) h ZF a = m(a 0 ) € = 0, (9-15)
where the z axis is perpendicular to the plane of motion.
If the body is symmetrical with respect to the plane of motion (the
plane in which the mass center moves), the resultant of the effective
forces of the particles will be in the plane of motion. The position of
the resultant of the effective forces in the plane of motion can be deter
mined by applying the principle of moments to the effective forces of the
particles.
In Fig. 9-9, the acceleration of the particle B x of mass mi is made up
of two components, a tangential component r x a downward to the right
perpendicular to r x and a normal component r xw 2 downward to the left
through the axis of rotation. The effective force of the particle has two
components m xr x a and in the directions of the corresponding
acceleration components as shown. The moment of the effective force
of particle B x with respect to the axis of rotation is r x(m xr xa). The
normal component of the effective force passes through the axis of rota
tion and hence has no moment about the axis of rotation. The moment
of the resultant of the effective forces is the sum of the moments of the
effective forces of all the particles. That is,
= mirfa + mzrfa + m8 rja + • • •
= a(m xrf + m 2rl + m3r? + • • • ) ,
since a is the same for all lines in the body parallel to the plane of motion.
The quantity in the parenthesesis the moment of inertia of the mass of the
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@seismicisolation
body with respect to the axis of rotation and is represented by the symbol
I ar- Thus the moment of the resultant of the effective forces is
Mar = Iar&-
From d’Alembert’s principle, the resultant of the external forces

acting on the body must equal the resultant of the effective forces of the
particles of the body; therefore the sum of the moments of the external
forces with respect to the axis of rotation is
'EM AR = I AR&- (9-16)
When the body is symmetrical with respect to the plane of motion,
the resultant of the effective forces (and hence the resultant of the
external forces) lies in the plane of symmetry, and the moment of the
external forces about any axis in the plane of motion is zero. When
the body is not symmetrical with respect to the plane of motion, the
resultant does not ordinarily lie in the plane of motion, and the sum of
the moments of the external forces about an axis in the plane of motion
is not zero but is equal to the sum of the moments of the effective forces
about the axis. This moment can be obtained by means of an analysis
similar to the one used* to develop Eq. (9-16).
In many problems in engineering, the body is symmetrical with
respect to the plane of motion and the external forces can be assumed to
lie in the same plane, in which case only three equations of motion are
needed. They are
SF n = 7n(ck?)n, 2F t = m(a<j)t, ’ZMar = Iarol- (9-17)
If the body is rotating about an axis through the mass center, the
right sides of the first two of Eq. (9-17) are zero, since Qg = 0.
The tangential component of the acceleration of G is related to the
angular acceleration of the body by the equation (og)< = fa, and hence
the directions for (og)< and a should be consistent. Thus in Fig. 9-9,
if a is clockwise, (ao)t is downward to the right. If a and (og)« are both
unknown, the direction of one should be assumed and the other direction
chosen consistent with the one assumed.
Because the normal and tangential components of the acceleration
of the mass center of a rotating rigid body are generally the most con
venient components to determine, usually it is easier to determine the
normal and tangential components of the pin or axle reaction on the body
than to determine the horizontal and vertical components. It is cus
tomary to show normal and tangential components of the pin reaction
on the free-body diagram.
The resultant effective force and the resultant of the external forces
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pass through the mass center of a translating rigid body. For a rotating
340 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION IS9-7
rigid body, with a different from zero, the resultant of the effective forces,
which is along the same line as the resultant of the external forces, does
not pass through the mass center. The location of a point on the action
line of the resultant effective force for a rotating rigid body can be deter
mined as follows.
The resultant of the effective forces for the particles of the body in
Fig. 9-9 passes through some point P on the n axis and can be resolved
into two components m(aa) n along the n axis from G toward 0 and m(ao) t,
parallel to, but not along, the t axis through G. The distance q from 0
to the tangential component of the resultant of the effective forces is
obtained from the principle of moments. Thus
qm(a0 )t = I ar*
or qmfot = Iarclj
AR
from which q = = m AR _ ar
mf mf f
From the parallel-axis theorem,
I ar = Ig + mf 2
and
from which
Therefore q is always greater than f.

The point P at which the resultant effective force forthe particles of the body
intersects the n axis is called the center of percussion of the body. Since the
resultant effective force for the body passes through the center of per
cussion, the moment of the resultant effective force about P is equal to
zero, and by d’Alembert’s principle the moment of the external forces
about the center of percussion is also zero. Thus a force applied to a
body through the center of percussion will not affect the tangential
component of the reaction of the pin or axle at the axis of rotation.
With ballistic pendulums, impact-testing machines, and similar appa
ratus, the load is usually applied to the body through the center of per
cussion, to eliminate the bearing reaction due to the applied load. In
baseball, the bat stings the batter’s hands unless the ball is hit at the
center of percussion of the swinging bat.
Example 9-4: The body in Fig. 9-10 consists of a slender homogeneous rod AB of
uniform cross section weighing 15.0 lb and fastened rigidly to the solid homogeneous
sphere C weighing 50.0 lb. The composite body rotates in a vertical plane about a
horizontal axis at A. When the angle 6 is 60°, the body has an angular velocity of 5.0
rad per sec clockwise and an angular acceleration of 10.0 rad per sec* counterclock
@seismicisolation
wise. Determine the components of the reaction of the axis at A on the body.
@seismicisolation
Solution: A free-body diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 9-11. The mass
center, G, of the system is along the line connecting the mass centers of the two bodies,
and the total weight of the composite body could be shown acting through G in Fig.
9-11. The pin reaction at A is resolved into normal and tangential components which
50.0 1 *
Fig. 9-10 Fig. 9-11
are parallel to the corresponding components of the acceleration of the mass center.
The body has a motion of rotation, and the general equations of motion are
SF b =■m(ao) n , ZFt =” “ I arc*.
The free-body diagram contains three unknown forces, which can be obtained
from the three equations of motion after the right sides of these equations have been
evaluated from the given data with the aid of the necessary kinematic relations. The
moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect to the axis of rotation is
I AR “ (Za)rod 4" (wwf’Jrod 4“ 4“ (md’)sphere

1 15.0 15.0 2 50.0 50.0
20 (10) + + (2 50)
- 12 3272 < >’ + 321 ‘ 5 321 321 ’ ‘
- 0.1553 + 0.466 + 0.1553 + 9.70
= 10.48 slug-ft 1 .
The mass center can be located by applying the principle of moments for masses.
Summing moments with respect to a plane through A perpendicular to the rod, the
result is
15.0 50.0 65.0 %
32?2 (1.00) + gg-g (2.50) - gg-g (f)
from which f = 2.15 ft,
where f is the distance from A to the mass center (measured along the bar). The
mass center is moving along a circular path, and the normal and tangential components
of its acceleration are
- f«» - 2.15(5.0)’ - 53.8 fps’
and (og)< - fa - 2.15(10.0) - 21.5 fps’ .
The positive directions for the motion equations are selected to agree with the direc
tions of the components of the acceleration of the mass center and the angular accel
eration of the body, and they are shown in Fig. 9-11. When specific values are sub
@seismicisolation
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stituted in the motion equations, the results are
342 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION I §9-7
65.0
ZFn => - R n 4- 0.866(15.0) + 0.866(50.0) - zz-x (53.8) - 108.7,
uZ.Z
65.0
?F t - P + Rt - 0.500(15.0) - 0.500(50.0) - (21.5) - 43.5,
and ZM A r - 2.00P - 1.00(0.500) (15.0) - 2.50(0.500) (50.0) = 10.48(10.0).
A solution of the equations gives the following results:
P - 87.4 lb
Rn - -52.3 lb - 52.3 lb .
and R. - -11.4 lb = 11.4 Jb 30*
The negative signs on the components of the reaction indicate that both were assumed
to be in the wrong direction.
When the mass centers of the separate bodies of a composite body are all along a
straight line through the axis of rotation, it is not necessary to locate the resultant
mass center or to determine its acceleration to use in Eq. (9-15). Instead, the right
side of each of the first two equations can be expressed as the sum of the values of
or m(aa)r for the separate bodies, since
m(aa) n = mFw 1
and mf = miri + m 2r 2 + m 2r 2 + • • • .
Therefore m(aa) n 88 mino* + msraw* + nhrjw* + • • • .
Similar equations apply for the tangential direction. In this example the force
equations become
- -Z? n + 0.866(15.0) 4- 0.866(50.0)
15.0 50.0
- 32/2 t 1 0 0 0
)’ + 32 2 C2 -50 0
)’ 83 108 7
and] ZFt -= P 4- Rt - 0.500(15.0) - 0.500(50.0)

15.0 50.0
- 32 2 ( 1 0 °)( 10 °) + 32 2 “ 43 5
- -
These equations simplify the solution, since it is not necessary to locate the mass
center. If the mass centers of the separate parts of
the system were not on a straight line through the axis
of rotation, the procedure as illustrated could not be
used because the directions of the normal and tan
gential accelerations of the separate mass centers
would not be in the same direction and thus could
not be added directly. However, the mac values of
the component bodies could still be used instead of
the mao of the composite body, provided the proper
components of each separate mac were used in each
equation of motion.
Example 9-5: The unbalanced wheel A in Fig. 9-12
weighs 64.4 lb and has a radius of gyration of mass
relative to the horizontal axis of rotation through 0
of 0.40 ft. The block B weighs 48.3 lb and is fastened to A by an inextensible cord
which passes over the smooth drum at D and is wrapped around A. The moment of
the couple C applied to A is 20.0 ft-lb counterclockwise. When A is in the position
indicated, it has an angular velocity of 6.0 rad per sec clockwise. Determine the
normal and tangential components of the reaction at O on body A. Neglect bearing
friction at 0. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Solution: The free-body diagram of body A is shown in Fig. 9-13a. The reaction
at 'O is resolved into normal and tangential components, since the body has pure
rotation. The general equations of motion are
SF n = m(ao) n , ZF t - m(a(j) h M A r - Iar<*.
The free-body diagram contains three unknown forces and the equations of motion
contain three unknown accelerations. Since is
given, (a<j) n can be obtained from kinematics.
Another equation of kinematics expresses (aa)t in
terms of a. Thus there are four remaining un
known quantities (T, 0 t , O nt and a) and three
equations of motion for body A. Therefore an
other free-body diagram is necessary.
The free-body diagram of body B in Fig. 9-13b
contains no additional unknown forces. The body (o)
has translation, but only one equation of motion,
SF r =
supplies any useful information. The acceleration

of B can be expressed in terms of the angular
acceleration of A by kinematics, which will leave
four equations of motion and four unknown quanti (b)
ties after the equations of kinematics have been
written.
Fig. 9-13
With the unknown angular acceleration of A assumed to be counterclockwise,
t he equations of kinematics are
(a<?)n — r<a\ - A(6.0)« = 9.0 fps’

(a«) t “ ra A = 0.25ax
and (as)v ” 'fis a A =
0.50ax T •
The positive directions, based on the assumed direction for aa, are shown near the
free-body diagrams. When specific values are substituted in the four general equa
tions of motion, they become
ZF n = -On + 0.60T + 0.80(64.4) = (2.0) (9.0),
XFt = -O t + 0.60(64.4) - 0.80T - (2.0)(0.25a x ),
ZMar - 20.0 - 0.50T + (0.60) (? f ( (64.4) = (2.0) (0.40)*a A,
and SF, = T - 48.3 = 1.5(0.50ax).
The last two equations can be solved simultaneously for T and a At and these results
can be substituted in the first two equations for the components of the reaction.
The results are
T = 54.2 lb,
a A =* 4-7.93 — 7.93 rad per sec* ( ,
On - 4-66.1 lb
and 0, = -8.7 = 8.7 lb
st
PROBLEMS
Note, Unless otherwise specified, all cords, ropes, and cables are assumed
to be flexible, inextensible, and of negligible weight. All pins and axles are
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
assumed to be smooth unless otherwise stated.
344 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION ISO-7
9-47. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 9-47 weighs 644 lb and is
rotating at 120 rpm clockwise about a fixed horizontal axis through 0. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the brake and the cylinder is 0.20. If the
tension in the spring when the brake is applied is 200 lb, determine the time
required for the cylinder to stop rotating. Neglect the thickness of the vertical
members.
Fig. P 9-48
9-48. The radius of gyration of mass of the symmetrical drum D in Fig. P 9-48
is 2.0 ft with respect to the axis of rotation. The drum weighs 483 lb, and the
coefficient of kinetic friction between the brake and drum is 0.40. Determine the
constant force P necessary to reduce the angular velocity from 90 rpm to 30 rpm,
both clockwise, while the drum is turning through 15 revolutions. Neglect the
weight and thickness of the members of the brake.
9-49. The drum A of a mine hoist in Fig. P 9-49 weighs 8 tons and has a
radius of gyration of mass of 5.0 ft with respect to the axis of rotation. It lifts a
cage B weighing 6 tons. Determine the couple C which must be applied to the
drum to start the cage upward with an acceleration of 5.0 fps*.
Fig. P 9-49 Fig. P 9-50

9-50. In Fig. P 9-50, the solid homogeneous cylinder A weighs 644 lb and
rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through 0. The moment of the couple C is
60.0 ft-lb. Body B starts from rest and moves 25.0 ft downward in 5.00 sec.
Determine (a) the weight of body B; (b) the reaction at 0 on body A.
9-51. The 30-lb force on the flexible rope in Fig. P 9-51 pulls body A to the
right and turns the pulley B.@seismicisolation
The rope does not slip on the pulley. Body A
@seismicisolation
weighs 257.6 lb, and the pulley B weighs 48.3 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass relative to the axis of rotation of 0.70 ft. The bearing at 0 and the hori
zontal plane are smooth. Determine (a) the acceleration of body A; (b) the
reactions of the plane on body A.
3O ,b
Fig. P 9-51
9-52. Body A in Fig. P 9-52 is a solid homogeneous cylinder which weighs
644 lb and is attached to block B, which weighs 3220 lb, by means of a cable.
If block B is moving to the right, determine the greatest torque T which can be
applied to the cylinder before the block will tip. The coefficient of friction
between block B and the horizontal plane is 0.20.
9*
9-53. Block A in Fig. P 9-53 weighs 10 lb, block B weighs 40 lb, and the
solid homogeneous cylinder C weighs 64.4 lb. The coefficient of friction between
the cylinder and the flexible cord connecting A and B is 0.15. The system is
initially at rest. Determine the angular acceleration of C.
9-54. Solve Problem 9-53 if the coefficient of friction between the cord and
the cylinder is 0.25.
9-55. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 9-55 weighs 64.4 lb and
rotates about the fixed horizontal axis 0 @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
with an angular velocity at the instant of
10 rad per sec clockwise and an angular acceleration of 5 rad per sec 1 counter
clockwise. Determine the force P and the components of the pin reaction at 0
on the body.
Fig. P 9-55
9-56. The uniform slender homogeneous rod in Fig. P 9-56 rotates in a vertical
plane about a horizontal axle at A. When the rod is in the position shown, its
angular velocity is 5.0 rad per sec and the angular acceleration is 3.0 rad per sec 1
both clockwise. Determine (a) the mass of the rod; (b) the components of the
reaction of the axle at A on the rod.
Fig. P 9-56
9-57. The plate in Fig. P 9-57 weighs 100 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to the axis of rotation at O of 3.00 ft. The plate is at rest
before the 40-lb force is applied.
(a) Determine the horizontal component of the reaction at O on the
plate when d = 2.50 ft.
(b) Determine the distance d which will make the horizontal compo
nent of the reaction at O be zero.
Fig. P 9-57
9-58. Figure P 9-58 represents the pendulum of an impact-testing machine
used to measure the strength@seismicisolation
of the test specimen used as a cantilever beam.
@seismicisolation
The rod AB weighs 20.0 lb, and each of the cylindrical disks weighs 60.0 lb.
Determine the distance the striking edge should be placed from the axis of rota
tion to eliminate any horizontal bearing reaction at the instant of impact.
Fig. P 9-58 Fig. P 9-59

9-59. The body in Fig. P 9-59 weighs 322 lb and rotates about a fixed hori
zontal axis through 0. When the body is in the position shown, it has an angular
velocity of 60 rpm clockwise and an angular acceleration of 30 rpm per sec
counterclockwise. The radius of gyration of mass of the body with respect to a
horizontal axis through G is 0.90 ft. Determine the torque, T, and the com
ponents of the reaction on the body at 0.
9-60. The homogeneous hollow cylinder of Fig. P 9-60 weighs 128.8 lb and
rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through O. When in the position shown, it
has an angular velocity of 30 rpm clockwise and an angular acceleration of 6 rad
per sec 2 clockwise. Determine (a) the force P; (b) the components of the pin
reaction on the body at 0.
9-61. The uniform bar in Fig. P 9-61 rotates about a fixed horizontal axis
through C. The bar weighs 322 lb. When the bar is in the position shown, it
has an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec and an angular acceleration of 20 rad
per sec 2, both counterclockwise. Determine (a) the force P; (b) the components
of the pin reaction on the bar at C.
9-62. A 128.8-lb homogeneous spherical ball is rigidly fastened to a homo
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
geneous 64.4-lb slender rod as indicated in Fig. P 9-62. The composite body
rotates in a vertical plane about a fixed axis through 0. When the body is in the
position shown, its angular velocity is 5 rad per sec counterclockwise. Deter
mine (a) the angular acceleration of the body; (b) the components of the reaction
of the support on the body at 0.
Fig. P 9-62
9-63. The body of Fig. P 9-63 is composed of three homogeneous uniform
slender rods rigidly connected at A and B. The mass of rod AB is 5 slugs, the
mass of rod CD is 3 slugs, and the mass of rod EF is 6 slugs. The body rotates
in a vertical plane about a fixed horizontal axis through 0. When the body is
in the position shown, it has an angular velocity of 30 rad per sec counterclock
wise and an angular acceleration of 40 rad per sec 2 clockwise. Neglect the thick
ness of the rods. Determine the force P and the components of the reaction on
the body at 0.
9-64. The drum in Fig. P 9-64 weighs 644 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through 0 of 2.5 ft. When the drum is
in the position shown, its angular velocity is 4 rad per sec clockwise. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between the brake and drum is 0.20. Neglect the
weight of the brake. Determine (a) the angular acceleration of the drum; (b)
the components of the pin reaction at O on the drum.
Fig. P 9-64
9-65. The 322-lb unbalanced drum A in Fig. P 9-65 rotates about a hori
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
zontal axis at 0 and has a radius of gyration of mass with respect to the axis of
rotation of 0.75 ft. The coefficient of friction at B and C is 0.20. The tension
in the spring is 200 lb, and in the position indicated the angular velocity of A is
6.0 rad per sec clockwise. The weights of the brake members may be neglected.
Determine the bearing reaction on the drum at 0.
9-66. The assembly in Fig. P 9-66 rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through
A. The solid homogeneous disk D weighs 64.4 lb and is connected to the rigid
A frame ABC by the cord and a pin at C. When the assembly is in the position
shown, it has an angular velocity of 2 rad per sec clockwise. The weight of the
A frame can be neglected. Determine the tension in the cord.
9-67. The uniform slender rod AB in Fig. P 9-67 has a mass of 3 slugs and
is rigidly connected to the solid homogeneous cylinder C, which has a mass of
10 slugs. This composite body rotates about a horizontal axle at 0. The body
D is connected to C by a rope which is wrapped around the cylinder; and when
D is in the position shown, it has an acceleration of 3 fps 2 upward. Determine
the weight of body D.
9-68. The unbalanced pulley A in Fig. P 9-68 weighs 322 lb and rotates about
a fixed horizontal axis through O. The radius of gyration of mass of A with
respect to this axis is 1.20 ft. Body B weighs 161 lb. When the pulley is in the
position shown, its angular velocity is 60 rpm clockwise. Determine the com
ponents of the reaction on the body at 0.
36"
Fig. P 9-68
9-69. The uniform slender rod A in Fig. P 9-69 is 6 ft long, weighs 193.2 lb,
and rotates about a fixed horizontal axis @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
through 0. It is connected by a cord to
body B, which weighs 48.3 lb. When in the position shown, body Bhas a velocity
of 6.0 fps downward. Determine (a) the acceleration of B; (b) the reaction of
the pin at 0 on the rod A.
9-70. The homogeneous cylinder A weighs 161 lb and rotates about a vertical
axis as shown in Fig. P 9-70. A small disk B weighing 16.1 lb, which may be con
sidered as a particle, is placed on the cylinder. The coefficient of static friction
between the disk and cylinder is 0.50. Determine the angular velocity of the
cylinder when the disk starts to slip. The 63-lb force is in a horizontal plane.
Neglect the weight of the shaft and assume that the bodies start from rest.
9-71. The long slender rod in Fig. P 9-71 is made of a homogeneous material,
but its cross-sectional area varies directly as the distance from the left end.
The rod weighs 161 lb. When the rod is in the position indicated, its angular
velocity is 5 rad per sec clockwise. For this position determine the components
of the pin reaction at 0 on the rod.
9-8. Plane motion of a rigid body. When every particle of a moving
rigid body remains a constant distance
y
from a fixed reference plane, the body
has plane motion. All lines in the body
in or parallel to the plane of motion (the
plane in which the mass center moves
that is parallel to the fixed reference
plane) have the same angular velocity
and the same angular acceleration at any
instant. The particles of a rigid body
having plane motion all travel along plane
curves, and the relations between the
angular motion of the body and the
Fig. 9-14
accelerations of various particles of the
body can be obtained from kinematics as indicated in Chapters 7 and 8.
The effective forces of the various particles of the body are all parallel
to the plane of motion, since the acceleration of each particle must lie in
the plane in which it moves. As an example, consider the particles of
the cylinder in Fig. 9-14.@seismicisolation
The cylinder rolls along the xz plane in the
@seismicisolation
§9-8J KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 351
x direction and thus has plane motion. The particles Pi, Pj, and P s
have masses j»i, m 2, and m* and accelerations a b a 2, and a 8 . The effec
tive forces of the particles are all parallel to the xy plane, the plane of
motion, as indicated in the figure, and they constitute a system of non
concurrent, nonparallel, noncoplanar vectors. The resultant of such a
system of vectors is, in general, an effective force parallel to the xy plane
and an effective couple.
The resultant of the external forces acting on the body is equal to
the resultant of the effective forces of the particles of the body. The
magnitude of the resultant of the external forces can be determined by
the general equations which were developed in Art. 9-4. When the xy
plane is the plane of motion, the force equations are
SF X = m(aG)z, SFy - m(aG)v , ZF t = m(ao) 8 = 0. (9-18)
The position of the resultant of the effective forces can be determined
by the principle of moments. Instead of locating the resultant effective
force, however, it is usually more convenient to determine its moment
with respect to a reference axis and
y
equate this moment to the sum of the
moments of the external forces about the
same axis. If the body is symmetrical
with respect to the plane of motion, the
effective forces will occur in parallel pairs
which are equal in magnitude and sym
metrically arranged with respect to the
plane of motion. In this case the result
ant effective force will lie in the plane of
motion, and the moment of the effective
forces (and hence of the external forces) Fig. 9-15
will be zero about any axis in the plane
of motion and only one moment equation will need to be developed.
This equation is valid, however, whether the body is symmetrical or
not.
The mass center, (7, of the rigid body in Fig. 9-15 moves in the xy
plane. Point A is the origin of the coordinate system, and it has the
velocity and acceleration indicated. The angular velocity and angular
acceleration of any line of the body parallel to the plane of motion are
counterclockwise. The acceleration of any particle B of mass 'dm can
be obtained from the equation of relative acceleration for particles B
and A as follows:
s
&b &B/A +> Sa
@seismicisolation
+> Oa.
@seismicisolation
352 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION LS«Mi
The effective force of particle B is
-> T
2
a B dm = rw dm +> ra dm +> (<u) x dm +> (cu) v dm,
and its components act through B as shown on Fig. 9-15. The moment
of the effective force of particle B with respect to an axis through A
perpendicular to the plane of motion is
dAfji = r 2 a dm — j/(cu)x dm + dm,
where the positive direction is assumed to be counterclockwise. The
moment of the resultant of the effective forces is the sum of the moments
of the effective forces for all the particles of the body, and it can be
obtained by integrating the preceding equation. Thus
(AG)* = afrdm — (aA xjy dm + dm.
The quantities a, (cu)*, and are outside the integral signs because
they are constants for this integration. The expression Jr 2 dm is the
moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect to an axis through
A perpendicular to the plane of motion. The quantities f y d m and
Jx dm are the first moments of the mass of the body with respect to
planes perpendicular to the plane of motion containing the x and y axes,
respectively. The moment of the resultant of the effective forces of the
body, and hence the sum of the moments of the external forces acting on
the body with respect to an axis through A perpendicular to the plane
of motion is
X(AG)«t = (Ma)* = I a* - (oi)*W + fa) v mZ (9-19)
in which rightward, upward, and counterclockwise are the positive
directions.
Equation (9-19) can be simplified by selecting point A at the mass
center of the body because £ and y become zero, and the moment equa
tion reduces to
= I Qa. (9-20)
Since Eq. (9-20) is much simpler than Eq. (9-19), its use will be
emphasized in the following discussion.
The last two terms of Eq. (9-19) are also zero if the point selected as
the origin A has zero acceleration or has an acceleration along the line
AG. The axis of rotation for pure rotation (a special case of plane
motion) has zero acceleration, and Eq. (9-19) reduces to Eq. (9-16).
In general, however, the location and use of the point of zero acceleration
is not practical. To demonstrate that the last two terms of Eq. (9-19)
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
are zero when a A is along AG, select the x axis along AG, in which case
(ax)y and y are both zero. In some problems the selection of a moment
axis through a point whose acceleration is directed toward (or away from)
the mass center is useful, in which case the moment equation is
= I Aa. (9-21)
When a wheel rolls without slipping along a fixed plane, the acceleration
of the point of contact (the instantaneous center) is normal to the plane;
and if the mass center is on the line through the point of contact normal
to the plane, Eq. (9-21) can be applied with respect to an axis through
the instantaneous center.
In many engineering problems involving plane motion the body is
symmetrical with respect to the plane of motion (the xy plane) and the
applied forces can be assumed to lie in this plane, in which case only three
equations of motion are necessary. They are
= m(ao) x , ZFV = m(aa)v , ZM<? = I a a, (9-22)
in which the G axis is the axis through G perpendicular to the plane of

motion. If the body is symmetrical with respect to the xy plane (the
plane of motion), but the external forces do not lie in this plane, the fol
lowing equations are applicable in addition to Eq. (9-22) :
SF, = 0, ZM X = 0, ZM V = 0. (9-23)
If the body is not symmetrical with respect to the xy plane (the plane
of motion), the last two of Eq. (9-23) are not valid, and equations similar
to Eq. (9-19) must be derived.
When Eq. (9-22) is used, a sign convention must be established, and
again it is convenient to choose the positive directions in the directions
of the corresponding accelerations. In case one or more of the linear or
angular accelerations are unknown, their directions should be assumed.
It is usually helpful to write any relative acceleration equations needed
before selecting the positive directions to assist in determining consistent
positive directions.
In problems involving wheels which roll without slipping, the fric
tional force is an unknown quantity and can be determined (both in
magnitude and sense) by means of the equations of motion. The sense
of the frictional force is not dependent on the direction of the velocity or
on the direction of the acceleration of the center of the wheel. If the
wheel rolls and slips or if slipping impends, the frictional force must
oppose the relative velocity (or impending motion) of the point of con
tact of the wheel, and the surface and the magnitude of the friction will
be equal to the coefficient of friction @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
multiplied by the znonnal force.
354 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION [§9-s
Example 9-6: Body A in Fig. 9-16 is a 100-lb solid homogeneous cylinder with a
narrow slot cut in it as indicated by the dashed circle. The effect of the slot on the
moment of inertia of the cylinder can be neglected. The coefficient of friction between
the cylinder and plane is 0.40. Block B is connected to A by the flexible cord which
passes over the smooth drum and is wrapped around the cylinder in the slot. Deter
mine the maximum weight B can have if the cylinder is to roll without slipping along
the inclined plane. The point on A in contact with the plane has impending motion
down the plane.
) b)
Fig. 9-16
Solution: The free-body diagrams for the two bodies are shown in Fig. 9-17. For
impending motion the frictional force F opposes the motion or impending motion of
the point of contact; therefore the friction on A is up the plane. Body A has plane
motion and body B has translation. The general equations of motion for A are
XFx = m(a<?)x, ZF y = m(aa) k , SAZg = Zea,
and the equation’ of motion for B is
= m(aB) v.
If the x and y axes for body A are selected parallel and perpendicular to the plane,
respectively, (og) v will be zero . In the two free-body diagrams there are four unknown
forces (Wb, T , F, and A), and the four motion equations contain three unknown
accelerations [(og) x , a, and (a#) v], making seven unknowns and four equations of
motion. Three additional relationships must be obtained from friction and
kinematics.
Since slipping impends, the frictional force is
F = F' = 0.40A.
The wheel does not slip; therefore, from kinematics, the acceleration of G is
=
(og)« ra 1.00a.
The x component of the acceleration of E (equal in magnitude to the acceleration of
B) can be expressed in terms of the angular acceleration of A by relative motion.
Thus with a assumed to be clockwise,
&e = a /G +> Hg
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
59-8] KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 355
from which
(a*), - (a B )v - 0.75a + 1.00a = 1.75a,
where (a B is up the plane and (as) v is downward.

If a is found to be negative the accelerations of G and B will also be negative, and
all three will have directions opposite the assumed directions. The positive directions
are shown in Fig. 9-17 near the corresponding free-body diagrams.
When specific values are substituted in the equations of motion for A, they become
SF, - T + F - | (100) - 191 (1.00)a,
ZF, - N - | (100) - §1 (ao ), _ o,
and XMo = 0.75T - 1.00F - | (1.00)‘a.

Likewise for B,
„ m WB . . Wb _
SF, = W B - T - (<*), -
and from friction,
F =■0.40AT.
The solution of these equations gives W B — 313 lb.

9
Example 9-7: Bar AB in Fig. 9-18 is 10.0 ft long and weighs 96.6 lb. The ends
of the rod are connected to rollers of negligible mass which move in the smooth slots
as indicated. When the bar is in the position shown, the moment of the couple C is
60 ft-lb counterclockwise and the velocity of A is 7 fps down the slot. Determine:
(a) The angular acceleration of AB; (b) the reactions on the bar at A and B.
Fig. 9-18
Solution: The free-body diagram is drawn in Fig. 9-19. The bar has plane motion,
and the general equations of motion are
SF, =■m(a<;) x , loa.
There are two unknown forces on the free-body diagram and three unknown accelera
tions in the motion equations, making five unknown quantities and three equations.
Since the ends of the bar are constrained to move along the slot, they have rec
tilinear motion and the directions of their accelerations are known. Therefore it
@seismicisolation
appears advisable to write a relative acceleration equation that involves one or both
@seismicisolation
ends of the rod. With a assumed to be clockwise and as assumed to be up and to the
left as shown, the relative acceleration equation between G and B is
Hg = SLg/ b +> &B
■■ 5o* 4-> 5a +> as.

This vector equation involves two unknowns, <a and as, in addition to the five unknowns
already mentioned. The angular velocity can be determined by the use of the
instantaneous center which is located at point 0 (the intersection of the perpendiculars
to the velocities of A and B), Thus
tu 7.0 n J
a 2 0rad per sec J .
~OA “ 3 -
The vector equation for og can be resolved into two algebraic equations involving
as, w, and a. Thus two additional equations are available, but another unknown
quantity, as, has been introduced, making a total of five equations and six unknown
quantities.
With a still assumed to be clockwise and a a assumed to be downward, the relative
acceleration equation between A and B is
aB = 40 -H 10a -Ha a-
From this last vector equation, as can be determined in terms of a by summing the
horizontal components of the vectors. Thus
0.8as = — 32 4- 6a
and aa “ (7.5« - 40)
When this value for as is substituted in the vector equation for Qg, the result is
OG « 5(2)’ +> 5a -H ) 7.5a — 40)

1 —< I T -* I
- 16 +> 12-H3a+>4a+>6a+>4.5a+>32-H24
= (16 - 3a) -H (36 - 0.5a).

A third relative motion equation relating the acceleration of G and A can be used to
replace either of the two preceding relative motion equations. Only two of the three
equations are independent, however. The third equation will supply no information
which cannot be obtained from the other two vector equations.
The values of (og)x and (og\ are thus determined in terms of a. The directions of
(og)« and (og)» are assumed to be to the right and downward.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
When specific values are substituted into the equations of motion, they become
SF. “ (i)B - A - m(aa), = 3.0(16 - 3a),

i SF, - 96.6 - (f)B = m(ao), - 3.0(36 - 0.5a),
2M 0 - -60 - 3.0A + 4.0(f)B - 3.0(|)B
= Zoa “ i 1i(3.0)(100)a
The solution of these three simultaneous equations is
a — +1.700 = 1.700 rad per sec* ( ,

A - -39.3 - 39.3 lb
B - -11.1 - 11.1 lb
Values of both A and B come out negative, indicating that both were assumed wrong
when the free-body diagram was drawn.
PROBLEMS
Note, In the following problems, all cords are assumed to be inextensible
and to have negligible weight.
9-72. The wheel in Fig. P 9-72 is a homogeneous cylinder with a narrow slot
in which the cord is wrapped. Neglect the effect of the slot on the moment of
inertia of mass of the wheel. The wheel weighs 16.1 lb and rolls without slipping
along the horizontal surface. Determine (a) the acceleration of 0; (b) the fric
tional force on the cylinder.
Fig. P 9-73
9-73. Figure P 9-73 represents a solid homogeneous sphere weighing 10.0 lb.
Determine (a) the least coefficient of friction between the sphere and plane for
which the sphere will roll down the plane without slipping; (b) the acceleration
of the center of the sphere when it rolls without slipping.
9-74. If the coefficient of friction between the sphere and plane in Problem
9-73 is 0.15 and the sphere is released from rest, will it roll down the plane without
slipping? Determine the angular acceleration of the sphere and the linear accel
eration of 0.
9-75. The lO-in.-diameter wooden roller in Fig. P 9-75 weighs 16.1 lb. The
roller has two 6-in.-diameter steel hubs on the ends which weigh 32.2 lb each.
Cords are wrapped around the hubs as shown and connected to the bar AB,
whose weight can be neglected. The roller does not slip on the horizontal plane.
At a given instant the center of the roller has a velocity of 5 fps to the left. Deter
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
mine the displacement of the center of the roller during the next 8.0 sec.
358 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION l§9-8
9-76. The solid homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 9-76 weighs 644 lb and rolls
without slipping on a horizontal plane. Determine the acceleration of the mass
center and the reaction of the plane upon the sphere.
Fig. P 9-76
9-77. The wheel in Fig. P 9-77 weighs 161 lb and rolls without slipping along
the horizontal plane. The radius of gyration of mass of the wheel with respect
to a horizontal axis through G is 0.80 ft. The constant 150-lb force is applied to
a cord wrapped around the hub. At a certain instant the velocity of G is 5 fps
to the right. Determine the displacement of G during the next 2 sec.
9-78. The solid homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 9-78 weighs 64.4 lb and rolls
without slipping on the horizontal plane. Determine the distance x for which
the frictional force will be zero.
Fig. P 9-78
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
9-79. The wheel in Fig. P 9-79 weighs 161 lb and rolls without slipping along
the horizontal plane. The radius of gyration of the mass of the wheel relative to
a horizontal axis through G is 1.10 ft. At a given instant the velocity of G is
5 fps to the left. Determine the distance traveled during the next 5 sec.
9-80. The body in Fig. P 9-80 weighs 644 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to an axis through G of 2.5 ft. The body rolls without slipping
on the inclined plane. Determine the acceleration of the mass center, G.
Fig. P 9-80 Fig. P 9-81

9-81. The 161-lb homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 9-81 has a narrow slot cut in
it for the cord. Neglect the effect of the slot on the moment of inertia of the
sphere and assume that both cords act in a vertical plane of symmetry. Deter
mine the force P when G has an acceleration of 10 fps’ upward.
9-82. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 9-82 weighs 32.2 lb and rolls
without slipping along the curved surface. In the position shown the velocity
of G is 11 fps downward to the left. Determine the components of the reaction
of the surface on the cylinder.
Fig. P 9-82 Fig. P 9-83

9-83. The unbalanced wheel in Fig. P 9-83 weighs 644 lb and rolls without
slipping. The radius of gyration of the@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
mass of the wheel with respect to an
360 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 159-S
axis through C is 2.0 ft. The center C of the wheel has a velocity and accelera
tion of 12 fps to the left and 15 fps 1 to the right, respectively. Determine the
couple T and the components of the force exerted on the body by the plane.
9-84. The unbalanced body in Fig. P 9-84 weighs 483 lb and rolls without
slipping along the horizontal plane. The radius of gyration of mass of the body
with respect to an axis through G is 2.0 ft. When in the position shown, point
0 has a velocity eof 15 fps to the right and the angular acceleration of the body is
15 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise. Determine the force P.
Fig. P 9-84
9-85. If the force P in Problem 9-84 is 900 lb to the left and the angular accel
eration is unknown, determine the acceleration of 0. All other data are the
same as in Problem 9-84.
9-86. The 64.4-lb wheel in Fig. P 9-86 is a solid homogeneous cylinder with a
narrow slot cut in it. Neglect the effect of the slot on the moment of inertia of
the cylinder. The wheel rolls and slips on the inclined plane. The coefficient
of kinetic friction between the wheel and the plane is 0.20. The flexible cord is
fastened to the wheel and wrapped in the slot. Initially the velocity of G is
5.0 fps down the plane. Determine the linear acceleration of G.
9-87. The wheel in Fig. P 9-87 weighs 322 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to an axis through the mass center G of 1.5 ft. A 225-ft4b
couple T acts on the wheel. The coefficient of static friction between the hori
zontal surface and the wheel is 0.40. Determine the magnitude of the maximum
angular velocity the wheel can have when in the position shown if the wheel
does not slip.
9-88. The unbalanced wheel in Fig. P 9-88 weighs 48.3 lb and has a radius of
gyration of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through the mass center at G
of 0.30 ft. The wheel rolls and slips on the horizontal plane. The coefficient
of friction between the wheel and plane is 0.40. When the wheel is in the position
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
shown, its angular velocity is 4.0 rad per sec clockwise and the velocity of 0 is
3.0 fps to the right. Determine the acceleration of point 0 for the position
indicated.
Fig. P 9-88
9-89. The bar AC in Fig. P 9-89 rotates in a vertical plane about a fixed
horizontal axis through A. When it is in the position shown, the angular velocity
and angular acceleration are 1 rad per sec clockwise and 3 rad per sec 2 clockwise,
respectively. Body B weighs 322 lb and is connected to AC by a smooth pin at
C. Body B has an angular velocity and angular acceleration of 3 rad per sec
clockwise and 4 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise, respectively, in this position. The
radius of gyration of mass of body B with respect to a horizontal axis through G
is 0.90 ft. Determine the force P.
Fig. P 9-89
9-90. The cylindrical disk A in Fig. P 9-90 rolls on a horizontal plane without
slipping. The 64.4-lb solid homogeneous cylinder B is attached to A with a
smooth pin at E. In the position shown, body B has an angular acceleration of
12 rad per sec 2 and an angular velocity of 3 rad per sec, and body A has an
angular acceleration at 6 rad per sec 2 and an angular velocity of 2 rad per sec, all
clockwise. Determine all unknown forces acting on body B.
Fig. P 9-90 Fig. P 9-91

9-91. The uniform 64.4-lb rod AB is held at rest against smooth planes in the
position shown in Fig. P 9-91. Determine the angular acceleration of the rod
an instant after release. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
9-92. Solve Problem 9-91 for the reactions at A and B if the angular velocity
for the position indicated is 1.60 rad per sec clockwise.
9-93. The slender homogeneous bar AB in Fig. P 9-93, weighing 193.2 lb,
has an angular velocity of 2.0 rad per sec clockwise and an angular acceleration
of 8.0 rad per sec 2 clockwise when in the position shown. The wall at B is smooth
and the coefficient of kinetic friction between the plane and rod at A is 0.10.
Determine the components of the reactions on the rod at A and B.
Fig. P 9-93 Fig. P 9-94
9-94. The bar AC in Fig. P 9-94 rotates in a vertical plane about a fixed axis
through A. The uniform homogeneous slender rod BD weighs 64.4 lb and is
connected to AC by a smooth pin at C. AC has a constant angular velocity of
4.0 rad per sec clockwise. When in the position shown, BD has an angular
velocity of 10 rad per sec clockwise and an angular acceleration of 50 rad per sec 5
clockwise. Determine the force R and the components of the force at C on BD.
9-95. The uniform slender bar BC in Fig. P 9-95 weighs 193.2 lb. It has
an angular velocity of 2 rad per sec and an angular acceleration of 6 rad per
sec 2, both clockwise in this position. Determine the components of all unknown
forces acting on BC.
Fig. P 9-95 Fig. P 9-96

9-96. Body A in Fig. P 9-96 is a 161-lb homogeneous cylinder with a narrow
slot cut for the flexible cable. Neglect the effect of the slot on the moment of
inertia. When in the position shown the acceleration of the mass center of the
cylinder is 10 fps 2 upward. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Determine the weight of body B.
§<«] KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION 363
9-97. In Fig. P 9-97, body A is a solid homogeneous sphere weighing 322 lb.
Body B weighs 96.6 lb. If the assembly starts from rest, determine (a) the ten
sion in the upper cord; (b) the displacement of B during the next 2 sec.
9-98. The assembly A in Fig. P 9-98 weighs 322 lb and has a radius of gyra
tion of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through G of 2.4 ft. Body A rolls
on a horizontal track without slipping. Body B weighs 96.6 lb. Determine the
acceleration of B.
9-99. Body A in Fig. P 9-99 weighs 644 lb and rolls without slipping either
on the horizontal track or on the 483-lb block B. The velocity of G, the mass
center of body A, is 10 fps to the left, and the angular acceleration of body A is
8 rad per sec 2 clockwise. The radius of gyration of mass of body A with respect
to a horizontal axis through G is 1.5 ft. Determine the force P.
Fig. P 9-100
9-100. The two disks in Fig. P 9-100 roll without slipping either on the plane
2
or on the block A. The acceleration of O is 15 fps to the right. A is a solid
homogeneous block which weighs 1288 lb. B and C each weigh 322 lb and each
has a radius of gyration of mass with respect to horizontal axes through its mass
center of 1.2 ft. Determine (a) the force P necessary to cause the given accelera
tion; (b) the vertical components of the reactions on body A at Q and R,
9-101. Body A in Fig. P 9-101 weighs 96.6 lb, and the homogeneous cylinder
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
B weighs 161 lb. The coefficient of friction between each of the bodies and the
364 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION l§9-9
plane is 0.30.The velocity of G is 5 fps to the right in the position shown. Deter
mine the magnitude of the moment of the maximum clockwise couple C that can
be applied to B without causing it to slip on the plane. Assume that block A
does not tip.
Fig. P 9-101 Fig. P 9-102

9-102. Figure P 9-102 represents a 2.00-ft-diameter wheel which weighs
96.6 lb and a 1.50 ft uniform homogeneous slender rod AB which weighs 16.1 lb.
The wheel rolls along the plane without slipping. The rod is fastened to the
wheel by means of a smooth pin at A and a pair of rollers at C. The rollers are
spaced so that only one of them is in contact with AB at any time. The radius of
gyration of the mass of the wheel with respect to a horizontal axis through G is
0.80 ft. When the wheel is in the position indicated, the velocity of G is 5.0 fps
and the acceleration of G is 10.0 fps1 , both to the right. Determine the force at
C and the components of the force at A on bar AB.
9-103. The homogeneous sphere A in Fig. P 9-103 weighs 64.4 lb and rolls
on the 161-lb body B without slipping. The mass of the rollers may be neglected.
The acceleration of B is 10.0 fps* to the right. Determine (a) the acceleration of
the center of the sphere; (b) the force P.
Fig. P 9-104
9-104. In Fig. P 9-104, body A is a homogeneous cylinder weighing 64.4 lb
and B is a block weighing 8.05 lb. The flexible cord connecting A and B passes
over a small pulley whose weight and diameter may be neglected. When the
angle 0 is 90°, the velocity of A is 10 fps to the right. ' Body A rolls along the
plane without slipping. Determine all unknown forces acting on A when 0 = 90°.
9-105. Solve Problem 9-104 for 0 = 60° if the velocity of the center of A is
5.0 fps to the right when 0 = 60°.
9-9. Reversed effective forces and couples. D’Alembert’s principle
as developed in Art. 9-4@seismicisolation
states that the resultant of the effective forces
@seismicisolation
of the particles of any body is equal to the resultant of the external forces
acting on the body. D’Alembert’s principle can be stated in a different
manner as follows: IJ a force equal in magnitude and collinear with but
opposite in sense to the resultant of the effective forces of the particles is added
toltelxtern forces acting on the body, the resulting force system will be in
equilibrium. When a body has pure rotation about an axis through the
mass center, th’e resultant of the effective forces of the particles is a couple ;
therefore a couple of equal magnitude and opposite sense must be added
to the external forces acting on the body to obtain a force system in
equilibrium. The force or couple which is added to the external forces is
called the reversed effective force or couple of the body. The use of the
reversed effective force or couple reduces a dynamics problem to one of
statics. This procedure has the advantage of permitting the use of any
axis as a moment axis instead of limiting the moment axis to the axis of
rotation or an axis through the mass center. Thus the necessity of solv
ing a set of two or more simultaneous equations is frequently eliminated.
For bodies having a motion of translation the resultant effective force
(and hence the reversed effective force) passes through the mass center
(see Art. 9-6). For bodies having a motion of rotation or plane motion,
the resultant of the effective forces does not pass through the mass center,
but the position of the line of action of the resultant can be determined
by applying the principle of moments. When a. body which is symmet
rical with respect to the plane of motion has pure rotation, the resultant
effective force passes through the center of percussion as indicated in
Art. 9-7. In plane motion of symmetrical bodies it is usually more
convenient to consider the resultant of the effective forces to be resolved
into an effective force or pair of component effective forces through the
mass center and a couple. The effective forces and couple lie in the plane
of motion. The effective force through the mass center is equal to the
product of the mass and the acceleration of the mass center. In Art.
9-8 it was shown that the moment of the resultant effective force about
an axis through the mass center is equal to the product of the angular
acceleration of the body and the moment of inertia of its mass with respect
to the axis through the mass center perpendicular to the plane of motion.
If the reversed effective forces are applied at G, they have no moment
about G; therefore the moment of the reversed effective couple must be
laa. Since rotation and coplanar translation are special cases of plane
motion, the resultant effective force and hence the reversed effective force
as developed for plane motion can also be applied to problems in transla
tion and rotation. Thus for all problems in translation and for problems
in rotation and plane motion in which the body is symmetrical with
respect to the plane of motion, the reversed effective force system will
consist of a force or pair of component forces through the mass center and
a couple. The forces are equal to @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
m(a(j) x and m(aG) v but opposite in
sense to the direction of the acceleration of the mass center, and the
couple is equal to loot but opposite in sense to the direction of the angular
acceleration of the body. The angular acceleration of a body is zero when
the body has translation.
In the following discussion, reversed effective forces and couples will
be shown as dashed lines to distinguish them from the external forces
acting on the body.
When a body which has rotation or plane motion is not symmetrical
with respect to the plane of motion, the position of the resultant effective
force (and the reversed effective force) can be obtained by applying the
principle of moments.
Reversed effective forces are helpful in the study of the banking or
superelevation of highway and railroad curves. Superelevation is
defined as the difference in elevation between the outer and inner edges
(a) <b)
Fig. 9-20
of a roadway or between the outer and inner rails of railroad tracks.

The analysis is similar for highway and railroad curves, and hence the
following discussion of superelevation of highways is also applicable to
railroads.
The tendency for an automobile to slide away from the center of
curvature of a curve or to overturn while traveling on a curve can be
overcome by banking the highway. The car in Fig. 9-20a is traveling
along a horizontal highway curve which has a radius of R ft. The speed
of the car is v fps. The free-body diagram of the car is shown in Fig.
9-20b. The mass of the car is obviously not symmetrical with respect
to the plane of motion, the horizontal plane in which G moves, and there
fore the reversed effective force should not pass through G. The exact
location of t e reversed effective force would be difficult to determine,
however, and it is found that the error introduced by placing the force
through G is comparatively small; therefore the reversed effective force
is shown acting through G. Moreover, the position of the reversed effec
tive force does not affect the force equations and is important only in an
investigation of the tendency of the car to overturn. The ideal angle of
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
bank, 0, is one which will eliminate the frictional forces Fi and Fj that
act normal to the path of motion. This ideal angle can be determined
from the following equations of equilibrium when Fi and F» are set equal
to zero:
SF X = N i sin 0 + Nt sin 0 — m(aa) x =• 0,
SF, = N i cos 0 + Nt cos 0 — W = 0.
The value of (ao)» is v*/R. Therefore
w
sin »( AT ! + Nt) = — v cos 0(N X + Nt) = W ,
g K
from which tan 0 = (9-24)
gK
The angle 0 is seen to be a function of the speed of the car and the radius
of the curve.
When the speed of a car is greater than the value of v, from Eq. (9-24),
the car will tend to slide outward along the radius of curvature; and when
the speed is less than the value from Eq. (9-24), the car will tend to slide
in toward the center of curvature. This tendency for slower moving
vehicles to slide toward the center of the curve limits the permissible
amount of superelevation because the amount of friction that can be
developed is rather small when the highway is icy.
When the car is on the verge of overturning, the reaction N i of Fig.
9-20b will be zero. The overturning velocity can be shown to be a func
tion of d, h, 0, and R by use of the equations of equilibrium for the free-
body diagram of Fig. 9-20b when the car is assumed not to slip. . Whether
the car will slip or overturn first will depend on the coefficient of friction
as well as the quantities d, h, 0, and R.
The following examples illustrate the use of reversed effective forces
and couples.
Example 9-8: The 500-lb homogeneous block A in Fig. 9-21 is placed on a frame
as indicated and pushed along the horizontal plane. The support at C is smooth and
the coefficient of friction at D is 0.20. Determine the components of the reactions
at C and D when the acceleration of the block is 10.0 fps 1 to the left. This is Problem
9-41.
jO5’ 15’
Fig. 9-21 Fig. 9-22

@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Solution: Figure 9-22 is a free-body diagram of block A. Assume that block .4
does not slip at D. If slipping does not occur at D, the body has a motion of transla-
tion, and the resultant effective force of the block is
500
ma« - zz-x (10.0) — 155.3 lb to the left through G.
The reversed effective force R is equal to the effective force in magnitude and opposite
in sense. When the force R is added to the external forces, the resulting force system
is in equilibrium and the unknown forces can be determined from the following equa
tions of equilibrium :
- 0, - 0, TMb - 0.
Since the force and moment equations are equal to zero, the choice of positive direc
tions is immaterial. The positive directions used are indicated near the free-body
diagram. When specific values are substituted in the equations, they become
XFV - Dv - 500 = 0
ZM d - 0.50(500) + 1.50(155.3) - 2.00C - 0,
XM b - 0.50(500) - 0.50(155.3) - 2.00F - 0.
The results are
Dv - 500 lb T, C - 241 lb F - 86.2 lb — .
Since it was assumed that the block did not slide on the frame at Z>, it is necessary
to check the frictional force just determined to see that it does not exceed the limiting
value. The limiting value of the friction is
F' - nN = 0.20(500) - 100 lb.
Therefore the block will not slip on the frame at D and the forces are correct as deter
mined. If nN had been less than F, the block A would have had plane motion and the
ablution obtained would not have been valid.
Example 9-9: The uniform slender bar BE in Fig. 9-23 weighs 64.4 lb and is
fastened to the vertical shaft by a smooth pin at E and the cord CD. The mechanism
rotates about the vertical axis with a constant angular velocity of 50 rpm. Determine
the tension in the cord and the components of the pin reaction at E on BE,
Solution: The free-body diagram of the bar, with a dashed line representing the
reversed effective force, is drawn in Fig. 9-24. The mass center G travels along a
horizontal circular path with a constant magnitude of velocity, and therefore its total
acceleration in the position shown is
(ao)„ = ? « * - [ (3.0) j “ 49.35 fps* —.

@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The effective force of the body is
- mac - 2.0(49.35) = 98.7 lb
and the reversed effective force is
R - 98.7 lb — .
Since the bar is not symmetrical with respect to the plane of motion, the reversed
effective force does not lie in the plane of motion of the bar, and its position must be
determined by applying the principle of moments to the
reversed effective forces of the particles. In Fig. 9-25 the
mass of the element is
dm ** pA dr,
where p is the density of the material (mass per unit
volume), A is the cross-sectional area of the bar, and dr is
the length of the element. The total mass of the bar is
rs.oo
m - 2.00 - / pA dr - pA(6.00),
from which
pA = 0.333 slug per ft length of the bar.
Fig. 9-25
The reversed effective force of the element is
dR — (dm)a = (pA dr)x<0* = <0.333 *>(?,)(£)■

= 5.48r dr.
The resultant reversed effective force is
7*6.00 r l“16.00
R - / 5.48r dr =5.48 - = 98.7 lb
Jo 2 Jo
This last result is of course the same as the value obtained previously from
Rtu = mac.
The moment of R with respect to a horizontal axis through E is qR, which is equal
to the sum of the moments of the reversed effective forces of the elements. The
moment of the effective force of the element dm is
dM e = y dR — (f r) (5.48r dr) = 4.38r 2 dr,
and the sum of the moments is
r 6.00 - 3 “16.00
J
° 4.38r* dr = 4.38 L q J = 316 ft-lb ( ,
and since Mg - qR,

Me 316 — 3.20 ft above E.
~R “ 987
When the reversed effective force is included on the free-body diagram in Fig.
9-24, the resultant force system is in equilibrium and the three unknown forces can
he determined directly. The equations are
SF, - T - Ex - 98.7 - 0,
ZFV = Ev - 64.4 = 0,
ZM S - 4.00T - (?) (3.0) @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
(64.4) - (3.20) (98.7) = 0.
The solution of the equations gives
Ex = 9.3 lb E v = 64.4 lb f , T - 108.0 lb.
Example 9-10: Solve Example 9-7 by use

of the reversed effective-force method.
Solution: A free-body diagram of the bar is
shown in Fig. 9-26. The reversed effective
forces and couple are shown by dashed lines. In
order to determine the reversed effective forces
it is first necessary to obtain the acceleration
of the mass center. The acceleration of G as
determined in Example 9-7 in terms of the
angular acceleration (assumed to be clockwise)
is
Fig. 9-26 I
do = (16 - 3.0a) +> (36 - 0.60a).
Thus the reversed effective forces are
Rx = m(oo), - 3.00(16 - 3.0a) - (48.0 - 9.00a),

T T
R v = m{aa) v = 3.00(36 - 0.50a) - (108 - 1.50a),
and the reversed effective couple is

C R - Zo a - (A ( (3.00) )10.0) *a = 25.0a { .
The resulting force system is in equilibrium, and therefore the moment of the force
system must be zero about any axis. If an axis through 0 (the intersection of the
forces A and B ) is selected, all unknowns in the moment equation can be expressed in
terms of the angular acceleration of the bar. Thus
ZM 0 - 3.02?, + 0.5/?, - 0.5(96.6) - 60 - Cr - 0

or
3.0(48.0 - 9.00a) + 0.5(108 - 1.50a) - 48.3 - 60 - 25.0a - 0,
from which a “ 4-1.700 — 1.700 rad per sec 1 ( .
The reactions can be obtained from the equations =0 and ZF, = 0. They are
A - 39.3 lb — B = 11.10 lb
PROBLEMS
Any of the problems in the four preceding articles can be solved by using
reversed effective forces and couples. In many cases the solution will be some
what shorter, since the necessity for solving simultaneous motion equations can
frequently be avoided. The following seven problems are listed as representative
ones from previous articles for which the reversed effective-force method can be
used advantageously.
9-106. Solve Problem 9-34 by the reversed effective-force method.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
9-113. A small car runs on tracks spaced 4.90 ft apart and has its center of
gravity 3.00 ft above the rails and midway between them. If it travels along a
curved track of 200-ft radius which has no superelevation, determine the magni
tude of the velocity of the car when it will just begin to tip.
9-114. Determine the amount of superelevation required to prevent lateral
pressure on the railroad rails when trains round a curve of 1500-ft radius at 50
mph. The center distance between rails is 4.90 ft.
9-115. The radius of curvature of a highway curve is 1910 ft and the super
elevation is 0.06 ft per ft. Determine the speed a car should travel on the curve
to avoid any tendency to slip in the radial direction.
9-116. Determine the required coefficient of friction to prevent slipping
toward the center of curvature on the highway curve described in Problem 9-115
when a car is traveling around the curve at 30 mph. Neglect the frictional force
tangent to the path of the car necessary to overcome wind resistance and similar
impeding forces.
9-117. The two balls A and B in Fig. P 9-117 weigh 8.05 lb each and are
mounted on the 20.0-lb vertical shaft CD. The weights of the horizontal arms
connecting A and B to the shaft may be neglected. The shaft rotates in smooth
bearings at C and D. The mechanism has a constant angular velocity of 50 rpm
clockwise looking downward. Determine the components of the bearing reaction
on the shaft at C and D when the balls are in the position indicated.
Fig. P 9-117 Fig. P 9-118
9-118. The governor mechanism in Fig. P 9-118 consists of a pair of spheres,

each weighing 5.00 lb and mounted on arms which are connected by smooth pins.
The weights of the arms may be neglected. Determine the force P necessary to
hold the arms in the position indicated when the angular velocity of the governor
is 100 rpm.
9-119. The uniform homogeneous bar AB in Fig. P 9-119 weighs 16.1 lb
and is supported by the rotating frame with a pin at C and a smooth surface at D.
The mechanism rotates about the vertical axis EF with a constant angular
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
velocity of 5.0 rad per sec. Determine the components of the reactions at
C and D on the bar AB.
Fig. P 9-119
9-120. Derive an equation relating the large and small tensions in the flat
belt in Fig. P 9-120 when slipping impends between the belt and rotating pulley.
The belt weighs w lb per ft of length and the pulley has a constant angular
velocity of w rad per sec. Neglect the force the earth exerts on the belt (the
weight).
Hint: Review belt-friction equations for stationary belts or band brakes in
Art. 5-5.
9-121. The two homogeneous bars of constant cross section in Fig. P 9-121
each weigh 161 lb. Bar AB rotates about a fixed horizontal axis at A, and BC
is connected to AB by means of a smooth pin at B and moves in a vertical plane.
When the bars are in the position shown, the angular velocity of AB is 3 rad per
sec and that of BC is 4 rad per sec, both clockwise. Determine the angular
accelerations of AB and BC.
Fig. P 9-122
9-122. The unbalanced wheel in Fig. P 9-122 weighs 100 lb and rolls along the
inclined plane without slipping. The radius of gyration of the mass of the wheel
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
with respect to a horizontal axis through G is 0.60 ft. When the wheel is in the
position shown, it has an angular velocity of 4 rad per sec and an angular accelera
tion of 20 rad per sec’, both clockwise. Determine the magnitude of the force P.
9-10. Closure. An orderly method of procedure is a definite aid in

solving problems in kinetics. The main essentials of the systematic
procedure of Art. 9-5 include (1) a complete free-body diagram; (2) a
careful analysis of the unknown forces, accelerations, and so on; (3) the
timely use of kinematic and friction relations to reduce the number of
unknowns involved; (4) the selection of consistent positive directions;
and (5) the use of the appropriate equations of motion.
When a rigid body has pure rotation, it is usually desirable to resolve
the pin reaction into components in the direction of the normal and
tangential components of the acceleration of the mass center of the body.
Moments are usually computed with respect to an axis through the mass
center when the body has either translation or plane motion and with
respect to the axis of rotation when the body has rotation. When the
reversed effective-force method is used, moments can be taken with
respect to any axis. The decision whether or not to use reversed effective
forces is a matter of individual preference.
Instantaneous values of forces and accelerations are obtained by the
methods of force, mass, and acceleration. Velocities, displacements, and
distances traveled can be determined by means of v-t or &-t diagrams when
accelerations are constant. If some of the forces acting on a body are
variable, the acceleration is variable, and the differential equations of
kinematics must be used to determine velocities, displacements, and so
on. In this case the principles of work and energy or of impulse and
momentum as discussed in the next two chapters may provide a more
direct solution.
PROBLEMS
coefficient of friction between the blocks is 0.50 and that between B and the
plane is 0.20. In the position shown the velocity of A is 5.0 fps to the right and
the velocity of B is 2.0 fps to the right. Determine the acceleration of A with
respect to B.
Fio. P 9-123
9-124. The coefficient of friction between the 12.88-lb body in Fig. P 9-124
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and the horizontal plane is 0.20. Initially the body has a velocity of 60 fps to
374 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION (§9-10
the left. Determine (a) the vertical components of the reactions at A and B
on the body; (b) the time required for the body to travel 50 ft to the left.
9-125. The 644-lb body A in Fig. P 9-125 is a solid homogeneous cylinder

which rotates about a fixed axis through 0. Determine the constant force P
required to raise the 322-lb body B 20 ft in 2.0 sec, starting from rest.
9-126. The body in Fig. P 9-126 weighs 322 lb and rolls on a straight hori
zontal track without slipping. The radius of gyration of the mass of the body
with respect to an axis through G is 1.20 ft. Determine the acceleration of
point G,
Fig. P 9-126
9-127. The slender rod AB in Fig. P 9-127 weighs 96.6 lb and rotates about a
horizontal axle at O. An unknown vertical force is applied to the rod at B, and
when the bar is in the position shown, its angular velocity and acceleration are
10 rad per sec clockwise and 4.0 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise, respectively.
Determine (a) the vertical force at B\ (b) the components of the reaction on the
rod at 0.
9-128. In Fig. P 9-128, the horizontal force P acting on the 64.4-lb block varies
according to the equation P@seismicisolation
= 102 + 25, where P is in lb and t is the time in
@seismicisolation
sec. The plane is smooth. When t = 0, the velocity of the block is 6.0 fps up
the plane. Determine (a) the displacement of the block during the time interval
from t =*= 0 to t = 5.0 sec; (b) the total distance traveled by the block during the
time interval from t = 0 to t » 5.0 sec.
Fig. P 9-128
9-129. In Fig. P 9-129, frame A weighs 322 lb and bar BC weighs 64.4 lb.
Bar BC is fastened to the frame by a smooth pin at C and a horizontal cord
attached to the bar at its mass center. The coefficient of friction between the
frame and the horizontal surface is 0.20. When the velocity of A is 3.0 fps to the
left, determine (a) the acceleration of the assembly; (b) the tension in the cord.
Fig. P 9-129 Fig. P 9-130

9-130. The 64.4-lb solid homogeneous cylinder of Fig. P 9-130 rolls on the
cylindrical surface without slipping. When the cylinder is in the position shown,
its angular velocity is 10 rad per sec clockwise. For this position determine the
angular acceleration of the cylinder and the normal component of the reaction
of the surface on the cylinder.
9-131. The solid homogeneous cylindrical disk in Fig. P 9-131 weighs 8.05 lb
and rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through 0. When in the position shown,
it has a counterclockwise angular velocity of 60 rpm. Determine the com-
ponents of the pin reaction on the disk at O.
Fig. P 9-131 Fig. P 9-132
9-132. In Fig. P 9-132, body A weighs 16.1 lb. The coefficient of friction is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
0.20 between A and the plane and between the cord and the fixed drum C. In
376 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION [59-10
the position shown, A has a velocity of 5.0 fps down the plane and an acceleration
of 10.0 fps 1 up the plane. Determine the weight of body B.
9-133. Determine the acceleration of body A in Problem 9-132 if B weighs
8.05 lb. All other data are the same as for problem 9-132.
9-134. In Fig. P 9-134, A is a solid homogeneous cylinder whose mass is
16 slugs. The cylinder rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through O and has
an angular velocity, when in the position shown, of 5.0 rad per sec counterclock
wise. Body B weighs 322 lb. Determine (a) the angular acceleration of body A;
(b) the components of the reaction on the body at 0.
9-135. The 16.1-lb solid homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 9-135 rolls along the
horizontal plane without slipping. When the sphere is in the position indicated,
the acceleration of point A is 10.0 fps 1 downward and toward the right at an
angle of 30° with the horizontal. Determine (a) the moment of the couple C;
(b) the components of the reaction of the plane on the sphere.
9-136. The homogeneous uniform bar in Fig. P 9-136 weighs 128.8 lb. The
guide blocks at A and B move in smooth slots and their weights may be neglected.
In the position shown, the bar has an angular velocity of 2.0 rad per sec clockwise
and an angular acceleration of 5.0 rad per sec 1 counterclockwise. Determine the
force P,
Fig. P 9-136 Fig. P 9-137

9-137. The small block on the smooth inclined plane in Fig. P 9-137 weighs
20.0 lb. Edges ab and cd of the plane are horizontal and the 10.0-lb force is
parallel to these edges. The 15.0-lb force is parallel to the edges ad and be of
the plane. Determine the acceleration of the block.
9-138. The two blocks A and B in Fig. P 9-138 each weigh 65 lb. The coeffi
cient of friction between the blocks is 0.40 and the surface of contact between B
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
and the plane is smooth. Determine the maximum value the force P can have
without causing A to overturn or to slip on B.
Fig. P 9-138 Fig. P 9-139
9-139. The pulley in Fig. P 9-139 has the part A removed. The pulley weighs
161 lb and has a radius of gyration of mass with respect to the horizontal axis
of rotation at 0 of 1.20 ft. When the body is in the position shown, its angular
velocity and acceleration are 8 rad per sec counterclockwise and 40 rad per sec 1
clockwise, respectively. Determine (a) the force Q; (b) the components of the
reaction on the body at 0.
9-140. The 130-lb bar AB and the 100-lb bar BC in Fig. P 9-140 are connected
by a pin at B and the cord CD. The entire assembly rotates in a vertical plane
about an axis at A. When the assembly is in the given position, the angular
velocity is 2.0 rad per sec clockwise. Determine the tension in the cord CD and
the components of the pin reaction at B on the bar BC.
Fig. P 9-141
9-141. The wheel of Fig. P 9-141 weighs 644 lb and has a radius of gyration
of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through O of 0.90 ft. The wheel rolls
without slipping and when in the position shown has an angular velocity of 5 rad
per sec clockwise. Determine the angular acceleration of the wheel.
9-142. The body in Fig. P 9-142 weighs 644 lb and is moving to the right.
The velocity of the body is decreasing at the rate of 4 fps each second. The
coefficient of kinetic friction between @seismicisolation
the body and the planes is 0.20. Point
@seismicisolation
378 KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, ACCELERATION [§9-io
G is the mass center of the body. Determine (a) the force P; (6) the vertical
components of the forces at A and B on the body.
9-143. The wheel in Fig. P 9-143 weighs 161 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through the mass center of 0.60 ft. The
wheel rolls along the horizontal track without slipping. Body B weighs 48.3 lb.
Determine (a) the acceleration of B; (b) the minimum coefficient of friction
necessary to prevent slipping of A on the track.
9-144. The solid homogeneous cylinder A in Fig. P 9-144 weighs 644 lb and
rolls on the horizontal plane without slipping. The solid homogeneous cylinder
B weighs 322 lb and rotates about a fixed axis through 0. A and B are connected
by a cord as shown. Assume that the cord does not slip on body B. Determine
the acceleration of the mass center of A.
ioo' b
Fig. P 9-144 Fig. P 9-145
9-145. The two blocks A and B in Fig. P 9-145 weigh 65 lb each and are
held together by a pair of cords Ci and C2. The coefficient of friction between
A and B is 0.40 and the inclined plane is smooth. If the two cords are cut
simultaneously, will block A tip over, will it slide on B f or will it continue to
move with the same acceleration as B? Determine the acceleration of B just
after the cords are cut.
9-146. The ball shown in Fig. P 9-146 is attached to the vertical shaft by
means of a flexible cord. The@seismicisolation
entire mechanism rotates around the axis of the
@seismicisolation
shaft with a constant angular velocity. What is the effect on the angle 0 if
(a) the weight of the ball is increased? (b) the length of the cord L is increased?
Fig. P 9-147
9-147. The two slender bars in Fig. P 9-147 are rigidly connected and
rotate about a horizontal axis at A, The bars weigh 2.0 lb per ft length.
The thickness of the bars may be neglected. In the position shown, the
composite body has an angular velocity of 5 rad per sec clockwise and an angular
acceleration of 15 rad per sec 2 counterclockwise. Determine the resultant
reaction of the axis at A on the rods.
9-148. A flexible rope has one end wrapped around the 128.8-lb solid homo
geneous cylinder A of Fig. P 9-148, and its other end is wrapped around the hub
of the 64.4-lb slotted disk B. The radius of gyration of mass of B with respect
to an axis through the mass center at G is 2.0 ft. The cylinder A rotates about a
smooth axis at 0. Determine the acceleration of G.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
C H A P T E R 10
Kinetics—Work and Energy

10-1. Introduction. In Chapter 9, Newton’s laws of motion relating
force, mass, and acceleration were used in the solution of problems in
kinetics. Newton’s laws are concerned with the forces acting on a
particle or body at any instant and the resulting acceleration. If a dis
placement or change of velocity during an interval of time is required,
it is necessary to use the kinematic principles developed in Chapters 7
and 8 in addition to the equations of force, mass, and acceleration. Such
problems can freqentluy be solved more readily by applying the principle
of work and kinetic energy, which equates the work done on a body to
the change in kinetic energy of the body. When any of the forces or
couples acting on a body vary with the position of the body, the method
of work and energy is particularly effective.
10-2. Work done by a force. The work done by a constant force F
during a displacement q of the forceis defined as the product of the magnitude
of the force, the magnitude of the displacement, and the cosine of the angle
between the force and the displacement; that is,
Wk = Fq cos G, (10-1)
where Wk is the work done and 6 is the angle between the directions of the
force a n d t h e displacement. Since
w
Fq cos G = F(q cos G) = (F cos G)q, the
work done by a constant force is either
the product of the force times the com
ponent of the displacement in the direc
tion of the force or the product of the
displacement times the component of
the force in the direction of the dis
placement. The work done by the
weight W of the block in Fig. 10-1 as
Fig. 10-1
the block moves down the plane from
position A to position B is either
Wk = Wq cos G = Wh
or Wk = g(W cos G).
From Eq. (10-1), the work done is zero when the angle G is 90°.
This value indicates that any force whose motion is normal to the line
of action of the force does @seismicisolation
no work. Thus the normal component of the
@seismicisolation
380
§10-21 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY 381
reaction of the plane on the block in Fig. 10-1 does no work on the
block.
Since cos B is dimensionless, the dimensions of work are FL, and com
mon units are ft-lb, in-lb, dyne-cm or erg, and so on. Work is not
associated with any particular direction and is a scalar quantity. Work
has an algebraic sign, and a force does positive work when the direction of the
displacement and the direction of the component of the force along the dis
placement are the same and negative work when the directions are opposite.
This sign convention is a result of the definition of work as indicated by
Eq. (10-1), since if the component of the force is in the same direction as
the displacement, the angle B is less than 90° and cos B is positive.
If the force varies in either magnitude or direction during the displace
ment, Eq. (10-1) can be used only for an infinitesimal change of position,
and the work done during the entire
movement becomes
Wk = f*' F cos 6 ds, (10-2)

where 8$ and Sj are the initial and final
values of the position function s. The
integral in Eq. (10-2) can be evaluated
if the relationships between F, B, and
s can be established. For example,
consider the work done by the weight
of the uniform homogeneous bar in
Fig. 10-2 as the bar turns 90° clock
wise from position OA. The compo
nent of the weight in the direction of
the change of position is W cos B, and the change of position is ds = (L/2) dB.
Therefore Eq. (10-2) becomes
Wk = cos
o z z
In this case the same result is obtained more easily from Eq. (10-1) by
multiplying the component of the displacement in the direction of the
force by the constant force W ; that is,
Wk = qv W = £ W.
Sometimes a graphical method for determining the work done by a

force is helpful, especially when the mathematical relation between F ,
B, and s in Eq. (10-2) is either unknown or cumbersome. When the
component of the force in the direction of motion, F cos B, is plotted
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
382 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [§10-2
against the position function s as indicated in Fig. 10-3, tRe area under
the curve represents the work done because the area and the work done
are both obtained from the integral in Eq.
)10-2) . The indicator card used for determining
the work done by the steam on the piston of a
steam engine is an example of an F-s diagram.
When a force which varies in magnitude
during a displacement acts in the direction of
the displacement, it is sometimes convenient to
obtain the work done as the product of the
displacement average value of the force and the displacement. That is,
Wt-F q,
where F n is the average ordinate on an F-s diagram.
When the F-s diagram is a straight line, the diagram is very useful
as a semigraphical method for obtaining the work done. For example,
the work done in compressing a spring can be computed from Eq. (10-2)
or from an F-s diagram. The force
exerted by a spring acts along the axis
of the spring and varies in magnitude
directly with the change in length of the
spring. The modulus, k, of a spring is
the force required to stretch or compress
the spring a unit distance. For each
increment of length As, the increment
of force is fcAs, which means that the
slope of the F-s diagram is the modulus
of the spring as indicated in Fig. 10-4.
The work done on the spring during a
change of length q is represented by the
trapezoidal area under the line which is the sum of the areas of the rec
tangle and triangle. That is,
m Fi + Ft7 „ , kq , , kq*
W* q = F<q + q = ks# + -|-
The work done can also be determined by means of Eq. (10-2). The
angle 0 is zero as the force and effective displacement are along the axis
of the spring. When the origin is selected at O the force F is given by
the equation
F = ks.
and the work done is
C 9t f*1 T k
I F ds = I ksds = z = z s?]
J L J*
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
= | [(«* + ?)’ - = k Si q + &*•
§10-2] KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY 383
If the origin is selected at O', the force F is equal to and the
work done is
fq T fro2
Wk = (F< + ks') U = F J + z - \ = F<q +
Jo L Jo *
Since the force exerted by a spring depends only upon its modulus
and the amount of stretch or shortening of the spring, the work done by a
spring is not altered by any rotation or translation of the entire* spring.
When a spring is rotated and stretched at the same time, the work done
will be due only to the increase in length of the spring, as illustrated in
the following example.
Example 10-1: The 6.0-ft bar AB in Fig. 10-5 rotates about a smooth horizontal
shaft A. The spring BD has a modulus of 20 lb per ft and an unstretched length of
8.0 ft. Determine the work done by the spring on the bar as the bar rotates from
position AB to position AC,
Fig. 10-5 Fig. 10-6
Solution: The force F exerted by the spring on the bar in an intermediate position
is shown in Fig. 10-6. The work done by the spring can be obtained either by apply
ing Eq. (10-2) directly or by obtaining the work done in stretching the spring. Both
solutions are included to demonstrate that they give the same result.
The work done by the variable force F as given by Eq. (10-2) is
f&r/2 fOr/2
Jo ? 008 (90° + “Jo ( “ sin 0) ds.
Before the integration can be accomplished, the variables F, and 8 must all be
expressed in terms of one variable. The angle is convenient in this case. Thus
F — modulus (length of spring — unstretched length)
= 20(2(6 cos 3) - 81 - 80(3 cos 3 - 2)
and a — 6a -« 6 — 2 ),
from which ds — —12d&.
The integral in terms of 3 is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
ro
Wk - 80(3 cos 0 - 2 ) ( - sin 0)(-12 d/3) » -157.6 ft-lb.
384 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [§1M
The work done by the spring on the bar is equal to the work done by the bar on the
spring except for the sign, since for the two bodies the displacement of the point of
application of the force is the same and the force is equal in magnitude but opposite in
sense. The force on the spring is always in the
same direction as the change in length of the spring,
and the F-s diagram for the spring is shown in
Fig. 10-7. The initial force on the spring is
Fi - 20(6 \/2 - 8) = 9.71 lb,
and the final force is
F f = 20(12 - 8) = 80.0 lb.

The change in length of the spring is
As - 12 - 6 a/2 = 3.51 ft,
and the work done on the spring is
F< F + 80
IF* - ' (As) - —■ (3.51) - 157.6 ft-lb.
£ A
Since the force on the spring and the motion of the end of the spring are in the same
direction, the work done on the spring is positive; consequently, the work done by the
spring on the bar is negative. Thus the work done on the bar by the spring is — 157.6
ft-lb.
The work done by the spring on the bar has the same magnitude as the work done
by the bar on the spring. Since it is usually easier to determine the work done on the
spring, either from an F-« diagram or by integration, this procedure will be used in the
following articles.
10-3. Work done by a couple. As the couple in Fig. 10-8 translates
from position A to the parallel position B, force P does positive work and
force Q does an equal amount of negative work.
Therefore the net work done by the couple is
zero.
When the couple in Fig. 10-9 rotates in its
plane about any axis O from position A to
A . P
r
Q
Fig. 10-8
position B, forces P and Q (equal in magnitude) are always tangent to

circular paths as indicated. Therefore the net work done by the two
forces is
Wk = P ( R + r)« - QB<£ = P ( R + r)<£ - PR<t> = (10-3)
where T is the moment of the couple and is its angular displacement in
radians. Consequently a couple does work when it turns through an angle.
The dimensions and units of the work done by a couple are the same
@seismicisolation
as the dimensions and units of the moment because angular displacement
@seismicisolation
is dimensionless. When the angular displacement and the couple have
the same sense, the work done by the couple is positive; and the work is
negative when the displacement and couple are opposite in sense.
If the moment of the couple varies during the angular displacement, Eq.
(10-3) is valid only for an infinitesimal change of angular position, and the
total work done by the couple becomes
W> = J* T de. ’ (10-4)
The work done by a couple can be represented graphically by plotting

the magnitudes of the moment of the couple as ordinates and the cor
responding angular positions as abscissas. The work done by the couple
is proportional to the area under the T-6 diagram.
10-4. Work done by a force system. The work done on a body by a
system of forces and couples is the algebraic sum of the works done by the
separate forces and couples. Since work is a scalar quantity, the various
work terms are added algebraically regardless of the directions of the
forces doing the work.
A body is made up of a system of particles, and these particles exert
forces (internal) on each other which (by Newton’s third law) always
occur in collinear pairs. The pairs of forces are equal in magnitude and
opposite in sense. If the body is rigid, the two forces of each pair of
forces have identical displacements; hence one of the forces of the pair
does positive work on the body and the other force does the same amount
of negative work on the body. Therefore the resultant work done on a
rigid body by the internal forces is zero. If the body is not rigid, the two
forces of each pair of internal forces do not in general move the same dis
tance, and the resultant work done by the internal forces of the system
is not zero. Thus when a bullet is fired into a block of wood, the bullet
and block do not constitute a rigid body, and the force of the bullet on
the block and of the block on the bullet do work on the system in deform
ing and heating the bullet and block.
When two bodies are connected by a cord or a cable, the reactions
of the cord on the two bodies are the same, provided the mass of the cord
is neglected. If the cord is inextensible, the magnitudes of the displace
ments of the two ends of the cord in the direction of the forces must be
the same. Therefore the cord does positive work on one of the bodies
and negative work on the other body, and the resultant work of the cord or
cable on the two bodies is zero. Consequently, the work done on a system
of rigid bodies can be determined as the sum of the works done on the
separate bodies by the external forces if the cords or connecting members
do not change in length.
The following example illustrates the method of determining the work
done by a force system. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
386 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [§104
Example 10-2: The 20-lb wheel A in Fig. 10-10 is connected to the 504b block B
by means of an inextensible cord of negligible weight which passes over a smooth
peg at C. The wheel rolls on plane E without
slipping, and the coefficient of friction between
B and plane H is 0.30. Determine the work
done on the system of bodies ( A and B ) while
body A moves 10 ft up the plane E,
Solution: A free-body diagram of the system
of bodies is drawn in Fig. 10-1 la. The forces
JVi, Nt, and R are perpendicular to the motion of
their points of application, and so they do do
work. Since the wheel rolls without slipping,
the frictional force Fi also does no work because
the particle of the wheel on which Fi acts has
no velocity and hence no displacement while the force is acting on it.* Thus the two
weights and the frictional force Ft are the only forces that do work on the system of
bodies.
Fig. 10-11
As body A rolls 10 ft up to the right on plane E, block B slides 10 ft down to the
right on plane D. From the free-body diagram of block B in Fig. 10-1 lb,
- 0,
since there is no acceleration in the y direction. Therefore
Nt - 0.50(50) - 0
or N t “ 25 lb as shown,
and Ft “ ?Nt B 0.30(25) = 7.5 lb as shown.
The work done by Ft is
IF* - -(7.5) (10) ------ 75 ft-Ib.
The work done by the weight of A is
W k - -(20) (10) (0.500) ------ lOOft-lb.

The work done by the weight of B is
Wk = 4- (50) (10) (0.866) - 433 ft-lb.
* Forces N i and F\ do no work because they are the components of the force exerted
by one particle (or, more exactly, one group of adjacent particles) of the plane on one
particle of the periphery of the wheel at an instant when neither particle is moving.
At the next instant the force will be exerted by another particle of the plane on an
adjacent particle of the wheel. The work done is zero Decause none of the forces
move. Each one acts for an instant as a holding force and becomes zero as a new
force exerted by the next particle becomes the holding force or reaction of the plane
on the wheel. If a wheel rolls@seismicisolation
and slips on a fixed plane or rolls without slipping on &
@seismicisolation
moving plane, the frictional force will do work.
510-41 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY 387
The total work done on the system of bodies is
TF* - -75 - 100 + 433 - 258 ft-lb.
PROBLEMS
Note. Unless otherwise specified, all cords, ropes, and cables are assumed
to be flexible, inextensible, and of negligible weight; all pins and axles are assumed
to be smooth unless otherwise stated.
10-1. A spring with a modulus of 60 lb per ft is initially compressed by a
load of 25 lb. Determine the work done on the spring in compressing it an
additional 9 in. Solve by (a) the use of an Fs diagram; (b) the use of Eq. (10-2).
10-2. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the 600-lb block A in Fig.
P 10-2 and the horizontal plane is 0.30. Determine the work done on A by the
frictional force while the block is displaced 16 ft to the left.
Fig. P 10-2 Fig. P 10-3
10-3. The 100-lb wheel in Fig. P 10-3 rolls 9 ft to the right without slipping.
Determine the work done on the wheel during the given displacement.
10-4. In Fig. P 10-4, the coefficient of kinetic friction between the 20-lb
block A and the inclined plane is 0.15. The block is given an initial velocity of
30 fps up the plane. Determine the work done on the block as it slides 10 ft up
the plane.
Fig. P 10-4
10-5. The block in Fig. P 10-5 weighs 50 lb and slides along the smooth plane.
The velocity changes from 25 fps to 5 fps, both down the plane, in 0.621 sec.
Determine the work done on the body during the given time interval.
@seismicisolation
10-5
10-6. Determine the work done on the system of bodies in Fig. P 10-6 as the
wheel rolls, without slipping, from position A to position B. Neglect the diam
eter of the pulley at E. The wheel weighs 700 lb and C weighs 150 lb.
Fig. P 10-7
10-7. The modulus of the spring in Fig. P 10-7 is 50 lb per ft. The spring
does 1750 ft-lb of negative work on rod AB as the rod rotates 90° clockwise from
the vertical position as indicated. Determine the initial tension in the spring.
10-8. The bar AB in Fig. P 10-8 weighs 100 lb and rotates in a vertical plane
about a horizontal axis through A. When the bar is in the position indicated, the
tension in the spring is 20 lb. As the bar rotates 90° clockwise the work done on
it is —100 ft-lb. Determine the modulus of the spring.
5_ _ _ _ _ ______7*
Fig. P 10-8
10-9. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the drum E and the braking
mechanism ABC in Fig. P 10-9 is 0.40. The weights of all members can be
neglected. Determine the work done on the drum as it turns 90° clockwise.
10-10. The 17-lb block B in Fig. P 10-10 slides along a smooth vertical rod.
The spring has one end fixed @seismicisolation
at A and the other end attached to B. The modulus
@seismicisolation
of the spring is 20 lb per ft and its unstretched length is 3 ft. Determine the
work done on B during a displacement from y — 2 ft to y — 4 ft.
10-11. In Fig. P 10-11, body B weighs 128.8 lb and body C weighs 322 lb.
There is no slipping between body B and the flexible band. The force P varies
according to the relation P = 60 s* + 300, where P is in lb when «a, the position
of point A, is in ft. Determine the work done on bodies B and C while A moves
upward from «a = 0 to «a = 4 ft.
10-12. The 60-lb uniform homogeneous rod OA in Fig. P 10-12 is riveted to
the 130-lb solid homogeneous cylinder B and the composite body rotates about a
horizontal axis through O, The 40-lb body C slides on a horizontal plane and the
coefficient of friction between C and the plane is 0.20. Body C is fastened to B
by a cord wrapped around B. The modulus of the spring is 25 lb per in. and the
spring is stretched 1 ft when OA is in the position shown. Determine the work
done on the system of bodies (OA, B, and C) as C moves 1 ft to the right from the
given position and then 9 in. back to the left.
4'
Fig. P 10-12
10-13. The solid homogeneous 600-lb cylinder A in Fig. P 10-13 rotates about
a horizontal axis through 0. The moment of the couple T varies with 0a, the
angular position of A in rad, according to the equation T = 60 0J, where T is in
ft-lb. Counterclockwise is positive. Body B weighs 300 lb, and there is no
slipping between either body and the flexible band. Determine the work done
on the system as Ba changes from 0 to 4@seismicisolation
rad counterclockwise.
@seismicisolation
390 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [§io-5
10-14. The 40-lb homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 10-14 is supported by a
cord wrapped around a thin slot cut in the cylinder and by a spring attached to
another cord wrapped around the outside of the cylinder. The initial tension in
the spring is 10 lb and its modulus is 2.5 lb per in. Determine the displacement
of G from the initial position when the work done on the cylinder is —15 ft-lb.
i <
' G'Qiz'
Fig. P 10-14 Fig. P 10-15

10-15. The 400-lb block A in Fig. P 10-15 slides 6 ft to the right from the
given position. The coefficient of kinetic friction between A and the plane is 0.20.
The modulus of the spring is 100 lb per ft and its unstretched length is 4 ft.
Determine the work done on A during the given displacement.
10-5. Energy. The energy of a body is defined as the property of the
body that enables it to overcome resistance to motion, to do work, or to
produce a physical effect. The energy possessed by a body or system of
bodies may be manifested in various ways such as in the capacity of the
body to do work or to raise the temperature of other bodies.
The energy possessed by a body is frequently classified according to
form. For example, a body may have thermal, electrical, chemical,
mechanical, or other types of energy. Steam in a boiler is able to do
work because of its high temperature and thus it possesses thermal
energy. A lump of coal and a charged storage battery are examples of
stored chemical energy due to the combination of the atoms in the mole
cules. The chemical energy in a storage battery can be transformed into
electrical energy in the form of an electric current, which in turn can oper
ate a motor and thus do work.
Mechanical energy is the most important form of energy in the study
of engineering mechanics. Mechanical energy can be divided into
potential energy and kinetic energy. The potential energy of a system
of particles or bodies is due to the configuration or the position of the
particles or bodies, and the kinetic energy is a result of the velocities of
the particles or bodies.
10-6. Potential energy. The potential energy of a body or system of
bodies is the capacity of the body to do work as a result of the relative
positions of the various particles of the system. If a spring is compressed,
the material of the spring@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
is stressed and energy is stored in the spring.
The stresses in the spring tend to restore the spring to its original
unstressed length, and the force exerted by the spring can do work as the
spring returns to its original length. As long as the stresses in the spring
remain below the elastic limit* for the material of the spring, the potential
energy stored in the spring is equal to the work done on the spring in
compressing it. Steam compressed in a boiler has potential energy due
to its pressure, and this energy is transformed into work as the steam
drives the piston. Steam also has thermal energy due to the temperature
difference between the steam and the atmosphere. These two forms of
stored energy in steam are closely related and are usually combined in
describing the energy of the steam.
When a body is raised above any reference plane, it is able to do work
as it returns to the reference plane, as a result of the attraction of the
earth for the body. The hammer of a pile driver is an example' of such a
body. Many pile drivers do work as a result of the attraction of the
earth for the hammer. The potential energy is not stored in the hammer
alone but rather in the system of bodies consisting of the hammer and
the earth.
Since potential energy is a measure of the ability of a system of bodies
to do work as a result of their relative positions, it is frequently more
convenient to express the effect of changing the potential energy as the
work which is done as the positions are changed. If the mass center of a
25-lb body moves downward 4 ft, its potential energy is decreased 100
ft-lb, and the work done on the body is the product of the force exerted
by the earth on the body (the weight), and the displacement of the weight
in the direction of the force (downward) ; that is,
W k = Fq = 25(4) = 100 ft-lb.
Consequently, the work done on the body by the earth is the same as
the change of the potential energy of the body and earth. In the fol
lowing articles, the work done in changing the relative positions of the
various parts of the system will be emphasized
instead of the change of potential energy.
10-7. Kinetic energy of a particle. TAe
kinetic energy of a particle is defined as the
capacity of the particle for doing work as a
result of its velocity. The kinetic energy of a
Fig. 10-12
particle can be determined by computing the
work which must be done on the particle to reduce its velocity to zero.
The state of rest is commonly selected as the reference from which the
kinetic energy is measured. The particle of mass m in Fig. 10-12 moves
* The greatest stress which can be developed in a material without a permanent
deformation remaining upon complete release of the stress is defined as the elastic limit
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of the material.
along the curved path and is acted on by a system of forces which include
its weight, the reaction of the path, and the action of any other bodies
on the particle. The resultant of all of the forces acting on the particle
is resolved into normal and tangential components as indicated. From
Newton’s second law of motion, the components bf the resultant force are
Rt = ma t = m -yr, Rn = ma n .
dt
The component R n does no work as the particle moves along the path
because it is always perpendicular to the motion. The work done by
the component R t on the particle as it moves a distance ds is
dW k = Rt ds = Rt v dt = ( m — ( (y dt) = mv dv.
The total work done as the magnitude of the velocity changes from v to
0 is
Wk = y° mv dv = — $mv 2 .
The negative sign indicates that the force R t does negative work on the
particle in reducing its speed to zero. The negative sign can also be
deduced from the fact that if v is to be decreased, at and hence R t must
be opposite to the direction of v and the resulting motion; thus R t does
negative work on the particle. The reaction of the particle against the
reacting bodies (earth, path, and so on) is equal and opposite to Rt ‘> so
the particle does positive work as its speed is reduced to zero. Therefore
the particle has a positive kinetic energy (the ability to do positive work),
and its value is
Ek = imv 2 , (10-5)
where Ek is the kinetic energy of the particle of mass m with a magnitude
of velocity equal to v.
Kinetic energy is defined as the ability of the particle to do work and
hence must have the same dimensions and units as work; that is, the
dimensions are FL and common units are ft-lb, in-lb, dyne-cm (ergs),
and so on. These dimensions can be verified by determining the funda
mental dimensions from Eq. (10-5). The dimensions of mass are FT*/L\
therefore
2
Ek = 1 2 ft 7l\* = FL.
Kinetic energy is a scalar quantity, since the work which can be done
depends only on the mass of the particle and the magnitude of its velocity
and not on the direction of the velocity. The mass is always a positive
quantity and the velocity is squared; therefore the kinetic energy is always
positive. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§10-8] KINETICS— WORK AND. ENERGY 393
10-8. Kinetic energy of a rigid body. The kinetic energy of any body,
whether rigid or not, is the sum of the kinetic energies of the separate particles.
If the body is not rigid, no simple relation
ship exists between the velocities of the differ
ent particles. The velocities of the various
particles in rigid bodies, however, are directly
related to each other and to the angular
motion of the body. An expression for the
kinetic energy of a rigid body which has
plane motion can be developed as follows:
Consider the body in Fig. 10-13, which has
plane motion parallel to the xy plane. Point
A is any point in the plane of motion moving Fig. 10-13
along some path as indicated with a velocity
va along the path, The velocity v of any particle B of mass dm is, from
relative motion,
rw -H v A
<- t -* T
= rw sin S -H rw cos 0 -H (va)* +» (vt) v
T T
= yw +> xw +> (va)* +> (y A )v ,
where y = r sin 0 and x = r cos 0 are the position coordinates of the
particle B.
The square of the velocity -of B is
»b = (Mx “ ?/<*>] 2 + [(vx) v + z<*>] 2
= — 2(i)A)*yw + Z/ 2w 2 + (v A )l + 2(v x )yzw + x 2w 2
= v\ + r 2w 2 — 2(v x ) z yw + 2(v x ) yxo>,
and the kinetic energy of the particle is
dEk = i dm v 2 = iv 2A dm + £r 2w 2 dm — (r x ) x?/w dm + (va xv dm.
The values of va, (va)*, (va) v , and w are the same for all particles of the
rigid body at any instant. The quantities are functions of time but not
of the position of B within the body. The kinetic energy of the body is
/
Ek = y dm + Y y* r 2 dm — (v x )xo> f y d x dm
= imv% + iZ x w 2 — (yA)&ym + (vA atim, (10-6)
where I a = Jr2 dm is the moment of inertia of the mass of the body with
respect to an axis through A perpendicular to the plane of motion and
ym = f y dm and Sm — fx dm are the first moments of the mass of the
@seismicisolation
body with respect to the xz and yz planes, respectively.
@seismicisolation
Since A is any point in the plane of motion, Eq. (10-6) can be simpli
fied by the proper choice of point A. When point A is selected at the
mass center, £ and £ become zero and the equation reduces to
2
Ek = imv% + £g/w . (10-7)
If point A is a point of zero velocity (the instantaneous center of

zero velocity), the first term and the last two terms of Eq. (10-6) are
zero and the kinetic energy becomes
=
Ek ■j'Zow2 (10-8)
where /o is the moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect to
the instantaneous axis of zero velocity.
Coplanar translation and rotation are special cases of plane motion,
and Eq. (10-6) can be used for obtaining the kinetic energy of rigid
bodies having translation or rotation. When a body has translation, the
angular velocity is zero and all points have the same motion; therefore
the kinetic energy is
E k = imv 2 , (10-9)
where v is the velocity of any point on the body.

If the point A is selected at the axis of rotation for bodies having
pure rotation, V a is zero and the kinetic energy is
Ek = i l A R . (10-10)
Since the kinetic energy of a particle is a positive scalar quantity,

the kinetic energy of a system of bodies is the sum of the kinetic energies
of the bodies of the system.
PROBLEMS
10-16. A 5.20-oz ball is thrown vertically upward with a velocity of 100 fps.
Determine the kinetic energy of the ball 1.40 sec later. Neglect air resistance.
10-17. A 1.55-oz golf ball is driven from a tee with a velocity of 162 fps at an
angle of 15° above the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, determine (a) the
kinetic energy of the ball when it attains its maximum altitude; (b) the kinetic
energy of the ball 0.50 sec after it leaves the tee.
10-18. The maximum acceleration of a 0.40-lb body which has simple har
monic motion is 12.6 fps*, and the period is 0.64 sec. Determine the maximum
kinetic energy of the body.
10-19. The magnitude of the tangential acceleration of a 0.20-lb particle
traveling on a circular path of 5-ft radius is given by the equation at = 3P — 6t
where at is in fps* and t is the time in sec. When t = 0, the particle is traveling
in a counterclockwise direction around the path at 4 fps; and when t = 1 sec.
the angular acceleration of the radius to the particle is 0.6 rad per sec* counter
clockwise. Determine the @seismicisolation
kinetic energy of the particle when t
@seismicisolation 2 sec.
§10-8] KINETICS—WORK AND ENERGY 395
10-20. The composite body in Fig. P 10-20 rotates in a horizontal plane about
a fixed vertical axis through Q. Body A is a solid homogeneous cylinder with a
mass of 4.0 slugs. Parts B and C are homogeneous uniform slender rods and
have masses of 10.0 and 6.0 slugs, respectively. The angular velocity of the body
is 4.0 rad per sec clockwise. Determine the kinetic energy of the body.
10-21. The wheel A in Fig. P 10-21 weighs 96.6 lb and has a radius of gyration
of mass with respect to the horizontal axes of rotation through the mass center
at O of 1.10 ft. Body B weighs 32.2 lb and is supported by a cord wrapped
around the hub on A. The angular velocity of the wheel is 20.0 rad per sec
clockwise. Determine the kinetic energy of the two bodies A and B,
10-22. The unbalanced wheel in Fig. P 10-22 weighs 96.6 lb and rotates about
a horizontal axis through 0 with an angular velocity of 5.0 rad per sec counter
clockwise. The radius of gyration of the mass of the wheel with respect to the
axis of rotation is 1.56 ft. Determine the kinetic energy of the wheel, using
(a) Eq. (10-10); (b) Eq. (10-7).
Fig. P 10-22 Fig. P 10-23
10-23. The 16.1-lb block A in Fig. P 10-23 is connected to the slender 48.3-lb
rod BC by means of a flexible cable. When BC is horizontal, it has an angular
velocity of 3.0 rad per sec counterclockwise; and after it has turned 90° counter
clockwise, its angular velocity is 2.0 rad per sec counterclockwise. Neglect the
diameter of the drum at D. Determine the kinetic energy of the system when it
is in each position. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
396 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY 1§1O-S
10-24. The 6444b body A in Fig. P 10-24 rolls without slipping. It has a
radius of gyration of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through the mass
center at G of 1.50 ft. The velocity of G is 5.0 fps to the left. Body B has a ipass
of 5.0 slugs and is suspended from a cable wrapped around A. Determine the
kinetic energy of the system of bodies.
Fig. P 10-25
10-25. The unbalanced wheel of Fig. P 10-25 weighs 48.3 lb and has a radius
of gyration of mass with respect to a perpendicular axis through C of 0.50 ft.
Block B weighs 16.1 lb and is supported by a cord wrapped around the wheel.
The wheel rolls on the horizontal plane without slipping. When the bodies are
in the position shown, they have a kinetic energy of 35.0 ft-lb. Determine the
magnitude of the velocity of C.
• 10-26. Block A in Fig. P 10-26 weighs 100 lb and is connected to the 500-lb
wheel B by a flexible cable which passes over a small pulley at C, The radius of
gyration of the mass of B with respect to an axis through G is 1.70 ft. Wheel B
rolls without slipping on the plane.
(a) When B is in the position indicated by the solid lines, the velocity
of G is 10.0 fps to the right. Determine the kinetic energy of the system of
bodies.
(b) When A and B are in the positions indicated by dashed lines,
the kinetic energy of the two bodies is 1200 ft-lb. Determine the magnitude of
the velocity of A for this position.
Fig. P 10-26 Fig. P 10-27

10-27. End A of the 10.0-ft homogeneous uniform slender rod ABC moves in a
@seismicisolation
horizontal slot as indicated @seismicisolation
in Fig. P 10-27. The angular velocity of ABC is
4.0 rad per sec clockwise, and it weighs 250 lb. Determine the kinetic energy of
ABC, using Eq. (10-6) with the origin of coordinates at (a) the instantaneous
center; (b) the mass center; (c) point A.
10-28. In Fig. P 10-27, bar AC weighs 30.0 lb and BE weighs 25.0 lb. The
angular velocity of BE is 4.0 rad per sec clockwise for the position indicated.
Determine the kinetic energy of the system of bodies.
10-9. Principle of work and kinetic energy. The differential equation
Rt ds = mv dv
was developed in Art. 10-7. This equation relates the work done on a
particle during a change of position ds to the motion of the particle. If
the differential equation is integrated between definite limits, the result is
[ Rt ds = ] ' mv dv = im(y} — vj) — AEk ,
where i and / indicate initial and final values of position or velocity.

The first term in the preceding equation represents the work done on the
particle as it moves from position to s/, and the term on the right
represents the change of the kinetic energy of the particle. This equa
tion leads to the principle of work and kinetic energy for a particle, which
can be stated as follows: The work done on the particle (by all the forces
acting on the particle) is equal to the change of the kinetic energy of
the particle; that is
Jr* = AEk = (Ek)f ■“ ) Jt)i-
The principle of work and kinetic energy can be extended to include

bodies and systems of bodies, since bodies are composed of particles.
The total work done by all the forces acting on the particles of a body is
equal to the sum of the changes of the kinetic energy of the particles,
which is the same as the change of the kinetic energy of the body. The
internal forces between the particles can do work as well as the external
forces due to outside bodies. If the body is rigid, however, the resultant
work done by the internal forces is zero, as was indicated in Art. 10-4.
Furthermore, if two or more bodies are connected by inextensible cords or
cables, the net work done by the connecting members is zero (Art. 10-4),
and the work done by the external forces on the entire system is equal
to the change of the kinetic energy of the system of rigid bodies. Thus
the principle of work and kinetic energy for a system of rigid bodies is
expressed by the following equation
(W*) = &E k = (£?*)/ - ) )v
The general equation can be written in the following special forms for the
particular type of motion indicated. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
398 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [§iO-9
Translation: Wk * — vf). (10-11)
Rotation: Wk = iZ w}— w<). (10-12)
Plane motion: Wk = im[(v 0 )} -- (v0 )J] + !Z 0 (w} — w?). (10-13)
The work and kinetic energy equation for plane motion can also be written
in terms of the moment of inertia of mass with respect to the instan
taneous axis of zero velocity. Since the moment of inertia is not neces
sarily constant with respect to the axis through the instantaneous center,
the equation for plane motion is
Wk = i(Zo)/«} - i(ZoM (10-14)
where (Zo)< and (Zo)/ are the moments of inertia of the mass of the body
with respect to the initial and final instantaneous axes of zero velocity.
Example 10-3: The imbalanced wheel A in Fig. 10-14 weighs 100 lb and has a
radius of gyration of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through 0 of 0.80 ft. The
Fig. 10-15
wheel rolls along the horizontal plane without slipping and is connected to the 50.0-lb
body B by means of an inextensible cord which passes over the smooth pulley at €
and is wrapped around A. Neglect the mass of the pulley at C . The modulus of the
spring 5 is 20.0 lb per ft, and its mass may be neglected. The spring is attached to
the wheel at O. When the mass center G of the wheel is in the position indicated on
the diagram the tension in the spring is 50.0 lb and the velocity of 0 is 4.0 fps to the
left. Determine the velocity of O when the wheel has rolled 90° counterclockwise.
Solution: Figure 10-15 is a free-body diagram of the system of bodies. The equa
tion relating the work and kinetic energy of this system is
Wk - ( E k )f - ( E k )i
(WOioo + OF*)»o + (VFfc )r - iMfo)} - (t>o)?] + i(Zoh [( )J - («a)?]
The forces F, 2V, and Q do no work, as was shown in Art. 10-4. The final positions of
the two bodies are indicated by dashed lines. The displacement of point O is
go — r<£ — 1 ■» 1.571 ft .
The displacement of body B has the same magnitude as the displacement of point E
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
on the cord, which can be obtained by relative motion. Thus
q* “ qj/o4> qo “ r$ •+> qp
“ 1 (|) -H 1-671 - 3.142 ft

qB - 3.142 ft f .
The displacement of the mass center G has both a horizontal and vertical component,
but since the force (the weight) at G is vertical, only
the vertical component of the displacement of G (0.50 ft
downward) is needed. The work done on the system by
the two weights is
(IF*) ioo - F(qa )v - 100(0.50) - 50.0 ft-lb,
(W*)io - FqB - -50(3.142) - -157.1 ft-lb.
The force of the spring on the body varies as the wheel
rolls, and the work done can be determined by integration
or from the F-s diagram for the spring (Fig.10-16). The
final force is determined from the slope of the diagram as follows:
2M0 , 0 -
1.571
Tf - 50.0 - 20(1.571) = 18.58 lb.
The work done by the spring is proportional to the area under the diagram and is
50.0 + 18.58?
(JF*)r -- ------ o ■ (1.571) - 53.9 ft-lb.
The total work on the system of bodies is

W k - 50 - 157.1 + 63.9 - -53.2 ft-lb.
The relationships between the various velocities can be determined from kinematics
using the instantaneous center of zero velocity of A. Thus
(*u)< - - 4.00 rad per sec ( ,
Mt - [1.00* + O.SO Rc h - 1.118(4.00), - 4.47 fps

Mi - 2.00(uu)» - (2.00) (4.00) - 8.00 fps f .
Similarly, (vg)/ — 0.50(wa)/, " 2.00(au)/, (t>o)/ — 1.00(wa)/.
The moment of inertia (Zg)a as obtained by the parallel axis theorem is
■■ Io — md 1
(0 80) (a50)
" ' ’ - ’ " 1211
When these values are substituted in the work and kinetic energy equation, it becomes
-53.2 - i [0.50«(«x); - 4.47*] + 1 (1-211) I M ) - 4.00*]
+ (2.00*(«x)’ - 8.00*],
from which («a)/ — 3.01 rad per sec ( .
The final velocity of O is @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Mi - 1.00(«a)/ - 3.01 fps
Since (wa)/ is obtained as a square root, it can be either positive or negative, and the
direction is determined from the statement of the problem. In this example the
wheel is turning counterclockwise initially and the velocity is to be determined
after it turns 90° counterclockwise; therefore the final angular velocity must also be
counterclockwise.
PROBLEMS
Note. Unless otherwise specified the mass of all springs and cords may be
neglected. All cords are to be considered flexible and inextensible, and all pins
are smooth. Where cords or cables are shown tangent to a circular body, it is
assumed that they are wrapped around it and that they wind up on the body or
unwind from it as the body moves unless the statement of the problem indicates
otherwise.
10-29. A spring whose modulus is 120 lb per in. supports the 2004b block in
Fig. P 10-29. The block is not fastened to the spring.
(a) If a 400-lb downward force is applied on top of the block, deter
mine the increase in the deflection of the spring.
(b) If the 400-lb force of part (a) is suddenly removed, determine the
maximum height to which the 200-lb block will rise, measured from the position
when the block was in its lowest position.
200*
Fig. P 10-29 Fig. P 10-30

10-30. A block weighing 32.2 lb slides along a rough plane as shown in Fig.
P 10-30. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the block and the plane is
0.50. At a given instant the velocity of the block is 10 fps up the plane. Deter
mine the position of the block with respect to its initial position at the instant
the velocity of the block is 5 fps down the plane.
10-31. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 10-31 weighs 322 lb and
rotates about a horizontal axis through O. A variable couple, T. = 6O02, acts
on the cylinder as shown. The positive direction for 0 and T 9 is counterclockwise
and the angular position function, 0, is in radians when T 9 is in ft-lb. If the
angular velocity of the body is 10 rad per sec clockwise when 0 = 0, determine
the angular velocity when 0 = 4 rad clockwise.
50 ,b
Fig. P 10-31
10-32. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 10-32 rotates about a fixed
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
axis through O. The cylinder is 3 ft in diameter and weighs 644 lb. Body d
weighs 161 lb and has an initial velocity of 10 fps downward. Determine the
velocity of A after it has traveled 20 ft downward.
10*33. The winding drum of a mine hoist is 12 ft in diameter, its radius of
gyration of mass with respect to the axis of rotation is 5 ft, and its weight is 8
tons. It lifts a loaded cage having a total weight of 6 tons. Determine the
magnitude of the constant torque on the drum required to give the cage a velocity
of 60 fps upward in a distance of 150 ft starting from rest.
10-34. The solid homogeneous 64.4-lb cylinder A in Fig. P 10-34 is attached
to the pulley B of negligible weight. Body C weighs 32.2 lb, and the coefficient
of kinetic friction between the brake and the cylinder is 0.40. Determine the
magnitude of the force P necessary to reduce the velocity of C from 15.0 to 5.0
fps downward while it descends 20.0 ft.
Fig. P 10-35
10-35. The solid homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 10-35 weighs 322 lb and rolls
without slipping. The force P 9 varies according to the equation P 9 = + 100,
where 8g gives the position of the mass center in ft when the force P 9 is in lb.
The positive direction for 8g and P 9 is to the left. If the velocity if G is 5.0 fps
to the left when 8a is zero, determine the velocity of G after it moves 2.0 ft to the
left.
rolls on a straight horizontal track without slipping. The torque T 9 in ft-lb
varies according to the equation T 9 = 600 s , where 0 gives the angular position
of the body in radians. Counterclockwise is the positive direction for T 9 and 0.
If the center of the cylinder has a velocity of 8.0 fps toward the left when 0 is
zero, determine the velocity of the center after it has moved 10 ft toward the
left.
Fig. P 10-36
10-37. In Fig. P 10-37, block A weighs 96.6 lb. The drum B weighs 161 lb
and has a radius of gyration of mass with respect to the axis of rotation at 0
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of 1.5 ft. When A is in the position shown, its velocity is 20.0 fps downward and
402 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY (§10-9
the tension in the spring C is 50 lb. After A has moved downward 8.0 ft, its
velocity is 6.0 fps downward. Determine the modulus of the spring.
Fig. P 10-37
10-38. In Fig. P 10-38, OA is a homogeneous uniform slender rod weighing

64.4 lb and is attached rigidly to B. B is a solid homogeneous cylinder weighing
128.8 lb and C is a 32.2-lb body suspended from B by means of a cord which is
wrapped around B, If the assembly is released from rest when in the position
shown, determine the velocity of C after OA rotates 30° clockwise.
10-39. The solid homogeneous 322-lb cylinder A and the homogeneous uni
form slender 193.2-lb rod OB are fastened together as indicated in Fig. P 10-39.
The system rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through 0. The modulus of
the spring is 40 lb per ft. When in the position shown OB has an angular velocity
of 3.0 rad per sec clockwise and the spring is stretched 1 ft. Determine the
angular velocity of OB after it has turned 90° clockwise.
Fig. P 10-40
10-40. The frictional force between the 6444b block A and the horizontal
plane in Fig. P 10-40 is 100 lb. The cable from A to the 322-lb block B does not
slip on the solid homogeneous cylindrical 1614b pulley C. When in the position
shown block B has a velocity of 5.0 fps downward and the spring is compressed
2.0 ft. The spring is securely fastened to block A and to the wall, and it has a
modulus of 200 lb per ft. Determine the velocity of B after it has moved 3.0 ft
downward.
10-41. The body in Fig. P 10-41 weighs 966 lb and has a radius of gyration
of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through the mass center of 2.0 ft. When
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
in the position shown, the spring is stretched 2.0 ft and the velocity of G is 6.0 fps
J10-9] KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY 403
downward. The modulus of the spring is 5.0 lb per in. Determine the velocity
of G after it has moved an additional 6.0 ft downward.
Fig. P 10-42
10-42. The solid homogeneous cylinder A in Fig. P 10-42 weighs 96.6 lb and
body B weighs 64.4 lb. The weight of pulley C may be neglected. Assume that
there is no slipping between body A and the cord. When in the position shown,
the system is at rest. Determine the displacement of body B while its velocity
is changing to 20 fps downward.
10-43. Body A in Fig. P 10-43 weighs 644 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through G of 2.5 ft. Body B weighs 161
lb and has an initial velocity of 20 fps to the right. Drum C and the horizontal
plane are smooth. Determine the velocity of B after it has moved 10 ft to the
10-44. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the 96.6-lb block A and the
plane in Fig. P 10-44 is 0.20. When the block is in the position shown, it has a
velocity of 5.0 fps down the plane. The spring has a modulus of 50 lb per in.
and an initial compression of 3 in. Determine the maximum deflection of the
spring, measured from its initial compressed position, caused by the block hitting
it.
10-45. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 10-45 weighs 644 lb and rolls
without slipping. The center of the cylinder has a velocity of 2.0 fps to the
right when in the position shown. The@seismicisolation
spring, whose modulus is 55 lb per ft,
@seismicisolation
has no initial deformation. If the bumper hits the spring centrally, determine
the maximum deflection of the spring. Assume that the 100-lb force ceases to
act just as the bumper hits the spring. Neglect the mass of the bumper and
support.
Fig. P 10-45 Fig. P 10-46
10-46. In Fig. P 10-46, body A weighs 644 lb and is mounted on two wheels
which are 3.0 ft in diameter and which weigh 128.8 lb each. The radius of gyra
tion of mass of each wheel with respect to a horizontal axis through its mass
center is 1.2 ft. Body A has a velocity of 3.0 fps to the left when it strikes a
spring having a modulus of 60 lb per in. Determine the amount the spring is
compressed in bringing the assembly to rest. The wheels roll without slipping
and the spring has no initial compression.
10-47. A truck body which weighs 1 ton is carried by four solid disk wheels
which roll without slipping on a horizontal track as shown in Fig. P 10-47. Each
wheel weighs 322 lb and is 3.0 ft in diameter. The truck has a velocity of 4.0
fps to the right when it strikes the spring S , which is initially compressed 6.0 in.
Determine the modulus of the spring if the truck is brought to rest by compressing
the spring 3.0 additional inches.
Fig. P 10-47 Fig. P 10-48
10-48. In Fig. P 10-48, body A weighs 64.4 lb, has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through G of 2.0 ft, and rolls without slip
ping. Body B weighs 32.2 lb and in a given position has a downward velocity
of 12 fps. What was the velocity of body B when it was 10 ft above the given
position?
10-49. In Fig. P 10-49, body A weighs 322 lb and rolls without slipping.
The radius of gyration of the mass of A with respect to a horizontal axis through
the mass center, (7, is 2.5 ft.@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Body B weighs 161 lb and when in the position
§10-9] KINETICS—WORK AND ENERGY 405
shown has a velocity of 15.0 fps downward. How far will B have traveled when
its velocity is 5.0 fps downward?
Fig. P 10-49 Fig. P 10-50

rolls on the horizontal plane without slipping. Body A weighs 322 lb, and the
coefficient of kinetic friction between A and the plane is 0.20. The force P 9 in
lb varies according to the equation P 9 = + 20, where 8 a indicates the position
of A in ft and the positive direction for P 9 and Sa is to the left. When A is in
the position shown, it has a velocity of 8.0 fps to the left, and Sa is zero. Deter
mine the velocity of A after it has moved an additional 6.0 ft to the left.
10-51. The solid homogeneous 483-lb sphere in Fig. P 10-51 rolls on the hori
zontal plane without slipping. The body C weighs 64.4 lb and has a velocity of
10.0 fps downward when the sphere is in the position A. If, after the body C
moves downward 5.0 ft, the sphere is in position B, determine the velocity of.
body C.
Fig. P 10-51 Fig. P 10-52

10-52. In Fig. P 10-52, block B weighs 64.4 lb and the drum A weighs 193.2 lb.
The radius of gyration of mass of body A with respect to a horizontal axis through
O is 2.0 ft. Body A rolls without slipping. When the spring S is unstretched,
B has a velocity of 40 fps downward. After B descends 10 ft, its velocity is
reduced to 10 fps downward. Determine the modulus of the spring.
10-53. In Fig. P 10-53, the coefficient of kinetic friction between the 322-lb
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
block A and the plane is 0.50. The 644-lb body B rolls without slipping and has
406 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [§104
a radius of gyration of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through G of 2.0 ft.
The spring has a modulus of 60 lb per ft. In the position shown, the velocity
of A is 10 fps to the left and the spring is unstretched. Determine the velocity
of A after it has moved 8.0 ft to the left.
Fig. P 10-53 Fig. P 10-54
10-54. In Fig. P 10-54, A weighs 128.8 lb, B weighs 966 lb, and D weighs
322 lb. Body B is a solid homogeneous cylinder and body D a solid homogeneous
sphere which rolls without slipping. The couple on body B varies according
to the equation C v = 3O02 + 90, where 0, the angular position of B, is in rad and
C» in ft-lb. The positive direction is clockwise for and 0. If 0 is zero when the
velocity of A is 20 fps downward, determine the distance A moves while its
velocity is changing to 10 fps downward.
10-55. The homogeneous 322-lb cylinder in Fig. P 10-55 rotates in a vertical
plane about a horizontal axis through O. When the body is in the position indi
cated, the angular velocity is 5.0 rad per sec counterclockwise. Determine the
angular velocity of the body after it has turned 90° counterclockwise from the
position shown. The rope is wrapped around the cylinder, and the part not in
contact with the cylinder remains vertical during the displacement.
Fig. P 10-56
on the horizontal plane without slipping. The cylinder is at rest in the position
shown. The modulus of the spring is 50 lb per ft and its unstretched length is
3.0 ft. Determine the angular velocity of the cylinder when its mass center is
directly under the spring support.
along the horizontal plane without slipping. The spring has a modulus of 50 lb
per ft. In the position shown, the spring is stretched 3.0 ft and the velocity of
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the mass center G is 10.0 fps to the right. Determine the velocity of G after it
has moved 7.0 ft to the right.
Fig. P 10-58
10-58. The 96.6-lb homogeneous rod OB and the 128.8-lb solid homogeneous
sphere A in Fig. P 10-58 are rigidly connected and rotate about a fixed horizontal
axis through O. The spring has a modulus of 80 lb per ft. In the position
shown, the angular velocity of OB is 2.0 rad per sec clockwise and the spring is
unstretched. Determine the angular velocity of OB after it has turned 90® clock
wise. The 3O-lb force remains perpendicular to OB.
10-59. The homogeneous slender rod AB in Fig. P 10-59 weighs 322 lb and
rotates in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis through 0. In the position
shown, the angular velocity of AB is 2.0 rad per sec counterclockwise. After
AB has turned through an angle of 90° counterclockwise, its angular velocity is
1.0 rad per sec counterclockwise. Block C weighs 96.6 lb. The spring has an
unstretched length of 5.0 ft. Determine the modulus of the spring.
1B _________fi _ _
<
<
*2
0
Fig. P 10-59 Fig. P 10-60
10-60. The wheel in Fig. P 10-60 weighs 644 lb and its radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through the mass center G is 1.5 ft. The
body rolls without slipping. In the position shown, the velocity of G is 4.0 fps
down the plane and the spring is stretched 1.0 ft. The spring modulus is 100 lb
per ft. Determine the maximum additional stretch of the spring.
10-61. The unbalanced body in Fig. P 10-61 weighs 322 lb and has a radius
of gyration of mass with respect to an axis through C normal to the plane of
motion of 2.0 ft. When the body is in @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the position shown, the velocity of point
408 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY [610-9
C is 12 fps to the right. If the body rolls without slipping on the horizontal
plane, determine the velocity of C when the body has turned 90° clockwise.
Fig. P 10-61 Fig. P 10-62

10-62. The unbalanced cylindrical body shown in Fig. P 10-62 weighs 644
lb and has a radius of gyration of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through
its mass center G of 0.80 ft. When the body is in the position shown, the velocity
of the center C is 4.0 fps to the left and the spring is unstretched. The body rolls
without slipping. Determine the angular velocity of the body when it has
turned one-half of a revolution from the position indicated. The modulus of the
spring is 20 lb per ft.
10-63. The 128.8-lb cylindrical disk in Fig. P 10-63 rolls on the horizontal
plane without slipping. The force P 9 varies according to the equation P 9 =
20s© + 60, where P 9 is in lb and so gives the position of O in ft. The positive direc
tion for 8o and P 9 is to the left. Two rods, CB and one directly behind it, are
pinned to the disk so as not to interfere with it as it rolls to the left. Each rod
weighs 4.83 lb per f t and is 20 ft long. The mass of the rollers at the ends of
the rods may be neglected. When the disk is in the given position, so is zero
and the assembly is at rest. Determine the angular velocity of disk A when it
has turned 90° counterclockwise from the given position.
Fig. P 10-63 Fig. P 10-64

10-64. The solid homogeneous cylinder A in Fig. P10-64 weighs 644 lb and rolls
on the horizontal plane without slipping. Body B weighs 161 lb, and the modulus
of the spring is 40 lb per ft. When the body is in the position shown, the velocity
of B is 6.0 fps downward and the spring is stretched 1 ft. Determine the angular
velocity of the cylinder when the center passes under the smooth peg C.
10-66. The 966-lb body A in Fig. P10-65 rolls without slipping. It has a radius
of gyration of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through the mass center G
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of 3.0 ft. The initial velocity of G is 10.0 fps down the plane. The spring has a
modulus of 80 lb per ft and is unstretched initially. Body B has a mass of 12
slugs and the drum C is smooth. Determine the distance G moves in coming to
rest.
Fig. P 10-65
10-66. Body A in Fig. P 10-66 is a solid homogeneous cylinder that weighs
1288 lb. Body B is a 13.0-ft slender homogeneous rod and weighs 966 lb. Body
C is a block that weighs 644 lb and moves in a horizontal slot whose surfaces are
smooth. A spring with a modulus of 100 lb per ft, attached to the block and to a
fixed wall as shown, can act either in tension or compression. When the mecha
nism is in the position indicated, the spring is stretched 4.0 ft and the velocity of a
point on block C is 5.0 fps to the right. Determine the angular velocity of body
A after it has rotated 90° clockwise.
Fig. P 10-66
10-67. The 12-ft homogeneous slender rod AB in Fig. P 10-67 weighs 161 lb
and rotates in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis at O, The unstretched
length of the spring is 4.0 ft and its modulus is 60 lb per ft. The 64.4-lb body C
is attached to the rod by a cord which @seismicisolation
runs through a smooth hole at E. When
@seismicisolation
AB is in the position shown, its angular velocity is 6.0 rad per sec counter-
clockwise. Determine the angular velocity of AB when it has turned 90°

counterclockwise.
Fig. P 10-67 Fig. P 10-68

10-68. The 6444b body A in Fig. P 10-68 is rolled down the plane until the
spring is stretched 5.0 ft. Body A is then released from rest and it rolls up the
plane without slipping. The radius of gyration of the mass of A with respect to
a horizontal axis through G is 2.5 ft and the modulus of the spring is 100 lb per ft.
Determine (a) the velocity of G when the spring is stretched 3.0 ft; (b) the location
of G when A comes to rest again.
10-69. The nonhomogeneous rod in Fig. P 10-69 is initially in position A'B*
against the vertical wall and the spring is unstretched. When the bottom of the
rod is pulled out slightly and released, the rod will slide downward to the right
with the ends in contact with the smooth surfaces. The spring modulus is 4.0 lb
per ft, the radius of gyration of mass of the rod with respect to a horizontal axis
through G is 4.0 ft, and the rod weighs 322 lb. Determine the velocity of the
mass center, G f when the rod is in the position AB.
Fig. P 10-69 Fig. P 10-70

10-70. The 12-ft homogeneous bar AB in Fig. P 10-70 weighs 161 lb and is
fastened to rollers at the ends@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
which move in smooth slots as shown. The bar is
originally at rest in the vertical position, and B is moved slightly to the right.
Determine the angular velocity of the bar when it is in position CD. The weights
of the rollers may be neglected.
10-10. Conservation of energy. The principle of conservation of

energy states that in an isolated system, energy can be redistributed or
changed in form but cannot be created or destroyed. An isolated system
is one in which no bodies or conditions outside the system have any effect
on the bodies within the system. Conservation of energy, like Newton’s
laws of motion, is not subject to an analytical proof but is rather the
result of observations.
Consider two bodies of equal mass connected by a cord which passes
over a smooth pulley. If one of the bodies has a downward velocity,
the other will have an equal upward velocity; and if no forces other than
the weights of the bodies and the reaction of the pulley are acting on the
system, the velocities will remain constant. During a given time interval
the potential energy of the rising body and the earth will be increased,
and that of the other body and the earth will be decreased by the same
amount. Thus the potential energy is redistributed but is not increased
or decreased. If there is a frictional force on the pulley, the velocities
of the bodies will be decreased, and thus the kinetic energy is decreased
while the potential energy is redistributed. The loss of kinetic energy
of the system is accounted for by an increase of the thermal energy as
indicated by an increase of the temperature of the surfaces where the
friction exists.
Although the principle of conservation of energy is of particular
importance in thermodynamics and other engineering studies involving
more than one form of energy, such as thermal, mechanical, chemical,
and electrical energy, it is also useful in the study of dynamics when
only mechanical energy is involved. The vertical motion of a weight
suspended from a helical spring and the rotation of a torsional pendulum
are examples in which the energy in the system changes from kinetic
to potential and back to kinetic energy with practically no loss of mechan
ical energy in the form of thermal energy, provided the elastic limit of
the materials is not exceeded.
From the principle of work and kinetic energy, it is evident that there
is no change in the kinetic energy of a system of bodies when the total
work done on the bodies (by both internal and external forces) is zero.
When two perfectly elastic bodies* collide and rebound, the net work
done by the internal forces is zero; if the external forces on the bodies
do no work during the impact period, the kinetic energy of the two
• Perfectly elastic bodies as used here are assumed to have straight-line load
deformation diagrams, and thus the strain energy stored in the bodies during the
deformation is completely recovered as the@seismicisolation
bodies return to their original shape.
@seismicisolation
412 KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY (510-11
bodies after impact is equal to the kinetic energy before impact; that
is, the kinetic energy of the system is conserved.
10-11. Power and efficiency. Power, as used in mechanics, is defined
as the time rate of doing work. From the definition of power, its dimen
sions are force multiplied by length and divided by time, FL/T, and
common units are ft-lb per sec, ft-lb per min, horsepower (hp), watt,
kilowatt (kw), and so on. The magnitudes of the various units have
the relationships indicated in the following equations. (1 hp = 550
ft-lb per sec = 33,000 ft-lb per min = 746 watts = 0.746 kw.)
Power is used in rating machines. It is usually more important
to know the amount of work the machine can do in a second, hour, or
day than merely to know that the machine can do so much work. A
large pump and a small pump may both be capable of filling a tank with
water from a reservoir, but the time required may differ considerably
for the two pumps and thus their rates of doing the work (power) will
not be the same.
Since power is the time rate of doing work, the power delivered to a
body by a force F acting on the body which moves through a distance ds
in the direction of the force during a time dt is
P = dt dt = Fv. (10-15)
The power delivered to a body by a couple with a moment T acting on

the body through an angular movement dO is
p _ dW k TdO
P =
- ~dT ~dF = < 10 - 1 6 )
The units used in expressing power can also be used with an interval
of time to express work. Thus a horsepower-hour (hp-hr) is the amount
of work done in an hour by a force working at the rate of one horsepower.
That is,
1i hp-hr
u u = I/do33,000
aaa ft-lb-hr\
-----. — I I 60 min\ I
\ mm / \ nr /
= 1,980,000 ft-lb.
Similarly,
• 1 kilowatt-hour (kwh) = 2,654,000 ft-lb.
The term “efficiency” can be used to denote a number of different
quantities. When referring to machines, efficiency is defined as the ratio
of the energy output of the machine per unit time to the energy supplied to
the machine in the same time interval. Efficiency can be further qualified
by calling it mechanical efficiency, electrical efficiency, hydraulic effi
ciency, over-all efficiency, and so on. The mechanical efficiency of a
machine is
power output
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
power input
It is impossible to eliminate all frictional forces between the moving
parts of a machine. Therefore some of the energy supplied to the
machine must be utilized in overcoming the frictional resistance, and
hence the power output is less than the energy supplied per unit of time.
The kinetic energy of the water as it leaves a water wheel is another
example of energy which is not used by the machine to do work. These
are only two of many examples which could be cited indicating that the
efficiency of any engine is always less than unity, or 100 per cent. Some
machines for transforming electrical or hydraulic energy to mechanical
energy, such as motors and turbines, have efficiencies which may run as
high as 90 per cent or more when operating under ideal conditions.
10-12. Dissipation of mechanical energy. Frictional forces are
usually undesirable in machines, since they reduce the efficiency of the
machines by dissipating some of the energy in unusable forms which are
manifested by an increase of temperature, the production of sound, and
other phenomena. In some instances, however, the transformation of
mechanical energy to thermal energy by means of frictional forces may
be desirable as in the use of brakes to stop
an automobile. The kinetic energy of the
automobile is dissipated (transformed into
thermal energy) through the action of the
brake lining sliding on the brake drum. The
energy which is transferred to the brake lining
by the frictional forces and which is indicated
by an increase in the temperature of the
lining is eventually dissipated into the atmos
phere. Frictional forces are also utilized for transmitting energy in such
apparatus as clutches and belt drives, but the dissipation of energy in such
applications is usually small.
The dynamometer is a machine or instrument for measuring the force
or power developed by an engine. The efficiency can be determined
when the power developed is known. The Prony brake illustrated in
Fig. 10-17 is an example of an absorption-type dynamometer in which
the energy transmitted to the drum by the shaft is transformed into
thermal energy by frictional forces and dissipated into the atmosphere
or into cooling water. The brake drum rotates in a clockwise direction
due to the turning moment transmitted by the shaft. When the turning
moment is balanced by the frictional moment of the brake on the drum,
the angular velocity of the drum remains constant. The work done on
the drum by the torque in the shaft is obtained as the product of the
turning moment and the angle through which the drum rotates. The
power supplied to the drum (and dissipated by the friction) is given by
Eq. (10-16) as
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
P = 7’u,
where P is the power, T is the turning moment, and w is the angular
velocity of the drum and shaft.
The turning moment of the shaft on the wheel in Fig. 10-17 can be
obtained from the free-body diagram of the
shaft, drum, and brake in Fig. 10-18. The
system is in equilibrium; therefore
ZM 0 = 0
from which T = Fa
where F is the net load at the end of the
brake arm. The expression just developed
for T may not be valid for all brake arrange
ments, but a free-body diagram will make
it possible to determine the turning moment, T, from the equation of
equilibrium.
PROBLEMS
10-71. A jet of water flows from a nozzle with a velocity of 150 fps. The
diameter of the jet is 2.00 in., and the water weighs 62.4 lb per cu ft. Determine
(a) the kinetic energy per pound of water in the jet; (b) the kinetic energy of the
water which flows from the nozzle in one sec; (c) the horsepower of the water in
the jet in the form of kinetic energy.
10-72. A pump draws 5 cu ft of water per sec from a reservoir and delivers
it to an elevated tank. If 80 hp is supplied to a pump with an efficiency of
80 per cent, determine the maximum allowable height of the water level in the
tank above the reservoir. Assume that the work done in overcoming friction in
the pipes is equal to the work done in lifting the water.
10-73. A motor and winch unit with an over-all efficiency of 80 per cent is
available to raise a 2000-lb elevator. Determine the maximum speed at which
the elevator can be raised when 50 hp is supplied to the motor.
10-74. The brake mechanism in Fig. P 10-74 consists of a flexible belt around
the drum A fastened to the brake lever at B and D. The coefficient of kinetic
friction between the belt and drum is 0.35. How much power is absorbed by the
brake when the load Q is 45 lb and the drum has an angular velocity of 300 rpm
clockwise? Neglect the weight of the brake.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
$10-12] KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY 415
10-75. Determine the load Q on the brake in Problem 10-74 which will cause
the brake to absorb 2.50 hp when the drum has an angular velocity of 100 rpm
counterclockwise.
10-76. The Prony brake in Fig. P 10-76 is used to measure the power devel
oped by a small impulse-type water wheel. The couple C transmitted to the
drum by the shaft causes the brake drum to have a clockwise angular velocity of
50 rad per sec. The net load Q (neglecting the weight of the brake arm) is 12.5 lb.
The power in the jet of water driving the wheel is 2.40 hp before it strikes the
wheel. Determine (a) the power dissipated by the Prony brake; (b) the effi
ciency of the water wheel.
Fig. P 10-76
10-77. The brake mechanism of Fig. P 10-77 is used to lower the small cage A.
The cage weighs 1500 lb, the drums B weigh 200 lb, and the weight of the brake
can be neglected. The cage is permitted to move with a constant velocity of
20 fps downward. Determine (a) the power dissipated by the brake; (b) the
force Q if the coefficient of friction between the brake drum and block is 0.40.
Fig. P 10-78
10-78. The electric generator in Fig. P 10-78 is used as a dynamometer to

measure the power output of a motor. The frame of the generator (the field) is
mounted on smooth bearings and is restrained from turning by the two equal
forces Q and Q' which constitute a couple. The armature of the generator is
driven by the motor. As the load on the generator is increased, the forces Q and
O' also increase. When the motor is driving the generator with an angular
velocity of 1700 rpm counterclockwise, the forces Q and Q' are 9.75 lb each and
@seismicisolation
8.50 kw is being supplied to the motor. @seismicisolation
Determine the efficiency of the motor.
10-79. A truck-and-trailer unit which weighs 9 tons travels along a highway
at 40 mph. The wind and frictional resistance is 50 lb per ton. The efficiency
of the power transmission from the engine to the wheels is 65 per cent. Deter-
mine the power which must be developed by the engine while moving up a 4
per cent grade (4 ft rise per 100 ft of horizontal distance).
10-13. Closure. The principle of work and kinetic energy equates

the work done by all the forces acting on a body or system of bodies to
the change in the kinetic energy of the bodies. Work is either a positive
or a negative scalar product of force and displacement, whereas kinetic
energy is a positive scalar property of a body. The work done by the
internal forces of a rigid body is zero, but for a nonrigid body the internal
forces do work. When a system of rigid bodies is connected by inex
tensible cords, smooth pins, and similar units, no work is done on the
system by the connections, and one free-body diagram of the system
of bodies is normally used for the work and energy method. It is
desirable to remember that separate free-body diagrams of each rigid
body are used for the force, mass, and acceleration method.
The method of work and kinetic energy is particularly useful for
problems involving variable forces whose magnitudes are functions of the
position of the body, such as the force exerted by a spring. When all
the forces acting on a body are constant, the work and kinetic energy
method frequently gives a more direct solution for an unknown velocity
or displacement than the method of force, mass, and acceleration com
bined with a v-t diagram or other kinematic relations.
The method of work and kinetic energy cannot be used to determine
forces which do no work on a body. When the method is used to obtain
the magnitude of a variable force which does work on a body the position
average value of the force is usually obtained rather than an instantaneous
value. Accelerations and time intervals are other quantities which
cannot be obtained directly from the principle of work and kinetic energy.
Sometimes it is convenient to use both the methods of work and energy
and of force, mass, and acceleration in the same problem. In some
examples the acceleration of the mass center of a body is a function of the
angular velocity of the body or the linear velocity of a connected body,
and it may be easier to determine the unknown velocity by work and
energy than by using force, mass, and acceleration and the differential
equations of kinematics. The velocity can be substituted in the equa
tions of motion relating force, mass, and acceleration. The following
problems are examples in which the two methods can be used to supple
ment each other.
PROBLEMS
10-80. The small body in Fig. P 10-80 weighs 1.00 lb and swings in a vertical
@seismicisolation
plane at the end of a 2.00-ft cord. When the angle d is 20°, the magnitude of the
@seismicisolation
angular velocity of the cord is 4.40 rad per sec. Determine (a) the tension in the
cord when 0 is 60°; (b) the maximum tension in the cord.
Fig. P 10-80
10-81. Body A in Fig. P 10-81 is a solid homogeneous cylinder which weighs

64.4 lb and rolls along the horizontal plane without slipping. The cylinder is
connected to the 32.2-lb block B by an inextensible cord which passes over the
smooth pegs C and D. The cylinder is released from rest when s = 6 ft. Deter
mine all unknown forces acting on the cylinder when (a) s = 4 ft; (b) 5 = 0.
10-82. Body A in Fig. P 10-82 is a 4.00-lb solid homogeneous sphere which
rolls on the fixed cylindrical surface as shown. The coefficient of friction between
the ball and cylinder is 0.50. The ball starts from rest at the top of the cylinder.
Determine the angle 0 at which the ball will start to slip on the cylinder.
Fig. P 10-82 Fig. P 10-83

10-83. The homogeneous slender rod in Fig. P 10-83 moves with its ends in
contact with the two smooth surfaces as indicated. The rod is at rest in the
vertical position when the lower end is pulled out slightly to start the bar moving.
Determine the angle 0 when the upper end leaves the vertical wall.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
C H A P T E R 11
Kinetics—Impulse and Momentum
11-1. Introduction. The principles of force, mass, and acceleration
were developed from Newton’s laws of motion and their application to
kinetics problems was illustrated in Chapter 9. In Chapter 10 the prin
ciple of work and kinetic energy was derived from Newton’s laws of
motion and applied to the analysis of problems in kinetics. The prin
ciples of impulse and momentum, which also are based upon Newton’s
laws of motion, will be developed and their use explained in this chapter.
Since each of the three methods has certain advantages for some types
of problems, it is desirable to understand all three methods.
When an acceleration or a force at an instant is to be obtained, the
method of force, mass, and acceleration is usually the most direct.
When one or more of the forces involved are variables and can be expressed
as functions of the position of the body, the method of work and kinetic
energy is generally best. If one or more of the forces involved are varia
bles and can be expressed as functions of time, the principles of impulse
and momentum usually provide the most direct solution. The prin
ciples of impulse and momentum are particularly effective for problems
involving an impact or collision between two bodies and for problems
dealing with fluids. Many problems can be solved readily by more than
one of the three methods. In such cases solutions by two methods
provide an excellent means of checking the result.
11-2. Linear impulse. The linear impulse of a constant force F during
a time interval At is defined as the product of the force and the time interval;
that is,
LI — F At,
where LI is the linear impulse.
The linear impulse of a force is a vector quantity with the same sense
and action line as the force. The dimensions of linear impulse are FT,
and common units are Ib-sec, ton-hr, and so on.
If the force F varies in magnitude but not in direction during the time
interval, the linear impulse of the force is
LI - f ' F d t ,
where ti and tf are the initial and final values of the time t.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
418
§11-21 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 419
When the force F varies in direction, the x and y components of the
linear impulse of the force are
(LZ), = F x di, (LI\ - g F„dt. (11-1)
Sometimes it is convenient to indicate the relationship between the

force and time graphically. In Fig. 11-1, the
magnitudes of the x component of the force
are plotted against the corresponding values
of time. The x component of the impulse of
the force as given by Eq. (11-1) is
(LZ). = f*' F, dt,
which is the same as the area under the force- Pj G
time diagram.
The linear impulse in the x direction can also be written as
(LI), = (F x ) m At
where (F x ) m is the time average value of F x. It should be noted that the
time average value of the force is usually not the same as the distance
average value of the force used in determining the work done by a force.
Problem 11-9 illustrates the preceding statement.
In the preceding chapter it was shown that a force does work only
when it has a component in the direction of its displacement. Every
force that acts during a time interval does, however, have a linear impulse
whether it does any work or not.
The linear impulse of a system of forces during a time interval is the
vector sum of the linear impulses of the separate forces of the system
during that time interval.
PROBLEMS
11-1. The 300-lb block in Fig. P 11-1 is pulled up the plane by the variable
force P = 220 + 20/, where P is in lb when t is in sec. The coefficient of friction
between the block and the plane is 0.20. Determine (a) the magnitude and
direction of the linear impulse of the force P during the time interval from
t — 1 sec to I = 3 sec; (b) the magnitude and direction of the resultant linear
impulse on the block during the 2-sec interval of part (a).
@seismicisolation
IM
420 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [§11-2
11-2. The 6.00-lb body in Fig. P 11-2 has a motion of translation to the left.
The coefficient of kinetic friction between the body and the plane is 0.10. Deter
mine the magnitude and direction of the resultant linear impulse on the body
during a 3-sec interval. The body moves to the left during the entire period.
11-3. The 30-lb block in Fig. P 11-3 moves along the smooth plane under the
action of the indicated forces. The force Q is in lb when t is in sec. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the resultant linear impulse on the block during
the time interval from t = 1 sec to t = 4 sec.
Fig. P 11-3
11-4. Solve Problem 11-3 if the coefficient of friction between the block
and plane is 0.30. The block slides to the right during the entire time interval.
11-5. The 128.8-lb solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 11-5 rolls without
slipping with an angular acceleration of 13.33 rad per sec 2 clockwise. Determine
the magnitude and direction of the resultant linear impulse on the cylinder
during a 6-sec interval.
11-6. The 6-in. shaft in Fig. P 11-6 rotates about an axis through A with a
constant angular velocity of 2 rad per sec counterclockwise. The 20-lb force is
applied tangentially at point@seismicisolation
B on the shaft and remains tangent to the shaft as it
@seismicisolation
§11-3] KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 421
rotates. Determine the magnitude and direction of the linear impulse of the
20-lb force during the time required for the angle 0 to change from 0 to 180°.
11-7. The coefficient of friction between the 50-lb block in Fig. P 11-7 and
the plane is 0.20. The horizontal force P in lb varies according to the equation
P = — 20t, where t is time in sec. Determine the resultant linear impulse
of the forces on the block during the time interval from 2 = 2 sec to £ = 6 sec.
The velocity of the block is up the plane during the entire time interval.
(a)
Fig. P 11-7 Fig. P 11-8

11-8. The block W in Fig. P ll-8a weighs 20 lb and moves along the smooth
plane. The magnitude of the force P is given by the force-time diagram in Fig.
P U-8b. Determine the magnitude and direction of the linear impulse of the
force system acting on the block during the time interval from t = 0 to t = 8.00
11-9. The 32.2-lb block A in Fig. P 11-9 moves on a smooth horizontal plane
and is acted on by the force F, which varies according to the equation F =
where F is in lb when t is time in sec. The block starts from rest at the origin
when t = 0.
(a) Determine the time average value of the force F during the interval
from t = 0 to t = 3 sec.
(b) Derive the expression for the position s of the block as a function of
time.
(c) Determine the work done by the force F during the interval from
t = 0 to t = 3 sec, using the expression Wk = JF ds.
(d) Determine the position average value of the force F from the
expression Wk = (Favg)(As).
Fig. P 11-9
11-3. Linear momentum. The linear momentum of a particle of mass

m at any instant is defined as the product of the mass of the particle and its
velocity at that instant; that is,
LM = nw, (11-2)
where LM is the linear momentum of the particle.
The linear momentum of a particle is a vector quantity with the same
sense and slope as the velocity of the@seismicisolation
particle. The vector representing
@seismicisolation
the momentum of a particle has a line of action which passes through the
particle, and thus it is a localized vector similar to the effective force of a
particle. The dimensions of linear momentum are obtained as follows:
FT 2 /L\
mv = F T
= ~L-\T) -
Thus the dimensions, and consequently the common units, of linear

momentum and linear impulse are the same.
The linear momentum of a system of particles at any instant is the
vector sum of the linear momentums of the particles of the system at
that instant. Consider a system of particles, either rigid or nonrigid, of
masses m b m 2 , m», . . . , located at points (z b y b zi), (x 2,y 2,z 2), (s3,y 3,z 3),
. . . , with velocities v b v 2, v 3f . . . . The x component of the linear
momentum of the system of particles is
(LM), = mi(vi) x + m 2(v 2) x + m 3(y 3 ) x + • • •

= m(yG)x, (11-3)
from Eq. (9-6), where m is the total mass of the system of particles and
Vo is the velocity of the mass center of the system. Similarly,
(LAf) v = m(y G )v , ( L M ) X = m(v0 )x,
from which, by vector addition, the resultant linear momentum of the

system is
LM = mvo. (11-4)
Equation (11-4) gives the magnitude, sense, and slope of the linear
momentum of any system of particles. The linear-momentum vector
usually does not pass through the mass center of the system of particles.
The position of the resultant linear-momentum vector of a rigid body can
be obtained by the principle of moments as explained in Art. 11-8.
PROBLEMS
11-10. The 30.04b block in Fig. P 11-10 has a velocity of 25 fps up the plane
when in position A. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the plane and
block is 0.10. Determine the magnitude and direction of the linear momentum
of the block when it is in position B.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
11-11. Determine the magnitude and direction of the linear momentum of
the block in Problem 11-10 one second after it was in position A.
11-12. A 30004b car has a speed of 50 mph. Determine the magnitude of
the linear momentum of the car.
11-13. A solid, homogeneous 322-lb sphere is 18 in. in diameter and rolls up an
inclined plane without slipping. Determine the magnitude of the linear momen
tum of the sphere when the angular velocity is 45 rpm.
11-14. The 128.84b slender homogeneous rod OA in Fig. P 11-14 is pinned at
O and rigidly connected to the 96.64b solid homogeneous disk B at A. The
composite body is released from rest when in the position shown. Determine the
magnitude, slope, and sense of the linear momentum of the body when it has
turned 90°.
11-4. Principle of linear impulse and linear momentum. The princi

ple relating the resultant force and the acceleration of the mass center of
any system of particles was developed in Art. 9-4 and stated in mathe
matical form in Eq. (9-8). The equation between the sum of the x
components of the forces and acceleration is
SF. = m(a0 )x = m d-
QI
or 'S,F x dt = md(va) x . (11-5)
The definite integral of this equation is
(‘'Fxdt = m f ’d(v 0 )x
Jti JW)*
= (11-6)
where (v )* and (t# ) x are the x components of the velocity of the mass
center of the system of particles at the times U. and f/, respectively. The
left side of Eq. (11-6) is the x component of the linear impulse of the
external forces acting on the system of particles during the time interval
from ti to tf. The right side of this equation is the change in the x com
ponent of the linear momentum of the system of particles during the same
time interval. Equation (11-6) can be written as
(LZ) X = (LM)" - (LM)'X = A(LAf)x .
Similarly,
(11 7)
(LI) V = (LM)” - (LM)'„ = A(LM)„ ‘
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
(LI). = (LM)” - (LM), = t(LM),.
424 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM (§11-4
The vector sum of the three terms on the left sides of the preceding equa
tions is the total linear impulse of the external forces, and the vector
sum of the three terms on the right is the total change of the linear
momentum of the system of particles. Therefore
LI = (LMY f - (LMY = A(LM).
The principle of linear impulse and linear momentum as expressed mathe
matically in Eq. (11-7) can be stated in words as follows: The linear
impulse of a force system acting on any system of particles during a time
interval is equal to the change in the linear momentum of the system of par
ticles during that time interval.
Equation (11-5) with m constant can also be written
2F. = [m(va( J,
which indicates that the x component of the resultant of the external

forces acting on a system of particles is equal to the time rate of change
of the x component of the linear momentum of the particles. Similar
relationships exist for the y and z components.
When values are being substituted in Eqs. (11-7), the algebraic sign
of the impulses (or forces) and momentums (or velocities) must agree.
An arrow or arrows near the free-body diagram indicating positive direc
tions is helpful in eliminating errors due to inconsistent algebraic signs.
Since the principle of linear impulse and linear momentum involves
vector quantities, it is usually better to draw separate free-body diagrams
of each rigid body involved than to use combinations of bodies as is
commonly done in using the principle of work and kinetic energy.
The following example illustrates the application of the principle of
linear impulse and momentum.
Example 11-1: The 322-lb block A in Fig. 11-2 is acted on by the force P, which
varies according to the equation P = 40i — 5t l , where P is in lb when the time t is
in sec. The positive direction for P is to the right and the coefficient of friction
between A and the plane is 0.10. The block is at rest when t is zero. Determine:
(a) The time t\ when the block starts to move.
(b) The time ti when the block reverses its velocity.
(c) The velocity when t — 6 sec.
7777777777777 |
Fig. 11-2 Fig. 11-3
Solution: (a) Figure 11-3 is a free-body diagram of the block when it is moving
to the right. When the block @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
is moving to the left, the frictional force must be
reversed on the diagram. The force P is zero at t — 0 and at t — 8 sec, and from
t — 0 to t — 8 sec the direction of P is to the right. When the block is at rest and the
acceleration is zero, the frictional force will be only large enough to produce equilib
rium. The block is at rest and the force P is zero when t is zero; therefore F is zero.
The force F will be equal to P until F reaches its limiting value of nN - 32.2 lb, when
the block will no longer remain in equilibrium. The value of t when the block starts
to move can be obtained by equating P to 23.2 lb and solving for t ; that is,
P - 401 - 5P - 32.2,
from which
t = 0.908 sec or 7.09 sec.
The first value of t indicates that the block will start to move when h — 0.908 sec.
(b) When t = 7.09 sec, the force P is again equal to 32.2 lb, and for values of I
greater than 7.09 lb the resultant force on the block is to the left and the velocity of
the block will be decreasing. Notice that although the resultant force on the block
and the corresponding acceleration are zero when t — 7.09 sec, the velocity is not zero.
The time G when the block comes to rest can be obtained from the equation of linear
impulse and linear momentum.
S(LZ)x - A(LAf)„
J P d t - jF di - m(< - <),
(40 6<1 32
f’
JU.Wo
* “ “ ’ 2) « 10
(° " o),
from which
[aot’-y -32. :U J 0 908 = 0
E13 "1
or 20«J - —’ - 32.26 - [-14.00] = 0.
o I
This cubic equation can be solved for h by various graphical or trial-and-error

methods. The value of G » 10.18 sec satisfies the equation and is the time when the
velocity of A becomes zero after starting to move when t = G “ 0.908 sec. The
other two roots of the cubic equation are both 0.908 sec, which is thus a double root.
This identity indicates that the velocity of the block was also zero when t — 0.908 sec,
which was already known but is not a solution to the problem as stated.
(c) Since the block is moving to the right during the time interval from t — 0.908
sec to t — 6 sec, the friction is to the left during the entire interval, and the equation
of linear impulse and linear momentum is
f* (40* - 5* 1 - 32.2) dt - 10(< - 0).

J0.908
The solution of this equation gives the velocity when t is equal to 6 sec as
v" = 18.08 fps— .
The principle of linear impulse and linear momentum is particularly

useful in determining the force developed when a jet of water or other
fluid is deflected by a blade. The first two equations of (11-7) can be
written
A* = m(v" — v'x ), XFV A* = m(t>" — *>').
When the preceding equations are applied to a free-body diagram of the
fluid being deflected, m is the mass @seismicisolation
of fluid deflected during the time
@seismicisolation
interval A/, F x and F v are the components of the reaction of the blade on
the fluid, and v' and v" are the velocities of the fluid before and after it
strikes the blade.
The mass of fluid striking the blade in time AZ depends on the area
and velocity of the jet, the density (mass per unit volume) of the fluid,
the velocity of the blade, and whether a single blade or a series of blades
mounted on the periphery of a wheel is involved. If the jet strikes a
stationary blade, the mass per unit time is AjVj(At)p, where A j is the
area of the jet, Vj is its velocity, and p is the density of the fluid. If
the blade is moving in the same direction as the jet with a velocity v B , the
length of the stream which strikes the blade in a time At is (vj — v B( At,
and the mass striking the blade in the time At is Aj(yj — v B )(Af)p. When
a jet of fluid strikes a series of blades on a wheel (such as the runner of
an impulse turbine), all of the fluid issuing from the nozzle strikes the
blades, and the mass of fluid deflected during the time interval AZ is
AjVj(At)p.
The velocity of the jet as it leaves the blade can be determined from
the equation of relative velocity. If the blade is smooth, the force of
the blade on the fluid is always normal to the surface and hence normal
to the relative velocity of the fluid with respect to the blade. This
normal force produces only a normal acceleration of the fluid, and there
fore the magnitude of the relative velocity of the fluid leaving the blade
is the same as the magnitude of the relative velocity with which the fluid
strikes the blade. The direction of the final velocity of fluid relative to
the blade is tangent to the blade. The angle through which the relative
velocity is changed is called the deflection angle of the blade. The final
absolute velocity of the water as it leaves the blade is determined from
the equations
v’b, Vjsb = Vj/B, v'j = Vj/B -H v"
The following problem demonstrates the application of the principle
of linear impulse and momentum to a jet.
Example 11-2: A jet of water with a cross-sectional area of 2.0 sq in. has a velocity
of 180 fps to the right when it strikes the single curved blade in Fig. 11-4. The
Fig. 11-4 Fig. 11-5

velocity of the blade is 80 fps to the right, and friction between the blade and water is
in a horizontal plane. The water weighs 62.4 lb per cu
negligible. The jet remains @seismicisolation
ft. Determine: @seismicisolation
(a) The force of the water on the blade.
(b) The power developed.
Solution: (a) The free-body diagram (top view) of the water which strikes the
blade during the time interval 41 is shown in Fig. 11-5. In this example the weight
of the fluid is perpendicular to the plane in which the jet moves, but in any case it is
customary to neglect the weight of the fluid in comparison with the other forces acting
on the jet. The equations of impulse and momentum are
ZF X Al = m(v” — v x ), EFV Al =« m(y" — »').
The mass of water which strikes the blade in time Al is

2.0 62.4
m =■ Aj(vj - v B( & p = th (180 - 80) Al - 2.6941.
The velocity of the jet relative to the blade before impact is
► 80 - 100 fps-*.
v J / B = 180—
Since the blade is smooth, the final relative velocity is
»7/b “ 100 fps
and the final absolute velocity of the jet is
30* . . |
x T" “* 1
- Vj/B +» = 100 +> 80 =- 6.6 +> 50.
The positive directions for the impulse and momentum equations are shown near the
free-body diagram. Substituting in the equations,
- K X AI - 2.69 (41)[(—6.6) - 180],
from which Rx — 502 lb <— on the jet,
and Ry Al =« 2.69(AZ)[50 - 0],
from which Ry — 134.5 lb | on the jet.
The resultant force on the blade is
- t
R ~ 502 +> 134.5 = 520 lb
The initial and final components of the absolute velocity of the water used in the
equations of impulse and momentum can be replaced by the corresponding components
of the velocity of the water relative to the blade because the difference of the two
absolute velocity components is the same as the difference of the two relative velocity
components. By the use of relative velocities, the impulse and momentum equation
in the x direction becomes
5F x AZ = m[(vj / B )x (vj/b)*1
or — Rx Al = 2.69(AI)[(— 86.6) - 100]
and Rx — 502 lb <— on the jet.
This is the same result as that obtained using the absolute velocities.
(b) The reaction on the blade moves in the x direction with the blade; therefore
Ry does no work. The power delivered to the blade is, from Eq. (10-15), the product
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of the force exerted on the blade in the direction of the velocity times the velocity of
428 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM (JU-4
the force (and blade) ; that is,

40 200
P - R.v B - 502(80) = 40,200 ft-lb per sec = -~r- - 73.0 hp.
ODU
PROBLEMS
11-15. A block weighing 161 lb moves on a smooth horizontal plane. Its
velocity is changed from 5 fps to the right to 25 fps to the left in 4 sec. Determine
the constant horizontal force which causes this change in velocity.
11-16. The coefficient of friction between the 600-lb block in Fig. P 11-16 and
the plane is 0.4. Determine the time required for the velocity of the block to
change from 2 fps to 20 fps, both to the right.
77777777777777 7777777777777777
Fig. P 11-16 Fig. P 11-17
11-17. The force P„ acting on the 300-lb block in Fig. P 11-17 varies according
to the equation P„ = 200$ + 500, where P v is in lb when t is in sec, and the positive
direction is to the left. The coefficient of friction between the block and the
plane is 0.20. The velocity of the block is 15 fps to the left when $ = 0. Deter
mine the velocity of the block when t = 4 sec.
11-18. Solve Problem 11-17 if the velocity of the block is 10 fps to the left
when t = 0. •
11-19. A cylindrical jet of water 2 in. in diameter impinges on a fixed blade as
shown in Fig. P 11-19. The velocity of the jet is 20 fps to the right. Determine
the horizontal and vertical components of the force exerted on the blade by the
water. The blade is smooth.
Fig. P 11-19 Fig. P 11-20
11-20. A cylindrical jet of water 2 in. in diameter strikes a fixed blade as

shown in Fig. P 11-20. The velocity of the jet as it strikes the blade is 20 fps to
the right. Neglecting friction, determine the horizontal and vertical components
of the force exerted on the blade by the water.
11-21. A jet of water having a cross-sectional area of 4 sq in. impinges on a
moving blade as shown in Fig. P 11-21. The velocity of the jet is 20 fps to the
right and the velocity of the @seismicisolation
blade is 10 fps to the left. Determine the horsepower
@seismicisolation
required to move the blade into the water. The friction between the blade
and the water may be neglected.
Fig. P 11-21 Fig. P 11-22
11-22. The 100-lb body in Fig. P 11-22 is acted upon by a variable force
P» = 100 + 10$, where P v is in lb and t is the time in sec. The coefficient of
friction between the body and the plane is 0.20. The velocity of the body
changes from 8 fps up the plane when t = 0 to 30 fps up the plane during a
certain time interval. Determine (a) the time interval; (b) the displacement
of the body during this time interval.
11-23. A jet of water with a cross-sectional area of 6 sq in. strikes a blade as
shown in Fig. P 11-23. The velocity of the water before hitting the blade is
30 fps to the right. Determine the horsepower required to produce a blade
velocity of 10 fps to the left. Neglect the friction between the water and blade.
Fig. P 11-23 Fig. P 11-24
11-24. A jet of water with a cross-sectional area of 2 sq in. and a velocity of

40 fps to the right impinges on a vane having a velocity of 10 fps to the right as
shown in Fig. P 11-24. Neglecting the friction of the water on the vane, determine
the force exerted by the water on the vane.
11-25. A 4-oz stone is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of
46 fps. Neglect air resistance.
(a) Determine, by the principle of linear impulse and momentum
(1) the velocity of the stone 2.0 sec later; (2) the time required for the stone to
reach its maximum elevation.
(b) Check part (a) by another method.
11-26. A 100-lb box is given an initial velocity of 20 fps down an unloading
chute that makes an angle of 25° with the horizontal. If the box comes to rest
in 2.84 sec, determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between the box and the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
chute.
430 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [§H-5
11-27. The coefficient of kinetic friction between the 322-lb block in Fig.
P 11-27 and the horizontal plane is 0.45. Determine the minimum value of the
force P required to give the block a velocity of 15 fps in 2 sec starting from rest.
7777777777777777
Fig. P 11-27
11-28. The 200-lb body A in Fig. P 11-28 is being pulled up the inclined plane
at a speed of 15 fps when the wire breaks. The coefficient of kinetic friction
between A and the plane is 0.20. Determine the velocity of A 2 sec after the
wire breaks.
11-29. The 180-lb block A in Fig. P 11-29 is connected to the 100-lb block B
by a flexible wire. The coefficient of kinetic friction is 0.20 between A and the
plane and 0.25 between B and the plane. Determine the velocity of A 3 sec
after it starts from rest.
150*
A
B
777777777777777.
Fig. P 11-29
11-5. Conservation of linear momentum. As was stated in Art.

11-4, the linear impulse of a force system acting on any system of par
ticles during a time interval is equal to the change in the linear momentum
of the system of particles during that time interval. The principle of
conservation of linear momentum states that when the linear impulse exerted
on a system of particles is zero, the change in the linear momentum of the
system of particles is zero and therefore the linear momentum of the system
is conserved. Furthermore, when there is no linear impulse on a system
of particles in a given direction, the linear momentum is unchanged in
that direction even though the total linear momentum may not be
constant.
When two particles or bodies, A and B, collide, the linear impulse of A
on B is equal in magnitude and opposite in sense to the linear impulse of
B on A. Thus if no other forces are acting on the two bodies in a given
direction, the linear momentum of the system composed of the two bodies
is conserved in that direction during the impact. The two blocks A and
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
B in Fig. 11-6 are moving along the same path on a smooth plane when
they collide. Since there are no horizontal forces external to the system
composed of blocks A and B acting on the blocks during the collision, the
linear momentum of the system in the horizontal
direction is constant. That is,
m A(y A )i + = m A(v A ) f + m B(v B ) fj (11-8)
Fig. 11-6
where the subscripts i and f denote initial and final
velocities, respectively. When Eq. (11-8) is used, a positive direction
must be selected and all velocities in the opposite direction must be
treated as negative quantities.
When the linear impulse in a given direction is not zero but is known
to be relatively small, it can frequently be neglected in order to obtain
an approximate solution sufficiently accurate for many purposes. If the
linear momentum of the system composed of A and B in Fig. 11-6 is large
compared to the linear impulse of the frictional force, Eq. (11-8) is
approximately true even though friction exists between the plane and
the blocks. The frictional forces could not exceed and the time of
impact would be small; therefore the impulse of the friction on the blocks
during the impact period would not change the large linear momentum
of the blocks materially.
Example 11-3: A 10.00-lb block is suspended
by a long cord. The block is at rest when a 0.050-lb
bullet traveling horizontally to the left strikes the
block and is embedded in it. The impact causes
the block to swung upward 0.50 f t measured verti
cally from its lowest position. Determine:
(a) The velocity of the bullet just before it
strikes the block.
(b) The loss of kinetic energy of the system
during impact.
Solution: (a) The velocity of the block and bullet
immediately after impact can be found by the
principle of work and kinetic energy. There are
only two forces acting bn the block and bullet after
impact as indicated in the free-body diagram in
Fig. 11-7 Fig. 11-7, and the force T does no work because
there is no displacement in the direction of T . When values are substituted in the
equation
IF* = — v*l,
the result is
1 10.05- 10
-10.05(0.50) = 321 " r’! ’
from w’hich v = 5.67 fps ,
where v is the velocity of the block and bullet immediately after impact. During
the time of the collision, no forces external to the block and bullet are acting in the
horizontal direction. Consequently, the @seismicisolation
horizontal linear momentum is conserved.
@seismicisolation
When the left is chosen as the positive direction, Eq. (11-8) gives
10.00 . 0.05 10.05

+ Vb 5 67
32.2 32.2 “ 32.2 ’
from which vb “ 1140 fps ,
where vb is the velocity of the bullet before impact.

(b) The kinetic energy of the system before impact is
(1140)
5 ) 1) ’ “ 1009 ft lb
- -
The kinetic energy of the system after impact is
5 (St) <5-67)’ “ 5 03 fwb-

The loss of kinetic energy during the collision is 1009 — 5.03 — 1004 ft-lb, or 99.5
per cent. It should be noted that even though the momentum is conserved during
impact, nearly all of the kinetic energy is dissipated as heat and internal work in
deforming the block and the bullet.
PROBLEMS
11-30. Two freight cars, each weighing 20 tons, roll on a horizontal track with
velocities of 4 fps to the right and 3 fps to the left, respectively. They collide
and are coupled during impact. Neglecting friction:
(a) Determine their final common velocity.
(b) Is the kinetic energy of the system the same before and after
impact? If not, determine the loss or gain.
11-31. A small bucket weighing 30 lb is suspended by a long inextensible cord.
With the cord drawn taut, the bucket is swung in an arc until it is 5.0 ft above its
lowest position and released. Just as the bucket swings through its lowest posi
tion, a ball of putty weighing 30 lb is dropped vertically into it. Determine how
high the bucket will rise vertically above its lowest position. Assume that the
bucket and putty reach a common velocity in negligible time.
11-32. In Fig. P 11-32, block A weighs 19.9 lb and is moving toward the left
with a velocity of 4 fps just before it is struck by the bullet B. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between A and the plane is 0.25. The bullet weighs 0.10 lb and is
fired into the cepter of block A with a velocity of 2000 fps to the right. How long
will block A continue to move after the embedment of the bullet?
77777777777777777
Fig. P 11-32
11-33. A block which weighs 16.1 lb is moving on a smooth horizontal plane.

The block has a velocity of 60 fps to the left. A bullet weighing 0.322 lb strikes
the block centrally and passes through it. The velocity of the bullet is 2000 fps
to the right before impact and 400 fps to the right after impact. Determine
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@seismicisolation
(a) the velocity of the block just after impact; (b) the linear impulse on the block
during the period of impact.
11-34. The 20-lb box in Fig. P 11-34 is sliding horizontally along a smooth
surface with a velocity of 10 fps to the right when a mass of putty weighing 12.2 lb
is dropped vertically into it. After impact the box and putty strike a horizontal
spring, compressing it 6 in. before being brought to rest. The spring is not
initially compressed, and its mass may be neglected. Determine the modulus
of the spring.
Fig. P 11-34 Fig. P 11-35
11-35. In Fig. P 11-35, the box B is filled with sawdust and rests on a smooth
plane. The total weight of B is 50 lb. The spring has no initial compression
and its modulus is 2000 lb per ft. A projectile weighing 0.5 lb and having a
velocity of 1000 fps to the right strikes the box centrally and is embedded in it.
Determine the distance the spring will be compressed by the box hitting it.
Neglect the mass of the spring and assume that the bullet is embedded in the
block before it hits the spring.
11-36. A 10-lb block is susperided by a long cord and swings on a pendulum
in a north and south vertical plane. When the cord is vertical, the velocity of
the block is 20 fps to the south. At this instant a 0.5-lb bullet with a velocity of
2000 fps to the east strikes the block centrally and is embedded in it. Determine
the velocity of the block and bullet immediately after impact.
11-37. A body A weighing 40 lb is suspended by means of a long inextensible '
cord as shown in Fig. P 11-37. The body is swinging to the left through its
lowest position with a velocity of 15 fps when a bullet B weighing 0.5 lb strikes
and is embedded in it. The velocity of the bullet before impact is 2000 fps, 3
downward and 4 to the right. How far, measured vertically, will body A rise
above its lowest position?
Fig. P 11-37 Fig. P 11-38
11-38. In Fig. P 11-38, block A weighs 20 lb and rests upon a smooth plane as
shown. A bullet weighing 0.1 lb is fired horizontally into the block. The bullet
strikes the block centrally and is embedded in it. After embedment the block
moves 5 ft, measured along the plane, before coming to rest. Determine the
velocity of the bullet just before it strikes the block.
11-39. A block A weighing 9.9 lb is falling freely. When its velocity is
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20 fps downward, a bullet weighing 0.1 lb strikes A centrally and is embedded in
it. The bullet has a velocity of 2000 fps in the direction indicated in Fig. P 11-39.
Determine the velocity of the block and bullet the instant after the impact.
Fig. P 11-39 Fig. P 11-40

11-40. In Fig. P 11-40, the projectile weighs 60 lb and has a velocity of 1500
fps as shown when it leaves the gun. The gun and carriage weigh 3000 lb.
Neglecting the mass of the gas,
(a) Determine the velocity of the gun and carriage just after the
projectile leaves the gun.
(b) Determine the modulus of the spring such that it will not be
deflected more than 18 in. when the gun and carriage hit it. Assume that the
spring is initially uncompressed. Neglect the mass of the spring and that of the
small rollers.
11-41. A falling weight of 500 lb is used to drive a 600-lb pile into the ground.
If the weight is dropped 10 ft, what should be the penetration of the pile, assuming
an average resisting force of 20,000 lb and no rebound of the weight after impact?
11-42. The 30-lb body A and the 50-lb body B in Fig. P 11-42 are connected
by a spring with a modulus of 45 lb per in. The unstretched length of the spring
is 11 in., and the mass of the spring is negligible. The blocks are pulled apart
on the smooth horizontal plane until the distance between them is 16 in. and then
are released from rest. Determine the velocity of each block when the distance
between them has decreased to 12 in.
a WW
Fig. P 11-42
11-43. The parts of a 105-mm howitzer that move during recoil weigh 1436 lb.
The total weight of the shell is 42.1 lb. The weight of the projectile is 33.0 lb
and it has a muzzle velocity of 1080 fps at an angle of 40° above the horizontal.
Assume that the mass center of the 5.0 lb of gas and powder has a velocity of
500 fps as the projectile leaves the muzzle. Determine the velocity of free recoil
of the recoil mechanism at the instant the projectile leaves the barrel of the
howitzer. The recoil mechanism moves along the same line as the initial velocity
of the projectile.
11-6. Elastic impact. A collision between two bodies which occurs
in a very small interval of time and where relatively large reaction forces
exist is called impact. When two elastic bodies collide, they are com
pressed until their mass centers attain a common velocity, and then
they move apart as the forces within the bodies act to restore the bodies to
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their original shapes. There has been considerable study of the forces
acting during impact and of the resulting stresses and strains in the bodies.
However, the primary concern in elementary engineering mechanics is
to obtain relations between the velocities of the bodies before and after
impact. For this purpose some additional definitions will be helpful.
When two bodies collide, the straight line
normal to the striking surfaces and passing
through the point of contact is called the line of "
impact. When contact occurs over an area Direct
central
instead of at a point, the line of impact is impact
defined as the line of action of the resultant

normal force exerted by the bodies on each Direct
other. When'the centers of gravity of the two
colliding bodies are on this line, the impact is
defined as central impact. Eccentric impact
occurs when the center of gravity of one or of
both of the bodies is not on the line of impact.
When the velocities of the points of contact of
the two colliding bodies are along the line of
impact, the impact is direct. Direct impact
implies a head-on collision as distinguished central Oblique
impact
from the case of one body striking another eccentric
impact
body with a glancing blow, which is defined
Fig. 11-8
as oblique impact. Figure 11-8 shows top
views of various types of impact of smooth circular disks sliding on- hori
zontal surfaces and rods rotating on the same surfaces about vertical axes.
When two bodies collide, the principle of conservation of linear
momentum can frequently be applied for one or more directions to give
one or more relations between the velocities of bodies before and after
impact. The velocities of the bodies after impact also depend on the
elastic properties of the bodies. Experiments indicate that the magni
tude of the relative velocity of departure of two spheres which collide
with direct central impact depends only on their relative velocity of
approach and the elastic properties of the materials of the spheres. The
preceding statement is not valid if the forces of impact are so large that
the bodies are excessively deformed or shattered. The ratio of the mag
nitude of the relative velocity of departure of the points of contact of two bodies
that collide with direct impact to their relative velocity of approach is defined
as the coefficient of restitution for the two bodies. This ratio is a measure of
the elastic properties of the bodies and must be determined experimentally.
Tn mathematical form,
£ *~~ — .■ - . “ —.... ■ — (11-9)
,
{VA/ ) )i - (Vb)»
i
where e is the coefficient of restitution, A and B are the two colliding

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@seismicisolation
bodies, and i and f indicate initial and final velocities, respectively. The
436 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [§H-6
relative velocities of approach and departure are always of opposite

sense; therefore the negative sign before the fraction must be included
if the value of e is to be positive.
For perfectly elastic bodies the coefficient of restitution is unity, and
for inelastic bodies which stay together after impact the coefficient is
zero. The value of e for any two bodies is therefore between the limits
of zero and unity. When two bodies collide, there is always some inelas
ticity, and some of the kinetic energy is dissipated in the form of heat and
permanent deformation of the bodies.
The following table of approximate values of coefficients of restitution
for direct, central impact of spheres of various materials gives an indica
tion of the range of values.
Approximate Coefficients of Restitution
Glass on glass 0.93-0 . 95
Ivory on ivory 0 .88-0 .89
Steel on steel ................................................................................ 0.5 -0.8
Cast iron on cast iron 0.4 -0.7
Lead on lead 0 .12-0 .18
Iron on lead 0.11-0.15
Cork on cork 0.5 -0.6
Wood on wood 0.4 -0.6
Clay on clay (moist) 0
Putty on putty (moist) 0
When the impact of two bodies is oblique, the components of the velocities
of the points of contact normal to the surface of contact are used in Eq. (11-9)
and the coefficient of restitution is assumed to be the same as for direct
impact. The coefficient of restitution for nonspherical bodies depends
on the shape of the bodies and on the positions of the bodies relative to
the line of impact as well as on the material of the bodies. For oblique
impact of smooth bodies, the components of the velocities tangent to
the contacting surfaces are not altered by the impact because there is
no linear impulse on either body in the tangential direction.
Example 11-4: Two smooth 4-oz pucks are sliding on smooth ice when they
collide as indicated in the top view in Fig. 11-9.
The velocity of A before impact was 40 fps and
s' ---- s C . I t( the velocity of B before impact was 50 fps in the
f vB A ' directions indicated on the figiu-e. The coefficient
----‘J — of restitution for the bodies is 0.56. Determine
A J x . B J ---------------------the velocity of each puck after impact.
Solution: The line of impact is in the x direc-
Fig. 11-9 ion and the x components of the velocities of the
pucks are changed. The principle of conservation
of linear momentum for this direction, with positive to the right, gives
4- m B(v B )x ]i - [mA(tu) t +
4 4 4 4
or (40)(0.866) + - (-50) -
where va and v B are the final velocities of the pucks. The x components of the final
velocities are both assumed to @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
be to the right. Equation (11-9) for this impact is
jll-6] KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 437
- M,
40(0.866) - (-50)’
Mz - -31.4 - 31.4 fps (vb)z — 16.02 fps -♦

The y components of the velocities of the pucks are not altered by the impact, since
there is no impulse on either puck in that direction. Therefore the final velocity of
puck A is
«- T 31.4
v A - 31.4 +>0.5(40) = 37.2 fps 'xjlzoo,
and the final velocity of B is

vb — 16.02 fps-*.
PROBLEMS
11-44. Body A weighs 200 lb and has a velocity of 10 fps to the left. Body B
weighs 40 lb and has a velocity of 60 fps to the left. The bodies are moving
horizontally through the air when they collide with direct central impact. If the
coefficient of restitution is 0.80, determine the velocity of each body after impact.
11-46. Body B weighs 120 lb and has a velocity of 20 fps to the right. Body
D weighs 40 lb and has a velocity of 10 fps to the left. Both bodies are moving
on a smooth horizontal plane when they collide with direct central impact. The
coefficient of restitution is 0.60. Determine (a) the velocity of each body after
impact; (b) the force (time average) acting on body B during impact if the period
of impact is 0.001,sec.
11-46. A body weighs 8 lb and is moving on* a smooth horizontal plane.
A 5-lb body which is at rest on the plane is struck with direct central impact by
the 8-lb body. After impact the velocity of the 8-lb body is 7 fps and the velocity
of the 5-lb body is 24 fps, both to the 16ft. Determine (a) the initial velocity of
the 8-lb body; (b) the value of the coefficient of restitution.
11-47. Body A weighs 40 lb and has a velocity of 60 fps to the right. Body B
weighs 80 lb. The two bodies are moving on a smooth horizontal plane when
they collide with direct central impact. The coefficient of restitution for the
two bodies is 0.8. If the velocity of B after impact is 20 fps to the right, deter
mine (a) the velocity of B before impact; (b) the velocity of A after impact; (c)
the change in kinetic energy of the system.
11-48. The two bodies A and B in Fig. P 11-48 weigh 40 lb and 60 lb, respec-
,tively. Block A moves 4 sec before reaching the smooth surface from the
position shown. After A reaches the smooth surface, A and B collide with direct
central impact. The coefficient of restitution for the two bodies is 0.20 and the
coefficient of kinetic friction between A and the rough plane is 0.20. Determine,
the velocity of each body after impact.
,ps
vA’50
Rough Fiona Smooth Fiona
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11-48
438 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [§n-6
11-49. The two spheres A and B in Fig. P 11-49 are suspended as shown.
A is moved out to A' and released. It strikes B centrally with a velocity of
30 fps to the right. B weighs 20 lb and is at rest before impact. The coefficient
of restitution for the spheres is 0.70. Determine the weight of A necessary to
give B a velocity of 15 fps to the right just after impact. What will be the
velocity of A just after impact?
Fig. P 11-49
11-50. Block A weighs 80 lb and is suspended on a long cord. At the instant
considered it is at its lowest position and has a velocity of 12 fps to the left. At
this same instant it collides with block B. The impact is direct and central.
Block B weighs 150 lb and has a velocity of 10 fps to the right before the impact.
The coefficient of restitution is 0.40.
(a) Determine the velocity of each block just after impact.
(b) How high will block A rise after the impact?
11-51. Body C weighs 64.4 lb and has a velocity of 40 fps to the right. Body
D weighs 161 lb. The blocks are moving on a smooth horizontal plane when
they collide with direct central impact. Body C exerts an impulse of 200 Ib-sec
to the right on body D during impact. The coefficient of restitution for the two
bodies is 0.25. Determine (a) the velocity of C after impact; (b) the velocity of
D before impact; (c) the velocity of D after impact.
11-52. The circular disk in Fig. P 11-52 slides on a smooth horizontal floor and
strikes a smooth vertical wall. The velocity of the disk before impact is 10 fps,
the angle of incidence is 30°, and the angle of rebound is 45°. Determine the
coefficient of restitution.
Fig. P 11-52
11-53. A golf ball is dropped from a height of 9.0 ft onto a concrete walk and
then rebounds 6.0 ft. Determine the coefficient of restitution between the ball
and the walk.
11-54. If the coefficient of restitution in Problem 11-53 is 0.60, determine the
maximum height of the first rebound.
11-55. Body A weighing 100 lb and having a velocity of 12 fps to the right
collides with body B weighing@seismicisolation
40 lb and having a velocity of 8 fps to the left.
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The bodies, on a smooth horizontal plane, collide with direct central impact.
The coefficient of restitution between the two bodies is 0.50. External forces
applied immediately after impact bring body A to rest in 5 sec. Determine the
work done in stopping A.
11-56. The 2.0-lb disk A in Fig. P 11-56 is sliding on a smooth horizontal
surface with a velocity of 15 fps to the right when it collides with the 4.0-lb disk B
as shown. The velocity of B before impact is 20 fps to the left and the coefficient
of restitution between the two disks is 0.54. Determine the velocity of A after
impact. The two disks are smooth.
Fig. P 11-56
11-57. A 96.6-lb body A has a velocity of 30 fps to the left on a smooth

horizontal plane when it collides with a 128.8-lb body B which is also moving.
The impact is direct and central and the coefficient of restitution between the
bodies is 0.40. If 80 per cent of the kinetic energy of the bodies is lost during
impact, determine the velocity of B after impact.
11-58. The two cylindrical disks A and B in Fig. P 11-58 are moving on a
smooth horizontal plane when they collide with oblique central impact as indi
cated in the figure. Body A weighs 10 lb and B weighs 12 lb. Before impact
the velocity of A is 20 fps and the velocity of B is 15 fps, both as shown. The
coefficient of restitution for the two bodies is 0.80. Determine the velocity of
each body after impact. Both disks are smooth.
Fig. P 11-59
11-59. The two bodies A and B in Fig. P 11-59 are moving to the right
along the smooth horizontal plane when they collide with direct central impact.
Determine the per cent loss of kinetic energy of the two bodies during impact in
terms of the two masses, the initial velocities and the coefficient of restitution.
11-7. Angular impulse. The moment of the linear impulse of a force

about any axis is called the angular impulse of the force with respect to the
given axis. The angular impulse of the constant force F in Fig. 11-10
with respect to an axis through 0 perpendicular
@seismicisolation to the plane containing
@seismicisolation
440 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM l§n-7
F and 0 during a time interval At is
(AZ) 0 = r(F At) (
= (rF) A t ) , (11-10)
where (AZ) O is the angular impulse of the force. The preceding equation
indicates that the angular impulse of the force can also be
./ considered as the product of the moment of the force and
the time interval.
\.o If either r or F in Eq. (11-10) varies during the time
Fig 11-10 interval M from k to tf, the equation is valid for only an
infinitesimal time interval and the total angular impulse is
given by the integral
(AI)o = jT" rF d t ) .■ (11-11)
In order to evaluate the integral in Eq. (11-11), the product of F

and r must be expressed as a function of time.
Linear impulse is a vector quantity, and therefore the linear impulse
of the force P in Fig. 11-11 can be resolved into components for obtaining
the angular impulse of P with respect to an axis through G. Thus
{ A I ) Q = AP(18) At + «P(4) At = 10.62P At ( .
Angular impulse is a vector quantity and may be represented by an
arrow extending along the moment axis
in the direction a right-hand screw would
travel if turned by the force. However,
when a coplanar force system is being
considered, it is usually convenient to
represent the angular impulse of a force
by a clockwise or counterclockwise arrow Fig. 11-11
as indicated in Eq. (11-10) and (11-11).
The fundamental dimensions of angular impulse are LFT, from Eq.
(11-10), and common units are ft-lb-sec, in-lb-min, and so on.
The moment of a couple C is the same with respect to all axes per
pendicular to the plane of the couple; hence the angular impulse of a
constant couple during a time interval At is the same for all axes per
pendicular to the plane of the couple and is given by the equation
Al = C At
with the sense of C. If the moment of the couple varies during the time
interval, the angular impulse is
AI = Cdt
Jti
with the sense of C. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The angular impulse of a system of forces with respect to any axis
511-7] KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 441
is the vector sum of the angular impulses of the individual forces of the
system during the time interval.
PROBLEMS
11-60. The block W in Fig. P 11-60 weighs 50 lb and is supported by the brake
AB. Neglect the weight of the brake. The coefficient of friction between the
brake AB and the drum C is 0.60. Determine the angular impulse of the brake
on the drum with respect to the axis of rotation of the drum (a) if the drum is
turning counterclockwise and AZ = 5 sec; (b) if the drum is turning clockwise
and AZ = 10 sec.
11-61. Determine the angular impulse, with respect to the axis of rotation,
of the force system in Fig. P 11-61 during the time interval from t = 2 sec to
Z = 6 sec. The moment of the couple C in ft-lb is given by the equation C = 4Z 3
— 12Z, where t is time in sec.
11-62. (a) Write an expression for the x component of the linear impulse
of the force system acting on the wheel in Fig. P 11-62 during a time interval of
15 sec. The wheel rolls without slipping.
(b) Write an expression for the angular impulse, with respect to an
axis through the center 0 of the wheel in Fig. P 11-62, during a time interval of
15 sec.
Fig. P 11-62
11-63. The rope in Fig. P 11-63 is wound on the drum, which turns with a
constant angular velocity of 30 rpm clockwise. The rope weighs 0.40 lb per ft.
Determine the angular impulse of the rope on the wheel with respect to the axis
of the wheel as the length L changes from 100 ft to 25 ft.
11-64. Solve Problem 11-63, if the drum has a constant angular acceleration
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
2
of 4.0 rad per sec clockwise and the angular velocity of the drum is zero when
L is 100 ft.
11-65. A belt drive is used to transmit 10 hp from a motor to a drive shaft.

The motor runs at a speed of 1700 rpm. Determine the magnitude of the angular
impulse of the belt on the motor, with respect to the axis of the motor, during a
30-sec time interval.
11-8. Angular momentum. The linear momentum of a particle as
defined in Art. 11-3 is a localized vector having a line of action passing
through the particle. The angular momentum of a particle with respect
to any axis is the moment of the linear momentum of the particle. If the
linear momentum of the particle is in a plane perpendicular to the refer
ence axis, the angular momentum is
(AM) B = r(LM) = rmv
where (AM) B is the angular momentum of the particle with respect to
the B axis, r is the perpendicular distance from the axis to the linear
momentum vector, m is the mass of the particle, and v is its velocity.
When the linear momentum vector is not in a plane perpendicular to
the reference axis, it can be resolved into two rectangular components,
one parallel to the reference axis and the other in a plane perpendicular
to the reference axis. The moment of the component parallel to the
reference axis is zero, and thus the angular momentum is equal to the
moment of the component perpendicular to the reference axis.
The angular momentum of a particle is a vector quantity and can
be represented by a vector along the reference axis in the direction a
right-hand screw would travel when turned in the
y direction of the velocity of the particle. When
the particle travels in a plane perpendicular to
x. the moment axis, the angular-momentum vector
B
7 ? \ is always parallel to its original position, and it
/' v \ I is convenient to indicate its sense of rotation as
____
/
/ x
clockwise or counterclockwise.
/ Since angular momentum is the moment of
— linear momentum, its fundamental dimensions
' are LFT. These dimensions are the same as
Fig. 11-12 those for angular impulse, and common units are
ft-lb-sec, in-oz-sec, and so on.
The angular momentum of a system of particles about any axis is
the algebraic sum of the angular momentums of the separate particles
with respect to the same axis. If the particles do not constitute a rigid
body no simple expression for the resultant angular momentum can be
established. The angular momentum of a rigid body which has plane
motion, however, can be obtained as follows.
Consider the body A in Fig. 11-12, which has plane motion. The xy
plane is the plane of motion and point A is a point fixed in the body at the
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@seismicisolation
origin of the xy axes. Point A moves along some path with a velocity
and the angular velocity of the body is counterclockwise. The
velocity of a particle B of mass dm can be determined by relative motion.
Thus
Vb = vfl/X +> v A = ru> +> v A

- t - t
= rcu sin 0 +> rw cos 0 ■+>(va)* +> (v A )v
- T
= [(Va)x — ?/w] +> [(v x )v + Xw],
where r sin 0 = y and r cos B = x.

The angular momentum of B with respect to an axis through A per
pendicular to the xy plane is the sum of the moments of the components
of the linear momentum of B. That is,
d ( A M ) A = — dm(v B )x y + dm(v B )yX
= -dm[y(v A )x - t/ 2w] + dm[x(v A )v + x 2w]
= r 2w dm — y(v A )x dm + x(va) v dm,
where r 2 = x 2 + y2 and a positive sign indicates a counterclockwise
angular momentum. The total angular momentum of the body, as
obtained by integration is,
(AM) a = (afr 2 dm — (v A )x f y d m + (vA v f x d m
= /aw - (vA) x ym + (vA)vZm, (11-12)
where I a is the moment of inertia of the mass of the body with respect
to an axis through A and where x and y are the coordinates of the mass
center of the body.
Since A is any point of the body, it is usually convenient to select it
in such a manner that the last two terms of Eq. (11-12) become zero.
Thus if A is chosen at the mass center G, the angular momentum becomes
(AM)g = /gw. (11-13)
For pure rotation with A at the axis of rotation, v A = 0, and the
angular momentum becomes
( A M ) AR = Za«W. (11-14)
When a rigid body has a motion of translation, the angular velocity
of the body is zero, and the angular momentum of the body with respect
to an axis through the mass center is
(AM) g = 0 (11-15)
because £ and y are zero when A is at G.
The last two terms in Eq. (11-12) are also zero if A is the instantaneous
@seismicisolation
center of zero velocity or a point whose velocity is directed toward or
@seismicisolation
444 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [§n-8
away from the mass center. To demonstrate this last statement, assume
that V/l is toward 0 and that the x axis is in the direction of v A. Since y
and (va)y are both zero, the last two terms of Eq. (11-12) are zero.
Since the angular momentum of a body is the moment of the linear
momentum of the body, any of the preceding expressions for angular
momentum can be equated to the moment of the corresponding linear
momentum to locate the linear momentum vector. Thus
(AM) a = q(LM) t (11-16)
where q is the perpendicular distance from A to the resultant linear
momentum vector, mv0 . The distance q can be determined from Eq.
(11-16) when the linear and angular momentums are known. For
translation, the linear momentum vector passes through the mass center
as indicated by Eq. (11-15). For rotation, the linear momentum vector
acts through the center of percussion (see Art. 9-7).
PROBLEMS
11-66. The 10.0-lb bar A and the 40.04b cylindrical disk B in Fig. P 11-66 are
welded together to form a rigid body. The body rotates about a horizontal
axis through 0 with an angular velocity of 100 rpm clockwise in the position
indicated.
(a) Determine the angular momentum of the body with respect to
the axis of rotation.
(b) Locate the linear momentum vector for the body.
Fig. P 11-66
11-67. A solid homogeneous cylindrical flywheel is to be made of cast iron

weighing 450 lb per cu ft. The flywheel is to be 4.00 in. thick and is to have an
angular momentum with respect to the axis of rotation through the mass center
of 375 ft-lb-sec when turning at 500 rpm. Determine (a) the moment of inertia
of the mass of the wheel with respect to its axis of rotation; (b) the diameter of
the wheel.
11-68. The wheel and tire assembly of an automobile weighs 40 lb and has an
outside diameter of 30 in. The radius of gyration of the mass of the wheel and
tire with respect to the axle is 10 in. Determine the change of the angular
momentum of the wheel with respect to the axle as the velocity of the car changes
from 20 mph to 50 mph, both to the right.
11-69. A solid homogeneous cylinder rolls along a horizontal plane without
slipping. The angular velocity of the cylinder is 20 rad per sec clockwise and the
linear momentum of the cylinder is 4.50 Ib-sec to the right. The linear momen
tum vector is 0.110 ft above the mass center. Determine (a) the weight of the
@seismicisolation
cylinder; (b) the diameter of @seismicisolation
the cylinder; (c) the kinetic energy of the cylinder.
11-70. The unbalanced wheel in Fig. P 11-70 weighs 48.3 lb and has a radius
of gyration of mass with respect to an axis through 0 of 0.40 ft. The wheel rolls
to the right on the horizontal plane without slipping and has a kinetic energy of
40 ft-lb when in the position shown. Determine the linear momentum of the
body for this position.
Fig. P 11-70
11-9. Principle of angular impulse and angular momentum. The
general moment equation for plane motion of a rigid body, as expressed
by Eq. (9-19), is
= I Aa — + m$(a A )v ,
where A is any point fixed in the body and the moment axis through A
is perpendicular to the plane of motion. The last two terms of this
equation are zero if A is (a) the mass center of the body, (b) a point with
no acceleration, or (c) a point whose acceleration is directed toward or
away from the mass center. For an axis perpendicular to the plane of
motion through any of these points, the moment at any instant is
= I Aa = I (11-17)
at . at
since I A is a constant.
In Art. 11-8, the angular momentum of a rigid body having plane
motion is shown to be equal to I A& when A is either the mass center or a
point with no velocity. Equation (11-17) is valid when A has no accel
eration regardless of the velocity of A. Therefore it is valid when both
the velocity and acceleration of A are zero. Consequently, Eq. (11-17)
demonstrates that the sum of the moments of the external forces about an
axis perpendicular to the plane of motion through either the mass center
of the body or a point in the body which is fixed in space is equal to the time
rale of change of the angular momentum of the body with respect to the cor
responding axis.
If the body has rotation, either the mass center or a point on the
axis of rotation can be selected as point A. When A is either the mass
center or a point on the axis of rotation for pure rotation, both sides of
Eq. (11-17) can be multiplied by dt and integrated between definite
limits. The result is
(“M A dt =
Jti Jtai @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
= - «,) = S(AM) a , (11-18)
where and w/ are the initial and final values of the angular velocity
of the body at times ti and tf, respectively. The left side of Eq. (11-18)
is the resultant angular impulse of the external forces with respect to
an axis through A during the time interval A£ from ti to t/, and the right
side is the change in the angular momentum of the body with respect to
an axis through A. The third case for which Eq. (9-19) is valid cannot
in general be used in Eq. (11-18), since the acceleration of the point will
not necessarily be directed toward the mass center throughout the time
interval Af and the velocity of the point is usually not zero.
Equations (11-17) and (11-18) can be extended to any system of particles,
whether rigid or nonrigid, if the point A is fixed in
space. Consider a particle Pi of any system of
particles. Let the particle Pi whose mass is mi
have the coordinates relative to the fixed axes
shown in Fig. 11-13. The effective forces are also
indicated in the figure. The resultant of the
forces acting on the particle is the same as the
resultant of the effective forces of the particle and
hence will have the same moment with respect to
any axis. Thus the moment of the resultant of
the forces acting on Pi with respect to the z axis
is (assuming counterclockwise to be positive)
(M f )i = 7711(01) 1 - mi(ai) z i/i. (11-19)
The angular momentum of the particle with respect to the z axis is
[(AAf)Ji = 7711(1/1) 1 - TTli OzVi,
where (th), and (t>i) v are assumed to be to the right and upward, respectively.
The time derivative of the angular momentum of Pi with respect to the z axis is
*
d[(AM),]i _ d[mi(yi).xi] _
di di di
= + nitf#,), (vi)„ — mi(ai)«yi - m th), (»,),
which is the same as the right side of Eq. (11-19). Therefore, for particle Pi.
the moment of the resultant of the forces acting on the particle with respect to
the z axis is equal to the time rate of change of the angular momentum of the
particle with respect to the z axis. That is,
d[(AM)Ji
(M,)1 (11-20)
dt ------
An equation similar to Eq. (11-20) can be written for each particle of the system.
The sum of the terms on the left sides must be equal to the sum of the terms on
the right. Thus
dKAAf),), d[(AM),] 2 d[(AM).j, ,
+ (M,) 2 + (M') 3 + • • +
dt dt di
= j }[(A M)J t
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation 4- [(AM).] 2 + [(A M),]» + • • I.
at
Since the moments of the internal forces between the various particles balance
each other, the sum of the terms on the left in the preceding equation is equal to
the sum of the moments of the external forces acting on the system with respect
to the z axis. The terms inside the brace on the right represent the angular
momentum of the system of particles with respect to the z axis. Thus the sum
of the moments of the external forces acting on any system of particles about any
axis fixed in space is equal to the time rate of change of the angular momentum of the
system of particles with respect to the fixed axis. The preceding statement may be
expressed by the following equation:
SM. = (11-21)
at
If both sides of Eq. (11-21) are multiplied by dl and integrated over the time
interval Ai from ti to t/, the result is
jT" Z M , dt = J d(AM). = [(AM).]/ - [(AM).],. (11-22)
That is, the angular impulse of the external forces acting on a system of particles with
respect to an axis fixed in space during any time interval is equal to the change of the
angular momentum of the system of particles with respect to the same fixed axis during
the time interval.
Equations (11-21) and (11-22) apply to any system of particles, whether rigid
or not. The axis is fixed in space but not necessarily fixed in the body or system
of particles.
At the beginning of this article it was shown that Eq. (11-21) and (11-22)
apply to a rigid body with plane motion when the moment axis is not fixed in
space but passes through the mass center of the body. It can
also be demonstrated* that the equations apply to any system
of particles having any type of motion when the z axis passes
through the mass center of the particles. Equation (11-22)
with the z axis fixed in space can frequently be used to good
advantage in solving problems involving a wheel rolling along
a plane without slipping. The wheel in Fig. 11-14 rolls Fig. 11-14
along the horizontal plane without slipping. If the mass
center of the wheel is at the geometric center of the wheel, the velocity of the
mass center is always horizontal and the resulting linear momentum is horizontal.
The moment of the linear momentum of the wheel (the angular momentum) with
respect to an axis perpendicular to the plane of motion through a point E fixed
on the plane on which the wheel rolls is thus the same as the angular momentum
of the wheel with respect to the instantaneous axis of zero velocity through O.
The axis through 0 is not fixed in space, however. Since the mass center of the
wheel has rectilinear motion, its acceleration is horizontal; therefore the resultant
of the external forces acting on the body must be horizontal. If the resultant
force acting on the body is always horizontal, the linear impulse during any time
interval is horizontal, and the angular impulse of the force system with respect
to the fixed axis through E will be the same as the angular impulse with respect to
the instantaneous axis of zero velocity. Therefore the angular impulse of the
external forces with respect to the instantaneous axis of zero velocity is equal to
the change of the angular momentum of the body with respect to the same axis.
If the mass center of the wheel in Fig. 11-14 is not at the center of the wheel, the
* Page, Leigh, Introduction to Theoretical Physics, 2d ed., pp. 116-117, D. Van
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Nostrand Company, Inc., New York, 1935.
448 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [JU-9
velocity and acceleration of the mass center will not be horizontal at all times;
therefore the angular momentum and angular impulse will not be the same with
respect to the fixed axis through E and the instantaneous axis through 0. In
this case the angular impulse with respect to an axis through 0 (which moves as
the body moves) is not necessarily equal to the change of the angular momentum
of the body with respect to the axis through 0, even though the angular impulse
with respect to the E axis is equal to the change of the angular momentum with
respect to the E axis.
The principle of angular impulse and angular momentum may be
summarized as follows:
1. The angular impulse of the forces acting on any body or system
of particles with respect to an axis fixed in space is equal to the change
in angular momentum of the body or system of particles with respect to
the same axis.
2. The angular impulse of the forces acting on any body or system
of particles with respect to an axis through the mass center of the body
or system of particles is equal to the change in angular momentum of the
body or system of particles with respect to the same axis.
3. When the mass center of a wheel that rolls on a fixed plane without
slipping is at the geometric center of the wheel, the angular impulse of
the forces acting on the wheel with respect to the instantaneous axis of
zero velocity of the wheel is equal to the change in angular momentum
of the wheel with respect to the same axis, even though the axis is not
fixed in space or through the mass center of the wheel.
When the principle of angular impulse and angular momentum is used,
it is usually better to draw separate free-body diagrams of each rigid body
involved than to use combinations of bodies as is commonly done in
using the principle of work and kinetic energy.
Example 11-5: The 100-lb wheel in Fig. 11-15 has a radius of gyration of mass with
respect to a horizontal axis through G of 6.0 in. and rolls along the inclined plane
Fig. 11-15 Fig. 11-16

without slipping. The constant force P is applied to a cord wrapped around the small
drum on the wheel. The moment of the couple C varies according to the equation
@seismicisolation
C =» 20 — t l , where C is in ft-lb,
@seismicisolation
t is time in sec, and counterclockwise is the positive
§11-91 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 449
direction for C. The angular velocity of the wheel changes from 5 rad per sec counter
clockwise when t is 0 to 10 rad per sec clockwise when t is 5 sec. Determine the force P .
Solution: Figure 11-16 is a free-body diagram of the wheel. The body has plane
motion and the equations of linear and angular impulse and momentum are
S(ZJ) X - A(LAZ), =■m[(t>o),]/ - m[(v0 ).].-,
S(LZ) y - A(LM)V =■m[(vo )r ] z —
S(AZ)g “ A(AM)q Zg[w/ — w<].
There are three unknown forces acting on the body, as shown in the free-body dia
gram; therefore the initial and final velocities of G must be obtained from kinematics.
They are
[(tta)x]/ ■■r<a/ « A(10) 7.50 fps up the plane,
[(vo)xl< “ Ttat “ A(5) — 3.75 fps down the plane.
The positive directions are shown near the figure. When values are substituted in
the first and third of the general equations, they become
100
S(LZ) X - — 0.80P(5) + 0.60(100)(5) - / Fdt - — [-7.50 - 3.75],
jo oz.z
S(AZ) O - fp(5) /’ 8 f * + P (20 - t«) di - MY (-10 - SI-
1Z iz jo JO oZ.Z \1Z/
The force F is not a constant; therefore its impulse is indicated as an integral. The
linear impulse of F could also be expressed as the product of its time average value
and the time interval; that is,
fQ S F di - F.„(AZ) = F . v< (5).
The force P can be obtained by solving the above equations simultaneously and is
P - 75.61b—.
Since the mass center has rectilinear motion, the use of simultaneous equations
can be eliminated by using a reference axis fixed on the plane and Eq. (11-22). The
angular impulse about an axis fixed on the plane is the same as that for an axis which
moves with the instantaneous center, and the angular momentum with respect to the
fixed axis is the same as that with respect to an axis through the instantaneous center.
Thus
S(AZ)o — A(AAf)o “ Zo[w/ ~ <*>,]
or -P6(5) + 10M(5) + f0 & (20 - «•) di - [( )* + ’] I - 1 0 " 5 1>

from which P = 75.6 lb — .
PROBLEMS
Note. Unless otherwise specified, all pins and bearings in the following
problems are assumed to be smooth.
11-71. A flywheel is keyed to a shaft 4 in. in diameter, the combined weight
being 322 lb. A constant turning moment of 2500 in-lb clockwise is exerted on the
shaft, causing the angular velocity to change from 30 rpm clockwise to 390 rpm
clockwise in a time interval of 4 sec. When bearing (journal) friction on the
shaft is 5.0 lb, determine the radius of gyration of mass of the combined assembly
with respect to the axis of rotation.
11-72. The rotor of a turbine weighs 644 lb. When no other forces are acting,
bearing friction will reduce the velocity of the rotor from 120 rpm to zero in 2 min.
If the frictional moment is 30 in-lb, determine the radius of gyration of mass of
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the rotor with respect to its axis of rotation.
11-73. The armature of an electric motor weighs 805 lb and its radius of
gyration of mass with respect to the axis of rotation is 10 in. The radius of the
shaft is 4 in. A period of 25 min is required for the bearing friction to bring the
armature to rest from an angular velocity of 1800 rpm. Determine the coefficient
of kinetic friction between the shaft and the bearings.
11-74. A cylindrical drum 3.5 ft in diameter is keyed to an 8.0-in.-diameter
shaft. The assembly weighs 483 lb and has a radius of gyration of mass of 1.5 ft
with respect to its axis of rotation. The shaft rotates in horizontal bearings that
exert a total friction of 4.0 lb on the shaft. Determine the magnitude of the
braking force applied tangentially at the surface of the drum which will cause the
angular velocity to decrease from 300 to 120 rpm, both clockwise, in 30 sec.
11-75. The hollow drum in Fig. P 11-75 weighs 161 lb and rotates about a
fixed horizontal axis through 0. The radius of gyration of the mass of the body
with respect to an axis through 0 is 0.80 ft. The angular velocity changes from
30 rpm clockwise to 90 rpm counterclockwise during a certain time interval.
Determine the time interval.
,b
50
Fig. P 11-75 Fig. P 11-76

rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through G. The force P v varies according to
the equation P v = 30/ 2 + 100, where P v is in lb when t is in sec. If the angular
velocity of the body is 60 rpm clockwise when t is zero, determine the angular
velocity when t is 5 sec.
11-77. The hollow drum in Fig. P 11-77 weighs 805 lb and has a radius of
gyration of mass with respect to the axis of rotation through 0 of 1.2 ft. The
torque T v in ft-lb varies according to the equation T. = 6£ 2 + 50, where t is in
sec. The angular velocity of the body is 60 rpm counterclockwise when t is zero.
Determine the angular velocity when t is 10 sec.
Fig. P 11-77 Fig. P 11-78

11-78. The drum in Fig. P 11-78 is a solid homogeneous cylinder weighing
322 lb. The force P v varies according to the equation P 9 = 4$, where P 9 is in
@seismicisolation
lb when t is in sec. The moment of the couple T v is given by the equation Tr =
@seismicisolation
&*, where T , is in ft-lb when t is in sec. The angular velocity of the drum is
10 rpm clockwise when t is zero. Determine the angular velocity of the drum
when t is 5 sec.
11-79. The drum of the hoist in Fig. P 11-79 weighs 1288 lb and has a radius
of gyration of mass of 1.2 ft with respect to an axis through 0, The loaded cage
weighs 3220 lb. What constant torque must act on the drum to change the
velocity of the cage from 10 fps downward to 60 fps upward in 4 sec?
Fig. P 11-79 Fig. P 11-80
11-80. Drum A in Fig. P 11-80 has a radius of gyration of mass with respect
to a horizontal axis through 0 of 4.0 ft and a mass of 50 slugs. Body C weighs
1288 lb and has a velocity of 20 fps upward when in the position shown. Deter
mine (a) the velocity of C at the end of 3 sec; (b) the displacement of C during the
3-sec interval.
11-81. In Fig. P 11-81, drum D weighs 966 lb and has a radius of gyration
of mass with respect to a horizontal axis through 0 of 1.2 ft. The coefficient of
kinetic friction between the brake and the drum is 0.50 at each point of contact.
Determine the time required for the brake to reduce the angular velocity of the
drum from 90 to 30 rpm both clockwise. Neglect the weight of the brake.
Fig. P 11-81
11-82. Each of the three solid homogeneous cylinders A, B, and C in Fig.

P 11-82 weighs 2576 lb and rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through the mass
center. Body D weighs 193.2 lb and has a vertical force acting on it as shown.
The initial velocity of D is 4 fps upward. Determine the velocity of D 0.2 sec
later. Assume that there is no slipping @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
between the cylinders and D.
452 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 1511-9
11-83. In Fig. P 11-83, body B weighs 322 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through 0 of 1.5 ft. Body A weighs 161 lb,
and the mass of the small rollers can be neglected. There is no slipping between
A and B, Determine the time required for the velocity of A to change from 2 fps
to the right to 3 fps to the right.
4.0'
10*
A
✓777 7/'
Fig. P 11-83
11-84. A solid homogeneous sphere rolls without slipping on a plane which is

inclined at an angle of 30° with the horizontal. At a given instant the mass
center has a velocity of 10 fps up the plane. How much time elapses before the
velocity of the mass center is 20 fps down the plane?
11-85. The ball in Fig. P 11-85 weighs 1.61 lb. It strikes the bumper with a
center velocity of 10 fps to the right and rebounds with a center velocity of 8 fps
to the left. The average value of the reaction of the bumper on the ball is
assumed to be 5 lb horizontally to the left. If the ball rolls without slipping,
determine the time of contact.
50 11,
4.0*
2 50"
185"
Fig. P 11-85 Fig. P 11-86
without slipping. Q is a constant couple of 160 ft-lb. Determine the time
necessary for the velocity of the center to change from 30 fps to the left to 10
fps to the right.
11-87. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 11-87 weighs 322 lb and has
a diameter of 4.0 ft. It rolls without slipping on the inclined plane. The
velocity of the mass center is changed uniformly from 10 fps down the plane to
20 fps up the plane in 8.0 sec. Determine the force P,
Fig. P 11-87
11-88. Body A in Fig. P 11-88 weighs 3220 lb and has a radius of gyration
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
of mass with respect to an axis through G of 2 ft. Body A rolls up the inclined
plane without slipping. Determine the weight of B required to change the

velocity of G from 6 to 12 fps, both up the plane, in 6 sec.
Fig.P 11-88
11-89. In Fig. P 11-89, body A weighs 322 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through G of 2.5 ft. The body rolls on
horizontal rails without slipping. The cord is wrapped around A, passes over
a smooth peg, and is fastened to body B, which weighs 64.4 lb. Determine the
time required for body B to increase its velocity from 5 to 10 fps, both downward.
11-90. In Fig. P 11-90, body A is a solid homogeneous cylinder which weighs

644 lb. Body B weighs 161 lb. Determine the time necessary for the velocity
of B to change from 5 fps to 20 fps, both downward.
11-91. The 644-lb homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 11-91 rolls and slips on the
horizontal plane. The coefficient of friction between the cylinder and the plane
is 0.25. When the body is in the position shown, its angular velocity is 6 rad
per sec clockwise and the velocity of G is 2 fps to the right. After 4 sec have
elapsed determine (a) the angular velocity of the cylinder; (b) the velocity of (7.
Fig. P 11-91 Fig. P 11-92

11-92. The homogeneous cylinder in @seismicisolation
Fig. P 11-92 weighs 161 lb. It is held
@seismicisolation
above the plane and rotates about its geometric axis with an angular velocity of
30 rad per sec clockwise. The cylinder is then lowered to the plane. The coeffi
cient of friction between the cylinder and the plane is 0.10. Determine (a) the
period of time before the velocity of 0 becomes constant; (b) the velocity of 0
after it has become constant; (c) the distance the center has moved when the
cylinder begins to roll without slipping.
11-93. The homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 11-93 weighs 16.1 lb. It rolls and
slips on the horizontal plane. The velocity of the center in the position shown
is 20 fps to the right and the angular velocity of the sphere is 5 rad per sec counter
clockwise. The coefficient of friction between the sphere and plane is 0.10.
Determine (a) the time that will elapse before the sphere will roll without slipping;
(b) the distance the center of the sphere will travel during this time; (c) the
kinetic energy lost by the sphere during this period of time.
Fig. P 11-93
11-94. The homogeneous 483-lb cylinder B in Fig. P 11-94 rolls on the inclined
plane without slipping. The velocity of its mass center is 5 fps down the plane
in the position shown. Body A is a homogeneous cylinder weighing 161 lb.
Determine the constant torque T which must be applied to A in order to change
the velocity of the mass center of body B to 10 fps up the plane in 5 sec.
2.0*
Fig. P 11-94 Fig. P 11-95
11-95. A flexible rope whose weight may be neglected has one end wrapped
around the symmetrical pulley A and the other end around the solid homogeneous
cylinder B as shown in Fig. P 11-95. The pulley has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to a horizontal axis through O of 9 in. and weighs 16.1 lb. The
cylinder B weighs 24.15 lb. If there is no initial slack in the rope and the system
starts from rest, determine the velocity of the mass center of B at the end of 2 sec.
11-96. Wheel A in Fig. P 11-96 weighs 96.6 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to the horizontal axis of rotation at 0 of 1.10 ft. The magni
tude of the variable force P» is indicated by the diagram in the figure. The
@seismicisolation
angular velocity of the wheel changes from 30 rad per sec clockwise to 10 rad per
@seismicisolation
sec counterclockwise during the 7-sec interval. Determine the weight of body B.
The cable supporting B remains taut.
11-97. The solid homogeneous cylinder A in Fig. P 11-97 weighs 3220 lb and
rotates about a fixed horizontal axis through 0. The moment of the couple T ,
varies according to the equation T 9 = 80$ — 15$*, where T 9 is in ft-lb, $ is in sec,
and the positive direction for T 9 is clockwise. Body B weighs 100 lb. The
modulus of the spring C is 400 lb per ft, and the spring is stretched 6 in. at all
times. If the angular velocity of A is 300 rpm clockwise when $ is zero, determine
the angular velocity when $ is 10 sec.
11-98. The homogeneous cylinder A in Fig. P 11-98 weighs 322 lb, and the
weight of the brake is neglected. The moment of the couple T 9 varies according
to the equation T v = 40$, where T v is in ft-lb when $ is time in sec. The coeffi
cient of friction between the cylinder and brake is 0.50. The angular velocity of
A is 5.0 rad per sec counterclockwise when $ is 1.0 sec. Determine the value of
$ when the cylinder comes to rest.
b
P/25t’ i
Fig. P 11-98 Fig. P 11-99

11-99. The body in Fig. P 11-99 weighs 322 lb and rolls on a horizontal plane
without slipping. The radius of gyration of mass with respect’to an axis through
G is 2.0 ft. The variable force P 9 = 25$ is expressed in lb when $ is in sec. Deter
mine the time interval necessary for the velocity of the mass center to change
from 15 fps to the right when $ = 0 to 30 fps to the left.
11-10. Gyroscopes. The principle of angular impulse and angular
momentum which was developed in Art. 11-9 provides a convenient
method of analyzing gyroscopic motion. Figure ll-17a represents a
wheel mounted on a shaft and supported by a pivot at A. If the wheel
is released when it is not spinning about the shaft AB, it will turn about
@seismicisolation
the z axis due to the couple produced @seismicisolation
by its weight and the reaction at A
as shown in Fig. ll-17b. However, if the wheel is spinning about the
shaft AB with a large angular velocity wi when it is released, it will not
rotate about the z axis but instead will rotate or precess around the y
axis, with an angular velocity o> 2, as a result of the moment of W about
the z axis. The x axis is called the axis of spin, the y axis is the precession
axis and the z axis is the moment axis. This tendency of a rapidly spinning
body to turn about a second axis not parallel to the axis of spin, when acted
on by a couple or torque about a third axis, is called gyroscopic action. A
spinning top, a rotating bicycle wheel, the whirling propeller of an air-
(b)
Fig. 11-17
plane in flight, and a spinning bullet are common examples of gyroscopic

motion. Gyroscopes are used as stabilizers for ships and in various
control instruments such as compasses.
In the preceding article it was shown that the moment, about any
fixed axis, of the resultant of the external forces acting on a body is equal
to the time rate of change of angular momentum of the body about that
axis [see Eq. (11-21)]. The angular momentum of a rigid body is not the
same for all axes through a point which is fixed in space or in the body.
The angular momentum with respect to the axis for which it is greatest
is called the angular momentum of the body with respect to the fixed point.
Similarly, the moment of the resultant force on a body with respect to
the axis through the fixed point for which the moment is maximum is
defined as the moment of the resultant force with respect to the fixed
point. The vector representation for a couple as discussed in Art. 1-8
is useful in analyzing gyroscopic motion. The moment vector, or couple
vector, is a vector along @seismicisolation
the moment axis, perpendicular to the plane of
@seismicisolation
the couple, in the direction a right-hand screw would travel if turned by
the couple. The angular-momentum vector is a vector along the momen
tum axis, also directed in accordance with the right-hand rule.
Equation (11-21) can be extended to show that the moment of the
resultant force about a fixed point or about the mass center is equal to
the time rate of change of the angular momentum of the body about the
fixed point or mass center. That is,
s Ma = III± (11-23)
where A is either the mass center of the body or a point which is fixed
in space. When a symmetrical body has plane motion, the vector which
represents the angular momentum of the body is always perpendicular to
the plane of motion and hence can change in magnitude and sense only,
and the moment and the angular momentum axes are parallel. In
general, however, the angular momentum can change in direction as well
as in magnitude, and the resultant moment axis is in the direction of the
change of the angular momentum of the body but not necessarily in the
direction of the resultant angular momentum.
In Fig. ll-17b the approximate angular momentum of the body is
directed along the x axis, which is an axis of symmetry, and is equal to
A M = ZsWi.
The angular momentum is also a function of the angular velocity of
precession, w2 ; but since is usually very large as compared with w2 ,
the effect of w 2 is neglected. When friction is neglected, the angular
velocity of spin remains constant and the only change in the angular
momentum of the body is due to its change in direction. The moment
of the couple, forces W and /?, is equal to Wd and is shown as the vector
M along the negative z axis. This couple causes the angular momentum
to change by an amount A(AM) in a small time interval AZ The direc
tion of A(Alf) is the same as the direction of M . During the time inter
val AZ, the axis of spin turns a small angle A0 and the change of the angular
momentum is
A(AiV) = (AA/)(A0).
When this change is divided by the time interval, the average rate of
change of angular momentum is
A(AJf)
AZ = (AM)
The.limit of this expression as AZ approaches zero is equal to the moment
which is applied to the body as indicated by Eq. (11-23). Thus
M = (AM) @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation (11-24)
458 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM [511-10
where w* is the angular velocity of precession of the body about the y
axis.
From the preceding discussion, it is apparent that if a rapidly rotating
or spinning body is to be forced to turn or precess about an axis per
pendicular to the axis of spin, a moment must be applied about an axis
which is perpendicular to the other two axes. Conversely, if a moment
is applied to the spinning body, it will tend to precess in such a manner
that the angular-momentum vector will turn in the direction of the
applied moment vector.
The gyroscopic effect is illustrated in the following example.
Example 11-6: The 50-lb wheel in Fig. 11-1 8a has a diameter of 2.20 ft and a
radius of gyration of mass with respeet to its geometric axis of 0.90 ft. A rod o:
negligible weight connects the wheel to the y axis. The wheel rolls along the circular
track without slipping. The track is grooved so that the wheel will stay on it. Deter-
<«> (b)
Fig. 11-18
mine the tension in the rod and the components of the reaction of the track on the
wheel when the angular velocity of the rod, wj, is 1.0 rad per sec.
Solution: A free-body diagram of the wheel is shown in Fig. ll-18b. The mass
center of the wheel is moving along a circular path with a constant speed and has a
normal acceleration equal to rwj*; that is,
(ao)n “ rta\ = 16(1 )* = 16 fps**toward the y axis.

This normal acceleration is produced by the resultant of the two forces T and F:
therefore
50
T - F = m(ac). = 55-x (16) = 24.8.
The angular momentum of the wheel with respect to its geometrical axis is
2
(A M ) a - I (0.90) (7-7?) = 18.29 ft-lb-sec
and, from the right-hand rule, is directed along the negative z axis as indicated in Fig.
U-18a.
The change in the angular momentum of the wheel as it turns through a small angle
A0 is
@seismicisolation
A(AAf) = (AJf)A0
@seismicisolation
in. the direction indicated in Fig. ll-18a. The moment necessary to produce the
change in the angular momentum is, from Eq. (11-24),
de
M = (AM) & = 18.29(wj) = 18.29 ft-lb.
The direction of the moment vector is along the x axis in the direction of the change
of the angular momentum vector. Thus the moment is counterclockwise looking
inward along the x axis, and the horizontal force at the bottom of the wheel is
and the force T is

T = F + 24.8 » 41.4 lb / .
The normal force must be equal to the weight of the wheel, since there is no accelera
tion of the mass center of the wheel in the y direction. There is no tangential fric
tional force on the wheel, since the angular velocity does not change in magnitude.
PROBLEMS
11-100. The wheel in Fig. P 11-100 weighs 5.0 lb and has a radius of gyration
of mass of 4.0 in. The wheel rotates about bearings at the end of the shaft with
an angular velocity of 2000 rpm in the direction shown. Body B weighs 8.0 lb,
and the weight of the shaft is negligible. Determine the angular velocity of
precession when (a) x = 8.0 in; (6) x = 12.0 in.
Fig. P 11-101
11-101. Figure P 11-101 represents the armature of a motor which is mounted
on a rotating turntable. The weight of the armature is 161 lb, and the radius
of gyration of the mass of the armature with respect to its geometric axis is 0.50 ft.
Assume that the armature is symmetrical with respect to the bearings, which are
2.0 f t between centers. Bearing friction can be neglected. The angular velocity
of the armature is 1050 rpm in the direction indicated, and the angular velocity
of the turntable is 5 rad per sec clockwise looking downward. Determine the
components of the bearing reactions at A and B.
11-102. The motor armature in Problem 11-101 is turned 90° clockwise on
the turntable so that the axis AB is radial with bearing A toward the center of the
table. Determine the angular velocity of the turntable which will reduce the
vertical component of the bearing reaction at A to zero. The angular velocity
of the armature is the same as in Problem 11-101.
11-103. The propeller of a small airplane weighs 15.0 lb and has a radius of
gyration of mass with respect to its axis of rotation of 1.70 ft. The plane has a
speed of 100 mph when the engine speed is 2000 rpm. The* engine rotates clock
wise when viewed from the rear. The airplane is flying a level course when it
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
makes a turn to the right on a 1000-ft radius. Will the gyroscopic effect of the
propeller cause the plane to nose up or nose down? Determine the moment of
the gyroscopic effect of the propeller.
11-104. The top in Fig. P 11-104 weighs 0.80 lb and has a radius of gyration of
mass with respect to its geometrical axis of 1.0 in. The top spins about its geomet
rical axis with an angular velocity of 600 rpm clockwise looking down on the top.
When the angle 0 is 60°, determine the angular velocity of precession of the top
about the y axis.
y
Fig. P 11-104
11-11. Conservation of angular momentum. In Art. 11-9 it was

shown that the angular impulse of the external forces acting on any body
or system of particles is equal to the change of the angular momentum
of the system, provided the reference axis is fixed in space or passes
through the mass center of the body or system of particles. The prin
ciple is expressed by the following equation:
(AZ), = A(AM)„
where the z axis is either fixed in space or passes through the mass center
of the body or system of particles.
If the angular impulse of the external forces on the system with respect
to the z axis is zero during any time interval, the change in angular
momentum of the body or system of particles with respect to the z axis
is also zero during the same time interval. Therefore the angular momen
tum about a fixed axis or an axis through the mass center is conserved or
remains constant when the angular impulse about the axis is zero. In
mathematical form this statement becomes
[(AM),h = [(AM),]/. (11-251
The angular impulse of the external forces on a body or system of

particles is zero with respect to any given axis whenever the resulting
moment of the forces with respect to that axis is zero during the given
time interval. If the resultant moment with respect to any fixed axis or
@seismicisolation
axis through the mass center is relatively small and the time interval
@seismicisolation
JU-111 KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 461
during which the moment acts is very small, the angular impulse can
usually be neglected and the angular momentum of the system of bodies
can be assumed to be constant without introducing an appreciable error.
The principle of conservation of angular momentum may be observed by
means of slow-motion pictures of fancy dives. When a diver wishes to
turn over in the air several times, he doubles up, holding his knees close
to his chest. His moment of inertia about an axis through his mass
center is small and his angular velocity is relatively large. Just before
the diver goes into the water, he straightens out, increasing his moment
of inertia and decreasing his.angular velocity so that he has nearly stopped
turning when he enters the water.
When two bodies collide or react in any manner and the angular
impulse on the system is zero with respect to some fixed axis, the angular
momentum of the system with respect to the axis is conserved. It
should be emphasized, however, that some of the kinetic energy of the
system is usually lost during the impact or reaction.
PROBLEMS
11-105. The long, slender homogeneous 10-lb rod BC in Fig. P 11-105 has a
length of 8.0 ft and is free to swing in a vertical plane as indicated. The 1.0-lb
body A has a velocity of 15 fps to the right when it strikes BC at the center of
percussion of BC. The rod is at rest before the impact, and the coefficient of
restitution between A and the rod is zero. Determine the angular velocity of the
rod immediately after impact by use of (a) the conservation of angular momen
tum ; (b) the conservation of linear momentum.
Fig. P 11-105
11-106. A 4-ft-diameter solid homogeneous cylinder weighing 322 lb is

mounted on a shaft and rotates about its geometric axis. A similar cylinder
2 ft in diameter, weighing 161 lb and not rotating, is suddenly coupled to the
first cylinder through a friction clutch. The axes of the two disks are collinear.
If the clutch slips for 0.50 sec and the time average magnitude of the frictional
moment exerted by the clutch while slipping is 20 ft-lb, what is the magnitude of
the initial angular velocity of the 322-lb cylinder?
11-107. In Fig. P 11-107, A is a 4.0-ft-diameter homogeneous disk which
weighs 322 lb and is keyed to a vertical shaft rotating at 10 rad per sec as shown.
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@seismicisolation
The homogeneous cylinder B is 2 ft in diameter, weighs 322 lb, is not keyed to the
shaft, and is not rotating. The mass of the shaft may be neglected. If the
cylinder B is allowed to slide down the shaft until it comes in contact with A,
determine (a) the angular velocity of the two bodies after slipping has ceased;
(b) the frictional moment exerted on B by A if slipping occurs for 4 sec; (c) the
percentage loss of energy of the system.
2
Fig. P 11-107
11-108. Bar AB in Fig. P 11-108 weighs 64.4 lb and rotates about a fixed
vertical axis through the end B. The small body C, which may be considered as
a particle, weighs 8.05 lb and has a hole through it so that it can slide on the bar.
A cord D keeps C from sliding when the bar rotates. When C is 2 ft from B as
shown, the magnitude of the angular velocity of the bar is 40 rad per sec. If the
cord is cut and C slides out to the stop, determine the magnitude of the angular
velocity of the bar.
Fig. P 11-108 Fig. P 11-109
11-109. The bar AB in Fig. P 11-109 weighs 24.15 lb and rotates in a hori
zontal plane about a vertical axis at its mid-point. Two small balls C and D
(considered as particles) each weigh 3.22 lb and are supported by the bar which
passes through holes in the balls. The balls are held on the bar by a force P
applied to cords which pass through the smooth bearing and out to the balls.
When the balls are 6 ft from the axis, the magnitude of the angular velocity of the
bar is 20 rad per sec. The balls are pulled in and held 3 ft from the axis of
rotation. Determine (a) the magnitude of the final angular velocity of the
system; (b) the gain or loss of kinetic energy of the system.
11-110. The small ball in Fig. P 11-110 weighs 2.00 lb and swings on a cord
in a horizontal plane about the vertical shaft. When the distance d is 3.00 ft,
the ball makes 30 rpm around the shaft. The ball is drawn up toward the shaft
by pulling on the cord at T. When the distance d is 2.00 ft, determine (a) the
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
magnitude of the velocity of the ball around the shaft; (b) the angle O', (c) the
length L.
Fig. P 11-110 Fig. P 11-111

11-111. The long, slender 30-lb rod in Fig. P 11-111 swings in a vertical plane
about a smooth pin at A. When the rod is in the position shown it has an angular
velocity of 10 rad per sec clockwise, and at this instant a 0.10-lb bullet with a
velocity of 1500 fps to the right strikes the rod 5 ft below the axis of rotation.
The coefficient of restitution for this impact is 0.20. Determine the velocity of
the bullet immediately after impact.
11-112. Solve Problem 11-111 if the bullet is embedded in the rod.
11-113. The horizontal turntable in Fig. P 11-113 weighs 1000 lb and is
mounted on bearings whose friction may be neglected. The radius of gyration
of the mass of the turntable with respect to its axis of rotation is 6.0 ft. A 200-lb
man stands on the turntable at A. The turntable and the man are initially at
rest. The man starts walking along the circular path on the platform with a
velocity, relative to the platform, of 6.0 fps. Determine the magnitude of the
absolute velocity of the man.
11-114. Bar AB in Fig. P 11-114 weighs 10.0 lb and rotates in a horizontal

plane about a vertical axis through 0. The bar has an angular velocity of 6.0 rad
per sec clockwise when it is struck by body C with direct impact. Body C weighs
3.0 lb and has a velocity of 30 fps to the right before impact. The coefficient of
restitution between the two bodies is 0.40. Determine (a) the velocity of C after
impact; (b) the magnitude and sense of the resultant linear impulse on the bar
perpendicular to the axis of the bar during impact.
11-115. The 12-lb homogeneous bar AB in Fig. P 11-115 rotates in a horizontal
plane about a vertical axis through 0. @seismicisolation
The bar collides with the 2.0-lb ball C
@seismicisolation
with oblique eccentric impact. Before impact, bar AB has an angular velocity of
5.0 rad per sec counterclockwise and C has a velocity of 50 fps in the direction
indicated. The surface of contact is smooth, and the coefficient of restitution
for the two bodies is 0.60. Determine (a) the velocity of C after impact; (b) the
linear impulse of the pin reaction on the bar perpendicular to the bar during
the impact period.
Fig. P 11-116
11-116. The two homogeneous disks A and B in Fig. P 11-116 are free to
rotate on the small horizontal shaft. Disk A is 12 in. in diameter and weighs
40 lb; B is 18 in. in diameter and weighs 30 lb. The helical spring connecting
the two disks has a torsional modulus of 20 ft-lb per rad; that is, a moment of
20 ft-lb must be applied to B to turn it one radian when A is held stationary.
Disk A is held stationary while B is turned two revolutions clockwise looking
to the left. The two disks are then released simultaneously. Determine the
angular velocity of each disk when the spring is unwound.
11-117. A uniform slender rod is spinning freely about its mass center on a
smooth horizontal plane. The rod has an angular velocity of 120 rpm clockwise.
Determine its angular velocity if one end is suddenly stopped.
11-12. Closure. The principle of linear impulse and linear momen
tum equates the linear impulse of the forces acting on a body or system
of particles to the change of linear momentum of the body or system of
particles. The principle of angular impulse and angular momentum
equates the angular impulse of the forces acting on a body or system of
particles with respect to either an axis fixed in space or an axis through
the mass center of the system to the change of angular momentum of the
system of particles with respect to the corresponding axis. When either
the linear or angular impulse is zero, the corresponding linear or angular
momentum is unchanged or conserved. Since impulse and momentum
are vector quantities, it is usually desirable to cut the cords, pull the pins,
and perform other acts of liberation so as to work with free-body dia
grams of separate bodies, except for impact problems in which a free-body
diagram of the colliding bodies may be desirable. The coefficient of
restitution is the ratio of the magnitude of the relative velocity of depar
ture of two colliding bodies to the magnitude of their relative velocity of
approach. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§11-12) KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM 465
Three methods of solving problems in kinetics have been developed
in Chapters 9, 10, and 11. The method of force, mass, and acceleration
can be used to obtain instantaneous values of forces and acceleration.
The principles of force, mass, and acceleration, together with the equa
tions of kinematics, can also be used when a time interval, a distance
traveled, and/or a change in velocity are involved.
The principle of work and kinetic energy equates work done by the
forces acting on a body or system of bodies to the change in kinetic energy
of the system. Thus it is the logical method when the problem involves
forces, distances, and velocities. It is particularly useful when the forces
and accelerations of the body vary with the position of the body, for
example a body which is acted on by a spring or a swinging body on the
end of a cord.
The method of impulse and momentum is concerned with forces, time
intervals, and changes in velocity. It can be applied to problems involv
ing these quantities for either constant or variable forces, although it is
particularly useful when an applied force is specified as a function of time.
The method is the only one whose application to jets and to gyroscopes
was discussed, although the method of force, mass, and acceleration can
also be used thus with some modifications. Problems involving impact
can be solved by using the principle of conservation of momentum.
Neither the method of impulse and momentum nor that of work and
kinetic energy gives instantaneous values of acceleration or of unknown
forces, and the method of work and energy does not give even an average
value of forces which do no work. In any example it is important that
the problem be carefully analyzed to ascertain the given data and the
unknown quantities to be obtained before a method of solution is selected.
Two of the methods may sometimes be used to supplement each other.
For example, in a ballistic pendulum the principles of work and kinetic
energy and of conservation of linear momentum can both be used to
good advantage. When the problem can be solved completely by two
different methods, they provide a reliable check on the solution.
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@seismicisolation
C H A P T E R 12
Mechanical Vibrations
12-1. Introduction. A mechanical vibration is an oscillatory motion
of a particle or body, about a position of equilibrium, which is repeated
periodically. Most vibrations are undesirable in machines and structures
because they produce excessive stresses or repeated stresses, cause extra
wear, require energy that could otherwise do useful work, and produce
similar deleterious effects. The collapse of the Tacoma Narrows bridge
in 1940 is an example of structural failure due to excessive stresses pro
duced by vibrations. Rotating machine parts require very careful
balancing to prevent damage from vibrations. When part of the pro
peller of an airplane is shot off or breaks off in flight the propeller is
no longer symmetrical and the vibrations from the engine may tear the
engine from the plane unless it can be stopped in time. The vibrations
produced in an automobile by the engine or by driving on rough roads
set up repeated stresses in certain parts that can eventually lead to
fatigue failure of the members.
Vibrations are sometimes used to produce desirable effects. For
example, vibrators are used to compact concrete in the forms and to
separate the grain from the chaff in threshing machines. Instruments
which function properly on an airplane with a conventional engine may
tend to stick when used in gliders or jet-powered planes because of the
lack of vibration. In such instances a vibrator is sometimes installed on
the instrument panel.
When a particle or body that is supported by a system of springs, a
shaft, a beam, or any other elastic system is disturbed from its position
of equilibrium by the application and removal of an additional force, the
particle or body will vibrate. Such vibrations which are maintained by
the gravity and elastic forces involved are called free vibrations. When
a periodic exciting force acts on a particle or body that is supported by an
elastic system, the body has forced vibrations. Vibrations are also classi
fied as damped or undamped. When friction, air resistance, mechanical
hysteresis (see Art. 12-6), and all other resisting forces are negligible, the
vibration is undamped. When any of these effects are appreciable, the
body has damped vibrations. In practice there is always a frictional
damping force which will@seismicisolation
eventually stop a free vibration, even though
@seismicisolation
it may be neglected for many purposes.
466
§12-2] MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 467
The maximum displacement of a body from its equilibrium position
is defined as the amplitude of the motion. I'he period of a vibration is
the time required for the body to make one complete cycle of motion as
discussed in Art. 7-8, and the frequency is the number of cycles per unit
of time. Most free vibrations are simple harmonic motions, and the
others are beyond the scope of this text.
If the motion of a particle or body is constrained so that its position
can be completely specified by one coordinate, it is said to have a single
degree of freedom. If the system can vibrate in two directions or is com
posed of two particles that can each vibrate independently in one direc
tion it is said to have two degrees of freedom because two coordinates are
required to specify the position of the system at any instant. For
example, a system composed of a single particle, supported by a spring
as indicated in Fig. 12-la, which vibrates in a vertical direction only, has
(a) (b)
Fig. 12-1 Fig. 12-2
one degree of freedom. A system composed of two particles which move
vertically and are supported as indicated in Fig. 12-lb has two degrees
of freedom because two coordinates are required to locate the particles
at any instant. A system composed of one particle supported by four
springs and constrained to move in a vertical plane as indicated in Fig.
12-2 has two degrees of freedom because two coordinates are required to
locate the particle in the vertical plane at any instant. A single rigid
body has, in general, six degrees of freedom, since it may have translation
in three coordinate directions and it may also rotate about three coordi
nate axes. The following discussion will be concerned only with sys
tems which have a single degree of freedom or which vibrate in only one
way at the instant being considered.
12-2. Free undamped vibrations of a particle. A common type of
free undamped vibration is that of a particle acted upon by a force which
is proportional to the displacement of the particle from its equilibrium
position and of opposite sense. As an example, consider a particle B
supported by a spring as indicated in Fig. 12-3. The weight of the
particle is W , and the weight of the spring and air resistance are neglected.
The modulus of the spring is k, and @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
the deflection of the spring when B
468 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS [§12-2
is in equilibrium is
W
y* = k
If B is displaced downward a distance A from its equilibrium position
and released from rest, the resulting motion will be a free vibration with
out damping. The motion can be analyzed by writing the equation of
motion for the particle when it is displaced any distance y (downward is
positive) from the equilibrium position and solving the resulting differ
ential equation. The free-body diagram of B is shown in Fig. 12-3.
The force exerted by the spring is
T = k(y.t + y) = W + ky,
and the general equation of motion is
ZFy = mOy
Wd*y
or W - (W + ky) = aB
g dt?
kg
from which aB (12-1)
dt* ~ W y'
By comparing Eq. (12-1) with (7-38) , it is apparent that B has simple
harmonic motion, since kg/W is a
c o n s t a n t . The solution of Eq.
unstretched
length of
spring
(12-1) was obtained in Art. 7-8 by

drawing the related circle and also
by solving the differential equation.
The related circle is shown in Fig.
12-3. The center of the circle is on
a line through the equilibrium posi
tion, since the vertical component of
the acceleration of Q, which is equal
to the acceleration of B, is zero for
this position. The radius of the
circle is equal to the maximum dis
placement of B, which is A for the
problem as stated. The angular velocity of the radius OQ is
from Eq. (7-42) and (12-1).

The period of the resulting motion is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
§12-21 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 469
and the frequency is
The quantity
in rad per sec is sometimes called the circular frequency of the motion.
This term should not be confused with the rotational vibration of a rigid
body, which is discussed in the next article.
The amplitude of the motion is equal to the radius of the related circle
and is equal to A for particle B in Fig. 12-3. The amplitude depends
on>the starting conditions (the velocity and position when the motion is
started) and on the value of w in the general case, although the value of w
need not be known if the position of the particle is known when its velocity
is zero. The value of «, together with the period and frequency, depends
on the modulus of the spring and the mass of the particle but not on the
starting conditions. As was indicated in Art. 7-8, the properties of simple
harmonic motion can be obtained either from the related circle, once the
amplitude, A, and the circular frequency, w, are determined, or by solving
the differential equation directly.
In any problem involving free undamped vibrations, a free-body dia
gram of the vibrating particle should be drawn showing it displaced from
its equilibrium position. The acceleration can be determined f rom the
general motion equation in terms of the posi
tion of the particle. If the acceleration is of
the form
a = — Kx,
where K is any positive constant and x is the
position coordinate of the particle measured
from its equilibrium position, the resulting P! Q 12 -4
motion will be simple harmonic motion. If
the acceleration is not equal to — Kx, the motion will not be simple
harmonic motion, although it may still be an oscillatory motion, and the
solution must be obtained from the differential equation.
As an example, consider the oscillations of the simple pendulum in
Fig. 12-4. The pendulum, consisting of a particle of weight W suspended
by a cord of length L, swings in a vertical plane. The cord is inextensible
and its weight is negligible. The particle is moved out until the cord
makes an angle 0 with the vertical. The particle then is released to
oscillate in a vertical plane. A free-body diagram of the particle is
shown in Fig. 12-4, and the positive direction is indicated near the dia
gram. The tangential component of the acceleration can be determined
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
470 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 1512-2
from the equation
2F t = mat
or — W sin 0 = W
— at(
ff
from which at = —g sin 0.
If the angle 0 remains small, sin 0 is approximately equal to 0 in
radians. Since the arc length s is equal to L0, the above equation for
small values of 0 becomes
at = ~ Lf s
or —■
2 = - 9 .
dt Ls
This last equation indicates that particle B has simple harmonic motion,
since the magnitude of the tangential acceleration of B is equal to a
negative constant multiplied by the position coordinate, s, of B. If the
angle 0 is not small the acceleration is not proportional to the distance s
measured from the equilibrium position and the resulting motion is not
a simple harmonic motion although the pendulum does have an oscil
latory motion.
Example 12-1 : Particle E in Fig. 12-5 weighs 4.0 lb, and the modulus of the spring
is 8.0 lb per ft. The weights of the spring and of the rigid rod BC may be neglected.
Rod BC is horizontal when it is in equilibrium. If point C is moved 5.0 in. downward
from its equilibrium position and released from rest, determine:
(a) The frequency of the resulting vibration.
(b) The magnitude of the maximum velocity of E.
Solution: (a) Particle E moves along the arc of a circle, but for the small motion
involved the path may be assumed to be a vertical straight line. A free-body diagram
of the particle E is shown in Fig. 12-6a and one of the bar BC in Fig. 12-6b. The
force R y which would be zero for rectilinear motion of E is neglected here because the
motion is assumed to be rectilinear. In order to obtain the acceleration of E in terms
@seismicisolation
of its displacement y, the force @seismicisolation
P must be expressed in terms of y. When the system
§12-21 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 471
is in equilibrium, the force P is 4.0 lb and the tension To in the spring can be obtained
from an equation of equilibrium for body BC. That is,
= 0
or 4(4.0) - 5To = 0,
from which To = 3.2 lb.
When E is moved downward a distance yf C is moved downward a distance yc.
From similar triangles,
yc = by,
and the tension T becomes
T = To 4- ky c = 3.2 + 8.0 (J y) = 3.2 + lO.Oy.
Body BC has rotation about a horizontal axis through B; but since its weight, and
therefore its moment of inertia, is neglected, the moment equation is
SATaj? “ Iarci “ 0
or 4P = 5T
from which P ■■ f (3.2 4- lO.Oy) — 4.0 4" 12.5y.
The equation of motion for E is
ZFV = may,
4.0
which becomes 4.0 — (4.0 4- 12.5y) — ag
oZ. Z
J 1.25(32.2)
and a E - --------J q ---- y = — 100.6y.
This last equation indicates that E has simple harmonic motion, since the magni
tude of the acceleration of E is equal to a negative constant multiplied by the position
coordinate of E. The angular velocity of the radius of the related circle is
(0 = 100.6 = 10.03 rad per sec

and the frequency is
, » 10.03
/ = = _ = l597 cycles per sec.
2; 2T
(b) The maximum velocity of a particle with simple harmonic motion is the
product of the radius of the related circle (the amplitude of the motion) and the
angular velocity of the radius of the related circle. The amplitude is the maximum
displacement of the particle from its equilibrium position, which in this problem is the
initial displacement and is
A = 4 (5) = 4 in.
The magnitude of the maximum velocity is
= Au = iS (10.03) = 3.34 fps.
PROBLEMS
Note. The mass of the springs can be neglected in the following problems.
12-1. A weight of 8 lb is attached to a spring whose modulus is 2 lb per in.
The weight is released when the spring@seismicisolation
is unstressed. Find (a) the distance
the weight falls before coming to rest and@seismicisolation
(b) the frequency of the motion.
472 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS (§12-2
12-2. The spring-steel cantilever beam in Fig. P 12-2 has a weight A of 9 lb

attached to the free end. The beam acts as a spring; that is, the vertical dis
placement of the end of the beam is proportional to the load applied to the beam.
A vertical force of 18 lb downward on the end of the beam causes A to move
0.50 in. from the equilibrium position. If this added force is suddenly removed,
determine the period of vibration of A and the magnitude of the maximum
velocity of A. Neglect the mass of the beam and air resistance.
Fig. P 12-2
12-3. The 30.0-lb block B is supported as indicated in Fig. P 12-3 by a spring

with a modulus of 10.0 lb per in. If the velocity of B is 2.0 fps upward when B
is 1.6 in. below its equilibrium position, determine (a) the amplitude of the free
vibration of B; (b) the maximum acceleration of B.
Fig. P 12-3 Fig. P 12-4
12-4. The 50.0-lb block B is supported as indicated in Fig. P 12-4 by a spring

which is fastened to the cord CE. The modulus of the spring is 40.0 lb per ft.
Body B and the spring are moving with a constant velocity of 3.0 fps downward
when C is suddenly stopped. Determine (a) the frequency of the resulting
vibration of B; (b) the amplitude of the free vibration of B.
12-5. The 2.0-lb particle C in Fig. P 12-5 is fastened to the rigid rod BE.
The weight of the rod can be neglected. The modulus of the spring is 4.0 lb per
ft, and BE is in equilibrium when it is horizontal. If L is 2.0 ft and C is displaced
slightly from its equilibrium position, determine the frequency of vibration of C.
@seismicisolation
Fig. P 12-5
@seismicisolation
12-6. If the period of vibration of particle C in Problem 12-5 is 0.500 sec,
determine the distance L. All other data are as given in Problem [ 2-5.
12-7. The 5.00-lb block B in Fig. P 12-7 is suspended from springs C and E
as indicated. The moduli of C and E are 30 lb per ft and 15 lb per ft, respectively.
If B is displaced vertically from its equilibrium position and released, determine
its period of vibration.
Fig. P 12-7 Fig. P 12-8
12-8. The moduli of springs C and E in Fig. P 12-8 are 30 lb per ft and 90 lb
per ft, respectively. The weight of the horizontal rod can be neglected, and B
weighs 20 lb. The rod remains horizontal during the vibration. If B has a
speed of 1.50 fps while passing through its position of equilibrium, determine
(a) the amplitude of the resulting free vibration of B; (b) the circular frequency
of the vibration of B.
12-9. The moduli of springs B and E in Fig. P 12-9 are 60 lb per ft and 40
lb per ft, respectively. Block C weighs 15 lb. When the system is in equilibrium,
the tension in E is 10 lb. If C is displaced vertically 2 in. from the equilibrium
position and released, determine the circular frequency of the resulting vibration
of C.
Fig. P 12-9 Fig. P 12-10
12-10. The particle C in Fig. P 12-10 weighs W lb and is supported by a

3.0-ft rod whose weight can be neglected. When the rod is displaced through
an angle 0 of 5° and released from rest, C swings in a vertical plane as a simple
pendulum. Determine the magnitude of the maximum velocity of C.
12-11. The particle B in Fig. P 12-11 is mounted on the rigid rod BC, whose
@seismicisolation
weight may be neglected. The particle@seismicisolation
B weighs 0.50 lb and the modulus of
474 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 1512-3
each of the springs is 10.0 lb per ft. The springs each have a tension of 2.00 lb
when BC is vertical. B is moved 1 in. to the right and released from rest. Deter
mine the frequency of the resulting vibration.
Fig. P 12-11
12-12. Solve Problem 12-11 if the mechanism is inverted so that the weight
B is below the pinned support C, The springs are still 6.0 in. from C.
12-13. Block B of mass m is free to slide on the smooth rod CD as indicated
in Fig. P 12-13. The modulus of the spring is k and its unstretched length is b.
The block is moved to the right a distance A and released from rest.
(a) Determine the acceleration of B as a function of the position
coordinate x.
(b) Is the motion of B simple harmonic motion?
(c) If so, determine the period of the motion.
12-3. Free undamped vibrations of rigid bodies. Free vibrations

of a particle were discussed in the preceding article. In many engineering
situations bodies are supported by a system of springs or elastic supports
that produce vibrations. When the vibrating body has any rotational
motion, the period and frequency of the resulting simple harmonic
motion will depend on the moment of inertia of the body as well as on its
mass and the forces that act upon the body.
For rectilinear motion the criterion for simple harmonic motion is
that the acceleration of the particle be of the form
Kx
° = dt* = - -
An analogous equation for rotational motion in terms of the angular
acceleration and position of the body is
a
dt 2
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Ke
‘
512-3) MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 475
If the equations of motion for a body reduce to the preceding equation,
the body has a simple harmonic angular motion. With angular harmonic
motion the angle 0 is used in place of a distance x or y, and therefore the
amplitude of the motion is the maxi
mum angular displacement of the
bodyirom its position of equilibrium.
A compound pendulum is a rigid
body of finite dimensions which
oscillates about a fixed horizontal
axis through the body. The period
of vibration for small oscillations of
the compound pendulum in Fig.
12-7a can be determined by obtain
ing an expression for the angular
acceleration of the body in terms
of its angular position. Figure 12-7b is a free-body diagram showing the
body displaced an angle 0 from its equilibrium position. The moment
equation of motion is
SA/o = looi,
which becomes —W f sin 0 = loot
Wf . a
and a -- ----7— sm 0.
If the amplitude of the vibrations is small, the value of sin 0 is approxi

mately equal to the value of 0 in radians, and the moment equation
becomes
a = ™ _ Wf
~ Ke -
The angular velocity of the related circle is
ca
and the period of the vibration is
T = -
The moment of inertia of a body can be determined experimentally

by suspending it from some axis not through the mass center and meas
uring the period of vibration for oscillations of small amplitude.
The solution of problems in free vibrations of rigid bodies is further
illustrated by the following example.
Example 12-2: The 64.4-lb body E in Fig. 12-8 is supported by an inextensible
flexible belt which is wrapped around a flange on wheel C. The 96.6-lb wheel C is
supported by a smooth bearing at 0 and is@seismicisolation
connected to the spring as indicated. The
@seismicisolation
476 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS IS12-3
modulus of the spring is 6.0 lb per in., and its mass is negligible. The radius of gyra
tion of the mass of wheel C with respect to the axis of rotation through the mass center
is 9.6 in. Body E has a velocity of 18.0 ips upward when it is 3.0 in. below the posi
tion of equilibrium. Determine:
(a) The period of the vibration of E.
(b) The amplitude of the vibration of E.
Fig. 12-8 Fig. 12-9
Solution: (a) Free-body diagrams of the wheel and of body E are shown in Fig.
12-9. When the system is in equilibrium, the force T is equal to the weight of E and
the force P can be determined by summing moments about the axis of rotation. That
is,
XMo - 0
or A (64.4) - HPo - 0
Therefore Po 388 48.3 lb, where Po is the value of the force P when the system is in
equilibrium.
If body E is displaced downward a positive distance y ft from the position of equili
brium, the wheel C will be turned clockwise through an angle
o y ±
= 316
(9/12)
and the spring will be stretched a distance
yn - W -
where y w is the distance the spring is stretched from the position of equilibrium. The
force of the spring on C will be
P ~ Po + k y „ - 48.3 + 6(12) (l)y = 48.3 + 96y.
The acceleration of E can be determined from the equations of motion for bodies C
and E.
The equation of motion in the y direction for body E is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
64.4 - T = 2.00 ,
512-31 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 477
and the equation of angular motion for body C is
0.75T - 1.00P - 3.00 Ch; )’«

\ z
or 0.75T - 48.3 - 96y = 1.92a.
From kinematics,
as ™ 0.75a or a “ 1.333a#.
When the two motion equations are solved simultaneously, the acceleration of E is
a
‘ - d p -
This equation for the acceleration of E demonstrates that E has simple harmonic
motion. The angular velocity of the radius of the related circle is
u — \/23.6 — 4.86 rad per sec.
The period of the vibration of E is
T -= — = — 1.292 sec.
(a 4.8o
(b) The related circle in Fig. 12-10 is convenient for determining the amplitude of
the motion from the given data. The radius of the circle is equal to the amplitude A ;
Fig. 12-10
the angular velocity of the line O'Q is 4.86 rad per sec ; and the velocity of E, which is
equal to the vertical component of the velocity of Q, is 18.0 ips upward. Therefore
vg = vq sin 9 = Au sin 9 — 18.0
EQ - (3.0) 1
and sin 9 = ’
where all lengths and velocities are measured in in., and ips, respectively. When the
value for sin 9 is substituted in the expression for »#, the result is
V A 1 - 9.0
A (4.86) - ----- ---------- 18.0
A
from which A = 4.76 in.
PROBLEMS
12-14. Body A of Fig. P 12-14 weighs 96.6 lb, and the homogeneous slender
bar BC weighs 32.2 lb. When the bar is@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
"horizontal, the tension in the spring is
478 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
just sufficient to balance the weight of A. If body A is pulled down slightly and
released, determine the period of vibration. The spring modulus is 60 lb per ft.
Fig. P 12-14
12-15. The homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 12-15 weighs 100 lb and rolls
along the inclined plane without slipping. The modulus of the spring is 20 lb
per ft. The mass center G is moved 3.00 in. down the plane from the equilibrium
position and released from rest.
(a) Is the resulting motion of G simple harmonic motion?
(b) If so, determine the period of the motion.
on the horizontal plane without slipping. When the cylinder is at rest, the springs
are each stretched 2 ft. The modulus of each spring is 15 lb per ft. The cylinder
is displaced 6 in. from the equilibrium position and released from rest.
(a) Prove that the resulting motion of G is simple harmonic motion.
(b) Determine the period of the motion.
(c) Determine the magnitude of the maximum velocity of the center
of the cylinder.
Fig. P 12-16
12-17. Two identical drums A and B rotate about fixed horizontal axes as
indicated in Fig. P 12-17 with constant angular velocities of 40 rpm. Th
coefficient of kinetic friction between the 20-lb uniform homogeneous plank C
and the drums is 0.30. The plank is displaced 3.0 in. to the right from its position
of equilibrium and released from rest.
(a) Does the plank have simple harmonic motion?
(b) If the plank has simple harmonic motion, determine the frequent
of its vibrations.
Fig: P 12-17
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
12-18. The 96.6-lb homogeneous slender uniform rod AB in Fig. P 12-18 is
6 ft long and rotates in a vertical plane about a horizontal axis through A as a
compound pendulum. Determine, for small values of 0, the period of vibration
of the pendulum.
ter
Fig. P 12-18 Fig. P 12-19
12-19. A motor weighing 100 lb is mounted on two springs as indicated in

Fig. P 12-19. The springs are deflected 2.00 in. by the weight of the motor.
The radius of gyration of the mass of the motor with respect to a horizontal axis
through G perpendicular to AB is 4.00 in. A force of 50 lb downward is applied
to the motor through point G. If the 50-lb force is suddenly removed, determine
the period and the amplitude of the resulting vibrations.
12-20. Solve Problem 12-19 if, instead of a 50-lb force through G two 25-lb
forces, one downward at A and the other upward at B, are applied and suddenly
removed.
12-21. A rotational vibration of the motor in Problem 12-19 is produced by
applying a downward force at A and an equal upward force at B and removing
them suddenly. Determine the stiffness of the springs which will cause the
rotational frequency to be 15 cycles per sec.
12-22. The solid homogeneous cylinder in Fig. P 12-22 weighs 16.1 lb and
rolls along the curved surface without slipping. The cylinder is displaced slightly
from its equilibrium position and is allowed to oscillate.
(a) Will the resulting motion be simple harmonic motion for small
values of 0?
(b) If so, determine the frequency of the resulting motion.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
12-4. Free undamped torsional vibrations. Free vibrations of parti
ces and of rigid bodies that are sustained by the attraction of the earth
for a body such as a pendulum, the action of a spring on a body, the
stresses in a beam, and so on, were studied in the preceding articles. A
similar analysis can be used for free vibrations of
bodies when the vibrations are maintained as a result
of the stresses developed in a shaft when the shaft is
twisted. Consider a flywheel or other body B which
is supported by a shaft or circular rod fixed at one
end as in Fig. 12-11. If the body is twisted through
an angle 0 and released, the stresses in the shaft will
cause the body tO/Oscillate. It is shown in texts on
strength of materials that if the proportional limit*
Fig. 12-11
of the material in a solid circular shaft is not exceeded,
the moment necessary to twist the shaft is proportional to the angle of
twist and can be obtained from the expression
where r — TZ’ 4 — T d 4
J
" T "32
is the polar moment of inertia of the cross-sectional area of the shaft, G
is the shearing modulus of elasticity of the material, L is the length of
the shaft, and 6 is the angle, in radians, through which the shaft is twisted.
The moment exerted by the shaft on the body B is equal in magnitude
and opposite in sense to the moment, T, required to twist the shaft.
The moment exerted by the shaft on B has a sense opposite to the sense
of the angular displacement of the lower end of the shaft. The equation
of motion for body B is
'EM ar = Iar<x
or — T = Iarol,
.which becomes — kO = Iar<*.
The angular acceleration, from the preceding equation, is
d 20 = k *
a = “tto2 “ T~ 0-
dt Iar
This last equation proves that body B has simple harmonic angular
motion, and the angular velocity of the radius of the related circle is
rk = r tt*G
* The proportional limit is @seismicisolation

the highest unit stress at which strain (deformation) is
@seismicisolation
proportional to the accompanying stress.
The frequency of the oscillation is
and the period is
PROBLEMS
12-23. The 50.0-lb solid homogeneous sphere in Fig. P 12-23 is welded to the
solid circular rod as indicated. A torque of 20.0 in-lb causes the rod to twist one
degree. Determine the frequency of the torsional vibrations of the sphere.
2‘or
Fig. P 12-23
12-24. Bars AB and C D in Fig. P 12-24 are made of steel weighing 0.284 lb
per cu in. The shearing modulus of elasticity of steel is 12,000,000 psi. Neglect
the weight of C D and assume that bar AB is rigid. When bar AB is vibrating it
has an angular velocity of 0.50 rad per sec when C D is not twisted. Determine
(a) the period of oscillation of AB; (b) the maximum angular acceleration of AB.
12-25. The solid homogeneous cylindrical disk in Fig. P 12-25 weighs 3220 lb.
The two rods are made of steel, and the shearing modulus of elasticity of the steel
is 12,000,000 psi. Determine the frequency of the torsional vibration of the disk.
12-26. The torsional pendulum in Fig. P 12-26 is to be used as an instrument

for measuring increments of time. The pendulum is to have a period of 2.00 sec.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
The torsional stiffness of the wire is 4.10 in-lb per rad. The circular disk is
1.00 in. thick and is made of material having a density of 15.0 slugs per cu ft.
Determine the diameter of the disk.
12-27. Block A of Fig. P 12-27 is mounted on the circular shaft CD by means
of the rigid arm B. The combined weight of bodies A and B is 322 lb, and the
mass center is 14.0 in. from CD. The torsional modulus of the rod is 100 ft-lb
per degree and the period of oscillation of the bodies is 0.350 sec. Determine the
radius of gyration of the mass of bodies A and B with respect to the axis of the
shaft CD.
Fig. P 12-27
12-5. Forced vibrations without damping. When a force which
varies periodically is applied to a body mounted on springs or other
elastic supports, a forced vibration of the body will result. A forced
vibration of a body can also be produced by giving the body supporting
the vibrating system a periodic motion. For example, if a weight is
hung from a spring and the upper end of the spring is moved vertically
with a periodic motion, forced vibrations of the weight will be produced.
In this last example the variable force is transmitted through the spring
to the weight.
The circular frequency, period, and frequency of free vibrations depend
on the mass of the body and the stiffness of the
elastic support. The amplitude of free vibrations
depends on the starting conditions and in general on
the circular frequency. The frequency of steady
state forced vibrations depends on the frequency of
the applied load but not on the characteristics of the
vibrating body. The amplitude of the forced vibra
tions depends on the magnitude and frequency of the
applied load and on the circular frequency of the free
vibrations but not on the starting conditions. Steady
Fig. 12-12 state vibrations are those remaining after any initial
irregular and free vibrations have ceased.
Although any kind of variable impressed force will produce forced
vibrations, the most common type of variation is that in which the force
can be expressed as a sine or cosine function of time. Such variations
are commonly encountered as a result of the rotation of an unbalanced
body. For example, consider a motor which is mounted in smooth
vertical guides as indicated in Fig. 12-12 so that the vibrating system
has a single degree of freedom. A plate with an eccentric weight B is
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
$12-5] MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS 483
fastened to the shaft of the motor and the shaft rotates with a constant
angular velocity of v rad per sec clockwise. The combined weight of B
and the motor is W .
The acceleration of B as obtained by relative motion is
(Ib = Gb/o 4 =
rr 2 ao
where ao is assumed to be positive downward.
The vertical component of the reaction of the motor on B can be
obtained from the equation
= m(a B )v
for the free-body diagram of B in Fig. 12-13a. That is
W B - B v = — (a,), = — (ao - rv 1 sin 0)
-- ---- (ao — rv 2 sin vt)
or = Wb ------- (do — tv 1 sin vt).

9
F s W+ky
(al (b)
Fig. 12-13
The free-body diagram of the motor displaced a distance y from its
equilibrium position is shown in Fig. 12-13b. The equation of motion
in the y direction is
= may,
w—
W - W B - (W + ky) + By = ------ ao
or
W -W B - w - ky + Wb - — ao + — rv2 sin vt = — ao - — a n
g g g g
and
TF . i W . . .
— ao + ky = —B rv 2 sin vt = RD sin vt
Wn 2
where R = — - tv@seismicisolation
.
@seismicisolation
g
484 MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS [JIM
The equation of motion can be written
which is the differential equation of motion for forced vibrations without

damping.
An equation of the same form as Eq. (12-2) can be obtained when the
forced vibration is caused by giving the body supporting the system a
simple harmonic motion. Consider the body D of weight W in Fig.
12-14 supported by a spring whose modulus is k.
The spring is mounted on the cross head E which
is given a simple harmonic motion as the crank
OB rotates with a constant angular velocity p.
The system is in equilibrium when the arm OB is
F= W-k(y-y,)
Fig. 12-14 Fig. 12-15

horizontal and the force in the spring is W . When the body D is dis
placed a positive distance y from its equilibrium position and the crank
OB has turned an angle 0 = vt from the horizontal position, the length
of the spring is increased by an amount (y — yi). Therefore the force
in the spring is
F = W — k(y — yi) = W — k(y — r sin vt).
Figure 12-15 is a free-body diagram of th6 block, and the equation of
motion
= may
gives rrrr
[W — <k(y
/ •
— r sm pZ)] W = — a? = W
ai — nr — d*y
ff ff G*
from which + w? y = sin rt (12-3)

(u rr W
Equation (12-3) is the same as Eq. (12-2) if the quantity kr is set equal to
R; that is, the product of the modulus of the spring and the length of the
crank OB must be equal to the force m Brv*.
A solution of the differential equation (12-3) or (12-2) is necessary in
order to obtain the period, frequency, and amplitude of the forced
vibrations.
The function
yi = C sin vt
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
will satisfy Eq. (12-3), provided C has the correct value, since each term
in Eq. (12-3) will be the product of sin vt and some constant. The con
stant C can be determined by substituting the expression for yi in Eq.
(12-3). When w2 is substituted for kg/W, the equation becomes
2
dr + w’yi = rw sin vt
or — Cv 2 sin vt + Cw 2 sin vt = rw2 sin vt
from which — y 2( = ra> 2
or (12-4)
where w is the circular frequency of free vibration of the body, from Art.
12-2, and v is the angular velocity of crank OB in Fig. 12-14 or of the motor
in Fig. 12-12.
Because the function
r
yi = - - - 7-V2 sin vt
i-m
contains no constants of integration, it is a particular solution of Eq.

(12-3), or of Eq. (12-2) if R/k is substituted for r. This function does
not take into consideration the starting conditions, that is, the position
and velocity of the body when the time t is zero. A function y2 which
satisfies Eq. (12-2) or (12-3) with the right side equal to zero can be added
to y2 , and the sum will also be a solution of the equation. When the
right side of Eq. (12-3) is zero, the equation is
d*y kg d
dt 2
which is the equation of free vibrations of the body or the equation of
simple harmonic motion. A general solution of this equation, obtained
in Art. 7-8, is
y2 = A sin wt + B cos wt, •
where A and B are constants of integration. The complete solution of
Eq. (12-3) is
r s n v
y = yi H- yi = ------/ V ? * t + A sin cat + B cos wt (12-5)
-G)
The constants of integration A and B can be determined from the starting
conditions. The last two terms of Eq. (12-5) represent the free vibra
tions of the body, and the other term represents the steady-state forced
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
vibrations.
Although the effect of damping has been neglected in this solution,
there will always be some damping in any actual mechanism which will
eventually eliminate the free vibrations. Therefore, when steady-state
conditions are achieved, Eq. (12-5) becomes
The value of C in Eq. (12-4) is the amplitude of the forced vibrations

of body D in Fig. 12-14 or of the motor in Fig. 12-12 if R/k is substituted
for r. The period and frequency of the forced vibrations are
T = v- and f = 2t~
The quantity v is the circular frequency of the forced vibrations. The

quantity R/k is the deflection of the motor that would be produced by a
static load R. The expression -----~7~V2 * s the magnification factor bv
which the quantity r or R/k is multiplied to give the amplitude of the

resulting motion.
The value of C from Eq. (12-4) is not a general formula for the
amplitude of any forced vibrations. The amplitude can be determined
by setting up the differential equation for the motion similar to Eq.
(12-3), substituting yi = C cos vt in the equation, and solving for the
value of C.
The curve in Fig. 12-16 shows the variation of the magnification
factor with the ratio v/w. For small values of v the value of v/w is also
small, and the magnification ratio is a little more than unity; therefore
the amplitude of the forced vibration is a little greater than the value
of r or of R/k. When the angular velocity v of the crank OB or of
the motor becomes equal to w, the circular frequency of the free vibration
of the body, th% amplitude of the forced vibration theoretically becomes
infinite and a condition of resonance is said to exist in the system.
At resonance the period and frequency of the free vibrations are the
same as the period and frequency of the forced vibrations. In actual
practice there is always enough damping present to limit the amplitude
of the forced vibration to finite values, although it may become quite
large and cause serious damage to the machine or mechanism.
For values of v/w greater than unity, the magnification factor is
negative and decreases in magnitude as v/<a increases. The negative
sign indicates that the displacement of the vibrating body is 180° out
of phase with the force or@seismicisolation
motion producing the vibration.
@seismicisolation
In Fig. 12-14, bodies D and E are in phase when they reach the top
and bottom of their respective paths simultaneously. They are 180°
out of phase if D reaches the top of its path at the instant E is at the
bottom of its path.
From the curve in Fig. 12-16, it is apparent that excessive amplitudes
of forced vibrations can be eliminated by operating the system with an
Foctor
Mognificotion
angular velocity v considerably different than the critical speed w for

free vibrations. In general there are two values of v for any magnifica
tion factor greater in magnitude than unity, but there is only one value
of v for any value of the magnification factor less in magnitude than 1.
Example 12-3: A small variable-speed motor weighing 18.0 lb is mounted on an
elastic beam as indicated in Fig. 12-17. The motor rotates with a 2.0-lb eccentric
weight 2.0 in. from the center of the shaft. When the motor is not running, the motor
and the eccentric weight cause the beam to deflect 0.50 in. Determine:
(a) The speed of the system at resonance.
(b) The amplitude of the forced vibrations when the motor is running at 300 rpm.
Fig. 12-17 Fig. 12-18

@seismicisolation
Solution: (a) The resonant speed is the same as the frequency of the free vibrations
@seismicisolation
of the motor and beam. The free-body diagram of the motor displaced a distance y
from its equilibrium position is shown in Fig. 12-18. The spring constant for the
beam is
W 20.0
k— —— *= 40.0 lb per
H in. — 480 lb per
H ft.
2/.t 0.50
The equation of motion = ma* gives

20
20 - (20 4- 4801/) “ 3 2
480(32.2)
from which Oy - - -773y
and 773 “, 27.8 rad per sec = 265 rpm,
which is the speed at resonance.

(b) The maximum value of the imbalanced force is
_ 2.0 /2.0\ r300(2r)"|«

R mr
“ " ” 3 2 III) L -60~ J " 10 22 lb
-
The amplitude of the forced vibration can be obtained from Eq. (12-4) by setting
r = R / k as
10.22
480
C = x “ 0 0768 ft = -0.939 in.
The ratio r/w is independent of the units used, that is, whether they are expressed as
rad per sec, rpm, or cycles per sec, as long as both are expressed in the same units.
The negative sign for C indicates that the motion of the motor is 180° out of phase
with the exciting force. When the motor is in its lowest position, the eccentric weight
is at the top of its path with respect to the motor, and the exciting force is directed
upward with its maximum magnitude.
PROBLEMS
12-28. The static deflection of the springs of a 3000-lb automobile is 8.0 in.
The wheels are mounted on a platform that can be given a vertical motion
similar to the motion resulting from driving on a “corduroy” gravel road.
(a) Determine the circular frequency of the forced vibration at which
resonance occurs.
(b) Determine the speed of the automobile at which resonance will
occur when the automobile is being driven on a rough road. Assume that the
average distance between bumps is 12 in.
(c) Determine the amplitude of the vibration of the automobile
resulting from a total vertical motion of the platform of 2.00 in. at a frequency
of 1.00 cycle per sec.
12-29. Determine the maximum and minimum force of the springs on the
automobile during the steady-state forced vibration described in Problem 12-28(c).
12-30. The block A in Fig. P 12-30 is suspended from a spring whose modulus
is 100 lb per ft. The magnitude of the force P varies according to the equation
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
P = 10 cos 10Z, where P is in lb, I is time in sec, and the angle 10Z is in radians.
Determine the weight of A for which the system will be in resonance.
P«IO cos 10 1
Fig. P 12-30
12-31. Determine the weight or weights of block A in Problem 12-30 for
which the amplitude of the forced vibration will be 0.20 ft.
12-32. Solve Problem 12-31 if the amplitude of the forced vibration is to be
0.050 ft.
12-33. The block A in Fig. P 12-30 weighs 20 lb, and the force P produces a
forced vibration whose amplitude is 0.10 ft. Determine the modulus of the
spring.
12-34. Block Q in Fig. P 12-34 weighs 10.0 lb and is supported by two springs
each having a modulus of 5.0 lb per in. The crosshead connected to the lower
end of spring *S 2 has a vertical simple harmonic motion when the crank OA
rotates with a constant angular velocity. Assume that both springs are in
tension at all times. Determine the amplitude of the steady-state forced vibra
tions of Q when the angular velocity of OA is 8.0 rad per sec clockwise.
. Fig. P 12-34
12-35. Determine the magnitude of the angular velocity of OA in Problem
12-34 which will cause the amplitude of the steady-state forced vibrations of Q
to be 1.00 in.
12-36. Determine the magnitude of the angular velocity of OA in Problem
12-34 which will cause the amplitude of the motion of Q to be 0.10 in.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
12-37. A hand-operated corn sheller has a flywheel which weighs 64.4 lb.
The sheller is bolted to a platform which is supported by four springs at the
comers in such a manner that it cap move only in a vertical direction. The
center of gravity of the flywheel is 1.0 in. from its axis, and the total weight
supported by the springs is 250 lb. A force of 2000 lb will compress the springs
1.00 in. With what angular velocity must the flywheel rotate in order to set up
a forced vibration with an amplitude of 0.10 in.?
12-38. Sensitive instruments are sometimes affected by the vibrations of the
building in which they are located. The effect of the vibrations of a building can
be reduced by placing the instruments on a table suspended by springs as indi
cated in Fig. P 12-38. The vibrations of a certain building have a frequency of
20 cycles per sec and an amplitude of 0.0050 in. A table in the building sup
ported as indicated weighs 50 lb. Determine the modulus of each of the four
springs which will reduce the amplitude of the steady-state forced vibrations of
the table to 0.000,050 in.
Fig. P 12-38
12-6. Damping and vibration reduction. Experience indicates that
the amplitude of any free vibration will gradually decrease to zero if no
exciting forces are applied to the system. The forces which resist the
motion and bring a freely vibrating body to rest are called damping
forces. A damping force may be the result of sliding friction between two
rigid bodies, viscous resistance of a body moving in a fluid such as air or
oil in a dashpot, or the resistance to motion between the molecules of the
spring or elastic element as it is stressed and unstressed. This last type
of resistance is called hysteresis.
Damping forces reduce the amplitude of forced vibrations as well as
eliminating free vibrations. The hydraulic shock absorber used on
automobiles is an example of viscous damping, and the high hysteresis
loss in some rubber products make them excellent vibration dampers.
Vibration dampers are particularly effective in reducing the amplitude
of forced vibrations when the frequency of the exciting force is at or near
the resonant frequency of the system. Another method of reducing
forced vibrations is to balance the rotating parts of a machine and thus
eliminate the periodic exciting forces. Machine parts can be balanced
by adding or removing masses at appropriate places. The amount of
mass to be added or removed and its position in the body can be deter
mined analytically, but because of the irregularity of many parts and
the difficulty of obtaining@seismicisolation
measurements sufficiently accurate for precise
@seismicisolation
balancing, the location of the balancing masses is usually determined
experimentally on special balancing machines.
Forced vibrations can also be reduced by tuning or isolating a vibrat
ing body from the rest of the machine or structure. When an unbalanced
motor is operated at a frequency above or below the critical frequency of
the system, the forced vibrations are much less severe than when the
motor is running with a velocity near the critical speed. The vibrations
are greatly reduced if the natural frequency of the system is considerably
less than the frequency of the exciting force. For example, automobile
engines are sometimes mounted with a rubber or spring suspension
which gives the engine a natural frequency of 1 or 2 cycles per sec,
whereas the frequency of the vibrations of the engine may be 30 or more
cycles per sec in which case the intensity of the vibrations transmitted to
the automobile frame may be only a fraction of 1 per cent of that of the
engine itself.
A complete analytical discussion of damping and vibration reduction
may be found in texts on vibrations.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Answers to Even-numbered Problems
CHAPTER 1
1-8. 140.0 lb «- through 0; 480 lb f
through 0. 1-32. 189,100 in-lb ft—.
1-4. 40°: 230 lb -> through B; 193.0
lb f through B. 1-34. 2210 in-lb counterclockwise, look
70°: 103.0 lb—< through B; 282 ing from A toward B.
lb f through B. 1-36. 180.0 ft-lb ( .
130°: 193.0 lb through B; 230 1-38. Yes, 20.0 lb.
lb T through B.
1-6. (a) No. (b) 90.0 lb -♦ through A; 1-40. 4800 lb | through O and 14,400
120.0 lb | through A. (c) No. in-lb ( in a plane parallel to
ADEF.
1-8. 400 lb through A; 400 lb -» 1-42. 800 lb 1 along CD and 5600 in-lb
through A. ).
1-10. 402 lb along BC; 379 lb 1-44. 6500 lb through A and 64,000
through O.
lb-in. ( .
1-12. 732 lb as shown. 1-46. 50.0 lb t through B: 20.0 lb -►
1-14. 187.1 lb — , 112.3 lb 1, 206 l b / , through D; and 20.0 lb <— through
all through O. C.
1-16. 477 lb 954 lb f , 1193 lb / , al| 1-48. 10.00 lb t through A: 15.00 lb ♦-
through 0. through B; and 15.00 lb—♦ through
1-18. 86.7 lb 130.1 lb 1, 195.1 lb /, C.
aU through A. 1-50. 60.0 lb J, 4.00 in. to the right of A.
1-20. 814 lb — . 342 lb J, 470 lb / , all 1-52. 40.0 lb j through the center of the
through O. rectangle.
1-88. (a) 200 ft-lb ( . (b) 200 in-lb ( . 1-54. 40.0 lb | 12.00 in.. to the right of
(c) 10.0 in-lb ( . the given 120.0-lb force.
1-24. (a) 100.0 lb through E. 1-56. P is F; I is L4.
(b) 140.0 in-lb ( . (c) 1.40 in. 1-58. K is L*/T; DteL.
1-28. 342 ft-lb ( . 1-60. FL.
1-28. 22.8 ft. 1-62. Yes.
1-64. FT*.
1-30. 205 in-lb tl_.
1-66. C is FL, v is L / T .
CHAPTER 2
2-2. 90.0 lb ♦- along ABC. 2-14. 20.0 lb T 2.00 ft to the left of A.
2-16. 40.0 lb T 1.750 ft to the left of E.
2-4. 100.6 lb /9&0 through A.
2-18. 40.0 lb through a point 12.50
2-6. 10.92 lb through A. ft to the left of A.
2-8. 35.0 lb through 0. 2-20. 1500 lb | 6.87 ft to the right of A.
2-22. P = 102.5 lb T along ab; Q - 37.5
2-10. P — 153.7 lb 30* through 0; lb | along cd.
2-28. 440 ft-lb ( .
Q —61.0 lb 45 through O. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
2-80. R - 0.
493
494 ANSWERS
2-34. 596 ft-lb ( .

X45.0
8-36. P — 56.0 lb n 3.3 through E]
R — 73.3 lb f through H.
2-42. 34.8 lb; 28.0 to the left, 19.28
inward. 7.71 upward, through 2-56. Partial answer: M * 354 ft-lb.
point A.
2-44. (a) 24.0 lb — , 8.00 lb 1, and 6.00
Id j/, all through 0.
(b) 2.00 in-lb /J — .

(c) 26.0 lb ; 24A) to the right, 8.00
upward, 6.00 inward through 0.
2-46. 167.5 lb from the origin through
point (3, —16, —4).
. 2-48. (a) 1030 lb; 9 upward and 5
inward through E.
(b) 300 ft-lb
2-68. P - 88.0 lb / through A; Q =

52.0 lb Z on the y axis 4.63 ft
.below the x axis.
CHAPTER 3
3-2. (0.500 in., -0.1000 in.) 8-36. (3.43 in., 0.857 in., 3.14 in.)
8-4. (2.13 ft, —0.875 ft, -0.500 ft.) 8-38. (1.043 ft, 0, 0.)
8-6. 5/3. 8-40. (3.11 in., 3.89 in., 8.44 in.)
8-8. 0.400 a.
8-42. rr + 51 .
8-10. (0.800 ft, 0.286 ft.)
3-44. 2t* ar*.
3-12. (2.55 in., 1.528 in.)
8-46. 23401b.
8-14. (12a/25, 3a/7.)
8-48. 2100 lb 1 2.57 ft to the right of A.
8-16. On the axis of symmetry at a dis 8-50. 4540 lb j 8.57 ft to the right of A.
tance of 3r/8 from the base.
8-52. (a) 17,970 lb. (b) On the vertical
8-18. (1.600 ft, 0, 0.)
axis of symmetry 8.00 ft below the
8-20. (5.00 in., 0.882 in., 0.) water surface.
8-22. On the axis of symmetry at a dis 8-54. (0, 1.400 in.)
tance of 0.5005 from the base. 3-56. (5.00 in., 5.17 in.)
3-24. (5.00 in., 8.00 in.)
3-58. (0.500 in., 3.60 in.)
8-26. (2.00 in., 4.44 in.)
8-60. 2.47 cu ft.
3-28. 1.017 ft below AB.
8-62. (1.459 in., 1.068 in.)
8-30. (5.06 in., 7.64 in.) 8-64. On the axis of symmetry at a dis
8-82. (0, 3.49 in.) tance of 0.600L from the left end.
3-34. (3.60 in., 0.435 in.) 8-66. (4.00 in., 5.69 in., 3.05 in.)
CHAPTER 4
4-6. T - 61.9 ft) through A; 4-8. T - 35.0 lb through G;
2V— 95.21b through the inter
N - 63.4 lb through G.
section of T and the weight.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
ANSWERS 495
4-44.
60.0 lb *- through B; 60.0 lb 1
4-10. 66.7 lb . through B.
4-12. a - 19.10°; p - 40.9°. 4-46. 300 l b — through C; 700 lb f
4-16. 7600 lb T through A ; 9400 lb j through D.
through B. 4-48. 5070 lb — through D ; 6960 lb j
4-18. 775 lb f through B; 1575 lb j through D.
through D. 4-50. Tbg - 400 lb; 200 lb *- through
4-20. 2000 lb t through D; 1600 lb T C; 400 lb | through C.
through B; 2400 lb f through A. 4-52. 2350 lb — through C; 200 lb f
4-22. 220 lb j through A ; 440 lb T through C.
through B; 277 lb j through B; 4-54. 30.0 lb — through B; 200 lb |
and 767 lb f through F , through B.
4-24. (a) 40.8 in. back of front wheels. 4-60. B C - 30001b 7 ; C G - 0 ; B G - 0 .
(b) 8040 lb. 4-62. U t U 9 - 56.3*C; - 9.76*7;
4-30. (a) 252 lb (b) 302 lb <— UiL, - 7.50*C.
through 0; 4.00 lb f through 0. 4-64. (a) 4000 lb. (b) 10,000 lb —
through F; 3000 lb t through F .
4-82. 1200 lb through B; 7201b-> (c) DF - 9000 lb C ; DG - 5000
lb 7; FG - 10,000 lb C.
through A ; 40.0 lb T through A. 4-66. = 48.5*0: - 62.5*7;
» 122.8*7.
4-34. 52,700 lb through a point in 4-68. EG - 10,000 lb 7; EH - 37,300
the base of the dam, 11.44 ft to lb C; FH - 10,000 lb C.
the right of A (the heel of the dam). 4-70. AB - 2000 lb C; BF - 1250 lb C ;
4-36. 80.0 lb as shown. DF - 10001b T ; DE - 25001b T .
4-38. 400 lb*— through C; 1300 lb t 4-72. (a) 4120 lb through A ;
through C, 800 lb -♦ through B, B - 3000 lb T . (b) BC - 4000
1600 lb 1 through B. lb C; BF - 0; FG - 6670 lb 7.
4-40. 29.9 lb. 4-74. BC - 13,330 lb 7; CF - 4170 lb
4-42. 1200 lb *- through C; 975 lb j C; FG - 10,310 lb C.
through C. 4-76. 1083 lb 7.
4-78. 2580 lb 7; 3550 lb C; LJJi - 2000 lb C;
ii n fl n
I I fl I
<*•««•••
O
«-a M
3550 lb C; 2000 lb 7; - 577 lb T ;

1155 lb 7; 0; LiLi - 1155 lb 7;
3640 lb C; 3640 lb C ,
M
»
4-84. - 94.1 lb; Tmta - 93.5 lb; 4-102. Tab - 1680 lb T ; Tcd - 880 lb
L - 275 ft. T ; 1200 lb —* through E; 560 lb /•
4-86. q — 2.98 tons per ft; L — 1540 ft. through E; 720 lb | through E.
4-104. 200 lb 0, 800 lb T , all through
4-88. Sag -20.0 ft; 7 -85.4 lb. B; 833 lb J through F; 767 lb J
4-90. AB - AD - 650 lb 7; AE - through A ; 400 lb \ through D.
1500 lb C. 4-106. 50.0 lb 550 lb T, 600 lb /, all
4-92. BE - 3140 lb C ; CE - 2400 lb through A : 450 lb I through B ;
C; AE - 3000 lb T . 450 lb f through u; 250 lb 1<—
4-94. No. Choose the x, yt and z axes through D.
so that the point of concurrence 4-108. 9.39 lb T in CB; 7.82 lb T in
of the forces is not in any one of 8.13 lb— ► through A ; 26.3 lb f
the three coordinate planes and through B.
then replace; any one of the mo 4-110. 10,000 lb 1667 lb /, 49,000 lb
ment axes by a moment axis which f , all through A.
is not parallel to and does not 4-112. T - 6001b; 13521b / through C;
intersect the line from the origin 312 lb f through C; 312 lb /
of coordinates to the point of con through A ; 468 lb j through A.
currence of the forces.
4-114. 0.900.
4-96. 275 lb T through A : 245 lb j 4-118. (a) 25,900 lb t on each left wheel;
through B\ 200 lb f through C. 21,600 lb T on each right wheel,
4-98. A - 5730 lb; B - 4000 lb; C - (b) 2.57. (c) Unloaded.
22701b. 4-122. 752 lb ♦- through B; 94.0 lb J
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
4-100. (a) 329 lb. (b) 231 lb. through B.
496 ANSWERS
4-124 E = 29.2 lb ; B = 95.6 lb N - 191.3 lb

R — 58.5 lb all through 0.
4-126. 600 lb *— through B; 300 lb f 4-186. 624 lb f through A ; 456 lb ~
through B. through B; 120 lb J through C.
4-128. UtLi - 0; UJ. 2 - 12.87*0;
- 20.0*T; LtL< - 73.1*T. 4-188. AO = 282 lb; BO - 232 lb; CO
« 2821b.
4-182. 1100 lb T .
4-184. 6000 lb 3000 lb /, 9000 lb 1, 4-140. P = 800 lb as shown, 31.7 lb \
all through H; 7000 lb T through through B, 948 lb / through B,
D; 8000 lb f through B; 5000 lb 272 lb \ through A, 700 lb f
T in the cable A. through A, 668 lb /• through A
CHAPTER 5
5-2. 176.0 lb 5-80. 438 lb —» on P; 475 lb <- on Q.
5-82. 12.78 lb through A; 125.1 lb I
5-4. (a) 20.0 lb (b) 20.0 lb . through A; 31.0 lb <— through B;
93.8 lb | through B.
5-6. 200 lb T through A ; 30.0 lb-> 5-84. Any value from 779 lb to 5130 lb.
through A ; 80.0 lb <— through B.
5-8. 60.0 lb f through A ; 22.5 lb -* 5-86. 57.4 lb.
through A. 5-88. 4400 in-lb.
5-10. Block will tip. Ptip — 8.00 lb; Pj, p 5-40. 1.230 rad.
- 12.00 lb. 5-42. 3070 in-lb ( , 50 lb -*, 1489 lb T,
both through O,
5-12. 100.0 lb through C; 200 lb «- 5-44. 49.1 lb.
through A; 70.0 lb 1 through A. 5-46. 2130 lb as shown.
5-14. 42.0°. 5-48. 8881b j .
5-16. 664 lb 5-50. 111.21b.
5-18. 300 lb 4— along bottom of B. 5-52. 128.01b.
5-20. 43.9 lb 5-54. 5.50 ft.
5-22. 15001b—*. 5-56. 44.61b.
5-24. (a) 46.8 lb (b) 73.2 lb 5-58. 2681b.
5-26. 9 =■arc tan 0.500 = 26.6°, 33.5 lb 5-60. 3100 lb.
T in cord. 5-62. 0.942 in.
5-28.255 lb—* through C; 170 lb f 5-64. (a) 10.62 lb. (b) Yes.
through C. 5-66. 116.1 lb.
CHAPTER 6
6-2. 400 in. 4 6-80. 121.8 in 4.
6-4. M‘/36. 6-82. 699 in 4.
6-6. 0.1667 ft 4. 6-84. 226 in 4.
6-8. 5a 4 /42. 6-86. 3.71 in.
6-10. 13.33 ft .4
6-88. 97.4 in 4.
6-12. 0.1964 in 4. 6-40. 5W/24.
4 4
6-14. I , = 18.85 in ; I , = 42.4 in . 6-42. 16 in 4.
6-16. 39.0 in 4. 6-44. (a) 0. (b) 864 in 4.
6-18. 4.31 ft. 6-46. -40.5 in 4.
6-20. 1.458 in. . 6-48. = 51.8 in 4 ; I v » 5.66 in 4.
6-22. 285 in 4. 6-50. ZM * 151.6 in 4 ; h = 15.80 in 4 .
6-24. 5.33 in 4. 6-54. 2060 slug-ft’.
6-26. 0.204d. 6-56. 315 slug-ft*.
6-28. k, - 1.848 in.; = 1.555 in.
@seismicisolation6-58.
@seismicisolation 29.8 slug-ft*.
ANSWERS 497
6-60. (a) (3r* + 5*). (b) 8.62. 6-78. m(R» + 3r*/4).

6-80. 0.548r.
6-62. 1.500 slug-ft’.
6-64. 6-82. 3.23 slug-ft*.
130.0 slug-ft*.
6-66. 2m5*/5. 6-84. 0.0263 slug-ft*.
6-68. m (5«/3 + c*). 6-86. 11.30 slug-ft*.
6-70. 2ma». 6-88. di - 1.395 ft; d s - 2.46 ft.
6-72. 17ma*/21. 6-90. 2030 slug-ft*.
6-74. (a) 5.71m. (b) 0.0794 slug-ft*. 6-92. (a) 65.6 slug-ft*. (b) 4.23 ft
6-76. 2mr»/3. 6-94. 4.48 slug-ft*.
CHAPTER 7
7-2. (a) 20.0 ft— ► of the origin or
-q -a -4
15.62 fps’.
16.00 ft -♦ of the origin, (b) 6.00
fps* . (c) 28.0 ft. 12.00 fps 1.
7-4. v = 30.0 fps 1 or 12.50 fps j ; a
(a) 7.00 ft above the origin, (b)
2.00 fps’. T “ 92.2 fps’ or 22.1 fps’
7-6. 56.0 fps*-*.
A-
7-8. 53.0 ft to the left of the origin.
££ S i
7-10. a ■■1.121 fps’—►; x =■'4.48 ft (to 123.1 fps’

the right of the origin). v - 9.42 fps; a - 35.1 fps’.
7-12. (a) 4.00 ft -*. (b) 14.00 fps’ (a) 30.0 rad ( . (b) 14.00 sec.
7-14. (a) 204 ft. (b) 96.0 ft
aa » 11.38 fps’ ; ar =
7-16. The initial velocity is 20.0 fps—>.
The final velocity is 8.00 fps . 3.79 fps
The time interval is 7.00 sec.
£
7-18. (a) 20.0 fps-* or 8.00 fps-*, (a) 426 rad per sec’ J . (b) 896
(b) 8.00 fps <— or 20.0 fps ♦—. (c)
42.0 ft -> or 42.0 ft <-.
7-20. (a) 80.0 ft. (b) 22.4 fps
£ ££ fc &£ 2 2 2 2 3
7-22. 272 ft. 105,800 ft.

7-24. 10.54 sec. 154,000 ft.
7-26. (a) 211 miles, (b) 4400 mph.
44.1 sec.
156.2 fps.
7-28. 3.00 rad per sec ( . (a) 9.00 fps. (b) 27.0 fps’.
7-32. 5.00 rad per sec’ ( . 6.00 ft.
7-34. 39.0 rad. (a) 0.503 cycles per sec. (b)
7-36. v - 6.40 fps T ; a - 4.43 fps* |. 31.6 fps’.
7-38. 284 mph <— . (a) c, (b) a. (c) c.
7-40. (a) 9.00 fps (b) 30.0 fps’ (a) b, (b) a. (c) c.
Link 1 — 5 , Link 2 — 5, Link
7-42. 21.2 fps 3 — a. Link 4 — c, Link 5 — 5,
Link 6 — c, Link 7 — a.
7-44. 7.08 fps Aoo. vo = r» directed tangent to the
path of 0;
7-46. (a) 16x - y’ - 16. (b) x =» 3.00 (ao)< — ra directed tangent to the
ft->, y =» 8.00 ft f . path of O;
7-48. (4.33 ft, 2.50 ft).
(ao)n -jr ” R) 1 directed
7-50. (a) 40.0 rad per sec ( . (b) 77.3
from O toward A.
ips'Xj . (a) 32.0 ips , (b) 56.0 ips’
7-52. (a) 13.00 ft 6.73 fps <-.
• (b) 12.26 fps
<>> =■2.24 rad per hr ( ; a = 7.53
@seismicisolation
— (c) 6.00 fps*-*. @seismicisolation
rad per hr’ ( .
498 ANSWERS
T-ee. 1074 fps. 7-104. (a) 2.50 sec. (b) 9.38 ft. (c)
7-98. 0.1800 rad per sec ( . 36.5 fps I-
42 0
7-100. 4.00 in. 7-106. ft*’ I« 1000 f P»* <-■
7-102. (a) 8a — sc sec 9 — 15. (b) 5.00
f t f . (c) 3.00 fps T. (d) 0.267
rad per sec ( .
CHAPTER 8
8-2. 88.0 ft north. 8-52. 35.8 fps 1
8-4. 18.38 ft
8-6. 30.0 mph south. 8-54.
8-8. Direction: 30.0° upstream. Time:
26.0 min. 8-56. 47.5 fps 1 3t .
8-10. ja) 51.6° north of east, (b) 1.663
8-58. (a) 3 rad per1 sec ( . (b) 58 fps 1
8-12. (a) 3.00 ft. (b) 1.000 rad per and 144 fps 1 .
sec ( .
8-60. 251 ips 1
8-14. 100.0 fps
8-16. (a) 4.00 rad per sec ( . (b) 8.00 8-62. 5.75 rad per sec 1 ( .
rad per sec ( .
8-18. 19.10 fps 8-64. 13.19 fps 1
8-20. 36.0 fps j.
8-24. 4.00 fps—►. 8-66. (a) 0.338 rad per sec 5 . (b) 22.7
8-26. (a) 0.524 rad per sec ( . (b) 3.11 ips . (c) 4.91 rad per sec* * .
rad per sec ( . (d) and (e) 176.5 ips 1 ♦—.
8-28. 40.0 rad per sec ( .
8-68. (a) Point C. (b) 2.00 rad per
8-30. 9.85 fps > sec J ,
8-32. 104.8 ips 8-70. (a) 17.9 fps (b) 100 fps’
8-34. 10.30 fps’ j..
8-36. (a) 6.00 rad per sec ( . (b) 7.00 "V
rad per sec 1 ( . 8-72. (a) 0.524 rad per sec ( . (b) 3.11
8-38. 121.0 fps 1 rad per sec ( .
8-74. — 1.962 rad per sec
8-40.
9.81 fps
1
8-42. (a) 42.4 fps (b) 335 fps
8-76. (a) vs - 14.42 fps =
1
51.4 fps . (b) 26.9 fps
►; ao = 6.00 fps 1
8-44. vo — 3.95 fps— . VLO
8-46. 7.75 fps’
8-48. (a) = 5.00 rad per sec ( ; 8-78. (a) 2.50 rad per sec J . (b) 336
<*c D = 3.00 rad per sec ( . (b) fps >
8.00 rad per sec 1 ( .
8-80. (a) 33.75 ips-*, (b) 55.6 ips1 - .
1
8-50. (a) 14.14 fps (b) 266 fps
8-82. v - 214 ips a = 38,700
A. @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation ips‘,4«>
ANSWERS 499
CHAPTER 9
48.4 lb 9-70. 3.27 rad per sec £7"’
9.00 lb. 9-72. (a) 6.67 fps 1 —, (b) 6.67 lb — .
21.8 fps . 9-74. No, it will slip, a — 41.8 rad per
at - 19.32 fps’ T , 16.00 lb. sec 1 ( ; ao - 11.92 fps 1
(a) 11.60 fps 1 (b) 11.04 fps 1 9-76. ao - 2.86 fps 1 — ; N - 644 lb T,
F -97.21b— .
38.5°. 9-78. 4.00 in.
12.82 rpm. 9-80. 3.97 fps 1
174.0 lb as shown.
13.62 fps 1 — . 9-82. F - 6.40 lb sfx ; N - 47.7 lb
2.29 rad per sec
•V’
20.5 fps 1 — . 9-84. 9241b*-.
12.46 lb — .
P - 290 lb as shown; a — 24.2 9-88. 7.30 fps*
fps 1 — .
9-88. 50.5 fps* — .
(a) 29.9 lb as shown, (b) 46.5
Id f 4.54 in. to the right of the 9-90. P - 4.50 lb— ►; E, - 4.90 lb—
center of the block. E, - 57.21b |.
7.92 in. 9-92. A - 36.8 lb f ; B - 15.50 lb
(a) 4.44 fps 1 —, (b) 1730 lb | 9-94. R - 265 lb C. - 352 lb
0.1278 ft to the right of the mass
center of the block. C, - 56.4 lb I .
Tac “ 15.00 lb; B, - 12.00 lb 9-96. 5751b.
— ; B , - 47.61b f . 9-98. 0.642 fps* 1.
(a) 50.0 lb — . (b\ 20.3 fps — . 9-100. (a) 2910 lb (b) Q - 881 lb f ,
13.33 lb. R -4071b |.
0.239. 9-102. C - 16.09 lb 4. - 3.25 lb,
643 lb as shown. A, - ll.SOlb T.
145.6 lb. 9-104. T - 20.6 lb T ; F - 0; IV - 43.8
6.58 fps 1 lb T-
6.98 lb as shown. 9-106. Tac - 15.00 lb; B, - 12.00 lb
; B, - 47.61b f .
(a) 101.3 lb. (b) 592 lb ssr . 9-106. 145.61b.
5090 ft-lb ( . 9-110. 35.9 lb.
23.5 rad per sec 1 ( . 9-112. C - 16.09 lb JjZ 7 ; A. - 3.25
(a) 7.61 slugs, (b) An = 249 lb lb ; A, - 11.20 lb |.
9-114. 6.54 in.
4S*;A t - 78.91b X .
s' 9-116. 0.0285.
0.0029 ft below the center of the 9-118. 35.41b 1.
disks.
(a) 35.2 lb as shown, (b) O n — 9-120. Tl - Tse - (e - 1).
164.2 Jb — ; O t - 19.21b j . Q
(a) 27.5 rad per sec 1 ( . (b) O n — 9-122. 135.41b.
1501b — ; O t - 28.21b f . 9-124. (a) Na - 11.92 lb J ; N B = 0.960
(a) 4.98 rad per sec 1 ( . (b) O n - lb I ; (b) 1.230 sec.
334 lb - 774 lb f . 9-126. 4.13 fps 1
35.9 lb. 9-128. (a) 3.17 ft . (b) 17.02 ft.
O. - 98.3 lb O, - 203 lb
9-180. a - 21.5 rad per sec 1 ( ; N » 47.4
Ib- /.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
500 ANSWERS
9-132. 12.761b. 9-140. T - 212 lb; B. = 67.0 l b - ;
9-134. (a) 2.72 rad per sec* ( . B, - 201 lb 1.
WO. 9-142. (a) 48.8 lb as shown, (b) =
2151b f ; - 4291b | .
9-144. 2.00 fps’
9-136. 46.7 lb — . 9-146. (a) No effect, (b) Increases.
9-138. 48.0 lb as shown. 9- 148. 16.58 fps’ |.
CHAPTER 10
10-2. -3360 ft-lb. 10- 48. 10.97 fps 1.
10-4. -96.6 ft-lb. 10-50. 13.48 fps*-.
10-6. 750 ft-lb. 10-52. 220 lb per ft.
10-8. 12.78 lb per ft. 10-54. 10.32 ft.
10-10. 29.7 ft-lb. 10-56. 3.66 rad per sec ( .
10-12. -78.2 ft-lb.
10-14. 10-58. 2.86 rad per sec ( .
2.41 ft 1 , or 0.417 ft T .
10-16. 15.22 ft-lb. 10-60. 3.36 ft.
10-18. 0.01023 ft-lb. 10-62. 8.95 rad per sec ( .
10-20. 4710 ft-lb. 10-64. 9.85 rad per sec ( .
10-22. 91.3 ft-lb.
10-66. 3.22 rad per sec ( .
10-24. 875 ft-lb.
10-26. (a) 1437 ft-lb. (b) 5.57 fps. 10-68. (a) 4.38 fps (b) 3.24 ft
10-28. 804 ft-lb. up the plane from the position
10-30. 0.388 ft down the plane. when the body was released.
10-32. 23.0 fps I .
10-70. 1.731 rad per sec J .
10-34. 28.6 lb.
10-72. 56.4 ft.
10-36. 12.80 fps*-.
10-38. 3.74 fps f . 10-74. 2090 ft-lb per sec.
10-40. 9.19 fps 10-76. (a) 1.894 hp. (b) 78.9 per cent.
10-42. 38.8 ft 1. 10-78. 83.1 per cent.
10-44. 11.22 in. 10-80. (a) 0.823 lb. (b) 2.32 lb.
10-46. 7.73 in. 10-82. 41.8°.
CHAPTER 11
11-2. 19.00 Ib-sec — 11-30. (a) 0.500 fps—*, (b) 15,210
51.7 Ib-sec ♦-. ft-lb or 98.0 per cent loss.
11-82. 0.749 sec.
11-6. 20.0 Ib-sec <— .
11-84. 12.83 lb per in.
33.0 Ib-sec 11-86. 97.1 fps 19.05 to the south and
95.3 to the east.
11-10. 17.29 Ib-sec up the plane. 11-88. 2940 fps-*.
11-12. 6830 Ib-sec. 11-40. (a) 26.0 fps (b) 2330 lb per
11-14. 108.5 Ib-sec . in.
= =
11-16. 0.777 sec. 11-42. vb 4.66 fps ; va 7.77 fps
11-18. 93.4 fps
11-44. va ” 25.0 fps ; v B - 15.00 fps
11-20. 31.41b—*, 8.44 lb 1 .
11-22. (a) 2.01 sec. (b) 36.1 ft up the 11-46. (a) 22.0 fps (b) 0.773.
plane.
11-48. va - 3.18 fps—*; v B - 9.02 fps
11-24. 43.31b
11-26. 0.707. u 11-50. (a) va = 8.09 fps —* ; v B = 0.713
fps (b) 1.008 ft.
11-28. 32.7 fps @seismicisolation
@seismicisolation11-52. 0.577.
ANSWERS 501
11-54- 3.24 ft. 11-84. 2.61 sec.
11-56. 20.2 fps /fc 76
. 11-86. 30.0 sec.
11-88. 1233 lb.
11-58. Va — 14.73 fps ; vB - 11-90. 0.652 sec.
11-92. (a) 1.553 sec. (b) 5.00 fps->.
16.59 fps
(c) 3.88 ft— ».
mAm B (vA — tte)*(l — e1 ( 1Q0 11-94. 182.3 ft-lb) .
11-59.
(mA + m B )(mAVA* + m Bv B l ( 11-96. 40.61b.
11-60. (a) 69.4 ft-lb-sec ( . (b) 113.6 11-98. 2.00 sec.
ft-lb-sec ( . 11-100. (a) 0.254 rad per sec J -.
11-62. (a) (75.0 ± F) 15.00 lb-sec
(b) (—81.25 T |Q 15.00 ft- (b) 0.484 rad per sec
lb-sec ( . 11-102. 1.171 rad per sec

11-64. 94.7 ft-lb-sec ( .
11-66. (a) 87.3 ft-lb-sec ( . (b) 2.44 ft 11-104. 12.31 rad per sec
to the right of 0 .
11-106. 4.50 rad per sec.
11-68. 30.4 ft-lb-sec ( .
11-108. 30.3 rad per sec.
11-70. 9.56 lb-sec through a 11-110. (a) 14.14 fps. (b) 72.2°. (c)
point 0.1744 ft up to the left of G. 2.10 ft.
11-112. 39.3 fps — .
11-72. I.091 ft.
11-114. (a) 14.38 fps — . (b) 3.54 lb-sec
11-74. II. 36 lb.
11-76. 8.72 rad per sec ( .
11-116. ua “ 113.0 rad per sec A— ;
11-78. 4.80 rad per sec ( .
11-80. (a) 10.00 fps 1 . (b) 15.00 ft | . wB 67.0 rad per sec
11-82. 4.33 fps | .
CHAPTER 12
12-2. 0.1598 sec, 1.638 fps. 12-20. T - 0.201 sec; A =- 0.1111 rad =
6.37°.
12-4. (a) 0.808 cycles per sec. (b)
0.591 ft. 12-22. (a) Yes. (b) 0.466 cycles per sec.
12-24. (a) 0.289 sec. (b) 10.87 rad per
12-6. 1.915 ft. sec 1 .
12-8. (a) 1.295 in. (b) 13.90 rad per 12-26. 0.729 ft.
sec.
12-28. (a) 6.95 rad per sec. (b) 1.110
12-10. 0.858 fps, fps. (c) 5.47 in.
12-12. 3.57 cycles per sec. 12-30. 32.2 lb.
12-14. 1.484 sec. 12-82. 96.6 lb.
12-16. (a) og — —3.22s. (b) 3.50 sec. 12-34. 0.300 in.
(c) 0.897 fps. 12-36. 36.8 rad per sec.
12-18. 2.21 sec. 12-38. 60.7 lb per ft.
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
Index
A Couple (cont):
transformations of, 17
Acceleration: vector representation of, 17
angular, 240 Curvilinear motion, definition of, 228
components, 251, 252, 254
Coriolis, 307 D
of gravity, 320
d’Alembert’s principle, 321, 365
linear, 230
Degree of freedom, 467
normal and tangential, 252
Dimensionally homogeneous equations,
radial and transverse, 254
26
relative, 294
Dimensions, fundamental, 25
with respect to rotating axes, 303
Direction cosines, 6, 45
Amplitude, 266, 467, 475
Disk clutches, 186
Angle of:
Displacement:
friction, 158
absolute, 278
repose, 159
angular, 239
Axis of rotation, 270
linear, 229
relative, 278
B
Dissipation of mechanical energy, 413
Balancing, 490
Dynamometer, 413
Bow’s notation, 36, 114, 126
E
C
Cable: Effective force, 321
catenary, 131 Efficiency, 412
parabolic, 128 Energy:
Center of : conservation, 411
gravity, 56 kinetic, 391
mass, 56 of a body, 393
percussion, 340 of a particle, 391
pressure, 77 potential, 390
Centroid : Equations of motion:
by composite shapes, 67 for a particle, 320
defined, 60 for plane motion, 353
by integration, 60 for a rotating rigid body, 339
Circular frequency, 469 for a translating rigid body, 331
Coefficient of : Equilibrium:
friction, 157 algebraic conditions, 83
restitution, 435 concurrent, coplanar forces, 87, 93
Component of a force, 5 concurrent, noncoplanar forces, 135
Composition of forces, 4 defined, 30, 83
Conservation of : graphical conditions, 83
angular momentum, 460 nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar
energy, 390 forces, 101
linear momentum, 430 nonconcurrent, nonparallel, nonco
Coriolis, 307 planar forces, 143
Couple: parallel, coplanar forces, 94, 100
characteristics, 17 parallel, noncoplanar forces, 140
defined, 16 three nonparallel forces, 88
moment of, 17 External effect of a force, 1
@seismicisolation
@seismicisolation
503
504 INDEX
F K
Kilowatt, 412
First moment of:
an area, 59 Kinematics, defined, 288
other scalars, 59 Kinetic energy, 391
Force: Kinetics, 318
characteristics, 3 L
component of, 5
effective, 321 Laws of friction, 189
external effect of, 1 M
moment of, 10
concentrated, 77 Mass, 25
defined, 3 Mass center, 56
distributed, 77 motion of, 322
polygon, 31 Moment of:
s diagram, 382 an area, 59
system, classification, 3 a force:
-time diagram, 419 defined, 10
Free-body diagram, defined, 86 as a vector, 11
Free vibrations, 466 inertia of an area:
Frequency, 266, 467 composite shapes, 200
circular, 469 defined, 191
Friction: integration, 193
angle of, 158 polar, 191
belt, 173 rectangular, 191
coefficient, 157 inertia of mass:
defined, 156 composite bodies, 223
kinetic, 156 defined, 212
static, 156 integration, 215
Moments of forces, principle of, 11
G Momentum:
angular, 442
Galileo, 318 conservation of, 460
Guldinus, 73 linear, 421
Gyroscopic action, 456 conservation of, 430
Motion:
H absolute, 278
curves, 231
Harmonic motion, 264 mass center, 322
Horsepower, 412 Newton’s laws of, 318
projectiles, 260
I rectilinear, 229
relative, 278
Impact, 434 simple harmonic, 266
central, 435 N
direct, 435
eccentric, 435 Newton, 318
oblique, 435 Newton’s laws of motion, 318
Impulse:
P
angular, 439
linear, 418 Pappus, theorems of, 74
moment of linear, 439 Parallel-axis theorem:
Impulse and momentum, principles of, for areas, 193
424, 445 for masses, 213
Inertia, 319 for products of inertia, 205
moment of, 191, 212 Parallelogram law, 4
Instantaneous: Particle, defined, 228
axis, 288 @seismicisolationPendulum:
@seismicisolation
center; 288 compound, 475
INDEX 505
Pendulum (coni.): S
simple, 469
torsional, 481 Scalar quantity, 2
Period, 266, 467 Screws, square-threaded, 183
Phase, 487 Second moments, 191
Plane motion, 271 Slug, 25, 319
Plane of motion, 270 Statically indeterminate force system, 88
Position of a particle, 229 Steady-state forced vibrations, 485
Potential energy, 390 Stress, in a truss, 118
Power, 412 String or space polygon, 35
Precession axis, 456 Superelevation, 366
Pressure: T
center of, 77
diagram, 77 Thrust bearings, 186
uniform, 77 Total angle turned through, 239
variable, 77 Total distance traveled, 229
Principal axes of inertia of areas, 208 Translation, defined, 270
Principal moments of inertia of areas, Transmissibility, principle of, 3
208 Triangle law, 5
Principle: Truss analysis:
d’Alembert’s, 321, 365 algebraic, 118
of angular impulse and angular mo graphic, 125
mentum, 445 Truss assumptions, 116
of linear impulse and linear mo Trusses, defined, 115
mentum, 424 Two-force members, 118
of motion of the mass center, 322 U
of work and kinetic energy, 397
Product of inertia of areas, 204 Uniform motion, defined, 228
Projectiles, motion of, 260 Units:
Prony brake, 413 absolute system, 319
gravitational system, 319
R
V
Radius of gyration of :
areas, 198 Varignon’s theorem, 12
mass, 222 V-belt friction, 176
Reaction, 83 Vector quantity, 2
Rectilinear motion, defined, 229 Vectors, free and localized, 2
Related circle, 267 Velocity:
Relative motion, 278 angular, 240
Resolution of a force, defined, 5 with curvilinear motion, 247
Resonance, 486 linear, 230
Resultant, defined, 4, 30 relative, 280
Resultant of : -time diagram, 231
collinear forces, 30 Vibration:
concurrent, coplanar forces, 31 amplitude of, 467, 475
concurrent, noncoplanar forces, 44 damped, 466, 490
couples in space, 50 forced, 466, 482
nonconcurrent, nonparallel, coplanar free, 466
forces, 39 frequency of, 467
nonconcurrent, nonparallel, nonco mechanical, 466
planar forces, 52 period of, 467
parallel, coplanar forces, 34 Vibration reduction, 490
parallel, noncoplanar forces, 47
Resultant screw, 52 W
Reversed effective force, 365 Work done:
Rigid body, defined, 2 by a couple, 384
Rolling resistance, 188 by a force, 380
coefficient of, 189 @seismicisolation
by a force system, 385
@seismicisolation
Rotation, defined, 270 Work and kinetic energy, principle of, 397

Engineering Mechanics Higdon Stiles 1949

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Engineering Mechanics Higdon Stiles 1949

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ENGINEERING*

ARTHUR W. DAVIS and HERBERT 0. USTRUD

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

of such material in a basic course under a limited time allotment.

2. RESULTANTS OF FORCE SYSTEMS ................................. 30

3. CENTROIDS AND CENTERS OF GRAVITY . . . . 56

6. SECOND MOMENT OR MOMENTS OF INERTIA . . 191

7. KINEMATICS— ABSOLUTE MOTION ............................ 228

8. KINEMATICS— RELATIVE MOTION ............................. 278

9. KINETICS— FORCE, MASS, AND ACCELERATION . . 318

10. KINETICS— WORK AND ENERGY .................................. 380

11. KINETICS— IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM . . . . 418

ANSWERS TO EVEN-NUMBERED PROBLEMS . . . . 493

M., coefficient of friction, static or kinetic coefficients

SENSE (OF ROTATION)

counterclockwise looking inward

counterclockwise looking to the left

are important, the problem becomes one of mechanics of materials. Only

1-4. Forces. Since mechanics is primarily a study of the effects of

A corollary of the parallelogram law called the triangle law can be

F x = AC = R cos F 9 = AF = R cos 6V , F a = AE = R cos 6 X .

1-3. Determine a pair of horizontal and vertical components of the 1000-lb

1-8. Determine a pair of components of the 400-lb force in Fig. P whose

1-17. Determine a set of three rectangular components of the 200-lb force in

1-21. Determine the direction cosines of the force in Fig. P 1-20.

1-24. The magnitude of a horizontal component of the force F in Fig. P 1-24

Fig. P 1-27 Fig. P 1-28

1-32. In making a sidewind landing on a level runway, the tire of an airplane

To repeat, then, the moment of a couple is independent of the position or

of a single curved arrow instead of two straight vectors. In this case

1-10. Resolution of a force into a force and a couple. Occasionally

1-4L By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the 200-lb force in

1-42. By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the force system

1-65. By means of the transformations of a couple, replace the forces in Fig.

1-11. Dimensional equations. Physical quantities commonly studied

where K is a dimensionless proportionality constant. Dimensionally,

V2g y/h* - x*,

8 is a force per unit area, M is the moment of a force, R is a length, and Z is a

1-6L The equation N = p — is dimensionally homogeneous. If p is mass per

1-12. Numerical calculations. In solving problems in mechanics,

2-2. Resultant of a collinear force system. The simplest type of force

b. Algebraic solution. From the preceding discussion it is apparent

100 cos 30° = 86.6 9nn _L

R - y/R\ + 202 lb through O.

Fig. P 2-9 Fig. P 2-10

Fig. 2-4 Fig. 2-5

where q is the perpendicular distance from the resultant, R, to the moment

The moment of the resultant with respect to 0 is SFd, which becomes

Fig. P 2-17 Fig. P 2-18

Fig. P 2-21 Fig. P 2-22

b. Algebraic solution. The resultant of a nonconcurrent, nonparallel,

where q is the perpendicular distance from the moment axis through 0 to

75(1) - 60.0 100 cos 65° - 42.3

The vertical components of the forces of the system can be tabulated as

R = [(43.1)» 4- (34.8)’] «= 55.4 lb

1(75)7= 45.0 -4= (40)F= 179.0

2-28. Determine the resultant of the force system of Fig. P 2-28.

Fig. P 2-33 Fig. P 2-34

When direction cosines are used, components of forces in the negative

Force UOlb ISO lb

2-47. Determine the resultant of the forces shown in Fig. P 2-47.

Fig. P 2-47 Fig. P 2-48

resultant. The magnitude of the moment of the resultant couple is

Solution: The forces of the system can be tabulated as

) ) rsinedrd0 — ) sin 0 d0 = (— cos 0) 1 =