Pedagogy Unit 2 English Medium

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CURRICULUM
INTRODUCTION
Education of individual takes place both in natural and contrived environments. Although, the learner
is the key player in any kind of learning environment, the role of both the learner and the teacher
assumes greater significance in a contrived environment.
Both the learner and the teacher act equally in the educational process to mediate their interaction
with the help of certain pre-decided learning experiences. These learning experiences are usually the
third dimension of the teaching-learning process and in pedagogic terms, is called curriculum.
In this unit, we-will understand about this third dimension, its purpose and how it affect students and
teachers. Since, this is the first unit of this Block, the concepts discussed herein will set the stage for
discussion for the other Units. We will try to understand curriculum through various definitions and
also through its approaches, which reflect a person’s viewpoint encompassing the foundations of
curriculum.
The unit will also emphasize the role of various representative groups in ensuring a socially relevant
curriculum. The significance of in-builtmonitoring and feedback mechanism has been also
emphasized.
Hence, in this unit you will gain an understanding of the different interpretations of curriculum, its
genesis and growth, and the underlying processes and criteria that facilitate curriculum changes.You
will understand the role of curriculum in making education more purposeful and geared to meet ever-
changing societal needs, and also to achieve the objectives of teaching - learning.
MEANING OF CURRICULUM
According to Smith (1996, 2001) ‘the idea of curriculum is hardly new-but the way we understand
and thorize it has altered over the years - and there remains dispute as to meaning’.
The Latin meaning of the term ‘curriculum’ is a ‘racecourse’ used by chariots. Hence, it can be
understood as any path or course of study which to be undertaken by an educational institution, to be
covered in a specified timeframe. The course of events can take place both inside and outside the
school. Hence, while defining curriculum as ‘course of events’, one need to elaborate, ‘which course
of events’. It encompasses “the total experience provided to the learners in and out of school’.
There are many definitions abound in the literature, which will help in broading our understanding.
Marsh and Stafford (1988) highlight three dimensions of curriculum
• curriculum includes not only list of contents but also the aims and objectives, learning
experiences and evaluation;
• curriculum comprises of planning learning; and
• curriculum and instruction can not be separated.
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Carter V. Good (1959) describes curriculum as “a systematic group of courses or sequences of

subjects required for graduation or certification in a major field of study.
According to Wiles and Bondi (1988), “a curriculum can be called as a plan for learning, which
contain assumptions about the purpose of education in our society, it also has a definite structure
through which the vision of the planners can be translated into learning experiences for the learner.
Hence, any curriculum, comprises of two major dimensions: a vision and a structure. Tanner and
Tanner (1980) define, “Curriculum is the reconstruction of knowledge and experience systematically
developed under the auspices of the school (or university), to enable the learner to increase his other
control of knowledge and experience”. Doll (1986), defined the curriculum of a school as the formal
and informal content and process bywhich learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills,
and alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the auspices of that school.
According to Brown D.F (2006) curriculum include all student school experiences relating to the
improvement of skills and strategies in thinking critically and creatively, solving problems, working
collaborativelywith others, communicating well, writingmore effectively, readingmore analytically,
and conducting research to solve problems.
Thus, a curriculum is neither a document nor a sequence of experiences. It is a plan of facilitating
learning for the learner. This plan starts from where the learner is, enumerates all the aspects and
dimensions of learning that are considered necessary, gives reasons why such learning is considered
necessary, and what educational aims it would serve. The plan also defines stage-specific objectives,
what content to teach, and how to organise it. It also recommends general principles of teaching
methods and evaluation and criteria for good teaching–learning material. Such a plan, of course, is
almost always set in a document or a set of documents and implemented through organised
experiences for children under teachers’ guidance; but perhaps conceptually the plan should remain in
focus, while the document remains a contingent reality and the course of experiences as
implementation of a plan.
Beane et. al.(1986) have grouped- most of these definitions under the following four categories, which
clear indicate the nature of curriculum , which are as follows:
• Curriculum as a product
• Curriculum as a programme
• Curriculum as intended learning outcomes
• Curriculum as planned learner experiences
a) Curriculum as a Product
The definition of curriculum as a product is derived from the idea that the school or university
prepares a document which would consist of a list of courses and syllabi of those courses. These
documents are the result of curriculum planning and development.
b) Curriculum as a Programme
Here, a curriculum regend as to the courses of study offered by the school. It could also, mean a
student’s choice of courses within a given program of the school. Such a definition of
curriculum is most widely accepted by schools. However, the broader interpretation of this
definition relates to the broader purpose of the school i.e. learning and hence here, curriculum is
the means of achieving that purpose and it will denote sources of learning other than just the
courses the study. It acknowledges the learning that occurs in several school settings like
cultural events, sports activities, in the cafeteria, in the bus, in the principal’s office, etc. apart
from the prescribed course of study that takes place through various activities.
c) Curriculum as Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
Here, curriculumis defined as ‘what is to be learned’. This definition of curriculum clearly
demarcates what is to be learned from and how it is to be learned. The question of why
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something is to be learned is not considered. Curriculum in this context refers to knowledge of

content, skills, attitudes and behaviour that learners are supposed to learn in school or college.
Learners go through planned leaning experiences by interacting with their peer group and
teachers in the school environment, in general. However, proponents of this definition believe
that such sources of learning then characterize “instruction”. There is considerable debate over
the meaning of the terms ‘curriculum’ and ‘instruction’. Some curriculum designers see a
distinct difference between what and how of learning. Their definition limits the idea of
curriculum to the former. Curriculum as intended learning outcomes prescribes the result of
instruction and not the means, i.e. the activities, material even the instructional content. The
advantages of this definition are:
i) Outcome is directly linked to the objectives, and
ii) The basic plans of learning and its implementation or transaction are kept as distinct entities.
The disadvantage of this definition is that it does not take a comprehensive view of learning. The what
and how of learning are treated separately and this leads to fragmented planning.
d) Curriculum as Planned Learning Experiences
The three definitions of curriculum discussed above have in common the idea that curriculum is
something which is planned prior to the teaching – learning situations. The fourth category of
definitions differs from the above as it refers to curriculum as experiences of the learners which
is an outcome of the planned situations. The proponents of this group firmly believe that what
happens is not always in accordance with what was planned. Hence the above definitions, in
their opinion, constitute only the curriculum plans, whereas the actual curriculum is the learning
that occurs in the students after going through different experiences.
In their opinion the outcomes of the planned situations of the course contents are more important than
the course content itself. In other words, learning experiences must be well planned.A curriculum
should include as analysis of the learner’s learning experiences. To illustrate this definition, imagine
that a teacher conducts a monthly project activity, with the goal of fostering team spirit and
cooperation among the members. However, everymonth the teacher assigns poor grades to the shy
and quiet members and high grades to the bold, talkative, and dominating members. As a result the
former group would gradually get demotivated and resist any such activity. They will also learn that it
is the high grades that matter and will not be able to include the intended qualities of team spirit and
cooperation. Hence the course of events, which emerges, is different from what was intended. The
advantages of this definition are:
i) It is learner-centric and focuses more on learning than teaching.
ii) It imparts a complex and comprehensive meaning to the term ‘curriculum’.
Differentiating Between Curriculum Framework, Curriculum, Syllabus
and Text Books
Most often, there is confusion in the terms curriculum framework, syllabus and curriculum itself. Let
us try to understand the difference among these terms.
Curriculum Framework: It is a plan that interprets educational aims vis-avis both individual and
society in order, to arrive at an understanding about the kinds of learning experiences to be given to
the learner in the schools.
Curriculum: You have already studied various definitions as curriculum. It must be clear to you
know that of Curriculum is planned activities which are designed to implement a particular
educational aim includes the content to be taught and the knowledge, skills and attitudes which are to
be deliberately fostered, together with statements of criteria for selection of content, and choices in
methods, materials and evaluation.
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Syllabus: Refers to the content of what is to be taught and the knowledge, skills and attitudes which
are to be deliberately fostered; together with stage specific objectives.
Textbook: When as a teacher, you start working with children in classrooms; you have some
‘content’ that you have to teach, in other words, you have a syllabus. That syllabus is very often
confined in the textbook. Thus, a textbook becomes an embodiment of syllabus—all that is in it has to
be taught, and that is all that is to be taught. It becomes a methodological guide for all aspects of
classroom practices—i.e. what has to be read, it also becomes the evaluation system—questions at the
end of each chapter have to be answered orally and in writing, reproducing the text from the book
itself. The possibility of providing enriched experiences to the children gets a little boost when teacher
starts using textbooks as reflective guides.
TYPES OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum can broadly be classified into three main categories. These are:
i) Overt or Explicit Curriculum
ii) Hidden or Implicit Curriculum
iii) Null Curriculum
Overt Curriculum
Overt curriculum is also known as explicit curriculum and intended curriculum. This includes all
those curricular and co-curricular, experiences, which are intentionally planned by the school, college
or university organization to be provided to the learners. It consists of knowledge, skills, attitudes and
values, which are overtly to be provided to the learners. Overt curriculum is designed keeping in mind
the goals and objectives of the educational system. Thus, it is confined to those written understandings
formally designed by curriculum designers and administrators.
Hidden Curriculum
Hidden Curriculum is unintended or unnoticed curriculum which is often unwritten. You know that
curricular inputs are implicitly provided to the learner by the organization through various means.
Learners learn a lot from the social environment of the classroom and the school. A teacher during her
course of interaction with learners provide instructional inputs, which might not be planned and
designed by her earlier. Through various non-verbal behaviour like gestures and postures, eye contact,
appreciation of learner behaviour by nodding, the teacher conveysmany things. Ahidden curriculum
also includes the value system of the school and its teachers. Hence, a hidden curriculum is as
important as the overt curriculum. Learners learn ‘appropriate’ ways to act at school is the part of
hidden curriculum.
Null Curriculum
It is physically not possible to teach everything in the schools, therefore many topics and subject areas
are excluded intentionally. Eisner called them as ‘Null Curriculum’; For example, life education,
career planning, etc. are not fine part of overt curriculum but are important areas.
APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM
A clear understanding of any kind of curriculum depends on the approach the curriculum designers
have adopted. The approach to curriculum provides the broad perspective, orientation or position a
particular curriculum is based on. Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) have provided the following features
of curriculum approach:
• A curriculum approach reflects a holistic position, or a metaorientation, encompassing the
foundations of curriculum, domain of curriculum, and the theoretical and practical principles of
curriculum.
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• It expresses a viewpoint about the development and design of curriculum, the role of the
learner, teacher and curriculum specialist in planning curriculum, and the important issues that
need to be examined.
Very often this broad perspective is based on different theoretical positions pertaining to how
educational discourses in a school or college situation have to be designed, developed and
implemented. Our intention here is to explicate some of these theoretical positions which have
influenced the concept and the process of curriculum.
Although one can find different approaches to curriculum put forth by different authors, in our
discussion, we shall touch upon five approaches presented by Ornstein and Hunkins (1988). These are
discussed in the coming sections.
Behavioural - Rational Approach
This approach is based on a logical - scientific perspective, which has emerged out of researches done
in behavioural sciences and dominated the thinking domain in the early twentieth century. This
approach is also known as logical positivist, conceptual, empiricist, and experimentalist, rational -
scientific and technocratic. The protagonists of this approach believe that curriculum making is a
sequential and structured activity. They emphasize that any kind of activity has to start with goals and
objectives, followed by sequencing of content or learning experiences and then evaluation of learning
outcomes (student achievement/ performance) based on objectives, content and transaction of learning
experiences.
Behaviourial approach is oriented to behaviourial objectives, which means objectives in the
observable terms expected from learners after teaching. This approach is also criticised for the reason
that precise specification is observable only at the lower level of learning such as addition,
memorization etc. however for the higher order thinking skills (eg. critical analysis, sythethik
thinking) it is impracticable.
Systems - Managerial Approach
According to this theory, the school is perceived as a social system. There are various components of
a school systems which interact among themselves to achieve the intended objectives formulated by
the schools. These components are teacher, student, curriculum specialist and others who interact with
them according to certain norms and standards. Thus, this approach focuses on programmes,
schedules, space, materials, equipment, personnel and resources. Consideration is given to committee
and group processes, communication processes, leadership, methods and strategies, human relations
and decision making (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1988). The focus of this approach, unlike behavioural-
rational, is not on the objectives, contents and evaluation of learning experiences, but on the
management and improvement of the school system based on policies, plans and people. It embodies
both managerial and systems perspectives in curriculum design.
While the managerial perspective refers to organization of people and policies, the systems
perspective looks at three major components i.e. engineering, stages and structures. Engineering
constitutes those processes through which engineers like principals, directors, superintendents and
coordinators plan the curriculum. Stages refer to development, design implementation and evaluation.
Structure constitutes subjects, courses, units and lessons.
Intellectual - Academic Approach
This approach had its genesis in the intellectual work of John Dewey, Henry Morrison and Boyd Bode
and became a popular approach during the 1930s and 1950s. It analyses major positions, trends and
concepts of curriculum. It looks at schooling and education from a broader perspective and discusses
education from a historical and philosophical angle.
It is usually scholastic and theoretical hence also referred to as ‘traditional, encyclopedic, intellectual
or knowledge - oriented approach (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1993).
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Humanistic - Aesthetic Approach

As opposed to the behavioural - rational approach, this approach emphasizes the uniqueness of each
child and the curriculum has to be designed and developed based on the needs, interests, and ability of
children. It lays stress on selfactualization and self reflectiveness of the learners. Originating in
humanistic theories of learning, this approach emphasize on valuing ego identity, freedom to learn
and personal fulfillment. The curriculum focuses on active interaction among learners and teachers,
on problem solving and on inquiry. Cooperative and collaborative learning, independent learning,
small group, learning are some of the curricular strategies which have emanated from this approach.
This approach also propagates for curriculum areas in arts, music, literature, dance, etc. which
emphasise the development of human side of the learner more than on the development of his
intellectual activities.
Reconceptualist Approach
Although reconceptualists have not contributed anything towards ‘approach to curriculum’ in terms of
providing technical knowledge for developing curriculum, they have certainly provided a newer
perspective, which is subjective, political, and ideological in nature. This perspective is rooted in the
philosophy and social activitism of deconstructionists like Count, Rugg, and Benjamin. They
challenge the traditional, scientific and rational views of curriculum and they lay emphasis on moral
and ideological issues of education and economic and political institutions of society.Abasic principle
of reconceptialismis that themore learners understand themselves, the more they will understand their
world. Thus, curriculum development must be connected with historical, economic, political and
contemporary social frame of reference.
CURRICULUM AND THE ROLE OF TEACHERS
Teachers determine to a large extent the manner in which the curriculum is executed in the classroom.
Their role is defined in respect of curriculum transaction and evaluation. It is also believed that
teaching-learning would be more effective if the teacher is involved in the process of the curriculum
development. Their role could be instrumental in the overall improvement of the curriculum.
Doll (1996) highlights three reasons why teachers could be effective improvers of the curriculum:
i) Work in close proximate with the learners
ii) Engaged in individual study and
iii) Interact with other teachers and share their curricular experiences.
These three factors enable them to develop insights and skills and can thus improve the quality of
learning experiences, which they provide to the learners. Teachers strive to fulfill educational
objectives by fostering understanding and tolerance among students, awaken curiosity and stimulate
independent thinking. The style of teaching also greatly influences the manner of curriculum
transaction. Hence teachers must be involved in the process of curriculum planning, development,
delivery, evaluation and review (Dewal, 2004). Ateacher’s style can either promote role learning, or,
alternatively, it can awaken a child’s curiosity.
Teacher’s involvement and familiarization with curriculumdevelopment canmake the teaching-
learning process more relevant and authentic. Once the basis and the instructional role of curriculum
are understood, the teacher can think in terms of alternatives. The evaluation mode and techniques
shall, as a result, be more in agreement with the aims and objectives of curriculum.
Once the basis, the instrumental role, of curriculum is understood, the teacher can think in terms of
alternatives. The evaluation mode and techniques shall as a result be more in agreement with the aims
and objectives of the curriculum. A teacher of English or mathematics shall not limit his vision to
mere teaching of the subject. He shall try to give the subject its proper place in the broader framework
of a particular level of schooling. If the aim of teaching and learning is to construct meaningful
patterns out of experience, then the teacher who believes in it shall help his students evolve a more
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dependable conception of reality. The teacher’s is the central role in excellence in education and his
involvement in and clarity about curriculum construction shall stimulate his ingenuity rather than
further his indifference.
DOMAINS AND DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM
As you know, curriculum can not be constructed/developed in isolation. Issues related to
socioeconomic conditions, environmental
nvironmental factors, etc.. helping in a meaningful curriculum. In this
Unit, we shall present an overview of all the possible considerations you should keep in mind while
planning curriculum for your students
When we develop a curriculum we depend primarily
primarily on ideas that stem from three major fields:
Philosophy, Sociology and Psychology. These traditional fields are considered the foundations of
curriculum and their understanding is crucial for the study of curriculum.
Philosophy deals with the nature and meaning of life. It inquires into the nature of human beings, the
values that shape their lives and the role and purposes of education. One’s perception of philosophy
greatly influences one’s views of learners and of various learning activities.Acurriculu
activities.Acurriculum should also
be socially relevant. Hence a study of sociological factors is imperative as it provides necessary clues
about the characteristics of contemporary and future life of the learner. This helps to make the
curriculum socially relevant. Psychology deals with basic human needs, attitudes and behaviours. It
helps to understand the nature and characteristics of learners. Psychology thus provides curriculum
planner the basis for identifying a curricular arrangement that will most benefit the learners, in terms
of their growth and development. In this unit, we shall deal with these foundation areas and
understand how each influences curriculum plans, which in turn equip the learner with a wide range
of individual and social experiences.
DOMAINS OF CURRICULUM
CURRIC
As mentioned earlier, the four components of a curriculum design are: (i) purpose - i.e. aims, goals
and objectives, (ii) design of subject matter (iii) implementation of the learning experiences and (iv)
evaluation approaches (Ornstien and Hunkins, 1988).
1988). The manner in which these four components are
arranged determines the design of the curriculum. Often one component is given more weightage than
the others. However, most curricular designs lay more emphasis on context subject matter while
others focus
us on learning activities. The interrelationship among these four components of curriculum
design has been given by Giles, et. al. (1942) in a diagram (see Figure 6.1). They have used method
and organization instead of learning experiences.
Fig. 6.1: The

Th Components of Designs
A curriculum designer is thus confronted with four basic questions: What is expected to be done?
What content is to be included? What strategies, resources and activities will be employed? How will
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the results of such a design be appraised? The paradigm presented by Giles, el. al. (1942) suggests
continuous interactivity between the four Components i.e. decisions made about one component will
influence the other.
This involves theoritical and practical issues which will influence selection of goals and objectives of
education, content and its organization, determine the pattern of delivering the content and also guide
their judgment about the evaluation procedures to be adopted.
There are four bases of any curriculum social forces, human development, the nature of learning and
the nature of knowledge and cognition. Let us understand the importance and influence of these bases.
a) Social Forces
The social forces in a society influence the functioning of schools directly as well as indirectly.
These social forces are reflected in social goals, cultural uniformity and diversity, social
pressures, social change, future planning and concepts of culture. Our country is multicultural
and has a long recorded history, the social forces represent a bewildering variety as well as
complexity; these social forces determine the social agenda of education. The curriculum
reflects contemporary social forces and helps shape the society. National Policy on Education
(1986, modified in 1992) is very specific on this aspect:
"The National System of Education will be based on a national curricular framework which
contains a common core along with other components that are flexible. The common core will
include the history of India’s freedom movement, the constitutional obligations and other
content essential to nurture national identity. These elements will cut across subject areas and
will be designed to promote values such as India’s common cultural heritage, egalitarianism,
democracy and secularism, equality of sexes, protection of the environment, removal of social
barriers, observance of the small family norm, and inculcation of the scientific temper.All
educational programmes will be carried on in strict conformity with secular values.” (NPE
1986, 3 - 4).
b) Human Development
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Various aspects of human growth and development are accomplished partly by the structured
curriculum in use in the school and partly by the society. The area of human development has
been well researched and studied in detail. These studies have made us think afresh about
children, their developmental stages, how they think, their needs and interests. Children are not
small adults. They differ from adults in many important ways. Differences across various
developmental stages before adulthood are not merely quantitative, they are essentially
qualitative. These differences have been admirably described by various child psychologists,
chief among these being Jean Piaget. Knowledge about human development can help the
teacher develop a curriculum. The curriculum thus developed must include various aspects of
development stage not only in terms of age cohorts but also differences among children from
the same age cohort.
c) Nature of Learning
Various aspects of the learning process have been well researched though we have not been able
to reveal the entire process. This has given rise to a number of learning theories chief among
these being the behaviouristic theories and the cognitive theories. These learning theories
recommend different approaches to the task of curriculum planning. Curriculum specialists
cannot ignore the role of these theories because most of these are scientific in their orientation.
d) Nature of Knowledge and Cognition
The nature of knowledge and cognition is yet another basis of curriculum. What distinguishes
knowledge frominformation? How do children transform information into knowledge? What
knowledge is most worthwhile? What is the nature of thought processes? How are various
thought processes and cognitive process skills related to each other? These questions have
interested teachers, psychologists, researchers as well as philosophers. Answers to these
questions can help educationists organise knowledge in the curriculum. It has been established
now that learners have their own preferred learning styles and strategies.Agood curriculum
should therefore provide alternative paths for learning according to different learning styles of
students.
DETERMINANTS OF CURRICULUM
Curriculum for any level is determined by many factors. It is important that these factors must be
understood as they help in providing direction to curriculum development. Let us have a discussion
about these determinants and understand their implications.
Philosophical Orientations
Smith Stanley and Shores (1957) have asserted that philosophy is essesntial when formulating and
justifying educational purposes, selecting and organizing knowledge, formulating learning activities.
The aims are the statements of value which are derived from the philosophy; means represents the
processes and methods reflect the philosophical choices and the end connote the facts, concepts and
principles of knowledge or behavior learnt by the learners.
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1988), the function of philosophy could be either to serve as the
base or starting point of curriculum development or as an interdependent function with other functions
in curriculum development. It involves an understanding of the cause and effect relationships,
questioning one’s point of view and that of others, clarifying one’s beliefs and values, and formulating
a framework for making decisions and acting on these decisions.
Different proponents have related philosophy to curriculum differently of the first school of thought to
which John Dewey belonged contented that “philosophy may be defined as the general theory of
education,” and that, the business of philosophy is to provide, ‘the framework for the “aims and
methods of schools”. The second school of thought is exemplified by Tyler (1949), according to him,
philosophy is one of five criteria influencing educational goals, and is interrelated to the other criteria
like studies of learners, studies of contemporary life, suggestion from subject specialists and the
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psychology of learning etc. Let us how deal with how several different philosophies impact on
curriculum.
i) Idealism
Idealism emphasizes that matter is an illusion and moral and spiritual reality is the chief
explanation of the world. They consider truth and values as absolute, timeless and universal.
The world of mind and ideas is permanent, regular and orderly; it represents a perfect order.
According to idealism, Knowledge consists of rethinking of the latest ideas present in the mind.
Hence, it is the teacher’s job to bring out this latent knowledge into the consciousness of the
child, which would imply that teachers would act as role models of enduring values. The school
must be highly structured, advocating only those ideas that demonstrate those enduring values.
The choice of instructional materials would depend on the subjects, which constitute the
cultural heritage of mankind.According to Ornstein, three essential skills (three Rs) and
essential subjects (like English, arithmetic, science, history, and foreign language) must be the
part of curriculum.
ii) Realism
Realism believes that human behaviour is rational when it conforms to the laws of nature and is
governed by social laws. People perceive the world through their senses and reason, therefore
education as a matter of reality rather than speculation.According to realists, curriculum follows
a hierarchical order with the abstract subjects at the top and the transitory subjects at the bottom.
They stress that a curriculum consists of organized body of knowledge pertaining to specific
areas. For example, the history curriculum comprises experiences of mankind. Details related to
animals can be studied in zoology. Like the idealist, the realist also stresses logic and lessons
and exercise the mind that cultivate rational thought. It is the responsibility of the teacher then,
to impart to the learners the knowledge about the world they live in. Logic and the experiences
that cultivate humanmind are emphasized in curriculum. The three “Rs” (reading, writing and
arithmetic) are also necessary in a person’s basic education; they also believed that the subject
experts are the source and authority for determining the curriculum.
iii) Pragmatism
Pragmatism, also referred to as experimentalism, is based on change, process and relativity. In
contrast to the traditional philosophies, i.e., idealism and realism, pragmatism-suggests that the
value of an idea lies in its actual consequences. Thus, they believe that learning occurs when a
person engages in problem-solving which is transferable to a wide variety of subjects and
situations.
It is believed that whatever values and ideas which are upheld currently would be considered as
tentative since further social development must refine or change them. For instance, at a
particular period of time it was generally believed that the earth was flat, which was
subsequently disproved through scientific research.
To consider, therefore, what is changeless (idealism) and the perceived universe (realism) and
to discard social and/or perpetual change is detrimental to the overall growth and development
of children.
Curriculum, according to pragmatists, should be so planned that it induces teachers and the
learners to think critically, rather than what to think. Teaching should, therefore, be more
exploratory than explanatory. Learning takes places in an active way as learners solve problems,
which help them widen the horizons of their knowledge and reconstruct their experiences in
consonance with the changingworld. Therefore, the teacher should provide learners learning
opportunities to construct their own learning experiences. They stress more on problem-solving
using scientific method than acquiring an organized body of knowledge.
iv) Existentialism
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According to the existentialist philosophy, learners are thrust into a number of choice making
situations. Learners should be given the freedom to choose what to study, and also to determine
what criteria to determine these truths. It emphasizes that education must centre on the
perceptions and feeling of the individual in order to facilitate understanding of personal
reactions or responses to life situations: Of primary concern in this process is the individual.
Since, life is based upon personal meanings, the nature of education, the existentialists would
argue, should be largely determined by the learner.
Individual learners should not be forced into predetermined programmes of study. Rather
learning provisions must be made by the teacher according to choice of the learners.
Ornstein and Hunkins (1988) are of the view that an existentialist curriculum would focus on
experiences and subjects that lend themselves to philosophical dialogue and acts of choice
making. It would enable activities of self-expression and experimentation. The teacher becomes
a partner in the process of teachinglearning, assuming a non- directive role. The teacher is a
more of a facilitator enabling the learner to explore and search to develop insights rather than
one who imposes predetermined values.
v) Reconstructionism
Reconstructionism laid more emphasis on society-centred education which took care of the
needs of society (not the individual) and all classes (not only the middle class). They believe
that as the school/college is attended by virtually all the youth, it must be used as a means to
shape the attitudes and values of each generation. As a result, when the youth become adults
they will share certain common values, and thus the society will have reshaped itself.
The reconstructionist curriculum consists of subjects which promote new social, economic and
political education. The subject matter is to be used as a vehicle for studying social problems,
which must serve as the focus of the curriculum. Views of some recent reconstructionist have
been put forth by Ornstein and Hunkins, (1988) who have given a reconstructionist programme
of education which emphasize the following:
• critical-examination of the culture heritage of a society as well as the entire civilization;
• scrutiny of controversial issues;
• commitment to bring about social and constructive changes;
• cultivation of a planning-in-advance attitude that considers the realities of the world we live in;
and
• enhancement of culture renewal and internationalism;
Stemming from this view
Reconstructionism expands the field of curriculum to include intuitive, personal, mystical, political
and social systems of theorizing. In general, the curriculum advocated by recontructionists,
emphasizes sociology, psychology and philosophy, and not the hard sciences. The thrust is on
developing individual self realization and freedom through cognitive and intellectual activities, and
thus on liberating people from the restrictions, limitation and controls of society. The idea is that we
have had enough of discipline-based education and narrow specialization, and we do not need more
specialists now, we need more ‘good’ people if we want to survive.
The reconstructionists, including such recent proponents asMario Fantini, Iiarold Shane andAlvin
Toffler, seek a curriculum that emphasizes, cultural pluralism, internationalism, and futurism.
Students should be taught to appreciate life in a world of many nations - a global village - with many
alternatives for the future, they advocate.
What we as curriculum specialists need to do is to adopt an eclectic approach, the middle road, where
there is no emphasis on extremes of subject matter or socio- psychological development, excellence or
equality.We must understand that curricularists have to continuously reflect on their curricular
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decisions, and these should be based on the changing needs of the students and society. Hence a
curriculumphilosophy should be one that is politically and economically feasible and serves the needs
of students and society.
Psychological Considerations
While deciding curriculum, various factors related to growth and development of learners, their
Psychological needs, interests and problems are to be kept in mind. Each area of growth and
development (such as physical development, emotional development, social development, and
intellectual or cognitive development) are marked by distinguished characteristics. The interaction
between these four areas are represented in the figure below.
Fig. 6.3: Area of Development and their Interrelationships

It is clear from the figure above that environment around the learner,manipulation of learning
experiences to enhance capacity ability to learn, etc.. are other factors which influence the child’s
readiness to learn. The readiness principle suggests that for learning a particular task or unit, the
learner has to achieve a minimum level of maturity. It implies that learning should not be too early,
too much or too fast. However, it must also be noted that readiness to learn does not depend solely on
the age and maturity of the child but also on the learning experiences, school environment etc. Hence,
what the curriculum has to offer and to whom should be decided by taking into account all these
factors and their influence on one another.
Social Considerations
Education of the child is a social undertaking and it is always carried out in a social situation. The
social forces in a society also determine the objectives of education, therefore, it is necessary that
while planning the curriculum, we must have a through knowledge of those social forces that have a
bearing on the educational system of the society. There are several theories that attempt to explain the
relationship between the curriculum and the wider social environment.
Apple’s (1982) work suggests ideology as the thread that relates the levels of base and superstructure.
In order to perceive the organisation and practices of curriculum, it is necessary to investigate the
ideological root of what counts as valid knowledge in a given curriculum. Ideology refers to the
process of production of ideas and values of a dominant group in social life, and the legitimation and
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promotion of these in society. It is about how a dominant group uses power to shape its notions into a
mainstream trend.
A good curriculum ensures that the the unique character and integrity of the society is preserved and the
quality of life of social groups is also improved. The social forces influence the decisions regarding
what is to be taught, and how it is to be taught. What is to be added to or deleted from the existing
curriculum to accommodate the change(s) in society is also decided by social forces. Social forces
exert their influence on curriculum through different organisations and groups of people operating at
regional, national and local/community
local/community levels. These forces are discussed under four categories:
governmental forces, quasi-legallegal forces, professional organisations, and special interest groups
operating in a community. Please refer to Figure 6.4.
Fig. 6.4: Social Forces Exerting Influence on Curriculum
i) Governmental forces
The government makes policies on education and its curriculum. Direct governmental controls
are based on constitutional and statute laws. For example, RTE has given right to children
between 6-1414 yearss to have free and compulsory education. For this, government has to make
provisions for physical facilities and engagement of teachers. It has develop curriculum and
textbooks for the children. Similarly throughActs of Parliament in 1969 and 1986, the
Government approved d some new education policies which included components of vocational
education, moral education, and extended general education upto class X.All these and several
similar policy decisions affect curriculum planning. These decisions have led to reformulati
reformulation
of objectives of education and reconstruction of curriculum at different levels of education:
primary, secondary and higher education.Another example is the constitution of India enshrines
the principles of democracy and secularism which are reflected in
in the school curriculum and the
textbooks based on them.
Another means through which the government influences the school curriculum and in fact,
most parts of the school education is the financial support extended by the Central, State and
Local governmentsnts to educational enterprise in the country. Thus the government is in a
position to enforce its rules, regulations and policies regarding curricular activities and
experiences to be provided to the students.
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ii) Quasi-legal Forces

These forces are not necessarily created by law. These may be created by voluntary
organisations, professional bodies and autonomous institutions. These may include universities
and colleges, parent-teacher associations (PTAs), textbook writers, publishers, philanthropic
organisations, mass media, etc. For example, universities and colleges not only influence the
curriculum through teacher education, but also play a significant role in determining the school
curriculum. PTAs are the pressure groups through which community views on curriculum and
textbooks are. channelled to school, its board and curriculum planners.
Big publishers greatly influence the type of content to be included in the textbooks and the
curriculum. Textbooks with sound psychological organisation, stimulating format, appropriate
learning activities and relevant and powerful illustrations determine the content and the teaching
procedures to be followed in schools. Curriculum makers sometimes pattern the course of study
in particular fields according to these well organised textbooks.
iii) Professional Organisations
The professional organisations which influence the curriculum to a great extent include
teachers’ and teacher educators’ associations. For example, National Council of Teacher
Education (NCTE) is empowered by the Government of India to design curriculum for teacher
education. The teachers organisations not only work for improving the welfare and working
conditions of the teachers but also disseminate information about the profession, give
suggestions for improving instruction and support research in education and in-service training
of the teachers. All these activities affect school curricula.While planning the curriculum, the
curriculum planner has to consider the views and suggestions of educational organisations and
their well-informed members. Beside teachers’ professional organisations. the curriculum
planner considers the suggestions and concerns of other related professions.
For example, for planning a good curriculum on commerce and accounting the opinions of the
associations of professional accountants, company secretaries, exporters, etc., should be taken
into account. Similarly views, research findings and experiences of subject societies should also
be considered while planning the curriculum.
iv) Special Interest Groups in the Community
In every society there are groups or organizations which promote a particular school of thought
or areas of special interest. These organisations may include patriotic groups, cultural and
religious organisations, civic groups and others representing various interests in the community.
The curriculum planner should be interested in having an insight into the beliefs, aspirations and
expectations of various groups in the society.
The local education committee which represents the community, governs the schools and caters
to the educational interest of the community, usually approves the course proposals and authorises the
development of curriculum materials. Through these committees the aspirations, expectations and
values of the interested groups are reflected in the curriculum, of course, within the broad frame of
state and central education policy. These groups attempt to impress upon the curriculum planner.
Economic Considerations
Economic considerations basically relate to the practicality of a curriculum. The implementation of a
curriculum entails several actions including provision of physical facilities, development of
learningmaterials and recruitment of untrained teachers. All these provisions involve recurring costs.
These costs are borne by the government, and also by the community and other institutions. The
planners always weigh the cost of providing certain learning opportunities. The alternative modes of
providing educational opportunity have varying cost A curriculum planner has to ascertain whether
the community around the school will be able to bear the expenses of proposed curriculum. In spite of
the state’s support at all the levels of education, the community too has to bear certain expenses of
education. It is the community which will send its children to the school. If the financial condition of
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the society is not sound enough to share the cost of education. it will not be in a position to serve its
people.
The curriculum planner has to keep four kinds of costs in mind while proposing a curriculum. These
include initial cost, maintenance cost, supplementary cost and personnel cost. For example, if a
vocational course in typing is being proposed, it will involve the initial cost of purchasing typing
machines, the cost of maintaining the machines in working order, the cost of supplementarymaterials
like paper, carbon ribbons, etc., and the cost of acquiring a mined teacher well versed in typing.
Environmental Considerations
The environment includes the physical and social conditions around an individual, an institution or a
community. The environment is both natural as well as manmade. Human beings’ survival and
sustained development depends on the sensible and planned development and use of the natural
resources and environment. Advancements in science and technology have helped us gain control
over the environment and reach unprecedented levels of development. Industrialisation, automation,
communication revolution, urbanisation, etc., have posed innumerable challenges for human beings.
The revolution in communication technology has transformed the world community into a global
village. Science and technology have made a tremendous impact on health and hygiene conditions and
have been helpful in controlling many dreaded diseases. However, the advancements in science and
technology and consequently their impact on society have also caused serious environmental
degradation, depletion of natural resources, expansion of slums. outbreak of new diseases, misuse of
new technologies by nations in armed conflicts, etc. The education system through its curriculum
should introduce the student with the achievements of human beings.
But at the same time the learner must also be made fully aware of the challenges one has to face due
to fast-paced development. The curriculum planners should consider ways and means to equip the
student with appropriate knowledge and skills to harness the environment of resources. This wills
enable the learner to carve out a place for himself in the world of the future. The most important
function of the curriculum in this context is to develop a concern for the environment, human welfare
and personal morality that will enable the student to use the resources available for the benefit of
mankind. The curriculum of sciences, social sciences and languages can effectively inculcate an
attitude of concern towards the environment and mankind, and peaceful co-existence of nations,
communities and individuals. The curriculum planner should keep these emerging needs in view
while developing a curriculum.
Institutional Considerations
Institutional considerations are especially taken into account when the curriculum planner is given the
responsibility to develop curriculum for an institution.As you know, an institution is a unique sub-
system of a society for achieving special institutional. objectives. The curriculum planner must keep
in mind the nature of the institution, particularly its manifest purposes. The institutional purposes will
be helpful in the selection of an appropriate procedure for formulation of course objectives and
organisation of content, etc. For example, vocational and technical schools are expected to train
students for specific jobs. Hence, for formulating the objectives of a vocational programme the
technique of job analysis will be used and these will be helpful in selecting appropriate instructional
materials. However, the job analysis technique will not work for an institution with humanistic goals.
For formulating objectives for such institutions, another technique which is more consistent with the
process of self-actualisation for individuals i.e. learners will have to be used; and curricular materials
based on it will be developed. Similarly, while planning a course for a specific institution one has to
know the attitude of the school authorities, particularly of those who are involved in planning and
management, towards a discipline e.g. attitude towards Commercial Business education as a whole
and towards certain business subjects in particular. Availability of necessary facilities, such as library,
equipment, staff, space, etc., in the institution should also be considered while taking decisions on
curriculum planning in a particular area or discipline.
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Cultural Diversity
Culture, to the sociologist, is a natural term that includes everything that is learned and man made.
Schools are formal institutions specially set up for the preservation and transmission of culture.
Schools seek to discharge this function through the curriculum which is the sum total of learning
experiences provided through it.
However, it is observed that society is now moving away from a homogenous culture towards one of
diversity and plurality. The shift in trend can be attributed to the following phenomena: Diversity in
values and lifestyles (being different is now a socially sanctioned idea); Renewed interest in ethnic
history (people have developed a new interest in their own history and personal heritage): and
Development in tele-communications (people have been reminded of their links with cultures in other
parts of the world).
However, the important feature of curriculum development is how the curriculum portrays cultural
values. It has been taken for granted that school curriculum represents a class-free, non-controversial
fund of knowledge, which is good for all children in that particular school. Certain schools have tried
to transmit what they have assumed as “culture free knowledge, language, sciences, mathematics, arts
and crafts, physical education”, and so on -which is believed to be needed by one and all for the all
round development of one’s personality. It is also accepted that those who failed to respond to such
curricular treatment, either because of poor home background or other socioeconomic reason is,
should be given compensatory education to make up for their cultural disadvantages and deprivations.
Deprivation, it is now argued, can have meaning only as an economic notion and instead of taking a
patronizing attitude by labeling working class children as culturally deprived. The schools reorder
their curriculum, taking into account the culture richness and energy of the class of children, who are
economically deprived. For example, in India, children with diverse cultural backgrounds study in the
same class and follow the same curriculum. They speak different languages, have different food
habits and practise different religions, etc. Hence, the curriculum planner has to derive a curriculum
that cater to the needs and interest of the different sections of people while at the same time pursuing
worth while knowledge, values and skills. In a pluralistic society a common culture cannot be forced
on all, since it is accepted that one sub culture or culture is as good (or as bad) as any other. Hence we
see that social changes have their impact on curriculum planning.As’ long as a society is dynamic, the
debate over the aims of education will stir up changes, which is the sign of a healthy society. (Beane,
et. al. 1986).
Teacher-Related Considerations
The process of teaching is performed by the teacher who transacts a specific curriculum. She) is an
integral part of the teaching-learning system. Her functions include interpretation, explanation,
demonstration and guidance in various activities and experiences incorporated in the curriculum.
Therefore, while planning a curriculum the planner should consider the teacher-related factors as well.
Every curriculum will require a certain group of teachers equipped with appropriate education,
training and experience to successfully transact the curriculum and to help the students in achieving
its (curriculum) objectives. The type and the level of content and activities included in the curriculum
will determine the type of teachers, their level of education, and the kinds of teaching behaviour
expected of them. Similarly, whether the type of teachers we need are readily available or they have to
be prepared or they have to be provided in-service training necessary for working teachers for
implementing the curriculum, etc., should be the basis of decisions on curriculum planning. Besides,
we have to consider whether pre-service training of the teachers is necessary and what type of training
should be provided in order to enable them to transact the curriculum and also how long it will take to
develop them. Provision of qualified and competent teachers, thus, is a basic factor to be considered in
curriculum planning. Hence the teacher-related factors must be given due consideration by the
curriculum planner.
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CURRICULUM DESIGNING
DEFINING CURRICULUM PLANNING AND DESIGNING
Curriculum planning and designing is a process in which participants at different levels take decisions
about the goals of learning, decide about the teachinglearning situations by which these may be
achieved and whether the methods and means adopted are effective. The relationship between the
terms curriculum planning and development and often instruction has been expressed by Beane, et. al.
(1986) as shown in Fig. 7.1.
The abovee figure explained curriculum planning as a generic concept that may describe activities
ranging from the identification of broad goals to the description of possibilities for specific teaching
teaching-
learning situations. The broad goals translated are into a coordinated
coordinated and coherent program of learning
experiences.
Alexander (1954, p. 245), defined curriculum design as “...the pattern or framework or structural
organization used in selecting, planning and carrying forward educational experiences in the school.
Design
sign is thus the plan that teachers follow in providing learning activities. Thus, curriculum design
becomes the part of curriculum planning.
In 1949, Ralph Tyler summed up curriculum design into four simple steps.For Tyler, the process of
curriculum design
n amounted to a way of resolving four questions, or a rationale:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. How can learning experiences be selected which are likely to be useful in attaining these
purposes?
3 How can learning experiences
iences be organized for effective instruction?
4. How can the effectiveness of learning experiences be evaluated?
5. The planning of the curriculum takes place at many levels. In the following section, let us how
planning differs at each level.
Levels of Curriculum
urriculum Planning
Beane, et. al. (1986) has given seven levels of curriculum planning i.e. at seven levels, the national
level, the state level, school-system
system wide level, building level, teacher team level, the individual
teacher level and the classroom level
level with cooperative planning between learners and teachers. Let us
discuss them.
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i) National Level
Planning at this level involves experts of various disciplines from across the country to discuss
and develop a curriculum that meets the demands. The stages involved in the planning process
at the national level are:
• Identifying important subject matter, facts, principles concepts, etc.
• Deciding on a sequence in which the subject matter may be taughtfrom specific to general
or from easy to difficult, etc.
• Recommending activities through which learnersmight best learn the subject matter,
including experiments, discussions etc.
• Listing supplementary materials for further studies in the particular subject area, and
• Suggesting tests that learners might take to check their progress.
After curriculum is developed, it is given in the hands of teachers for implementation. The
National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT), New Delhi, an autonomous
organization under the Department of School Education and Literacy ofMHRD, is the national
level agency involved in selection, and organization of knowledge in schools and bring out as
National Curriculum Framework.
ii) State Level
A committee comprising a group of educators (teachers, principles, curriculum coordinators,
etc.) under the State Education Department undertakes the task to recommend what ought to
constitute the overall curriculum across the State, Keeping in mind, the state
requirements.While developing a state level curriculum, guidelines are adapted from National
Curriculum Framework.
iii) System Wide Level
It is a district level curriculum planning which is done by the team consists of elementary,
middle and high school level teachers and district curriculum coordinator. It reflects on
curriculumissues affecting the whole district. The committee considers following questions
while finalizing the curriculum:
• What are some present problems or ideas in the district that could be referred to the
curriculum planning committee?
• What methods can be used to have a fair representation of various groups such as
teachers, administrators and citizens?
• Which issues the curriculumcommittee could classify as not appropriate for
consideration?
iv) Building or Institution Level
A group of parents, teachers, administrators, counsellors and learners work together on the
personal and social experiences that a student’s encounter while undertaking any academic
activities. It is also termed as hidden curriculum, since these features do result in learning, they
need to be considered in conscious efforts to plan the curriculum.
v) Teacher-team Level
Here, a group of teachers representing different subject areas come together to develop a unit. It
is also called inter-disciplinary curriculum planning.
vi) Individual Teacher Level
In this case, a teacher tries to make a decision about learning objectives - what the teacher
would like a group of learners to learn. She develops a set of plans for use on a daily or weekly
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basis. While designing a plan, following points must be considered, such as the characteristics
of the learners, the sequencing of activities, the appropriateness of various learning materials,
and the availability of resources.
vii) Cooperative Curriculum Planning Level
Here the teacher guides a group of learners to formulate plans as to how they might study a
particular topic. The teacher and learners work together to decide any combination of the ‘what,
how, who, where and when’ questions regarding the unit they are working at.
Learner Involvement in Curriculum Planning
Krug (1957) and Waskin and Parrish (1967) popularised the involvement of learner’s in curriculum
planning and designing but it the critics felt that learners should have no say in the curriculum
planning as they are not as knowledgeable and hence cannot participate intelligently. According to
Beane, et.al, (1986) presented the possibilities for planning by teachers alone, learners alone or both
cooperatively. They have described unit planning as the identification of a variety of possibilities
within each component. The teachers may define a range of objectives and number of content items,
activities, resources and measuring devices related to them. Learners could then be involved in
selecting from any one or more possibilities in each component for-example the selection of
objectives and resources could be done by the teachers but the learners could choose the possible
learning activities and/or measuring devices. Some teachers even leave the entire process to learners.
They may ask learners to decide upon the organizing centres i.e. the title or theme of study and then
teachers may help to plan the rest i.e. content, activities, resources related to the organizing centre.
Beane, et. al. (1986) have listed several advantages of teacher student planning as a classroom
technique:
• It provides a model of democratic living based on cooperative and participatory decision-
making.
• It supports mental health by providing opportunities to have a feeling of belonging.
• It enhances teacher-student relations by the suggestion that learning is a mutual adventure.
• It offers a chance for teachers to know what is important and interesting to learners.
• It enhances social competence by offering opportunities to participate.
• It offers learners a chance to express their own ideas and interests.
However it is noteworthy that teacher-student planning is not merely a technique. Instead it bases the
idea of curriculum planning on the concept of democratic participation.
MODELS OF CURRICULUM DESIGNING
Throughout our discussion so far, we have highlighted that a sound curriculum plan is crucial for the
attainment of educational goals. For designing a curriculum, there are various models have been
proposed. Let us elaborate each type of these models in detail.
a) Tyler’sModel: According Tyler, those involved in curriculum inquiry must try to define the:
• a purpose(s) of the school;
• educational experiences related to these purposes;
• a organisation of these experiences; and
• evaluation in terms of attainment of these purposes.
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The Tyler’s model indicates that in order to identify the Learning objectives we need to gather
information from society, learners and subject matter. Then, we need to translate theminto
precise instructional
tional objectives followed by selection of appropriate learning experiences. The
last step is evaluation to provide feedback about whether or not the intended goals have been
achieved.
b) Taba’s Model : According to her, the teachers should create teaching learning materials for
their students, by adopting an inductive approach starting with specifics and building up general
design, as opposed to the traditional deductive approach. Taba listed following seven steps in
her grassroots model of curriculum development
development in which teachers have to provide major
inputs.
• Diagnosis of needs
• Formulation of objectives
• Selection of content
• Organisation of content
• Selection of learning experiences
• Organisation of learning experiences
• Evaluation
Though Taba’s model has many merits, some critics maintain that its primary weaknesses are as
follows:
• it applies the concept of participatory democracy as a highly technical and specialised
process, and
• it assumes that teachers have the expertise and time to engage in such curricular activities.
c) Saylor and Alexander’s Model: Saylor and Alexander have presented a systematic approach
to curriculum development.Aself explanatory image is given below:
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d) Miller and Seller’s Model: It emphasizes that curriculum

culum development must
exhibit atleast the following three orientations towards the purpose of
curriculum:
• Transmission position: Curriculum should transmit skills, facts and
values to the students.
• Transaction position: Transaction of curriculum can be viewed as a
dialogic process (pedagogic interaction) between the learners and the
teacher.
• Transformation position: Personal changes and social attitudes can be
influenced through curriculum.
Diagrammatically the model can be represented as shown in Figure 7.4
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APPROACHES OF CURRICULUM DESIGNING

A curricular approach is defined as a pattern of organization used in making decisions about
the various aspects of a teaching-learning
teaching learning situation.(Beane,et. al. 1986). The choice of a
particular approach for
or curriculum development reflects the following:
i) The selection of objectives
ii) The use of subject matter or content
iii) The type of learning experiences to be provided
iv) The role of teachers, learners and the organizing center for the teachinglearning
teachinglearning
situation
v) The choice of method for providing the learning experiences
These approaches are categorized into four major groups. Let us now discuss the curricular
approaches in the order given above:
a) Subject Area Approach
One of the most widely usedu curricular approaches is the subject-centered
centered approach.
In this design the curriculum is planned around separate subject areas or disciplines.
Morrison (1940) felt that such a design could allow a student at the secondary school
level to develop interest
st and competence in one subject area. However, he proposed
that a variety of courses should be offered to address the needs of different students.
This orientation to subject matter reflected a mental discipline approach to learning
thus mastery of subjectt and skills forms the basis for learning objectives.
b) Broad Fields Approach
This approach organizes curricular components by combining two or more subjects
from related fields into a broader field. The popularity of this approach in recent times
is due to the following reasons:
i) Curriculum is not compartmentalized into rigid subject boundaries. Hence the
information becomes more meaningful to the learners.
ii) Teachers have greater flexibility to choose content.
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iii) Learners can see the interrelatedness of various subject areas in the curriculum.
They can generalize knowledge across broad areas.
The criticism to this approach is that learners gain only a superficial understanding of
the various concepts in the broad field areas.
c) Problem Centered Approach
The primary objective of using this approach is to create in the learners an awareness
of crucial social issues and develop skills to help solve such problems. Some problem
centered approaches focus on persistent life situations, others deal with contemporary
social problems, some address areas of living and some with the reconstruction of
society.
Problem centered curriculum designs are designed to address societal needs that are
unmet and also for preservation of culture. For example, courses may be developed on
environmental problems, technology, racism, futurology, etc.
d) Learner Centered Approach
It emphasize that all school learning should be geared around the needs, interests and
abilities of the learners. The major purpose behind this approach is to help learners
come to grips with issues in their lives and be prepared for the present. Much of this
philosophy has its origins in Rousseau’s book “Emile” published in 1762. He wrote
that when a child is nearing adolescence, “much skill and discretion are required to
lead him towards theoretical studies.” He believed that teachers should provide
learners the opportunity to explore nature and learn on their own. “Put the problems
before him and let him solve them himself. Let him not be taught science, let him
discover it.” (Rousseau, 1911). This approach also draws from thoughts of
philosophers like Froebel, Pestalozzi, they are proponents of the philosophy of
learning by doing. For example to teach geography, the learners should be taken for
field trips to teach them map work and by making sketches of landscapes. While the
topics of study may be organized and planned by teachers, learning would occur
spontaneously from discussions among pupils and teachers. The above child-centered
design; which is attributed to Dewey, was actually conceived by Parker. Parker (1894)
believed that the method of instruction should be patterned on the child’s natural
approach to learning.’
Dewey like Parker believed that education was a social process by which an individual
could achieve social aims. We have discussed the four major approaches to curriculum
design. Let us now study some models of curriculum development.
PROCESS OF CURRICULUM DESIGNING
While going through the curriculum you might have various questions in your mind such as
what is the basis of selecting various forms of knowledge in school education? Who selects,
legitimises, and organises categories of knowledge in schools? In what form? The answers
to these questions will be answered in this section.
Curriculum development is a specialised task which requires systematic thinking about the
objectives to be achieved, learning experiences to be provided, and evaluation of changes
brought out by the curricular activities and so on. We need to follow the order in which
decisions related to curriculum development are made and we have to make sure that all the
relevant considerations are taken into account before taking any decision. To arrive at a
thoughtfully planned and dynamically conceived curriculum we should follow the steps as
follows:
• Assessment of educational needs
• Formulation of objectives
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• Selection and organisation of content

• Selection and organisation of learning experience.
• Evaluation
Now we discuss each step in the following sub-sections.
a) Assessment of Educational Needs
While selecting any knowledge to become a part of Curriculum, need assessment is to
be done.
The need assessment helps curriculum developers in following ways:
b) Formulating Educational Objectives

According to Tyler (1949), stating a list of important objectives help in selecting
learning experiences and in guiding teaching. Further, regarding a form of objectives,
he stated as follows:
• Any statement of the objectives of the school should be a statement of changes
to take place in students;
• Objectives should be stated in listing topics, concepts, generalizations, or other
elements of content that are to be dealt with in the course or courses;
• Since the purpose of a statement of objectives is to indicate the kinds of changes
in the student to brought, then the instructional activities can be planned and
developed in a way likely to attain these objectives:
• Statements of objectives should be expressed interns of which it identify the
kind of behavior to be developed in the student and the content or area of life in
which this behavior is to operate.
• It is often useful to employ a graphic two-dimensional chart (the behavioral
aspect and the content aspect) to express objectives concisely and clearly.
c) Criteria for Content Selection
Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) explained that content is the “Stuff” of the curriculum. It
is the “What” that is to be taught, the “What” that students are to learn. Content refers
to facts, concepts, principles theories, and generalizations. The content selection can
also be understood as given in the figure below:
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Fig. 7.5: Content Selection

Wheeler (1967), Taba (1962) and Nicholls and Nicholls (1972) forwarded criteria for
content selection which include:
• the availability
lity of the subject matter;
• the significance of the subject matters;
• appropriate balance of scope and depth;
• appropriateness to pupils needs and interests;
• the durability of the subject matter;
• logical relationship of the subject matter content
content to main ideas and basic
concepts;
• learn ability of the subject matter;
• possibility of the subject matter to interact with or attract data from other
subjects;
• contents that contribute to the development of the society.
d) Organising the Content
According to Tyler (1949), Curriculum Organization is a systematic arrangement of
objectives, learning experiences and materials in a unified and consolidated manner. It
is a process of putting contents and learning experiences together to form some kin
kind
of coherent program.
Similarly, in organizing the curriculum especially in sequencing the contents and
learning experiences, it is also essential to identify the organizing principles by which
these threads shall be woven together (Tyler, 1949). Some of these organizing
principles identified are:
• starting from the simple and proceeding to the complex;
• the whole to the part;
• chronological approach;
• sequence on the basis of concentric circle; and
• sequence based on prerequisite teaching.
Let us now understand them in detail:
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i) Sequencing: Establishing a sequence in curriculum means putting the content

and materials into some sort of order of succession. For this, certain teaching
principles such as moving from known to unknown, from simple to complex,
from concrete to abstract, etc have to be kept in mind. Besides these principles,
the resources that facilitate students’ learning have to be arranged.
ii) Continuity: The curriculum should provide for a progressively more
demanding performance, more complex materials to deal with, a greater depth
and breadth of ideas to understand, to relate, to apply and so on. Such
cumulative learning can apply to thinking, attitudes and skills.
The learners should be provided with experiences step by step, leading to the
examination of more complex forms of criticism and analysis of ideas. For
example, a student of grade IImay learn the concept of interdependence among
family members. She may encounter the same concept in a higher grade but
with reference to interdependence of nations, political decisions, etc.
The content of curriculum should provide for continuity in learning and prevent
loss through forgetting. You know that disjointed content does not lead the
student to the destination i.e. the attainment of the objectives.
iii) Integration: It is recognised that learning is more effective when facts and
principles from one field can be related to another, especiallywhen applying
knowledge. Curriculum planners should attempt to integrate the curriculum by
simultaneously establishing relationships between various subjects taught to the
target learners. One method can combine related areas into one broad field; for
example, combining geography and history into social studies. Correlating two
subjects such as Maths and Science is another attempt to integrate content.
It should be clear from the preceding discussion that curriculum organisation
should protect and preserve both the logic of the subject matter and the
psychological sequence of the learning experiences. In the logical organisation,
the planners organise content according to certain rules, to make it more
manageable.
In Economics, for example, the concepts of supply and demand are central to
the content. Without these, the concepts of capital, labour and market cannot be
grouped.
The psychological organisation of the content helps one understand how an
individual might actually learn it (i.e. content). Content should be organised in
such a way so that the concrete content is experienced before the abstract
content.
e) Selecting Learning Experiences
Learning experiences refers to the teaching-learning process, the methods followed
and the activities planned to facilitate the teaching-learning process. There are a few
questions which should be addressed before we select learning experiences, which are
listed below:
• Do the learning experiences function the way we wish them to in the light of the
overall aims and the specific objectives of the curriculum?
• Will the student be able to apply the knowledge gained to practical situations?
• Is, it feasible in terms of time, staff expertise, resources, etc., to learn the
content of the curriculum in the specified time.
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27
• Do the learning experiences enable learners to develop thinking skills and

rational powers?
• Do the learning experiences stimulate in learners a greater understanding of
their own existence as individuals and as members of a group/society?
• Do the learning experiences foster in learners an openness to new experiences
and a tolerance for diversity?
• Do the learning experiences allow learners to address their needs and interests?
• Do the learning experiences cater to total development of learners in cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains?
Besides, answering these questions, we should be able to create proper environment:
physical and psychological, for optimal learning. The educational environment should
address social needs as well as development of awareness, appreciation and empathy
for others. It should stimulate purposeful student activity and allow for a range of
activities that facilitate learning.
f) Evaluating the Curriculum
The effectiveness of any educational programme is judged by its potential to realise
its goals and objectives. The extent to which the objectives are achieved can be
assessed through appropriate evaluation procedures. The evaluation of any purposeful
activity should have certain characteristics. The important characteristics are as
follows:
• Consistency with the objectives of the curriculum
• Sufficient diagnostic value
• Comprehensiveness
• Validity
• Continuity
Evaluation is both qualitative and quantitative, i.e. it may be ‘formative’ (with the
objective improving the process of development) and ‘summative’ (at the end of the
total programme or each phase thereof to judge the effectiveness of the instructional
design). Educational evaluation serves the dual function of guidance and assessment.
We need to employ a variety of appropriate techniques and tools to collect all kinds of
evidence required at different stages of curriculum development and implementation.
The techniques and tools to be used should be selected in relation to the nature of the
objectives or the learning outcomes and the kinds of performance to be assessed or
evidence to be collected. The evidence to ascertain the success or the failure of an
educational programme can be collected through systematic feedback from the
makers and users of curriculum.
From the discussion presented above, you can infer that there are two types of
evaluation; viz;
• Student evaluation, and
• Curriculum evaluation
i) Student evaluation: Student evaluation aims at assessing the changes in the
student’s behaviour. These changes in behaviour can be assessed through:
• Oral, written or practical tests.
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28
• Responses during interactive teaching-learning sessions, discussions in different

kinds of situations, etc.
• Written products of different kinds, e.g. assignment responses, term papers,
project report, etc.
Evaluation of the learners requires sufficient experience and expertise to frame
good questions for higher level objectives.
We can prepare observation schedules to validate student performance.
These can be applicable to many tasks of the same kind or in the same area.
Qualitative criteria can be assigned, so that judgements in the form of rating
points (5,4,3,2,1 or correspondingA,B,C,D,E) can be made. The marks or
grades awarded for total performance can be explained with a brief descriptive
statement.
ii) Curriculum evaluation: Student performance is a part of curriculum
evaluation. This, however, does not imply that evaluation in education should
cover only evaluation of learning, development or achievement of students. In
fact evaluation comprises assessment of different aspects of the curriculum as
planned, developed and implemented.
We shall touch upon curriculum evaluation briefly here as it has been discussed
at length in the next Unit.
Curriculum evaluation refers to the evaluation of different components of
curriculum: objectives, content, methods and evaluation procedures for student
assessment to determine whether the curriculum caters to the needs and the
educational purposes of the target group.
Curriculum components can not be scrutinised in isolation, since each
component affects and influences the rest. Since these components are
interdependent, each has to be evaluated in conjunction with the others. The
overall curriculum evaluation is shown in Figure 7.7.
The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to collect and use feedback for

improving the curriculum. None of us would dispute the importance of
curriculumevaluation, yet we carry it out very rarely. There are two major
reasons for this indifference:
• Evaluation results are frequently ignored, and
• Resistance to accept a new pattern despite its potential continues to exist.
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29
Since evaluation data are crucial for the improvement of curriculum, it is essential that
we should come to grips with the issues underlying it.
g) Development Try-out
We have mentioned in the preceding sub-section that evaluation can be carried out
during the process of curriculum development. This kind of evaluation is called
‘formative’ evaluation. Curriculum evaluation can be done at the end of development
and implementation; this is called ‘summative’ evaluation.
Development try-out is a formative evaluation which is carried out at every stage of
curriculum development. It aims at improving every component of the curriculum
during its planning and development. Empirical data are collected so that decisions
can be made to revise the curriculum while it is being developed. During the
developmental stages of the curriculum, evaluation effort provides frequent, specific
and detailed information to guide the persons who are working at the curriculum to
take decisions at every stage. It can take place at a number of specified points during
the curriculum development process. For example, during a curriculum’s creation, the
curriculum planners can check whether a particular content is appropriate for the
learnersto learn. Depending on the results, the content can either be modified,
replaced or even dropped.
Formative evaluation uses the process of feedback and adjustments and thus keeps the
curriculum development process on-going.
ROLE OF TEACHERS IN CURRICULUM DESIGN AND
DEVELOPMENT
The teacher is such a part of the curriculum that s/he cannot be denied participation in the
process of changing or developing curriculum. A teacher should be directly involved with
the curriculumplanning and development because it is the teacher who implements it and
translates instructional plans into action. Teaching is an act of implementing or transacting
the curriculum. Teachers should be part of the overall development activity. This implies
that
• teachers should ideally be involved at every stage of curriculum planning and develop
ment i.e. from the formation of aims to the evaluation and maintenance of the
curriculum.
• their help should be sought for developing curriculum packages and conceptualizing
re-source designs.
• they can assist in designing supportive educational environment.
• they can communicate with the general public on new auricular projects and thereby
make them more receptive to curriculum change.
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30
PLANNING
All of us are aware of the importance of planning in our life.All kinds of activities require planning.
Planning for any purposeful activity shows results. In addition, planning leads to shared understanding
and acceptance of clear and attainable goals. In teaching-learning process planning of instructional
activities enhances students’ performance. Planning can give both teachers and students a sense of
direction. It helps them to become aware of the goals that are implicit in the learning task they are
asked to perform. Learning objectives, thus, have a focusing effect on students. Another positive
aspect regarding planning is that it produces a smoothly running classroom with minimum discipline
problems and interruptions. Educational research consistently shows that planning is the key to
tackling most of the classroom management problems.All these bear testimony to the need for
planning of teaching-learning activities. At the elementary level, planning involves planning of both
curricular and co-curricular activities. In this unit, we will discuss the meaning of curricular and co-
curricular activities and how they are planned by a teacher.
CONCEPTS OF CURRICULAR, COCURRICULAR AND EXTRA- CURRICULAR
ACTIVITIES
Meaning of Curricular and Co-curricular Activities
You may be carrying out so many activities both inside and outside the classroom. These activities
may be delivering a lecture in environmental sciences, organising a quiz in mathematics class,
demonstrating an experiment in a science laboratory, organising a fieldtrip to the nearest industry or a
historical place, asking students to visit the library and consult the books in social sciences, etc.
Similarly, you might have engaged your students in activities such as music, drawing, stitching,
knitting, dancing, etc. In fact, all these teaching-learning activities you organise in your school are
either curricular or co-curricular in nature. Although, earlier days, there was a lot of stress on
organisation of curricular or scholastic activities, of late there has been increasing emphasis on
organisation of co-curricular or co-scholastic activities as well. Apart from curricular and co-
curricular activities, schools also engage learners in extra-curricular activities. Organisation of
cocurricular and extra-curricular activities alongside the curricular activities is necessary for holistic
or all-round development of children.
Terms like curricular, co-curricular and extra-curricular activities overlap with each other with regard
to their meanings.
Curricular activities can be defined as activities directly linked with instructional objectives based
on which teaching-learning activities are organised. These activities are organised in the classroom, in
the laboratory and in the workshop which are directly linked to the courses of study or curricular areas
of the school curriculum. These activities include classroom activities like individual and group
works, classroom experiments, conducting scientific experiments, preparation of charts, models, etc;
library activities like reading books and journals, taking notes from library books, surfing digital
library resources on the internet, etc.;
Socially Useful Productive Work(SUPW), and work experience; and activities in the science and
language laboratories, etc.
Co-curricular activities are those activities which are organised by teachers having some definite
responsibilities; many full time professional teachers are employed; schools rooms, time, equipment
and materials are provided; their relationships with regular curricular activities are regarded as vital;
credit for participation is allowed and recognition is also given. Co- curricular activities also have
indirect reference to actual instructional works that go on in the classroom. Co-curricular activities are
physical development activities, literary activities, civic development activities, visits, etc.
Extra-curricular activities are organised and promoted largely by students themselves, with
relatively little assistance from teachers and administrators. No official recognition and credit is
allowed for participation. Although they are not part of curriculum, but they have a lot of significance
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31
for student learning. They are outside the formal school hours. For example, student club, sports club,
etc. are examples of extra-curricular
ricular activities.
Co-curricular
curricular activities work in tandem with curriculum. In both curricular and co-curricular
activities, a variety of experiences are provided under the guidance of the school for fulfilment of
curricular objectives leading to certification
certific and grades. Extra-curricular
curricular events are considered part of
the total social experience for the student. The word extra in extra-curricular
extra curricular activities is an optional
piece to curricular learning, suggesting that not all students participate in these types
types of activities. All
accept that co-curricular
curricular and extra-curricular
extra activities occupy a very important place in the
instructional programme of the school. They foster creative ability and provide opportunities for
expression. Students acquire many subtlee learning experiences like human values, beliefs, manners
and thinking styles through hidden curriculum which includes co-curricular
co curricular activities. Curriculum,
thus, is not only teaching-learning
learning in classroom. It also includes works in library, laboratory an and
workshop, participation in games and sports in playground and numerous informal contacts between
teacher and students in these places. There is a strong inter- inter relationship among curricular, co-
curricular and extra-curricular
curricular activities which is crucial for attainment of holistic development of
learners. The relationship among these activities is depicted in Fig. 8.1.
Types of Co-Curricular
Curricular Activities
Co-curricular
curricular activities refer to activities that schools provide in addition to academic classes.
Examples include:
1) Literary Activities:
Debates and panel discussion, subject-wise
subject club, School Magazine, Dramatics, Study Circle,
Story Writing, Recitation, Kavi Summelan, Library Work.
2) Physical Development Activities:
Games, Indoor and Outdoor Athletics,
Athleti Mass Drill, Parade,
3) Aesthetic and Cultural Development:
Music, Dancing, Drawing, Painting, Dramatics, Exhibition, Fancy, Folk Dance, Folk Songs,
etc.
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4) Civic Development Activities:

Morning Assembly, Celebration of Religious, National and Social Festivals, Organising of
School Panchayat, Mock Parliament.
5) Excursion Activities:
Picnic, Visit to Museum, Zoo etc.
Importance of Co-curricular Activities
The co-curricular activities have the following benefits:
1) Prepare for Future
Co-curricular activities prepare students for the future. Through these activities, students learn
about working in a group or a team to accomplish a goal. When students enter the workforce
and have to cooperate with their Learning Activities co-workers, they will be able to call on the
teamwork and leadership skills they learned.
2) Develop Time Management
Because co-curricular activities occur outside school hours, participating students have less free
time. This forces them to develop skill of time management.
3) Contribute to holistic development of students
Co-curricular activities contribute to holistic development of students because these activities
teach students a variety of skills. For example, the debate facilitate students on how to
communicate and to explain their point of view to others. Choir or drama helps students on how
to perform in front of others without stage fright. Co-curricular also develops social skills by
encouraging students to interact with one another. Excursions and tours provide first hand
experience and reinforce classroom knowledge in subjects like history, geography, nature study
etc. Co-curricular activities meet the psychological needs of students. These activities are a
means of channelizing students’ instincts into healthy and fruitful channels e.g. instinct of
curiosity can be fruitfully channelized by library work and coin collection etc. By participating
in group activities like dramatics, exhibition, etc., students learn good manners and develop a
sense of cooperation. These activities train the students for good citizenship. Games, sports and
athletics directly contribute to physical development of students,
INSTRUCTIONAL PLAN AND IT'S ORGANISATION
Organizing and planning for instruction is the framework on which effective teaching is based.
Careful and thoughtful planning allows instructional time to be maximized, standards to be addressed,
prior knowledge to be activated, misconceptions to be confronted and the diverse characteristics and
learning needs of the students to be considered. Classroom management issues are minimized and the
focus can be on instruction and increasing student achievement. In addition, instruction can be
scaffolded more effectively and assessments, learning goals, and content can be aligned to maximize
understanding. For curricular planning, it should be done before the academic year. In this case, the
selection of textbooks, their distribution, conduct of exams, preparation of time-table, allotment of
staff for each subject in different classes, monitoring of each class by teachers, etc. are very important.
All these activities highlight the importance of annual planning, unit planning and lesson planning.
Good planning is the first step towards an effective classroom. A well-planned class reduces stress on
the teacher and helps minimize disruptions. When teachers know what they need to accomplish and
how they are going to do it, they have a better opportunity to achieve success with the added benefit
of less stress. Further, when students are engaged in the entire class period, they have less opportunity
to cause disruptions.
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33
ANNUAL PLAN
An annual plan outlines smooth operation of curricular and co-curricular activities. An annual plan
provides a method for tracking the progress of some of the key tasks your service needs to complete
regularly, as well as specific ‘one off’ projects. For some projects you will need to develop much
more detailed time lines identifying ‘who, what, when’. An annual plan allows you to easily tick items
off as you go and check progress. You can ensure that tasks are spread over the year and in the right
order.
Each teacher needs to have a copy of the currently approved curriculum guide (program outline). The
instructor’s copy may include additions, deletions, and other unofficial modifications needed for
curriculum planning purposes. Substitutions must be approved per the procedure forApproval of
Program, Title, Hour, and Content Changes. However, the curriculum guide is not in sufficient detail
to ensure sound instruction; therefore instructors need to maintain plans of instruction such as lesson
plans.
An annual plan contains all academic and co-curricular activities to be taken in the specified academic
year. It gives a detailed description about the units to be covered in each month and the related
activities to be undertaken along with the unit. Hence we can say that an annual plan reflects the total
activities of the school. From the annual plan the unit plan can be constructed. Generally, the annual
plan is prepared before the beginning of the new academic year. It is useful in scheduling the
activities of the school as well as the availability of time to accomplish the activities.
A Model Annual Plan
School: Standard: VII
Subject: Social Science Year :2012-13
SI. Units Time in Month Special Teaching- Co-curricular

No. Period when Methods if learning Activities
planned to any materials
teach
1. Environment 4 July Narration of a Picture of Celebration of

situation, natural and World
Discussion, human Environmental
Co-operative environment Day
learning Poster on
World
Environmental
Day
2. Inside Our 4 July Demonstration, Model of Preparation of

Earth Discussion, Interior of picture book
Observation Earth, related with
Speciments of rocks and
sandstone, minerals
limestone
3. Our Changing 6 August, Demonstration, Chart of Preparation of

Earth September Library volution of scrap book
reference, Case landforms, regarding
Study on earth Model of earthquakes
quake Volcano,
Pictures of
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34
various
landforms
4. Air 7 September, Discussion, Chart of Library

October Demonstration, constituents of reference,
Observation, air, layers of Preparation of
Experiments earth weather
on rain gauge, calendar, Mid-
wind vane term test
5. Water 7 October Map reading, Chart of water Collage on

Observation, water
cycle,
Discussion,
Physical scarcity,
Experiments
Report writing
on rain gauge, Map of
on
wind vane World,
World Water
Model on
Tides Day
6. Natural 6 October, Narration of a Pictures on Preparation of

Picture album
Vegetation November situation, various types
Discussion, of
and
Note making
forests and
Wild Life
grasslands
7. Human 7 November Discussion, Pictures of Survey on

Environment December, Lecture, different Communicatio-
Settlement, modes n to nearby
Map reading
Transport and locality
of transport,
Communication
Map
8. Human 7 January, Discussion, World Map Project on

Environment February Lecture Destruction of
Interactionsthe Forests
Tropical
and the Sub
tropical
region
9. Life in the 5 February Map Reading, World Map, Model of

World Map
Temperate Note making, Map filling
Grasslands Discussion
10. Life in the 4 February, Discussion, Map filling, Desert game

Map
Deserts March Pictures of
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35
Reading desert
places
UNIT PLAN
Proper planning of a unit is very important for a teacher’s success in his/ her teaching. Unit planning
can be one of the most exciting and rewarding experience for a teacher since it demands his/her ability
to relate societal and professional values to knowledge of the learner, knowledge of the subject matter
and knowledge of teaching methods. What exactly is a unit plan? What makes it so important?
A unit plan is a series of lesson plans designed around a specific topic, lesson, etc. Unit planning
begins with the selection of a unit a starting point for this process could be examination of the chapter
headings in the students’ text. Borich (1988) describes unit planning as creating a diagram or visual
blue print of what one wants to teach. Unit planning is a process wherein teachers select, organize,
order, evaluate and revise both what they teach and how they teach it. The unit must be a
comprehensive and significant aspect of the environment.
Unit plan was originated from Gestalt psychology. The Gestalt theory of learning has a great
influence on human learning. According to this theory, learning takes place when the whole is
perceived rather in parts. For example, we understand the concept of ‘diversity’. When we know
about the various aspects of diversity such as linguistic, religious diversity, etc.A unit plays an
important role in learning. The learner usually takes help of the units in understanding and grasping
the concepts given in that unit. The concepts are related to one another within a unit.
How Do Teachers Plan Units?
Planning a unit depends on nature of the topic, the importance assigned to it by a teacher, decisions
about how lessons will be organised, students interest and time availability. Generally, 2-3 weeks is a
manageable amount of time for transacting a unit. It allows a class to explore a topic with some depth
and to engage in intellectual discourse on an issue. With every unit, try to provide students with a
lesson schedule and a homework assignment sheet, design some form of unit project, and include a
unit test. As you plan, it is useful to ask yourself some of the following questions:
• Does this unit build on the previous unit or has some connection with it?
• Does this unit lay the basis for future unit/units?
• Are there materials for students to analyze in class? Do the lessons include enough activities for
students to do?
• Are my teaching-learning activities varied and interesting?
Steps for the Preparation of Unit Plan
The following steps are followed:
i) Select a unit/chapter;
ii) Divide the unit/chapter into sub-units;
iii) For each sub-unit, formulate learning objectives;
iv) Develop instructional procedures for each sub-units. Instructional procedures would include
number of periods, main teaching points, teaching-learning activities, methods and media;
v) Plan and prepare your evaluation questions;
vi) Have benchmarks in place. Once the transaction of the unit has begun, use benchmarks to keep
you on track for time and to ensure that learning objectives are being met.
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36
The outline of a unit plan in social science is given as an example.

Outline of a Unit Plan
Name of the Teacher : Subject : Social Science
Name of the Institution: Standard : VII
Unit : Environment
Mode of Delivery: Constructivist Approach
Sub-units No. of Specific Main Teaching Methods Evaluatio Co-

Perio Learning Teaching Learning and n curricular
ds Objective Points Activities Media Activities
s
Environme 1 To define The place, The Narration Define the Prepare a

nt the term people, teacher of a term poster on
environme things and presented situation environme natural and
nt nature that a situation nt human
surround related made
any living with environment
organism environme
is called nt
evironment
Componen To Environme From a Picture Differentia Prepare a

ts of classify nt is a picture te between model of
Environme the combinatio teacher natural domains of
nt componen n of natural asks the environme natural
ts of and man student to nt from environment
environme made list out the manmade
nt phenomena natural environme
and nt
human
environme
nt
Domains 1 To Lithospher The Discussio Note

of Natural categorize e, teacher n method making
Environme the Hydrosphe writes Chalkboar
nt domains re, some d
of natural Atmospher words on
environme e and the CB
nt Biosphere and asks
are the learners to
To define
domains of categorize
each
natural into
domain of
environme different
natural
nt domains
environme
nt
Eco- 1 To define Eco- The Observati What is an Planting of

system the term system is a students on Note eco- trees in
1
ecosystem complex identify making school
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37
To find set of the picture Picture system? surrounding

the relationshi related s Prepare a
relationshi ps among with eco- poster on
p between the living system World
various resources, Environmen
organs of habitats tal Day
eco and
system residents
of an area
Human To Human The Note Comparati

interaction analyze beings students making ve table
with the interact are asked Discussio Conduct
environme interaction with to prepare n Method of Unit
nt of human environme a Textbook test
beings nt and comparati
with modify it ve table
environme according on the life
nt to their of early
need man and
modern
man The
class then
discusses
about the
interaction
of man
with
environme
nt
LESSON PLAN
Planning for instruction is a part of a teacher day-to-day activity for teaching. Lesson plans, specify
the learning objectives, content, methods, materials/equipment, application, and evaluation for each
lesson that is taught. Such planning prepares a teacher to teach and is invaluable to substitute teachers
who will need to know what and how to teach. Lesson plans serve several purposes. For beginning
teachers, in particular, they provide the day-to-day planning of a course. Such plans can easily be
modified in subsequent years of teaching a program. lesson plans can be evidence of good sound
planning and preparation and provide detailed information about teaching performance and level of
expertise. Even after the lesson is taught, administrators and teachers themselves can analyze and
reflect on instructional methodology. They can also provide useful information for school
administration. Ideally, instructors will use formal plans such as lesson plans, which usually include
the four step method for teaching to a specific outcome or objective: preparation of the student,
presentation (procedure), application, and evaluation.
Theoretical knowledge of teaching concept does not provide any guideline for classroom instructional
procedure. Every teacher who intends to teach something has to prepare an outline of his/ her subject
or topic in written form or at his/ her cognitive level that is known as lesson planning. A teacher has
to apply his/ her theoretical knowledge in planning and administrating his lesson plan. A practical
outline of a topic to be taught in a period is called the lesson plan. It is designed during the student
teaching or teaching practice.
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38
Teaching is organized in three phases: pre-active,

pre interactive and post-active. All the activities of a
teacher and his planning done prior of the timings of his class are called pre-active.
active. Lesson planning
is the pre-active
active phase of teaching.
Binning and Binning (1982) have explained the structure and purpose of lesson planning in their
definition. “All lesson planning involves defining the objectives, selecting and arranging the subject
subject-
matter and determining the method and procedure.”
Procedure and Planning for Content, Methods, Media and Evaluation Exercises
A lesson plan is the teacher’s road map of what students need to learn and how it will be done
effectively during the class time. The first task in planning a lesson is to analyse the contents of the
topic in terms of concepts, principles, laws, theories, etc. the learning objectives the second task is to
based on the content analysis. Then, you can design appropriate learning activities and develop
strategiess to obtain feedback on student learning. The procedure is the body of your lesson plan, the
ways in which you’ll share information with students and the methods that you’ll use to help them
assume a measure of mastery of that material.A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these
three key components:
• Content analysis;
• Objectives for student learning;
• Teaching/learning activities including selection of methods and media;
• Strategies to assess student understanding.
Specifying concrete objectives
ctives for student learning will help you determine the kinds of teaching and
learning activities you will use in class, while those activities will define how you will assess whether
the learning objectives have been accomplished (see Fig. 8. 2).
Fig. 8.2:
.2: Relationship between objectives, learning experience and evaluation
Steps for Preparing a Lesson Plan
Below are the steps to guide you when you prepare your first lesson plans. Each step is accompanied
by a set of questions meant to prompt reflection and
a aid you in designing your teaching and learning
activities.
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39
a) Outline learning objectives

The first step is to determine what you want students to learn and be able to achieve at the end
of class. To help you specify your objectives for student learning, answer the following
questions:
• What is the topic of the lesson?
• What do I want students to learn?
• What do I want them to understand and be able to achieve at the end ofclass?
• What do I want them to take away from this particular lesson?
Once you outline the learning objectives for the class rank them in terms of their importance.
This step will prepare you for managing class time and accomplishing the more important
learning objectives in case you are pressed for time. Consider the following questions:
• What are the most important concepts, ideas, or skills I want students to be able to grasp
and apply?
• Why are they important?
• If I ran out of time, which ones could not be omitted?
• And conversely, which ones could I skip if pressed for time?
b) Develop the introduction
Now having your learning objectives in order of their importance, design the specific activities
that you will use to get students to understand and apply what they have learned. Because you
will have a diverse body of students with different academic and personal experiences, they
may already be familiar with the topic. That is why you might start with a question or activity to
gauge students’ knowledge of the subject or possibly, their preconceived notions about it. For
example, you can take a simple poll: “How many of you have heard of the concept of
sustainablity? Raise your hand if you have.” You can also gather background information from
your students prior to class by sending students an electronic survey or asking them to write
comments on index cards. This additional information can help shape your introduction,
learning activities, etc. When you have an idea of the students’ familiarity with the topic, you
will also have a sense of what to focus on.
Develop a creative introduction to the topic to stimulate interest and encourage thinking. You
can use a variety of approaches to engage students (e.g., personal anecdote, historical event,
thought-provoking dilemma, realworld example, short video clip, practical application, probing
question, etc.). Consider the following questions when planning your introduction:
• How will I check whether students know anything about the topic or have any
preconceived notions about it?
• What are some commonly held ideas (or possibly misconceptions) about this topic that
students might be familiar with or might espouse?
• What will I do to introduce the topic?
c) Plan the specific learning activities (the main body of the lesson)
Prepare several different ways of explaining the material (real-life examples, analogies, visuals,
etc.) to catch the attention of more students and appeal to different learning styles. As you plan
your examples and activities, estimate how much time you will spend on each. Build in time for
extended explanation or discussion, but also be prepared to move on quickly to different
applications or problems, and to identify strategies that check for understanding. These
questions would help you design the learning activities you will use:
• What will I do to explain the topic?
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40
• What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?

• How can I engage students in the topic?
• What are some relevant real-life examples, analogies, or situations that can help students
understand the topic?
• What will students need to do to help them understand the topic better?
d) Plan to check for students’ understanding
Now that you have explained the topic and illustrated it with different examples, you need to
check for student understanding – how will you know that students are learning? Think about
specific questions you can ask students in order to check for understanding, write them down,
and then paraphrase them so that you are prepared to ask the questions in different ways. Try to
predict the answers your questions will generate. Decide on whether you want students to
respond orally or in writing. You can also ask yourself these questions:
• What questions will I ask students to check for students understanding?
• What will I have students do to demonstrate that they are following?
• Going back to my list of learning objectives, what activity can I have students do to check
whether each of those has been accomplished?
e) Develop a conclusion and a preview
Go over the material covered in class by summarizing the main points of the lesson. You can do
this in a number of ways: you can state the main points yourself; you can ask a student to help
you summarize them; or you can even ask all students to write down on a piece of paper what
they think were the main points of the lesson. You can review the students’ answers to gauge
their understanding of the topic and then explain anything not understood by students in the
following class. Conclude the lesson not only by summarizing the main points, but also by
previewing the next lesson. How does the topic relate to the one that is to be taught in the next
class? This preview will spur students’ interest and help them connect the different ideas within
a larger context.
f) Create a realistic timeline
A realistic timeline will reflect your flexibility and readiness to adapt to the specific classroom
environment. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:
• Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra time for
each;
• When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much time you
expect it will take;
• Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and to sum up
key points;
• Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time left;
• Be flexible – be ready to adjust your lesson plan to students’ needs and focus on what
seems to be more productive rather than sticking to your original plan.
g) Presenting the Lesson Plan
Letting your students know what they will be learning and doing in class will help keep them
more engaged and on track. You can share your lesson plan by writing a brief agenda on the
board or telling students explicitly what they will be learning and doing in class. You can
outline on the board or on a handout the learning objectives for the class. Providing a
meaningful organization of the class time can help students not only remember better, but also
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follow your presentation and understand the rationale behind inclass activities. Having a clearly
visible agenda (e.g., on the board) will also help you and students stay on track.
h) Closure
Whenever possible, use a cliffhanger at the end of a lesson.
• Teacher summary. Be sure to summarize the important points or critical elements of a
lesson for students. Discuss what you taught and what they learned. This might be the
most valuable 3 to 5 minutes of any lesson.
• Student summary. Provide opportunities for students to summarize a lesson as well.
Inviting them to put a lesson into their own words can be helpful to you in determining
how well they learned the material.
• Lesson product. Invite students to incorporate the major elements of a lesson into a final
product. As described earlier, this product may take the form of a poster, brochure,
model, or portfolio.
i) Reflecting on Your Lesson Plan
A lesson plan may not work as well as you had expected due to a number of extraneous
circumstances. You should not get discouraged – it happens to even the most experienced
teachers! Take a few minutes after each class to reflect on what worked well and why, and what
you could have done differently. Identifying successful and less successful organization of class
time and activities would make it easier to adjust to the contingencies of the classroom
j) Self-Evaluation
As you write lessons, include a brief section at the end that allows you to self-evaluate. This
will be important when and if you decide to teach the lesson again. It will also provide you with
some important insights relative to your perceived level of success.
You might consider some of these self-evaluative questions:
• How was my pacing?
• Did students understand the content?
• Did students understand the important concepts?
• Did I use my time appropriately?
• What changes should I make the next time I teach this lesson?
• Were students engaged and involved?
• What new activities or procedures could I include?
• Did I present the lesson well?
CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHING AND LESSON PLANNING
Constructivist teaching is based on constructivist learning theory. This theoretical framework holds
that learning always builds upon knowledge that a student already knows; this prior knowledge is
called a schema. Because all learning is filtered through pre-existing schemata, constructivists suggest
that learning is more effective when a student is actively engaged in the learning process rather than
attempting to receive knowledge passively. A wide variety of methods claim to be based on
constructivist learning theory. Most of these methods rely on some form of guided discovery where
the teacher avoids most direct instruction and attempts to lead the student through questions and
activities to discover, discuss, appreciate, and verbalize the new knowledge.
Constructivist learning theory says that all knowledge is constructed from a base of prior knowledge.
Children are not a blank slate and knowledge cannot be imparted without the child making sense of it
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according to his or her current conceptions. Therefore children learn

learn best when they are allowed to
construct a personal understanding based on experiencing things and reflecting on those experiences.
Characteristics of Constructivist Teaching
One of the primary goals of using constructivist teaching is that students learn how to learn by giving
them the training to take initiative for their own learning experiences.
According to Audrey Gray (1997), the characteristics of a constructivist classroom are as follows:
• the learners are actively involved;
• the environment is democratic;
emocratic;
• the activities are interactive and student-centred;
student
• the teacher facilitates a process of learning in which students are encouraged to be responsible
and autonomous.
Constructivist Learning Environments (CLEs)
Jonassen (1994) has proposed a model for developing constructivist learning environments (CLEs)
around a specific learning goal. This goal may take one of several forms, from least to most complex:
• Question or issue;
• Case study;
• Long-term Project;
• Problem (multiple cases and projects
pr integrated at the curriculum level).
Jonassen (1994) recommends making the learning goals engaging and relevant but not overly
structured. In CLEs, learning is driven by the problem to be solved; students learn content and theory
in order to solve the
he problem. This is different from traditional objectivist teaching where the theory
would be presented first and problems would be used afterwards to practice theory. Depending on
students’ prior experiences, related cases and scaffolding may be necessary for support. Instructors
also need to provide an authentic context for tasks, plus information resources, cognitive tools, and
collaborative tools.
Constructivist assessment
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Traditionally, assessment in the classrooms is based on testing. In this style, it is important for the
student to produce the correct answers. However, in constructivist teaching, the process of gaining
knowledge is viewed as being just as important as the product. Thus, assessment is based not only on
tests, but also on observation of the student, the student’s work, and the student’s points of view.
Some assessment strategies include:
• Oral discussions. The teacher presents students with a “focus” question and allows an open
discussion on the topic;
• KWL (H) Chart (what we know (K), what we want (W) to know, what we have learned (L),
How (H) we know it). This technique can be used throughout the course of study for a
particular topic, but is also a good assessment technique as it shows the teacher the progress of
the student throughout the course of study;
• Mind Mapping. In this activity, students list and categorize the concepts and ideas relating to a
topic;
• Hands-on activities. These encourage students to manipulate their environments or a particular
learning tool. Teachers can use a checklist and observation to assess student success with the
particular material;
• Pre-testing. This allows a teacher to determine what knowledge students bring to a new topic
and thus will be helpful in directing the course of study.
In most pedagogies based on constructivism, teachers also intervene when there are conflicts that
arise; however, they simply facilitate the students’ resolutions and self-regulation, with an emphasis
on the conflict being the students’ and that they must figure things out for themselves. For example,
promotion of literacy is accomplished by integrating the need to read and write throughout individual
activities within print-rich classrooms. The teacher, after reading a story, encourages the students to
write or draw stories of their own, or by having the students re-enact a story that they may know well,
both activities encourage the students to conceive themselves as reader and writers.
Another important consideration in evaluating the potential benefits/limitations of constructivist
teaching approach is to consider the large number of varied personal characteristics as well as
prevalence of learning problems in children today. For example, when a solely constructivist approach
was employed in your classroom, then a significant number of children, for example say with
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, might not be able to focus on their perceptions of learning
experiences long enough to build a knowledge base from the event. In other words, constructivist
theory is biased to students who desire to learn more and are capable of focusing attention to the
learning process independently. A mixed approach that incorporates components of constructivist
learning along with other approaches, including more guided teaching strategies, would better meet
the learning needs of the majority of students in a classroom by accounting for differences between
learning styles and capacities.
Role of Teachers
The teacher as a facilitator
The teachers task is to facilitate the learning. Instead of direct instruction, teachers play the role of a
facilitator who helps the learner to get to his or her own understanding of the content.
Instructor Facilitator
lectures supports
gives answers according to a set curriculum provides guidelines and creates the environment
for the learner to arrive at his or her own
conclusions
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Gives a monologue continuous dialogue with the learners
The learner in traditional learning environments is a passive recipient to be filled with knowledge by
the instructor while in constructivist pedagogy the learner plays an active role in the learning process.
In the constructivist classroom, the teacher’s role is to prompt and facilitate discussion. Thus, the
teacher’s focus should be on guiding students by asking questions that will lead them to develop their
own conclusions on the subject.
Procedure for Implementation of Constructivist Activities
Furthermore, in the constructivist classroom, students work primarily in groups and learning and
knowledge are interactive and dynamic. There is a great focus and emphasis on social and
communication skills, as well as collaboration and exchange of ideas. This is contrary to the
traditional classroom in which students work primarily alone, learning is achieved through repetition,
and the subjects are strictly adhered to and are guided by a textbook. Some activities encouraged in
constructivist classrooms are:
• Experimentation: students individually perform an experiment and then come together as a class
to discuss the results;
• Research projects: students research a topic and can present their findings to the class;
• Field trips. This allows students to put the concepts and ideas discussed in class in a real-world
context. Field trips would often be followed by class discussions;
• Films. These provide visual context and thus bring another sense into the learning experience.
• Class discussions. This technique is used in all of the methods described above. It is one of the
most important distinctions of constructivist teaching methods.
Constructivist approaches can also be used in online learning. For example, tools such as discussion
forums, wikis and blogs can enable learners to actively construct knowledge. Because existing
knowledge schemata are explicitly acknowledged as a starting point for new learning, constructivist
approaches tend to validate individual and cultural differences and diversity.
Constructivist Lesson Planning
Although several models of lesson plan for constructivism exist, the model developed by Roger
Bybee of the Biological Science Curriculum Study is widely used by practitioners. This model is best
known as the “Five Es”. (http://sites.google.com/site/constructivism512/Home/lesson-plan)
The Five Es Instructional Model
1) Engage: This stage provides the opportunity for the teachers to discover what students know or
what they think they know.
2) Explore: This stage provides a common set of experiences as well as broad range of
experiences. This stage allows students to compare what they think about with what they are
actually observing.
3) Explain: This stage provides opportunity for students to connect their previous experiences and
to begin to make conceptual sense of the main ideas within the unit of study.
4) Elaborate: In this stage students apply or extend the concepts in new situations and relate their
pervious experiences to new ones.
5) Evaluate: Evaluation of students’ conceptual understanding and ability to use skills begins at
the Engage stage and continues throughout the model.
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5Es Suggested Activity What the Teacher What the Student

Does? Does?
Engage • Demonstration • Creates interest. • Asks questions

such as.
• Reading • Generates
curiosity. Why did this
• Free Write
happen?
• Raises questions.
• Analyze a Graphic
What can I found
Organizer • Elicits responses
out about this?
that uncover what
• KWL
the students know • Shows interest in
• Brainstorming or think about the the topic.
concept/ topic.
Explore • Perform an • Encourages the • Thinks freely but

Investigation students to work within the limits of
together without the activity.
• Read Authentic
direct instruction
Resources to • Tests predictions
from the teacher.
Collect and hypotheses.
Information Solve • Observes and
• Forms new
a problem listens to the
predictions and
students as they
• Construct a Model hypotheses.
interact.
• Tries alternatives
• Asks probing
and discusses them
questions to
with others.
redirect the
students’ • Records
investigations observations and
when necessary. ideas.
• Provides time for • Suspends
students to puzzle judgement.
through problems.
Explain • Student Analysis • Encourages the • Explains possible

& Explanation students to explain solutions or
concepts and answers to others.
• Supporting Ideas
definitions in their
with Evidence • Listens officially to
own words.
others’
• Structured
• Asks for explanations.
Questioning
justification
• Questions others’
• Reading and (evidence) and
explanations.
Discussion clarification from
students. • Listens to and tries
• Teacher
to comprehend
Explanation • Formally provides
explanations the
• Thinking Skill definitions,
teacher offers.
Activities: explanations, and
new labels. • Refers to previous
compare, classify
activities.
and error analysis • Uses students’
previous • Uses recorded
experiences as observations in
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basis for explanations.

explaining
concepts.
Extend • Problem Solving • Expects the • Applies new labels,

students to use definitions,
• Decision Making
formal labels, explanations, and
• Experimental definitions, and skills in new, but
Inquiry explanations similar situations.
• Think Skill provided
• Uses previous
Activities: previously.
information to ask
compare, classify • Encourages the questions, propose
and apply students to apply solutions, make
or extend the decisions, and
concepts and skills design
in new situations. experiments.
• Reminds the • Draws reasonable
students of onclusions from
alternative evidence.
explanations.
• Records
• Refers the students bservations and
to existing data explanations.
and evidence and
• Checks for
asks,
understandings
What do you among peers.
already know?
Why do you
think...?
• Strategies from
Explore apply here
also.
Evaluate • Any of the Above • Observes the • Answers open-

students as they ended questions by
• Develop a Scoring
apply new using observations,
Tool or Rubric
concepts and evidence, and
• Test skills. previously
• Performance accepted
• Assesses students’
Assessment explanations.
knowledge and/ or
• Produce a Product skills. • Demonstrates an
understanding or
• Journal Entry • Looks for
knowledge of the
evidence that the
• Portfolio concept or skill.
students have
changed their • Evaluates his or
thinking or her own progress
behaviours. and knowledge.
• Allows students to • Asks related
assess their own questions that
learning and would encourage
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47
groupprocess future
skills. investigations.
• Asks open-ended
questions, such as:
Why do you
think...?
What evidence do
you have?
What do you
know about x?
How would you
explain x?
A lesson plan in the subject of Social Science for Class VII is presented here. This lesson plan is
prepared for teaching a topic on Meaning of Environment. It is done following the 5E constructivist
approach to teaching-learning process. The detail outline of the plan is given under the following
headings.
A Suggestive Model of Planning a Lesson Based on Constructivist Approach
Name: Unit: Environment
Class: VII Topic: Meaning of Environment
Duration: 60 mts.
Approach to Teaching-Learning: Constructivist approach
I) Learning Objectives
Students will:
• define the term environment;
• list the components in environment;
• differentiate between natural environment and man-made environment.
II) Materials Needed
• Picture of an environment
• Picture of natural and man-made environment
• Worksheet
III) Pre-Requisite
The students are already familiar with different objects existing in the environment.
Stage 1- Engage (Group work)
The teacher divides the students into two groups and asks them to go around the school campus and
identify the objects, people, phenomena, etc. available in school surroundings. Afterwards the leaders
of both the groups read out what their groups have identified and write them on the chalkboard. Both
the groups discuss about their observations and summarise about the objects, people and phenomena
existing in the school campus.
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Stage 2- Explore (Introduction to the topic)

Based on the discussion, the teacher shows a picture related to environment and asks the following
questions:
Teacher’s Activities Learners’ Activities(

ities( Expected)
What this picture is related with? Surrounding

List out the names of objects you Trees, birds, crocodile , fish,
observe in this picture. water, etc.
Can you identify where these Environment
objects can be seen? The place, people, objects and nature that
What do you mean by an surround any living organism is called
environment? environment.
Announcement of the topic

After having the above discussion with the learners, the teacher announces that today let us discuss
and learn what an environment
onment is.
Stage 3- Explain (Presentation)
Next, the teacher shows the following two pictures related with environment.
Picture A
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Fig. 8.5: Picture A

Picture B
Fig. 8.5: Picture B

Based on these pictures, the teacher asks the following questions:
What do you observe in the pictures? Picture A includes the sun, lake, fishes tree, birds,
boad, tortoise, water etc., whereas in Picture B
there are building, car, human beings.
Whether buildings and cars are a part of

Yes.
environment?
Building is constructed by human beings and cars

How are buildings and car different from birds
are produced by human beings; whereas birds and
and animals?
animals are part of nature.
Can you classify these two types of environments

Yes.
on the basis of your observation?
Environment can be classified into natural

How do you classify these two types of
environment and man-made environment. All
environment?
those objects like water, birds, trees, sun, rivers,
sea, etc. are part of natural environment; whereas
roads, buildings, vehicles, etc. comprise man-
made environment.
The students then summarizes the environment that is a combination of natural and man -made
phenomena.
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Stage 4- Extend
Activity-I Analyzing a situation
The teacher presents the following situation.
Rakesh was studying in a boarding school. During vacation he went home and found that the pond
nearby his house was levelled and a building was constructed over this place. He felt sad because
whenever he went home, he usually tried to catch fish from the pond and observed other insects, small
animals, etc. and enjoyed moving around the pond. He enquired about this to his parents and they said
that the environment was changing rapidly.
Based on this situation, the teacher asks students the following questions to discuss in groups.
1) Why did Rakesh feel sad when he saw the building on the spot where the pond was existing
earlier?
2) What are the reasons for the rapid changes in the environment?
Activity II- Filling the worksheet
The following worksheets are given to each student to work on:
1) Among the items given below list out the items which are not a part of manmade environment.
• Flat
• Club
• Flowers
• Community
• Mountains
• Aquarium
• Road
• Rain
• Train
• Rivers
2) Distinguish between natural environment and man-made environment based on the following
aspects.
Aspects Natural environment Man-made Environment
• Living things
• Non-living things
• Pollution
• Sustainability
Recapitulation
The students summarise the concept of environment and the difference between natural and man-
made environments.
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Stage 5- Evaluate (Reflective Questions and Activities)

1) With examples differentiate natural environment from human environment;
2) Prepare a poster related to World Environment Day;
3) Go to your nearby locality and find out the natural and man-made objects in the environment;
4) Conduct a talk in your class on ‘Care Our Environment and Protect Our Resources’;
5) How would you explain the role of human being in preserving the environment?
6) According to you, which component is more important in an environmentnature or human
beings? Why do you think so?
PLANNING CO-CURRICULAR ACTIVITIES
Before going through the steps of planning a co-curricular activity, let us ponder over three various
situations in a school.
Situation 1: Mr. Kabir is the class teacher of Std.VIII A. During Gandhi Jayanthi celebration, he asked
his students to participate in the cleaning of the school campus and left home. After his departure,
some students participated in the cleaning activity and some students left home.
Situation 2: During the same celebration, Mr. Hari Das who was in-charge of Std. VIII B, asked his
students to clean the classroom and courtyard. He asked the class leader to be in charge of the activity.
But he didn’t come for supervision of the activity. There was confusion and conflict among the
students.
Situation 3: Ms. Lali, who was in-charge of Std VIII C, already informed her students about the
cleaning activity for the Gandhi Jayanti celebration. She explained to the students the importance of
dignity of labour. On Gandhi Jayanti day, she took attendance of all students. Then she divided them
into small groups. Each group was assigned one area for cleaning. During the cleaning process, she
came and supervised her students. Those students who were not participating in the activity were
identified and motivated by her to participate in this activity. There was discipline among the groups.
After the cleaning activity was over, she distributed refreshments among them.
From the above situations, can you point out the difference among the three teachers? The teachers
differ in their styles of planning and implementation. While observing the three situations, we can see
that Mr. Kabir just announced about the activity without giving guidance and specific instruction. In
the case of Mr. Hari Das, he acts as an irresponsible teacher and giving the charge to class leader. As
far as Ms. Lally is concerned, she adequately integrated the activity with the curriculum, gave proper
guidance, took initiative, supervised and motivated the students.
Planning and organisation of co-curricular is important for achieving the objectives of school
curriculum. Generally, there is negligence on the part of school authorities regarding co-curricular
activities. But with the introduction of continuous and comprehensive evaluation (CCE), it is
compulsory to organise co-curricular activities. Planning, scheduling and organising of these activities
should be done democratically by involving pupils.
Principles Underlying Planning and Organisation of CoCurricular Activities
The main principles which need to be kept in mind while planning and organising these activities are
presented below:
• Select activities that are closely related to curriculum. They should be educationally relevant;
• The selected activities should be constructive and should aim at development of higher level
objectives, which are not attainable through regular classroom teaching e.g. novelty and
originality, writing, skill of recitation of poems, discussion etc.;
• Co-curricular activities should have place within school timings so that all can participate;
• As far as possible, all students should participate in one or other activity going on in the school;
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52
• The atmosphere has to be democratic: More suggestions and ideas can be incorporated in the
democratic atmosphere so that nothing is imposed on students;
• Leadership should be proper and careful: Every time the same person should not get a chance to
lead. Leadership should be rotational and maximum number of students should get opportunity
to conduct an activity;
• Administration and supervision: the responsibility for organising the programme should be
placed on students, while teachers can supervise and facilitate;
• Regularity: co-curricular activities should be organised regularly i.e. they should have a place in
school time-table;
• Advisor: the teacher should have an advisory role and should not impose his/ her will on
students;
• Programme should grow from small to large gradually. Initially there may be a few
items and a few students but gradually the programme should widen with maximum
number of students being involved.
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INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL (TLM)

AND RESOURCES
All of us have memories of our teachers who had ha taught us during school or college days. A few of
them were good, whereas others were not so good. Let us analyze why did we call them good? Yes,
they were caring, sympathetic, and pleasant besides being effective in their teaching. One thing
common among them was that they used new methods, techniques and teaching learning materials to
make teaching interesting, thus, effective. Teaching learning materials (TLMs), also known as
instructional aids, facilitate a teacher in achieving the learning objectives formulated by her/him prior
to teaching-learning
learning activities start. In the present Unit, we will introduce you to various teaching
learning materials, which are used to make classroom teaching and learning interesting and effective.
MEANING AND PURPOSE OF TLMs
Look at these two pictures, what do you observe?
You are right that the learner will be more enthusiastic and willing to learn in second figure. Why?
Because the picture of rabbit in the second figure will help the child to learn, how rabbit looks aand
draw its picture. The picture of rabbit is a type of teaching learning material (TLM) about which you
will study in this section.
Teaching learning materials (TLMs) are, therefore, tools, which are used by teachers to help learners
to learn concept with ease and efficiency. TLMs have been in existence in our educational system
since ancient times, (Lal, 2011). The role of TLMs in the classroom are to make learning real,
practical and fun for children. Teachers use TLMs to illustrate or reinforce a skill, fact or idea. TLMs
also help in bringing novelty and freshness in classroom teaching as it relieves learners from anxiety,
fear and boredom.
Purpose of using TLMs
TLMs are used to enhance the learning of students in classrooms. A teacher uses it to make teaching-
learning effective. TLMs also help learners achieve the learning outcomes after classroom teaching
and learning. Some of reasons to use TLMs in classroom are of various types as described below:
i) Motivate learners – Capturing attention is the first
first step to any learning and TLMs help in
capturing the attention of learner in classroom. Once motivated to look at TLMs, the children
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are curious to learn new things. TLMs provide a variety of stimuli, which helps in making
classroom teaching most effective.
effecti
ii) Help in longer retention of information – The more the number of sensory channels involved
in interacting with TLMs, the longer will be the retention of information. Therefore, the
learning will be effective and will last long.
iii) stic learning – You have read about Blooms –Taxonomy of Objectives. Learning
Facilitate holistic
objectives to be achieved through classroom teaching are in all domains-- cognitive, affective
and psychomotor. Therefore, to achieve varied objectives, varied learning experiences need to
be provided, which can be done through the use of TLMs.
iv) Help in organizing classroom teaching –As As a teacher you need to organize learning
experiences, making them as realistic as possible. You can use visual or verbal TLMs to present
accurate data in sequentially organized manner. This helps teacher to verbal and visual
communication in classroom. Thus, you may use TLMs to overcome shortcomings in verbal or
visual communication.
Fig : 7.5: Purposes of using TLMs

v) attitu – TLMs also help in changing attitude of learners towards
Facilitate change in attitude
learning in general and subject content in particular. Pictures, models and other TLMs help in
inculcation of positive attitude of learners.
vi) Practical applications – TLMs show application of theoretical knowledge into practical
applications. The theoretical knowledge studied in class is shown in concrete form through
TLMs for effective learning.
vii) Making learning fun – TLMs help in making learning fun in the classroom. Students enjoy the
novelty
velty of handling new objects and learn new concepts through them.
viii) Concept formation – TLMs facilitate the formation and attainment of concepts among
children. They concretize the abstract concepts; thus children are able to understand them and
not resort to rote learning.
Therefore, use ofTLMs in classroom teaching is an essential aspect about which you should focus
your attention while designing and developing your lesson. There are a variety of TLMs to choose
from depending on the context, level of learners and availability. The next section will acquaint you
with the various types of TLMs available.
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TYPES OF TEACHING LEARNING MATERIALS

Teaching learning materials are of various types and thus are classified and categorized in several
ways. Edgar Dale’s cone of experience is one of the simplest ways of categorizing TLMs. He
experimented with different TLMs and categorized them on the basis of type of experiences the
learner acquires – from concrete to abstract.
Another widely accepted and popular way of categorizing TLMs is based on the senses they stimulate
in learners, which, in turn affect the effectiveness of teaching learning process. TLMs can broadly be
classified into three categories.
i) Audio TLMs
ii) Visual TLMs
iii) Audio Visual TLMs
Let us look: into these categories in details.
i) Audio TLMs: These TLMs primarily stimulate the hearing sense of learner. It includes –
human voice, telephonic conversation, audio discs/tapes, gramophone records, Radio broadcast.
ii) Visual TLMs: These types of TLMs involve the sense of vision. They stimulate the visual
impulses. These can be of various types as given below:
• Visual (Verbal) Print. (the text is the main instructional or teaching learning aid)
• Textbook, Supplementary book.
• Reference books, encyclopedia, etc.
• Magazine, Newspaper
• Documents and Clippings
• Duplicated written material
• Programmed material or SLM
• Case Studies/Reports etc.
• Visual (Pictorial- Non Projected )–
a) Non-projected two dimensional – Here the TLM is in form of an image or picture
explaining the concept. Examples of such type of TLMs are blackboard writing and
drawing Charts, Posters, Maps, Diagrams, Graphs, Photographs, Cartoons, Comic
strips.
b) Non-Projected three-dimensional – This category includes threedimensional
representation of the real object or phenomenon. It helps learners in
conceptualization. It includes – Models, Mock-up, Diorama, Globe, Relief Map,
Specimen, Puppet, and Hologram.
• Visual (Projected but still) – Here the images are projected or displayed on a screen and
thus are nearer reality than visual non-projected ones. It includes – Slide, Filmstrips, Over
Head Projector (OHP), Microfilm, Micro card, etc.
iii) Audio Visual TLMs are the projected aids, which use both auditory and visual senses to
enhance learning. The greatest advantage of these is they are the closest representation of
reality. These include – Motion Picture Film, Television, Video discs/cassettes, slide – tape
presentations, Multimedia Computer.
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Fig 7. 6: Flow Chart of TLMs

Text Books
You must have read many books. In books, text is the method of communicating. Books are written
by authors for learners to help them learn new things. The book specially written by authors for
learners of a particular course is known
kn as textbook. Textbook is very important basic teaching
learning material. It is written specifically to satisfy specific needs of the syllabus. In most cases, a
textbook serves as a focal point base for organizing learning activities. In some textbooks like the
NCERT textbooks both teacher’s and pupil’s activities are included in form of questions, suggestions,
experiments, topics for discussion, etc. As often they are prescribed by the schools, and are based on
specified syllabus under a curriculum, they
they are often referred to as curricular material.
Textbooks are predominantly textual with some images. Normally, content in a textbook is organized
under chapters, units and lessons. Most textbooks are written in factual or information giving style
with little
ttle or no interactivity inbuilt in the text. Thus, most of them do not serve the purpose of self
self-
learning materials for learners.
When textbooks are written in conversational style with activities, they serve as a basis of self-study
as well. They, therefore,
ore, assist learners to acquire good reading skills and develop language
comprehension. If textbooks are well illustrated and written in interesting style, they act as interesting
individualized learning materials for the learners. Thus, the quality and utility
utility of textbook depends on
the author.
While writing a text book for students at elementary level, the author needs to keep in mind the
following points:
i) Text book should provide authentic content knowledge;
ii) Contents in the text book should be logical,
lo coherent and sequential;
iii) Language used in the textbook needs to be simple, and comprehensible by elementary students;
iv) Presentation of contents needs to be conversational and based on sound pedagogic principles;
v) Concepts and propositions need to be explained with examples and illustration;
vi) There need to be a lot of activities, cases built into the textbook;
vii) Presentation of contents needs to motivate the learners throughout the process of learning.
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Graphic Materials
Very often, it is not possible to bring concrete reality to classroom in form of real objects (specimens)
or their representations (models). In such situations, you may use graphics. Graphic materials help to
simplify, illustrate, and concretize learning experiences for learners. Maps, charts, posters are graphic
materials, which are widely used for teaching contents in sciences and social sciences.
Maps
You must have used maps to find your way to a new place. Google maps have become almost
indispensable finding our way around places. Maps are scaled down representations of the real earth’s
surface on paper. Every map is symbolized summary of earth’s surface; therefore, it provides
information in condensed form.
The symbols used are through lines, dots, colours, words and signs.
Maps are useful tool in every discipline. In social studies, it is very important for learning
geographical, historical, and economical concepts. Details in map at elementary level are kept simple
enabling learners to locate places, different physical features and to read directions.
Maps are broadly classified into following categories:
• Physical Maps, which show climate, soil, forest areas, resources, rainfalll, etc.;
• Political Map which show political divisions of countries and places;
• Economic Maps are those maps showing the crop distribution, land use, transport, etc.;
• Social Maps, show demographic distribution, in country. The literacy rate, language, tribes etc.
are shown on maps for easy comprehension;
• Historical Maps show boundaries, of the empires, routes taken by travelers, places of war,
treaties, etc.
Map reading skills should be taught to students. Some significant aspects of map reading skills are:
symbols of places; location of places – longitude, latitude; different physical features – land form,
water form; human factors; climate and resources; distances; transportation.
Charts
A chart is a diagrammatic representation of a system, process, and historical sequence of event. It is
visual representation used to summarize, illustrate, compare or contrast, communicate the subject
matter in effective and concise way. Charts are used in all subjects for concept formation and
development among learners. For example, in order to teach solar system the science teacher can
make use of a chart depicting solar system comprising sun and other planets.
If you look around, you will find wide variety of charts being used. The different types of charts are-
1) Process charts, which are used to show steps in a process. Life cycles of insects, energy cycles,
etc are shown as cyclical processes. Stepwise making of a slide box or any other object may
also be shown with the help of process chart.
2) Organizational chart – are used to represent functional relation among the different
components in our organization whether manmade or natural. Food chain, administrative
hierarchy in institution, etc. can be shown on organizational chart.
3) Time chart – are used to represent events, occurrences in chronological sequences. Evolution
of man, political empires, etc can be shown using time chart, which helps learners to compare
and contrast events in relation to time. It is very important for wholistic comprehension of the
topic or subject under study.
4) Tabular chart represents data in tabular form for easy comparison and understanding. For
example, types of crops, plants, etc. are represented in tabular form, which makes
comprehension easier.
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5) Tree chart shows growth and development from single source to many branches like in a tree.
In a time chart, it is generally a single line representation whereas in a tree chart many branches
are there like a tree. For example, family tree is a familiar example.
6) Stream chart is opposite to tree chart wherein may branches come together to converge into a
single stream. For example – many rivers like Yamuna fall in Ganga, which then flows down to
fall in the sea.
Fig 7.10: Examples of Tree and Stream Charts

7) Sequence charts or flip charts are collection of charts like flip charts used to show many
events or series of events in succession.
The flip chart is like a calendar with a sheet each for twelve months. As the month changes the sheet
is flipped over. Actually, flip chart consists of several charts arranged in a sequential order and
fastened together at one end with this spiral, metal or wooden strip.
Poster
Poster is symbolic representation of a single idea. As a single idea is depicted posters are usually bold,
eye-catching to attract learners for giving a message. Posters have both visual and textual
components. Visual component is to attract the attention of learner and thus has to be colourful and
eye-catching. Text is used to convey message related to visual and is called ‘Caption’. Caption
conveys the important message and the visual is to attract attention and therefore to support the
message to be converged. Ministry of Health for generating awareness regarding ‘Rural Health’.
Posters show creativity in their designing and development. You must have seen the posters by
AMUL, which are very eye-catching. In addition, various Ministries release attractive posters
regularly for generation of awareness.
Models
Model is recognizable imitation of real thing (eyes) or abstract thing (magnetic). Usually a model is
similar to the original object in every aspect except the size. The size of an object may be reduced or
enlarged. When size is reduced, the object is simplified to show only the essential parts. For example,
globe is model of earth simplified to show earth’s essential parts only. On the other hand, when size is
enlarged, it shows the details of the object. For example, model of eye is enlarged to allow all the
details to be seen easily and clearly.
Models are useful as these:
• Simplify difficult concepts;
• Reduce large objects to a conveniently observable size;
• Demonstrate interior structure of an object or system;
• Help learners to understand difficult part of object or system.
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It simplifies difficult concepts, processes or complex situations by focusing on essential features only
and eliminating complex details, which may hinder in understanding the concept. Models are useful
teaching learning material. While using models certan points need to be to the taken care of-
• Models should be large enough to be seen easily by everyone in the class;
• Models may be supplemented with other TLMs like chart to help leaners to understand the
relationships;
• If it is working model – check before you use in your class;
• Leaners should be allowed to touch the model and feel it for effective learning;
• True colour should be used in models for realistic learning. It also makes the model more eye-
catching.
Model can be of two types as described below:
1) Stationary or Non-working Model- Stationary or non-working model is the type of model in
which all the parts of model are stationary i.e there is no movement. It is easier to make and is
widely used as TLM, for eg. Model of eye is a non-working model.
2) Working Model- Working Model is a model in which either all or some parts are moving to
show the process in the system. They appear interesting to learners. Solar system where all
planets revolve around sun is an example of working model.
Preparation of models
The following standard techniques may be used to prepare models :
• Use cheap materials such as cardboard, wood and are to prepare static models like models of a
dam, a building and the like;
• Use materials like modelling clay and plastic line to produce realistic models of living creatures,
organs of a human body, etc.;
• Use materials like plaster of paris and paper mache to produce a physical map of a continent, or
a country, or landscape of a particular area.
Overhead Projector (OHP)
Fig. 7.13: An OHP

Overhead Projector (OHP) helps in displaying still visual material as projection on a screen. It is a
simple projector which is very easy to operate and therefore, popular among teacher. It is better than
using chalkboard as it helps teacher to talk and show visuals at the same time. As a teacher, you can
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observe the reaction of students and interact with them. It also helps in saving time as you can use
these visuals / transparencies again and again. OHP does not require a darkened room and is easy to
handle and transport from one classroom to another.
You need to use visual material either textual or pictoral by preparing transparencies.
Transparencies need to be designed and developed for achieving the objectives of the teaching-
learning. There are two forms of OHP transparencies. One is single transparency. If you want to use
ten transparencies, then you may have to make ten single transparencies. Second is using a continuous
roll of OHP transparencies. As you proceed with your classroom teaching, you unroll and show it
over OHP platform.
Single transparency – Thick transparent Acetate sheets are used to display visual or textual material
while talking in class. They can be stored in boxes with blank sheets of paper in between two
transparencies to ensure that they do not stick together.
Continuous roll – OHP has provision of winding acetate rolls from one end to other. You may start
from one end to use it as you proceed through the class. Some may use it in lieu of chalkboard. Some
may use it for calculation, derivations, etc. Roll may also be used where visuals need to be shown in
continuity for better comprehension.
Points to be kept in mind while preparing OHP slides.
1) As blank acetate sheets are slightly larger than the top glass frame of OHP. You should leave
margin on all four sides.
2) Prepare slides in landscape or horizontal position. If you need to use in portrait or vertical
position, try not to use bottom 1/3rd portion.
3) Use water-soluble or permanent marker pens according to context. When the slides are to be
reused again, use of permanent pens are preferred, whereas for one time use of water-soluble
pens are preferred.
4) Bold strong colours like Black, Red, Blue, and Green are preferred as they provide good
contrast on transparent sheets.
5) Preferably eight lines should be written per transparency and eight words per line. This makes it
readable with naked eye from 2 meters enabling students sitting at the back to read it clearly.
6) Ensure that all students can see the whole screen. Larger the screen used better is the projection
showing the details.
7) While teaching progressive disclosure of the slides should be used. The transparency is totally
covered with paper. You reveal the portion being discussed in class progressively as the
classroom teaching proceeds. This helps the learners in concentrating on the topic being
discussed and keeps alive the curiosity about the next point to be discussed.
8) You should face the class while explaining a concept with help of OHP slide. The presentation
speed should be controlled.
9) Use pointer to focus on point being discussed.
10) Switch off projector when not needed.
PowerPoint Slides
Slides are very effective as they combine the advantages of OHP slides with verstality of computer.
Images, animations, text, etc. can be inserted in power point slides which make TLMs useful and
effective. They can be easily used for small as well as large audiences. They can be reused as many
times as you want.
They can be used for classroom teaching as well individualized study. While making slides, following
points as given below should be focused.
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1) Appropriateness – It refers to the simplicity of slide presentation. Content should be according

to level of the learner. Each slide should be contextualized. Graphics are prefered visual than
tables.
2) Accurate – The content should be accurate. Word spelling, graphical data, quotation, etc. must
be double-checked for accuracy.
3) Legible – The text in the slide must be readable. Font size should be higher for Titles – 36-42
whereas 24-32 for text on slides. The distance between the lines should be 1.5 – 2. 50-70
characters including spaces and punctuations, per line, sans serif fonts (Arial, Impact) are
preferred for title and headings, though they do not look too good in bold. Serif fonts like Times
Roman, Souvenir, Serifa are prepared for writing the text slides.
4) Comprehensible – The slides should be comprehensible to learners – For this:
– Use one line per point and use brief phrases. You can elaborate in it during classroom
teaching;
– Use one slide per minute, if you are running through;
– Do not cram everything on the slide;
– Do not copy tables or photographs from books;
– Use abbreviation, which are universal;
– Avoid complicated figures as they may confuse the learners.
Audio Materials
Your voice is the most common form of audio medium, which may be used in classroom teaching.
You use voice to communicate with others. Voice creates sound, which delivers message to others.
Sender —————> Sound/message ———————> Receiver
In a classroom when a teacher talks the message is sent to students in the form of sound. It is one of
the most natural ways of communicating.
To make your voice effective medium of communication you should modulate your voice; express
your feelings; emphasis, pause at appropriate places. The skills of using voice as an effective
classroom transaction are integral part of teacher training programme.
Many audio TLMs are available to help in making classroom teaching effective
Audio CD/DVD
Audio recordings in form of CD or DVD are very popular TLM. Stories poems, songs are frequently
used in elementary classes. Discussion and debates with important personalities can be recorded and
prepared in form ofAudio CD to be used in classroom to motivate students. NCERT, NIOS prepare
Audio CD/DVD for children which are very effective TLMs.
You can use a DVD or CD players with speakers in your classroom to seen these audio CD/DVD.
You may also prepare your own audio CD/DVD. Using your mobile, voice recorder or softwares on
computerdetail in next section. , you will read about these in
Radio
Radio is a popular mass medium, which has been with us from very early times. These days all of us
are tuned to Radio through FM channels. Popularity of Radio is due to its easy access, speed and
immediacy. Back in 1917 radio was visualized as means for mass education. In India, first radio
station was established in Mumbai (Bombay) in July 1927. Two more radio stations in Calcutta and
Delhi were established in 1936. All India Radio (AIR) broadcasted radio programmes for the country.
In 1937 Calcutta station broadcasted school programmes for the first time and it continues till date.
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School educational programmes are still in demand and are used by teachers to generate interest of
students. Gyan Vani is a dedicated FM channel for educational broadcasts. It is used to broadcast
educational programmes from Educational Media Production Centre (EMPC) of Indira Gandhi
National Open University (IGNOU), New Delhi. Audio programmes developed by Central Institute of
Educational Technology (CIET) of NCERT for school children are also broadcast by Gyan Vani.
Radio is used to-
– broadcast lectures by eminent educationists, scientists, etc.
– broadcast drama, stories, commentary, news, etc
Radio is popular all our country, urban as well as rural, settings.
While preparing Radio programmes selection of topic is very essential. Topic should support verbal
communication i.e. verbal inputs are needed to topic. Sound, music, special effects are added to audio
programmes to make it interesting and effective. It helps in creating visual images through sound and
thus enriches imagination in children, CIET, State Institute of Educational Technology (SIET) and
educational technology divisions of SCERTs produce topic and need based audio programmes for
school children.. IGNOU also produces audio programmes for its student teachers enrolled in teacher
education programmes.
Podcasts
Radio is a mass broadcast medium whereas Podcasts are personalized broadcast. Podcasts are
prepared for specific target and made available to the target group for specific learning objectives.
Podcast is portmanteau of words ‘pod’ from iPod and ‘cast’ from broadcasting
You want to narrate a story to your class. You record it and play in your classroom teaching. If
children want to hear it at home. You can make it available through Podcasts. Podcasts can be easily
made using computer software.
Podcasts are uploaded on web to be listened at any place and anytime. Students can download it to
hear at any convenient time and place.
Audio Visual Medium
It is the most effective of all TLMs as it is nearest to reality and thus generates interest and motivate
learners. Televisions, Video, Multimedia programmes, interactive video are audio-visual TLMs used
by Teachers.
Television –Children are extremely fond of cartoon networks on Television. In a similar manner if we
have Audio Visual TLMs for capturing the attention of children, then learning will be interesting and
effective. Gyan Darshan of IGNOU is a Channel dedicated to educational programmes. Educational
programmes prepared by CIET for children are regularly broadcasted. SIETs produce programmes in
local languages for children.
Television is useful as it brings to children a wide variety of programmes in their local language. They
can use it to learn about new things and then clarify the points they did not understand with their
teacher.
As a teacher, you should try to prepare children to watch the programme. You should ask questions
related to the topic being telecast on TV. This will raise their curiosity level and they will be more
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alert and focused while watching the TV programme. After watching the programme, there should be
discussion. This will help in retention of the points learned and helps in consolidating the learning.
Both pre and post screening discussions are important as they help in concept construction among
learners.
Video CD/DVD
Video programmes are developed on specific topics to be used in classroom teaching. A script is
prepared and the programme is developed using cameras. Professionals generally develop video
programmes. Though as a teacher, you can prepare short films for your students and make them
available through CD or DVD for them to watch in class or later at their home. Video programmes
may be run on DVD player as well as computer. CIET of NCERT has developed many Video CD and
DVD s for school children National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS) develops programme for
children. Besides many private organizations also develop programmes but the cost is more and thus
not all children can be benefited by theses video programmes.
Computers : Computer is the modern day wonder, which has penetrated all spheres of life. As a
teaching learning material, its potential is enormous. It supports group as well as individualized
learning and this increases its scope of use in variety of situations and variety of ways. A computer
can record, analyze, interact with students, store and manipulate data on an extensive scale.
It may be used as a TLM in variety of ways. You can use it for various purposes.
• Give practice to students especially in math and languages. A student is presented with a series
of exercises, which he/she has to do, and the computer gives the feedback. This helps students
in practicing the new learning.
• Provide the learning material in small units and gives immediate feedback and this reinforce
further learning.
• Games are great stimulator for learning. New concepts may be introduced through games.
• Animation is another feature possible on computers. Children love animated programmes. Thus,
animation may be used to capture their interest to teach difficult and affective domain topics.
• Simulate the complex topics and help students to understand. Topics like cell , its organelles,
photosynthesis may be simulated on computers for better understanding.
• Interact with learners at each step for them to be motivated to learn further.
When computers are used for teaching learning process it is called Computer Assisted learning (CAI)
or Computer Mediated Learning (CMI). Here the computer interacts and communicates with the
learner according to the predesigned programme. The students are guided through the new concepts in
a predetermined manner. The computer interacts with the learner at every step and thus it is
interactive learning and the learner is always active.
You should use these TLM as making the teaching learning effective in your classes. You should use
the type of TLM which is appropriate to the concept taught.
PREPARATION OF LOW COST TEACHING LEARNING MATERIALS FROM
AVAILABLE LOCAL RESOURCES.
You want to use Teaching Learning Materials (TLMs) to teach your class. What will you do? You
will go and buy it. Oh! The model and chart you want are very costly. The school has not enough
budgetary provision for costly TLMs. What should you do then? You also realize that you can easily
design and prepare the chart with little cost.
You are right. You can easily make many TLMs with the helps of locally available materials. The
waste materials like used wrapping papers, cardboards, etc.can be used to prepare TLMs. You will be
able to design and develop TLMs at low cost using waste materials. Also the locally available
materials can be used which will not be costly and you will be able to use TLM in your classroom
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teaching without financial burden. It will also give you an opportunity to involve your students in
creating TLM. (details in 7.6). Let us discuss how to make teaching learning material using local
resources with some examples.
A) Making a Neighborhood Map-You want to teach children about their neighborhood and want
to use map for teaching. How to get a map of the neighborhood? It will not be available in shop.
You can make map of the neighborhood with the help of help of students and community. You
can request children, their parents or your neighbors to help in developing neighborhood map.
Steps
1) Procure a large sheet of paper and coloured papers to draw the map.
2) Sit in-group and identify important and most frequented places in the neighborhood.
3) Make a list of places. Also, select pictures and symbols to represent those places like…
for house, for doctor, etc.

4) Start from your school. Make it in the middle so that you can map the surrounding
neighborhood. Indicate the roads and important places in vicinity.
5) Then you can move around in maps and make the important places and the roads
connecting.
6) You will get a neighborhood map to teach your learners.
7) The map will help you in teaching Neighborhood to children in your class. It will
generate their interest as it reflects the learner’s own lives. Thus, you are able to use map
at a very low cost.
8) Maps can be used for community’s natural resources; level of education; out of
schoolchildren, etc.
B) Flannel Board
Flannel boards can be used in classrooms in variety of situations. Advantage of using a flannel
board is that it provides flexibility of using material to teach students.
Steps in making the flannel board:
• A plywood board of desired dimension should be obtained;
• Cloth like Velvet, Wool blanket or any other hard textured cloth can be used. The cloth
needs to be stretched and fixed on the board with the help of nails;
• Flannel boards are used to display pictures, messages. You can add, move the pictures
easily on flannel board;
• For pictures to stick on flannel board a small piece of sand paper or twoway tape should
be used on the back of the pictures.
C) Low cost Experimental Aids
i) Expansion of Gases- A simple experiment to show this can be made from a fused bulb, a
balloon, a candle and a match stick. The steps involved are described briefly here.
• Remove inner content of fused bulb. Ensure that no sharp edges are left.
• Fix a balloon on the open end of the bulb
• Heat the bulb.
• The gases expand and thus the balloon will blow up.
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ii) Expansion of Liquid can also be demonstrated. You will need additionally, to earlier
experiment of gases, a cork and an empty ball point refill. The steps involved are
described briefly here.
• Empty fused bulb.
• Fix an empty ball point refill inside the cork.
• Fill the bulb with colored water as expansion will be more visible in coloured
water.
• Fix the cork on the bulb.
• Heat the bulb.
• You will see the water over flowing through the refill. This shows that gases
expand on heating.
iii) Use of Cardboards- Cardboards may be effectively in teaching concepts in math. Shapes,
sizes, addition, subtraction, multiplication, fraction, etc, can be taught using cardboards.
iv) Use of Match Sticks – Match sticks may also be used for teaching children geometrical
shapes. Two sticks may be joined by a bicycle valve tube or any other narrow tube
material.
The above examples are suggestive list of low and no cost teaching and learning materials. You can
try to make a large number of TLMs at home at no or very little cost. You only have to let your
imagination run free and you will realize that you have a basket full of TLMs to choose and use.
Educational resources are also available as open resources on internet for teachers to use. It is known
as Open Educational Resources (OER). As a teacher, we may not reinvent the wheel again but use the
teaching learning materials available on internet and released for others to use, adapt, modify, reuse
and distribute with proper acknowledgement to the original author or the creator.
Playground Besides the classrooms, learners also need space to enjoy, to experiment and to learn on
their own. They need a good playground where they can play and enjoy the school premises.
Playgrounds are places where learners get the freedom to enjoy, vent out their energies and to be with
their friends. It is important that learners feel attached to the natural surroundings and use them as part
of their learning. The teachers can use the playgrounds for playing games, teaching through games
and also for learning science. For example, in the recent drive by Delhi Government to teach learners
about plants, they have asked each school to write the biological nomenclature of every tree present in
the playgrounds. Learners, unknowingly, have started to recognise the names and benefits of trees in
their lives.
Laboratories Learners are inquisitive by nature and want to learn everything by experimentation and
experience. Laboratories are places where learners learn to experiment and do things on their own.
Nowadays, educationalists have started to promote learning by doing and experimentation as a
pedagogy for almost every subject. They urge schools to establish laboratories for science, language
and mathematics. A well-equipped laboratory where instruments are easily made available to the
learners invites them to learn on their own. If you want your learners to excel and to understand a
concept better, allow them free access to laboratories and make sure that the required material is also
available to them.
Library Along with equipment to experiment, learners also need books and other reference material
to learn. Learners use libraries for seeking life-long opportunities and to enhance their learning gaps.
It is through school libraries that learners get opportunities to access information and develop their
competencies. Libraries, thus play a crucial role in encouraging to learners developing as responsible
citizens. Learners need place to study on their own, to read more and to self -learn. Libraries that
provide access to good books, magazines and journals enhance learners’s learning. Now- a- days a lot
of material is available online too. Learners need guidance to skim through these to identify and locate
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good meaningful material. The librarian and teacher should be able to help learners browse through
the internet and make judgement on the quality of the content. Librarians can make lists of good
websites and display it in the library. Besides books, libraries can also have digital material such as
educational CDs and videos. These audio-visual aids definitely help in learning.
PARTICIPATION OF STUDENTS IN COLLECTION, PREPARATION AND
MAINTENANCE OF TLMs
The basic philosophy of TLM is that teacher is a part of the whole process of collection, preparation,
and maintenance of TLMs. Whether the TLMs are to be procured or prepared, you, as teacher, should
involve students at each stage. This helps in developing in students a feeling of ownership and
commitment towards the school and its resources. Proper utilization, care and maintenance of all these
and such other resources constitute a vital aspect of classroom and school management.
The material used to prepare the TLMs should preferably be available locally and easily procurable.
This will reduce the cost of the TLMs and thus you will be able to deveop TLMs at low or no cost.
Involvement of students in design and development ofTLMs inculcates in them confidence and
postive attitude toward TLMs and its use in the classroom teaching-learning process. Therefore, as a
teacher, you must ensure that all the students are involved in design and development of TLMs. This
will be done in three major steps as listed here.
• Collection
• Preparation and
• Maintenance
Before involving students in the design and development TLMs, need analysis should be done
focusing on the material required for the process.
Collection
This is the first step towards the development ofTLMs. Students in school come from diverse
backgrounds and, therefore, have access to a large variety of materials for preparation ofTLMs.
Students should be encouaged to use their imagination and be innovative in their collection of
materials for the TLMs. Students should:
• Make an analysis as to what material could be used in preparation of TLMs;
• Explore the local neighbourhood area for collecting the materials;
• Collect scrap and discarded, usable material for making the TLMs. This will have a postive
effect on local environment as recycling and reusing of waste material helps in conservation of
environmmet;
• Materials like sticks, bamboo, plastic, rubber cardboards, ply, wood, wires, pins, etc can be
easily procured from households;
• Collection of materials should be an ongoing process and continue through out the year;
• Start from your own houshold and then to neighbourhood and then farther to community. The
puropose of such collection should be shared with others;
• Collected materials should be reviewed on weekly basis and categorised on basis of the nature
of material;
• Collected materials like plastic, wood, pins, glass, cardboard should be kept separately;
• Students should share their experience of collection of materials in the class. This will help in
sharing idea of collection amongst the class. At the same time, the whole experience will help in
confidence building and leadership skills in students;
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• The collection of materials for TLMs will help students to be environmentally aware and thus a
long commitment towards reusing resources, minimisiing wastage will be inculcated at early
stage in life.
Involvement of students in collection will help in achieving affective objectives as well which are
generally not developed in the classroom teaching-learning process.
Preparation
After collection of variety of material for the preparation of TLMs, the next step is actual preparation
of TLMs. The TLMs should always be designed according to the level of students.
Teachers should guide and facilitate students to construct simple TLMs themselves. Students should
be divided into groups and each group be assigned the task of design and development ofTLMs. As a
teacher, you may adopt many strategies in motivating students.
• You may ask all the groups to work on one TLM. This will give you different TLM on the same
topic. Thus, creative differences amongst the group will be exhibited.
• Students should be allowed to construct simple TLMs themselves. As a teacher, you should
only provide guidance when sought.
• Students should be eccouraged to improvise in preparation of TLM.
• TLMs should illustrate the teaching point clearly. Do not overcrowd with many points, pictures,
or words.
• TLMs should be as simple as possible. This makes them easier for the learners to see and
understand. Leave out too much details and backgrounds as these draw attention away from the
teaching point.
• TLM should be proportionate and to the scale. Making an object too small or too large from its
actual size will hinder in transference of learning.
• It is advisable to pre-test the TLMs. Pretesting may be done on the students or through
discussion with fellow teachers.
• Preparation of TLMs will vary according to the nature of TLMs.
Let us see few examples of TLM preparation:
Poster/Charts- The students should make a framework and write a script as to what all should be
included in the poster or chart. Pictures available in magazines should be collected and used for
making the chart. Overcrowding of concepts or information should be avoided. Students who are
good in drawing should draw the diagrams or figures. Appropirate colours should be used in the
figure and diagrams to make them attractive. Students who are not so good in drawing should be
involved in other tasks like making margins, labelling, mounting, and other tasks. The preparation
should truly be a collaborative effort.
Models- students should make a blue print of the model and list of material required for making the
model. Also decision as to make a working or nonworking model should be taken collectively. After
browsing through the available collected materials, the extra material needed should be procured from
local available market. Emphasis should be on use of locally available resources so that the cost
involved is minimum. Class should be divided into groups. Each group may be assigned a particular
task to prepare a part. After all groups have prepared the different parts, teacher should facilitate the
assembling of the different parts to complete the model. For example if you want to prepare model of
‘solar system’, different groups should be assigned to make different planets and then at the final
stage, all planets can be put together to construct ‘solar system’.
Audio based TLM- After deciding what should go as audio TLM a script may be developed
collectively. If a poem is to be used then students should be encouraged to sing the poem with proper
modulation. You can ask many students to narrate poems and record them. The best narration may be
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finalised as audio TLM to be used. This will involve all students and imagine the level of involvemnt
in this activity. This activity helps in attainment of cognitive as well as affective objectives in teaching
and learning.
Video films as TLM can be prepared using mobile or digital camera. Important processes in the
neighbourhood can be captured to facilitate concept formation among children. For example, how
animals are used for manual work; how potters make utensils; how waste is treated in the community.
Students may be taken to the site and the recording may be done and used as TLM
PowerPoint slides can be prepared on computer. You may give a topic and let students prepare power
point presentation in groups. Then, a collective review of variuos powerpoint slides can be done and
good slides from the various powerpoint presentations may be collated to make a good TLM for
teaching children.
Maintenance
As a School teacher, you must understand and learn the basic principles and procedures commonly
applicable for maintenance system ofTLMs anytime and anywhere. Some of the general principles are
listed below:
• Proper and adequate storing space should be made available for upkeep of TLMs;
• TLMs should be neatly arranged and maintained;
• All the TLMs must be well maintained. TLMs should be checked periodically for any damage
and repairs be carried out as and when necessary;
• Item-wise inventories listing all the TLMs placed in the room may be prepared and displayed at
many locations in the storing space. This will help in ready referral;
• All the TLMs whether purchased or prepared must be correctly entered in the stock registers
and maintained in good condition;
• TLMs shown in the school stock must be frequently checked, physically verified and controlled
to ensure their optimum and effective use and proper storage;
• TLMs procured and earmarked for specific use should not be misused or wasted;
• Students should be involved in this process of maintenance as in the collection and preparation
stages. They should check regularly the status of the TLMs and any fault or detoriation may be
brought to the notice of the teacher.
Maintenance is an important activity as it instills and inculcates in children the importance
of sustainabilty. You know it by experience that many TLMs get damaged or broken
through continuous use over a period. For example, a chart after being used many times will
get crushed at places or torn at the edges. If such TLMs are not periodically serviced and
repaired quickly, they will be further damaged and will become unusable eventually. If you
remember an old saying, a stitch in time saves nine stitches later. Timely repair of all such
TLMs enhances their utility and life span. So, maintenance of’ TLMs should be done in a
wellplanned and designed system of checking, servicing, repairs, and replacement of TLMs.
It is strongly advised that spending a small amount of money on quick and timely repair is a
wise decision indeed. In case of costly equipments like electronic gadgets a system of
Annual Maintenance Contract (AMC) may be given. This is highly recommended for
maintenace of all costly TLMs as well as laboratories.
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EVALUATION
BASIC CONCEPTS
For every teacher, it is important to understand the basic concepts of assessment and evaluation. You
might have observed that many teachers use measurement, assessment, testing and evaluation
interchangeably, but these terms have their specific meaning and significance. As a student teacher, it
is therefore essential for you to understand the meaning, purpose and characteristics of all these terms
so that you can use them appropriately. Let us discuss each term in detail.
Measurement
As a student teacher at the secondary level, you are expected to understand the meaning of the term
‘measurement. “Measurement is a process of assigning numbers to individuals or their characteristics
according to specific rules.” (Eble and Frisbie, 1991, p.25). This is very common and simple
definition of the term ‘measurement’. You can say that measurement is a quantitative description of
one’s performance. Gay (1991) further simplified the term as a process of quantifying the degree to
which someone or something possessed a given trait, i.e., quality, characteristics, or features.
You can generalize these definitions as measurement provides a quantified description of any trait,
characteristics, or ability. For example, Mohan has scored 58 marks in a particular examination and
Ahmad has scored 59, their individual scores are the measurement of their performance on a
particular test. Similarly you can use the examples of weight and height of learners in your class. If,
you measure their height in centimeters and weight in kilograms, you are assigning numerals (i.e. 125
cm. or 45 kg.) using some specific rules (i.e. height in centimeters and weight in kilograms).
Assessment
Some teachers use assessment and evaluation interchangeably. For example, when you think of CCE,
it is continuous comprehensive evaluation but under CCE you have to undertake formative and
summative assessment. Therefore, it is essential to clarify the doubts and understand the term
‘assessment’. Let us understand the term assessment clearly so that we can differentiate between the
two.
Assessment is “a systematic procedure for collecting information that can be used to make inferences
about the characteristics of people or objects (AERA, et. al., 1999)”. Assessment is referred as “a
process of collecting evidence and making judgments relating to outcomes”. It is said that assessment
has a narrower meaning than evaluation but a broader meaning than measurement.
In its derivation, the word assess means “to sit beside” or “to assist the judge”, it reflects that
assessment is a process of gathering data and fashioning them into an interpretable form; judgment
can be made on the basis of this assessment.
It you think of classroom assessment, you can say that when a teacher observe the learners in the
process of learning, collect feedback on their learning, improve his/her teaching-learning strategy to
facilitate them for maximum learning, s/he is doing assessment.
In connection to measurement, you can say that measurement is a process of quantifying attributes,
and assessment is the process of collecting the quantified information about the attributes and
interpreting it. Let us see the following example:
Ms. Preeti is a secondary school teacher. She conducted a unit test in all the sections of class IX in her
school. It was a 20 marks objective type test. She collected and assessed all the answer scripts. She
compiled the scores class wise and also made some groups like above average, average and below
average. She returned the answer scripts with remarks like your performance is average/below
average/above average. She also identified some topics where a large number of learners were not
responded well or made mistakes. She decided to provide additional activities for those topics in order
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to facilitate learners.
Based on above passage, mark in front of following statement, weather it was measurement or
assessment?
1. Preeti assig ned 1 mark for correct answer and 0 for

the wrong one.
2. Preeti calculated total score of each learner.
3. Preeti categorized learners’ performance as below average, average and above

average.
4. Preeti indentified the topics/areas where learners have not performed well.
In the above example, you can easily identify that statements 1 and 2 belong to measurement and
statements 3 and 4 belong to assessment.
Assessment is considered as a part of the teaching-learning process and often categorized as
assessment of learning, assessment for learning and assessment as learning. Let us elaborate each
category to understanding it.
Assessment of learning:
It basically focuses on learners’ achievement against some predefined outcomes and standards.
Sometimes, it is referred to as summative assessment. Generally, teachers undertake this type of
assessment at the end of a Unit or term or semester in order to grade or rank the learners.
According to New South Wales Educational Standards Authority (NSWESA), assessment of learning:
• is used to plan future learning goals and pathways for students;
• provides evidence of achievement to the wider community, including parents, educators, the
students themselves and outside groups; and
• provides a transparent interpretation across all audiences.
Assessment for learning:
It is practiced by teachers during their teaching-learning process. Its main objective is to improve
teaching and enhance learning by facilitating learners. It takes place along with teaching-learning
process in the classroom. It is more frequent and mostly unstructured, also referred as ‘formative
assessment’.
According to NSWESA, assessment for learning:
• encourages students to take responsibility for their own learning;
• requires students to ask questions about their learning;
• involves teachers and students creating learning goals to encourage growth and development;
• provide ways for students to use formal and informal feedback and selfassessment to help them
understand the next steps in learning; and
• encourages peer assessment, self-assessment and reflection.
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Assumptions of assessment :
In educational assessment, there are some underlying assumptions, which you should know as a
teacher so that you can do justice with your learners when you plan the assessment. Cohen and
Swerdlik (2002) have suggested following assumptions:
• Psychological and educational constructs exist that is there are always some traits or
characteristics which are to be measured.
• Psychological and educational constructs can be measured. There is a very quote of Cronbach
(1990), which states “if a thing exists, it exists in some amount. If it exists in some amount, it
can be measured.”
• Although we can measure constructs, our measurement is not perfect. Most of the educational
and psychological constructs are related to human behavior which can not be measured
accurately i.e. with 100% accuracy. There is always some chance of error during measurement.
• There are different ways to measure any given construct, for example, one can assess
intelligence through a paper-pencil test or a performance test. Achievement can be measured
with objective type tests, short answers type or essay type. It may be written test or oral
presentation also.
• All assessment procedures have strengths and limitations. This means all assessment techniques
and procedures which a teacher adopt are not perfect. Every procedure has its strengths and
limitations. One procedure can measure one dimension whereas other can measure one or many
dimensions together.
• Multiple sources of information should be part of the assessment process. In educational
assessment, multiple sources of information should be used to arrive at a decision. Any
important decision should not be based on result of any one test.
• Assessment can provide information that helps you to make better decisions. If a
teacher/educator use appropriate tool/strategy to assess learners’ performance or any particular
trait, its outcome helps him/her to make a better decision about the learners.
• Assessment can be conduced in a fair manner. Though some people may not agree with this
assumption. This may be true that assessment can be conduced with honesty and sincerity. If
you as teacher use well developed test and adopt suggested administrative procedure properly,
there are high chances of fairness. It mostly depends upon the test administrator who conducts
the assessment.
• Testing and assessment can benefit our educational institutions and society as whole. Many
teachers may argue that testing and assessment should be out of the system but you will agree
that assessment help you and your learners in teaching and learning. A teacher should adopt
flexible approach while assessing keeping in mind the nature and need of the content, learner
and context.
Components of Assessment
Assessment as system has certain components or variables which help us to decide as to what kind of
assessment strategy we can use. Harlen (2007) has suggested following components or variables of
assessment as a system:
Figure 2 Components and variables of an assessment system (adopted from Harlen, 2007)
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Figure 2 shows the componentss of assessment which help us to decide the use of assessment strategies
in different situations. As depicted in Figure 2, the first and foremost component is to find out the
purpose for which the assessment will be used. If it is for formative purpose, ac accordingly, suitable
techniques are selected for the assessment. If it is for the summative assessment, the strategy for
conducting an examination at the end of a term or semester or even an examination at the end of the
session are conducted. The component ‘use’ explains that how the assessment strategy will help the
learners, teachers, and also for the parents. Nature of task selected is also again another component of
assessment. That includes, whether the task is a regular practice like formative assessm
assessment or a type of
internal and external examination. The use of tests like developed by the teachers or standardized one
are also linked with the nature of the task. As like, the other components which are responsible for
adopting strategies for assessment are agent and basis of judgment, report and feedback, and
moderation processes have also presented in the Figure.
Evaluation
Let us discuss about evaluation, which is a broader concept as compared to measurement and
assessment. Evaluation is “a a systematic process of collecting and analyzing data in order to
determine whether, and to what degree, objectives have been, or are being, achieved (Gay, 1991)”.
It leads to decision making.
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As a teacher, you should understand that “the

“ purpose of evaluation is to make
ake a judgment about the
quality or worth of something. (Ebel and Frisbie, 1991)”
In assessment you try to find out, the level of achievement or performance of a learner. But in
evaluation your focus is, how good is the performance or the level of performance.
nce. You can say that
evaluation is a process of value judgment. It is also used to refer to the product or outcome of the
process. You can say that “measurement and assessment are the means and evaluation is the end”. In
the process of evaluation, measurement
measure is the first step, assessment comes next and when value
judgment is added to it, it becomes evaluation.
Let us further elaborate the concept of evaluation. According to Bebby (1977). evaluation as “the
systematic collection and interpretation of evidence
evidence leading as a part of process to a judgment of
value with a view of action”. If you analyze this definition, you can identify four key elements of
evaluation as follows:
• Systematic collection of evidence
• Its interpretation
• Judgment of value
• A view of action
Let us try to understand the above terms used.
Systematic collection implies that whatever information is gathered, should be acquired in a
systematic and planned way with some degree of precision.
Information gathered systematically should be carefully analysed and interpreted; superficial
observations may lead to wrong interpretation.
Judgment of value takes evaluation far behind the level of mere description of what is happening, but
requires judgments about the worth of an endeavor.
A view of action means every decision has a specific reference to action. It may be conclusion
oriented or decision oriented.
Characteristics
haracteristics of Good Evaluation
As a teacher whenever you are involved in the evaluation process, you should ensure that evaluation
should
ould have following characteristics, which are often termed as “elements of a good evaluation”. See
Figure 3 :
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Let us discuss each characteristic for our clear understanding:

Validity : A valid evaluation is one which actually tests what is set out to test i.e., one which actually
measures the behaviour described by the objective (s), under scrutiny.
Reliability: It is a measure of consistency with which the question, test or examination produces the
same result under different but comparable conditions. A reliable evaluation mechanism is
independent of the characteristics of individual evaluator.
Practicability : Evaluation procedure should be realistic, practical and efficient in terms of their cost,
time taken and case of application.
Fairness: Evaluation must be fair for all learners. This can be possible by accurate reflecting of range
of expected behaviors as desired by the course objectives.
Usefulness: Evaluation should be useful for all learners. Feedback from evaluation must be made
available to learners and help them to prove their current strengths and weaknesses.
The Purposes of Evaluation
According to Oguniyi (1984), educational evaluation is carried out from time to time for the following
purposes:
• To determine the relative effectiveness of the programme in terms of students’ behavioural
output.
• To make reliable decisions about educational planning.
• To ascertain the worth of time, energy and resources invested in a programme.
• To identify students’ growth or lack of growth in acquiring desirable knowledge, skills,
attitudes and societal values.
• To help teachers to determine the effectiveness of their teaching techniques and learning
materials.
• To help motivate students to learn more as they discover their progress or lack of progress in
given tasks.
• To encourage students to develop a sense of discipline and systematic study habits.
• To provide educational administrators with adequate information about teachers’ effectiveness
and school need.
• To acquaint parents or guardians with their children’s performance.
• To identify problems that might hinder or prevent the achievement of set goals.
• To predict the general trend in the development of the teaching-learning process;
• To ensure an economical and efficient management of scarce resources.
• To provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students from one class to
another as well as the award of certificates.
• To provide a just basis for determining at what level of education the possessor of certificate
should enter a career.
RELATIONSHIP AMONG MEASUREMENT, ASSESSMENT AND
EVALUATION
While going through the discussion about measurement, assessment and evaluation in previous
section, you must have realized that all the three are associated with each other. Evaluation may be
considered as an umbrella term which includes measurement and assessment (Figure 4).
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Figure 4 Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation
This relationship can be further explained as measurement focuses mainly on quantifying the variable,
assessment bring in qualitative descriptions and when value judgment is added to these, it becomes
evaluation. For example:
Ramesh has scored 65 marks in Mathematics in the final year examination, which is above average
performance but he has not performed well on test est items related to Trigonometry. Ramesh has
improved significantly with compared to his half-yearly
half examination.
In this, 65 marks measurement indicator, like above average performance, identification of area of
improvement comes under assessment and judgment
gment of his performance in relation to half yearly
examination is evaluation.
Let us see this in the following figure:

Figure 5: Relationship between Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation
(Source: BES-002:
002: Teaching Learning and Assessment, IGNOU, 2013)
201
Figure 5, depicts the following :
1. Evaluation = Measurement + Value Judgment
2. Evaluation = Assessment + Value Judgment
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3. Evaluation = Measurement + Assessment + Value Judgment

From the above three concepts of evaluation, now it is clear that without
withou value judgment there is no
evaluation.
TEACHING-LEARNING
LEARNING PROCESS AND EVALUATION
The main purpose of classroom teaching is to influence learners’ behavior in the desired direction.
The desired direction is guided by the educational objectives formulated byy the school and the
teacher. Therefore, you should be conscious of the goals and aims of education. More specifically,
you should formulate learning objectives for various lessons and units in the systematized and
rearranged syllabus in the subject of study.
stu Secondly, you should be in a position to construct
effective learning experiences on the basis of student learning and the modes of effective
communication channels. Finally, you should determine the extent to which these objectives are to be
achieved. Hence, three major elements in the education process are objectives, learning experiences
and learner appraisal. The simple representation of the educational process is shown as follows:
The above representation is a dynamic one and shows interaction among three major elements as
shown by directional arrows. Objectives refer to one’s intention of desired behavior that learners
should acquire. The term learning experiences, refers to those activities and experiences that the
learners undergo in order to acquire the desired behaviours.
You have to play an important role in providing learning experiences which involve interaction of
students and content. You may use various teaching methods and techniques for providing learning
experiences to the learner. The learning experiences lead to behavioural changes in learners. So,
learning involves modification in the behaviour of a learner through learning experiences. In order
that there may be an appreciable learning on the part of students, it is important tha
that teaching must be
effective. You should provide situations for close interaction of students with content by using
appropriate teaching methods and techniques. Hence effective teaching leads to successful learning
experiences.
Besides teaching, the learning ng experiences can also be brought about through a number of ways such
as the library, laboratory readings, radio, films, film strips, science clubs, field trips or such other
learning situations in real life.
Learning appraisal is concerned with ascertaining
ascertain the extent to which the objectives have been met.
The representation of the educational process shows the linking of each other element. Let us explain
the linkage of three major elements of the educational process. Beginning with objectives, the arrow
pointing to learning experiences indicates that objectives serve as a guide for the selection or creation
of learning experiences. For example, if a geometry course is aimed at developing deductive thinking
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abilities in learners, then learning experiences require work other than geometry content. This may
include home assignment to work on newspaper editorials, advertisements and also individual
projects. The point is that the nature of one’s objectives will be an important determinant of the
learning experiences that constitute the operational programme. The arrow pointing from objectives to
learner appraisal indicates that the primary focus of appraisal is on gathering evidence on the extent to
which the objectives of the programme have been attained. Just as objectives provide specification for
establishment of learning experiences, they also furnish specifications for learner appraisal. For
example, the development of deductive thinking among students, might require in its appraisal of
learning, the evidence regarding students’ proficiency to apply deductive principles to the analysis of
a variety of material in life situations, which may be outside the field of geometry.
Now, the arrow pointing from learning experiences to learner appraisal is indicative of the fact that
learning experiences provide examples for the development of appraisal tasks. The objectives that the
students are engaged in, during the learning phase of the programme, should furnish ideas for
appraisal situations. Thus, the arrow pointing from learning experiences to learner appraisal, indicates
that learning experiences furnish ideas and suggestions for learner appraisal task may not be identical
but contain an element of novelty for the learner.
The two arrows pointing from learner appraisal to objectives and to learning experiences are
especially important. In the case of the former, the arrow signifies that appraisal procedures should
furnish information about the extent to which the objectives are being attained. In addition, appraisal
information can furnish valuable information that may result in the modification of some objectives
and the elimination of others. The appraisal helps in providing a solution to the following questions:
• Should the objectives be modified or perhaps eliminated?
• Are the objectives realistic for the particular group of learners?
• Are necessary references available for achieving the objectives?
The arrow-pointing from learner appraisal to learning experiences, is suggestive of two important
notions. First, it provides information about the extent to which learning experiences appear to be
working well. Hence appraisal procedure can suggest the modification or elimination of learning
experiences. A second important idea suggested by the arrow pointing from appraisal to learning
experiences is that tasks, experiences and problems developed by evaluation specialist may be
suggestive of new learning experiences. The incorporation of moral and imaginative appraisal
materials into the learning phase of a programme has contributed significantly to the improvement of
learning experiences.
The last arrow, which points from learning experiences to objectives, denotes that learning activities
can result in encounters involving teachers, learners and learning materials which in turn may suggest
new objectives.
Role of Evaluation
Evaluation plays an important role in the teaching-learning process. In learning, it contributes to
formulation of objectives, designing of learning experiences and assessment of learner performance.
Besides this, it is useful to bring improvement in teaching and curriculum. It provides accountability
to the society, parents, and to the education system. Let us discuss its role briefly.
a) Teaching: Evaluation is concerned with assessing the effectiveness of teaching, teaching
strategies, methods and techniques. It provides feedback to the teachers about the quality of
their teaching and the learners about their learning.
b) Curriculum: The improvement in courses/curricula, text and teaching materials are brought
about with the help of evaluation. Evaluation provides feedback to the curriculum, whether it
can be practiced, learner friendly, designed as per the need of the learners and also its
effectiveness in terms of achieving the aims of the curriculum.
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c) Society: Evaluation provides accountability to society in terms of the demands and

requirements of the employment market.
d) Parents: Evaluation mainly manifests itself in a perceived need for regular reporting to parents.
In brief, evaluation
n is an important requirement for the education system. It fulfils various purposes in
systems of education like quality control in education, selection/entrance to a higher grade or tertiary
level. It also helps one to take decisions about success in specific ific future activities and provides
guidance to further studies and occupation. Some of the educationists view evaluation virtually
synonymous with what was previously defined as learner appraisal, but evaluation has an expanded
role. It plays an effective role in questioning or challenging the objectives. This does not mean that
you can casually criticize programme objectives. You should question or challenge programme
objectives only after careful study of the relationship between a programme’s objectives and the need
for which the programme was designed. Evaluation helps in the design and modification of learning
experiences on the basis of feedback received by learner appraisal. A simple representation explaining
the role of evaluation in the teachinglearning
teachinglearning process is shown in Figure 7 as follows :
Figure 7: Representation of the Role of Evaluation in the Teaching-Learning
Learning Process
ASSESSMENT FOR ENHANCING LEARNING

While going through the discussion in Section, 1.3.2, you might have understood that assessment is
part of teaching-learning
learning process, and one of its major roles is enhancement of learning. As part of
the teaching-learning process, assessment may be defined as the process of gathering, recording,
interpreting, using and communicating information
information about a child’s progress and achievement during
the development of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes.
Role of assessment for enhancing learning is discussed in a draft document of National Council for
Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) in 2004, as a follows:
Assessment is central to the process of teaching and learning. It is used to monitor learning processes
and to ascertain achievement in each area of the curriculum. Through assessment the teacher
constructs a comprehensive picture of the short-term
short and long-term needs of the child and plans future
work accordingly. Assessment is also used to identify children with specific learning difficulties so
that the nature of the support and assistance they need can be ascertained and appropriate strategie
strategies
and programmes put in place to enable them to cope with the particular difficulties they are
encountering.
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Assessment assists communication about children’s progress and development between teacher and
child, teacher and parent and teacher and teacher…… ..
(Primary School Curriculum, 1999, p.17, as quoted in draft document of National Council for
Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA), February, 2004)
If you analyze the above paragraph, you can easily indentify the key determinants of assessment for
enhancementnt of learning. Few are as follows:
• Assessment is part of the teaching-learning
teaching process.
• Assessment helps in monitoring learning and ensuring minimum achievement in every area.
• Assessment helps teachers in planning teaching-learning
teaching learning according to shor
shortterm and long-term
needs of the learners.
• Assessment helps in identifying specific learning difficulties of the learners so that teachers can
plan and adopt suitable strategy and technique to support such learners.
• Assessment helps in maintaining continuity
cont in communication between teachers, learners and
parents so that required interventions can be given at appropriate time to enhance learning.
Let us see as to how teachers can use assessment as part of the teachinglearning process for enhancing
learning. Refer to Figure 8.
Figure 8 Assessment as part of the Classroom Practice
Your main focus while using assessment as part of the teaching learning should be to answer three
basic questions:
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• What is the current learning-level of your learners?

• What are they going to learn?
• How will you link next learning with their previous learning and experiences?
If you are able to find out the answers for these questions through assessment, you can use it
effectively for enhancing learning of your learners.
OTHER TERMS RELATED TO ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION

There are many terms which as a teacher you encounter while dealing with assessment and
evaluation. Let us discuss in brief, the common terms for you to understand.
Appraisal
Appraisal is not a new term in industry. Annual performance appraisal is a key component for many
industries where employee’s performance is assessed based on self- appraisal submitted by him and
authenticated by seniors. In past few years, this system has been adopted in education sector also. In
simpler terms appraisal can be defined as follows :
“Appraisals are judgments of the characteristics, traits and performance of others. On the basis of
these judgments we assess the worth or value of others and identify what is good or bad. In industry
performance appraisal is a systematic evaluation of employees by the supervisors. Employees also
wish to know their position in the organization. Appraisals are essential for making many
administrative decisions: selection, training, promotion, transfer, wage and salary administration etc.”
From the above definition, appraisal of a learner can be explained as the work profile that the learner
has performed in the previous classes or the work that the learner has completed in the class where
he/she is continuing at present.
As questions on teachers’ quality and performance in Indian schools are being raised time and again
in various reports, the appraisal is gaining momentum in Indian school sector. Many private
schools/chain of schools have made it compulsory for each teacher to submit annual self-appraisal
before moving to the next session/continuation/promotion.
In India, schools systems like Kendriya Vidhyalaya Sangthan (KVS), Navodaya Vidhyalaya Samiti
(NVS) and some States have already adopted a selfassessment mechanism for annual performance
assessment. In an Appraisal Performa, you can find few common columns under which information is
required from teachers. The columns are as follows :
• Personal information: In this, teacher provides his/her personal details, employment details,
etc.
• Self-assessment: Teachers are asked to write about their duties (which they have performed),
their targets and achievements, any shortfall (if they were not able to achieve fully the desired
target with justification), their special/outstanding contribution to school/organization (if any),
areas which they have indentified for improvement in next session, etc.
• Appraisal by reporting authority (Head master/Principal, etc.): Uunder this section, the
reporting authority analyses the self-assessment report submitted by the teacher and provide
remarks (generally in the form of grades) on various dimensions like accomplishment of
planned work/ work allotted, quality of work output, analytical ability, accomplishment of
exceptional work/unforeseen task performed, etc.
• Appraisal by reviewing authority: The self-appraisal report submitted by the teacher and
remarks/grades provided by the reporting authority are reviewed by higher authorities like
manager of the school or education officer designated by the concerned system.
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Test
Test is a very common term used in various ways. You may find use of test as a tool or a technique. It
is also considered as a most commonly used method for measurement of educational and
psychological
ological attributes. In dictionary meaning of test you can find that “test is a series of questions
on the basis of which some information is sought” (Singh, 2002).
Test is also defined as a method to determine individuals’ ability to complete certain tasks or
demonstrate mastery of a skill or knowledge of content. It is also considered as a tool or systematic
procedure for measuring a sample behaviour by posing a set of questions in a uniform manner
designed to measure any quality, ability, skill or knowledge.
knowle
Bean (1953) defined test as “an organized succession of stimuli designed to measure quantitatively or
to evaluate qualitatively some mental process, trait or characteristics.”
It you analyze all these definitions, you can easily indentify the following
followin characteristics:
• Tests have some organized stimuli (test items) in an organized sequence to test some specific
trait/attribute.
• Test can be used as tool for quantitative measurement as well as qualitative assessment.
• Test is a systematic tool to measure
me sample behaviour.
If you go through various tests being used for assessment and evaluation, you may find a variety of
tests. All these tests can be classified on various criteria. Few common criteria have been summarized
in Figure 9.
Figure 9: Common Criteria of Tests
Figure 9 analyses certain common criteria of developing and use of tests. As shown in the figure, we
can say that a test can be administered individually or in group. The scoring procedures in objective
and subjective tests are different.
differe Time limits for power and speed test is also another concern.
Generally, more time is provided for power test but very less time is provided for speed test to
complete the task. Nature of items in the tests can also vary such as the items are may be ve
verbal, non-
verbal or performance based items. On the basis of the purpose of test use, it may be standardized or
teacher-made.
Examination
Examination is considered as a formal system to know how much one has achieved or where one
stands in comparison to others.
hers. It is basically a test to see how good somebody is at something.
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Generally examination is considered in two senses : one, to know about how good one is, and other, to
know the shortcomings, or, where is one lacking? Example of first is semester or an
annual examination,
and example of other is unit test, diagnostic tests, etc. Both have their importance in educational
setting as both are complementary to each other. You must have realized that examinations are some
formal sort of testing mechanism, where syllabus, format of test-paper,
paper, medium, nature of test items,
duration, scoring pattern, etc. are pre-decided
decided and mostly standardized one. Examination may be
classified in various types based on certain criteria, like:
APPROACHES TO EVALUATION : PLACEMENT,

PLACEMENT, FORMATIVE,
DIAGNOSTIC AND SUMMATIVE
Assessment is conducted in different phases of the teaching learning process. We carry out assessment
before the beginning of the teaching-learning
teaching process; during the teaching-learning
learning process and at the
end of the instructional process. Approaches of Evaluation on the basis of its types and functions can
be classified as follows :
• Placement evaluation
• Formative evaluation
• Diagnostic evaluation
• Summative evaluation
Each of four types of evaluation serves different
different purposes. In the teachinglearning process, evaluation
starts with placement evaluation and ends with summative evaluation. All four types of evaluation are
important, and are unique in their functions. The four types of evaluation and their function
functions are
diagrammatically presented in Table 3.1 for your understanding.
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Table 3.1 Types of Evaluation and their Functions
Table 3.1 shows different types of evaluation which are conducted in teachinglearning process.
Generally, evaluation starts with measuring
meas the entry behaviour of the learners and conditions till the
judgement of their terminal behaviour. Let us discuss the main purpose and functions of each type of
evaluation.
Placement Evaluation
Placement evaluation can be defined as a type of evaluation
evaluat that provides information to the teachers
about the learners to whom he/she deals with relating to their existing knowledge and experiences
based on that the teacher designs to teach new knowledge. You have seen in Table 3.1, placement
evaluation is conducted
nducted before undertaking the teaching-learning
teaching learning activities. It is basically used to
measure the entry behaviour or existing knowledge of the learners. Another purpose of placement
evaluation is to know whether the learner is able to acquire the new learning ng experiences based on
his/her previous knowledge. The key word which is used for placement evaluation is the “entry
behaviour”. Assessment of entry behaviour is done just before teaching starts. In the teachinglearning
process, before teaching a new topic,
topi teacher should know the previous knowledge of students. This
helps teacher to organise teaching-learning
teaching activities according to the previous knowledge of learners.
The technique of introducing a lesson by asking certain questions from the previous know knowledge of the
students is related to the topic taught or by any other techniques like demonstrating something, telling
a story, doing a role play, etc. are also the examples of placement evaluation. In other way,
conducting a type of entrance examination forr selecting learners to a particular course is also example
of placement evaluation.
Formative Evaluation
For the first time in the year 1967, Michael Scriven used the concept of formative evaluation while
working on curriculum evaluation. According to Scriven
Scr (1991), “Formative evaluation is typically
conducted during the development or improvement of a programme or product (or person, and so on)
and it is conducted, often more than once, for in house staff of the programme with the extent to
improve”. If we analyse the definition, it is clear that the purpose of conducting formative evaluation
is to monitor the learning progress of the learner. Though initially the concept of formative evaluation
coined in the area of curriculum development but subsequently
subsequently the term got familiar to use in the
teaching pedagogy and the process of teaching and learning. It is also conducted to know whether the
learning objectives are being achieved or not. The key word in formative evaluation is learning
progress. As shown in Table 3.1, formative evaluation is considered as the second stage of evaluation
which is conducted during the teaching-learning
teaching learning process. The first stage of evaluation is the placement
evaluation . Formative evaluation starts from the very beginning of designing igning instruction and it
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continues till the end of the course/instruction. Conducting unit end examination, monthly
examination, quarterly examination, half-yearly
yearly examination, etc. are the examples of formative
evaluation. It provides feedback to the teachers
teachers to know effectiveness of their teaching and
modification required and the learners to know the progress of their learning. It also provides scope
for diagnostic evaluation. The salient features of formative evaluation are as follows:
• It builds on the
he prior knowledge, and experiences of the learners, and ensures learner friendly
assessment.
• It helps in enhancing the learning abilities of the learner.
• It provides scope for the use of variety of activities, and various tools and techniques for
promoting
oting holistic development of the learners.
• It ensures learning in a non-threatening
non and supportive environment.
• It provides descriptive feedback to children for realising their strengths and weaknesses.
• It provides a chance to the learners to reflect
reflec on their performance, as it realises the role of
motivation and self-esteem
esteem of students learning.
• It encourages learners to understand the criteria/parameters that have been used to judge their
performance.
• It helps learners to actively and continuously
continuou engage in learning.
• It provides feedback to the teachers to use teaching strategies according to the needs of the
learners.
• It is diagnostic and remedial, formal and informal approach of assessment.
Formative evaluation supports for continuous and comprehensive evaluation of the learners. It
provides scope both to the teachers and the learners to establish a continuous assessment culture in the
classroom (see Figure 3.1).
Figure 3.1: Components of formative evaluation culture in the classroom
We usese a variety of tools and techniques for conducting formative evaluation. The use of tools and
techniques are decided keeping in view the subject/topic being taught, the abilities of the learners and
learning objectives we want to assess. Central Board of Secondary Education (2010) and Kendriya
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Vidyalaya - Zonal Institute of Education and Training (2012) suggested to use the following tools and
techniques in assessment of the progress of learners.
Table 3.2: Tools and techniques used in formative evaluation
Tools Techniques
Questionnaire Examination
Observation schedule Assignments
Interview schedule Quizzes and competitions
Checklist Projects
Rating scale Debates
Anecdotal records Elocution
Document analysis Group discussions
Tests and inventories Action plan
Portfolio analysis Experiments
Worksheet
Seminar
Symposium
Survey
(Source: CBSE, 2010, p.29 and KV-ZIET, 2012)

It is essential for teachers to realise, that they do not need to always use the formal unit tests or
performance tests; instead they should integrate formative assessment in their day-to-day classroom
practice in various ways, such as:
• Observation during classroom activities;
• Non- verbal facial expressions of children;
• Classroom discussion and homework review;
• Informal question – answer sessions;
• Classroom activities where children make presentations, such as, presentation of project reports,
etc;
• Student feedback periodically collected by the teacher on teaching- learning process;
• Self –evaluation of children on different activities; and
• Maintenance of reflective journals by teachers which are reviewed by them periodically.
The above aspects of assessment of learners performance can be done by the teachers in daily
teaching or periodically as per the situation and scope.
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The use of any particular tool or technique depends on the nature of topic being discussed, nature of
activities undertaken, and the level of children involved in these activities. We may often need more
than one assessment tool/technique to have comprehensive formative assessment. As example, if we
practice ‘presentation of project’ as a technique of assessment in the class, we can equally use the
portfolio as a technique for assessment periodically. The learners will make their portfolio
periodically where presentation of project which has already presented by the learners can also be
preserved and included in the portfolio for periodical evaluation.
Diagnostic Evaluation
Diagnostic evaluation is conducted along with formative evaluation during the instructional process. It
is carried out based on the data obtained from formative evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is specially
conducted to identify and remove the learning difficulties of learner if it is observed and found during
the formative evaluation. For example, if a learner couldn’t understand certain concepts in a particular
subject and continuously performing poorly in that subject, we conduct diagnostic test to know the
causes of the difficulties and accordingly provide them remedial treatment to overcome the
difficulties. The key word in diagnostic evaluation is identifying of ‘learning difficulties’. Diagnostic
evaluation not only solves learning difficulties of learners but also identifies and provides remedies
for personal, physical and psychological problems. This can be exemplify as sometime you may find
that few students in your class are very nervous to come forward and say something, tendency of fear
towards the friends and teachers, suffering certain psycho-social disorders and physical disorders.
Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation is used to find out the extent to which the instructional objectives have been
achieved at the end of a terminal period. It is used primarily for assigning course grades or for
certifying student’s mastery of the intended learning outcomes at the end of a particular programme.
The techniques used for summative evaluation are determined by the instructional objectives. For this
evaluation, both external and teacher-made tests are used. Although the main purpose of summative
evaluation is assigning grades or marks, it also provides information for judging the appropriateness
of the course objectives and the effectiveness of instruction.
So far we have discussed four types of evaluation. Though all types of evaluation are conducted in
teaching-learning process, but the use of formative and summative evaluation are popular among
them. You might have observed the similarities and differences among them. The similarity among
them is that all are concerned with the assessment of learning. All are conducted at different phases of
the teaching-learning process. But they differ in terms of their purposes, processes, techniques and
tools used in collecting evidences, processes of providing feedback, functions, time/period in the
teaching-learning process and their uses for future purposes. We can summarize summative
evaluation as follows:
• It is conducted after the completion of the instruction in a term, a course or a school session.
• It ‘Sums-up’ how much a student has learnt over a period of time.
• It focuses mostly on assessing the scholastic abilities of the children.
• It contributes to the over all grading and certification of the children.
• It is mostly structured and formal approach to assessment of learning;
• It provides terminal feedback, both, to the teacher and the children to re-design their teaching
and learning accordingly.
In the next section we will discuss about the differences between formative and summative
evaluation. But before that you should undertake an activity.
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DISTINCTION BETWEEN FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE

EVALUATION
In the Section 3.3 you have studied about the concept and processes of using various types of
evaluation including the formative and summative evaluation. In this Section we will focus on the
differences between formative and summative evaluation. We can differentiate between formative and
summative evaluation based on different parameters. Table 3.3 will make you understand how both
are different from each other.
Table 3.3: Distinction between formative and summative evaluation
Parameters Formative Evaluation Summative Evaluation
Time of use • During the process of • At the end of a

instruction.
• term/semester or session
Purpose • To know the progress and • To certify and grade the

mastery of learning. learners.
• To provide feedback both to • To provide feedback to the
the learners and teachers. learners for further study.
• To provide data for • It includes formative
summative evaluation. evaluation.
Learning Objectives • Are related with the topic • Are related with the
taught. objectives of the course and
the programme.
• Are limited in scope.
• Are vast in nature.
Process • By classroom observation • By conducting term end

examination.
• Can be conducted through
oral and written teacher • Mostly external in nature.
made tests.
• By conductin mostly written
• By conducting peer and type of examination.
group assessment.
• By using teacher-made as
• Mostly internal in nature. well as standardized tests.
• It supports criterion- • It supports norm-referenced
referenced evaluation. evaluation.
• Formative evaluation is • Output of formative
usually a quick evaluation. evaluation can be used in
summative evaluation.
Tools and Techniques used • By using varieties of • Can only be conducted

assessment tools and through wwritten test, paper
techniques like text, and pencil test.
questionnaire, scale,
schedule, checklists,
portfolios, quiz, debate and
discussions, role play,
dramatization, etc.
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Product • Enable learners to know • Award and certify the

their progress in learning, learners.
difficulties they face and the
• Make them enable and
ways to remove those
eligible to pursue further
difficulties.
educational courses/
• Enable the learners for their programmes.
continuous and
comprehensive
development.
• Provide suitable
remediation for further
development of the learners.
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL EVALUATION

In the Section, you have learnt about formative and summative evaluation. You know that the
formative evaluation is mostly internal in nature which is highly based upon formal and informal
observation of the students in various activities. Summative evaluation is a type of external evaluation
as the external experts are engaged in setting the question papers, evaluating the answer scripts, and
also conducting viva-voce of the students. Various education committees and commissions at
different times have emphasized balancing internal and external evaluation in the school system.
Keeping in view the above, in this Section we will discuss the nature of internal and external
evaluation with their strengths and weaknesses.
External Evaluation
When examinations are organized and conducted by an agency other than the institution giving
instruction to the students, and all the students of the group of institutions come together under the
perview of the agency, the evaluation carried out is regarded are an external evaluation. To this extent,
the public examinations in our country are conducted by the appropriate school boards are external
evaluation. In such public examinations, the teachers concerned do not get directly involved in the
process of evaluation. Ordinarily in such public examinations are not conducted with a specific
objective in view. Thus a public examination may be conducted and the results of such an
examination utilized for a large number of purposes. Actual testing is restricted to a candidate
answering a question paper or a series of question papers each within a set time-limit.
Also when the examinations are conducted by the same institution which teaches but tests are
prepared and marked by persons other than the ones who teach the group, the evaluation is called
external. Thus when the teacher who teaches is not involved in the evaluation process, the evaluation
should be called external.
Internal Evaluation
During the last decade, the popularity of internal evaluation has been increased. Most of the
continuous and comprehensive evaluation is conducted by internal evaluation system. Internal
evaluation supports formative and diagnostic evaluation. This is conducted to know the learning
progress of the students and the difficulties that they face during the process of teaching and learning.
Internal evaluation is also provides a base for remedial teaching to the identified students. The criteria
that followed for internal evaluation are: evaluating the involvement of the students in the teaching-
learning activities of the class; setting of the question paper by the class teacher teaching that class;
and conduct of the examination vis-à-vis evaluation of the scripts by the teacher himself or herself. In
the present days, internal evaluation in the school is quite popular and it is conducted by observation,
peer evaluation, using portfolios, projects, discussions, demonstrations, etc.
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Strengths and Limitations

The teacher concerned has always been regarded as the best judge of a student. Based on this
principle, internal assessment of the students by teachers of the institution concerned has been adopted
by many institutions in our country and elsewhere. In an internal assessment, it is necessary that a
variety of tests are administered and proper statistical weightages are given to each and then an over-
all grade is arrived at, as a true index of the capabilities of a student. There are also other aspects in
internal assessment of different sections in a class. If a class has four sections and each section is
taught by a different teacher, what will be the procedure adopted to realize uniformity in the
evaluation. As like uniformity in internal assessment within different sections in a class within the
school is an issue, the uniformity of internal assessment between schools are also equally an issue.
Even an internal assessment requires continued research to improve its reliability and validity.
Favouring attitude of the teachers to few students is also again an issue of internal evaluation.
Although, certain demerits of internal assessment are there, still it is widely used in the system as it is
realized that the teachers those teach the students are the best person in judging the abilities and over
all performance of the students.
To minimize the limitations of internal evaluation, the popularity of external evaluation has also been
realized. It is always a debate between the educationists and the teachers to determine the percentage
of contribution for internal and external evaluation. It has always been observed that the percentage of
external evaluation is more in comparison to internal evaluation specially in the board classes like
10th or 12th classes, but in class examinations, it is realized that the percentage of internal and
external evaluation is more or less equal. The merits of external evaluation system is that the teacher
evaluate the students hardly know to them earlier, so very rare chances are left in favour of a
particular student whereas it has also realized that a major part of students evaluation should not be
given in the hands of the external evaluation as they are least concerned about the continuous
development of the students. Only the class teacher can be a best evaluator.
NORM-REFERENCED AND CRITERIONREFERENCED EVALUATION
The alternative approaches to educational testing that must be thoroughly understood are norm-
referenced and criterion-referenced testing. This classification of test is also called as the typology of
nature of reference. Although there are similarities between these two approaches to testing, there are
also fundamental differences between norm and criterion referenced testing. Their differences are
based upon their construction and interpretation of the scores. Let us understand, about norm-
referenced and criterion-referenced evaluation.
Norm-referenced Evaluation
When we measure one’s relative position in a well defined known group, we usually use the norm-
referenced test. As example, if we want to know Sudhir’s rank or position in the 10th Board
Examination held in 2017 in the State of West Bengal, that can be done through the norm-referenced
test. In this example, we compare Sudhir’s performance with others performance in that group. Let us
take another example. Suppose a student secured 70 marks in English. The mark 70 is an individual
score which provides very limited interpretation. A single score never provide us the interpretation
like how good or how poor the student is in English. The individual score gives certain meaning when
it is compared with the other scores in the group. Norm-referenced test is also a type of standardized
test. The procedure followed for developing a standardized test is also followed for developing norm-
referenced test.
According to Nayak and Rath (2010), the various procedures adopted for normreferenced evaluation
are as follows:
(i) When marks are evaluated with reference to average, it is norm-referenced evaluation because
the average is based upon the obtained scores. If it is to be used, as measure of variability which
shows the scatter of the scores, should be taken into account.
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(ii) We can express a mark in terms of its standing in the group. It is clearly understood but it has
certain difficulties. The 7th rank in a group of 10 does not have same meaning as the 7th rank in
a group of 100. If number of candidates is not the same, we cannot compare the merit of a
student in different examinations in terms of ranks.
(iii) Standing in terms of grades may serve the purpose. But, sometimes, scores are converted in to
grades, such as A,B,C,D & E, etc. is not precise because grades cannot be added or averaged.
(iv) Standing or a rank may be expressed by percentile norms. It is more precise than a grade report
and comparable in precision with a rank report.
Norm-referenced achievement tests are more familiar. The norm may be set up on a local, state or
national group depending upon the use of the result. As the norm-referenced tests are prepared for the
wide range of the population, so the test items are generally retained which are average in difficulty
value. It means that the very easy and difficult items are rejected. There are several procedures to
determine the standing positions of a student. We can not say that a single method or approach is most
comprehensive and accurate. All approaches have its own merits and limitations. The methods are
used in different situations based on the nature of the test and nature of comparison.
Criterion-referenced Evaluation
Criterion referenced evaluation is related to performance of the students in a well defined learning
task. It has nothing to do with the norms or relative rank or position of students in any well defined
group. As example, if we say that Sudhir successfully solves 60 percent of questions in the chapter of
‘Modern History’ in class-IX text of History, is rightly an example of criterion-referenced evaluation.
In this example, the performance of Sudhir is defined in relation to a learning task i.e., chapter of
‘Modern History’ in the class-IX text of History. Thus in contrast to a norm-referenced evaluation we
can refer an individual performance to a pre-determined criterion which is well defined. In
criterionreferenced evaluation, a criteria is fixed i.e. a fixed standard in a learning task, say 50% or
60%. In it, the individual’s status is ascertained with respect to some performance standard. The
standard is the measure representing the criterion, the criterion itself being a specified performance. In
criterion-referenced evaluation, there is no question of comparing one student with the other in it. To
conclude, we can say, if we want to select the students who have achieved a particular level of
performance, we seek criterion-referenced evaluation but if we want to select a particular percentage
or number of students, we prefer norm-referenced evaluation to criterion-referenced evaluation. In the
next section, we will discuss in more detail about the distinction between norm-referenced and
criterion-referenced evaluation.
Distinction between Norm-referenced and Criterionreferenced Evaluation
After reading the earlier sections, you might have understood the concept and purposes of developing
and use of criterion-referenced and norm-referenced evaluation. Let us discuss, how both of them are
distinct and different from each other.
Table 3.4: Distinction between norm-referenced and criterionreferenced evaluation
Parameters Norm-referenced Evaluation Criterion-referenced Evaluation
Time of use • At the end of a term, naturally • During the progress of instruction,
school board examination. like conduct of class examination.
Similarities • It supports summative evaluation. • It supports formative and diagnostic

with other tests Standardized tests are suitably used. evaluation. Teacher-made tests are
usually used.
Purpose • To know the relative position rank • To know individual performance in a

of the students in a well defined well defined learning task.
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known population or group. • No comparison is possible with other

students, only standard of a student
• Comparison of a student is possible
can be defined in relation to a
with other students or groups.
learning task i.e. called criterion.
Relative or • A norm-referenced test is used to • A criterion-referenced test is used to

Absolute ascertain in individual's status with ascertain an individual's status with
respect to the performance of other respect to a defined achievement
individuals on that test. domain.
Instructional • No instructional objectives are fixed. • Specific instructional objectives are

Objectives developed, which may defined as a
• Course objectives are given
standard.
importance.
Parameters Norm-fererenced Evaluation Criterion-referenced Evaluation
Population • This is organized on a vast • Can be carried out within a limited area,
population, like students in a even in a school, class or section.
State, region etc.
Process of the • All the steps of standardizing a • A criterion-referenced test typically

development test are followed. focuses on a more specific domain of
examinee behaviours.
• Reliability, validity, norm,
item difficulty, discrimination, • Many criterion-referenced tests
etc. are calculated. categorically provide shape of a norm-
referenced test.
• Is a type of external evaluation.
Product • Can be used to certify or grade • Can be used to know the learning
the students. progress and also to identify the learning
difficulties of the students.
• Can also be used to provide
placement to the students for • Minimum Level of Learning of the
higher study and to get entry in students and mastery of the students on
various job fields as well. any learning task can be determined.
• This can help the teachers to know the
entry behavior of the students and
accordingly they can plan for new
teaching.
• On the bases of criterion-referenced
evaluation, remedial instruction can also
be possible to provide to the identified
students.
CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE EVALUATION (CCE)

Evaluation measures not only the progress and achievement of the students but also the effectiveness
of the learning-teaching materials and methods used for curricular transaction. It is an integral
component of curriculum with the purposes of effective delivery and further improvement in the
learning-teaching process. Hence, it is important not only for the students, but also for the teachers.
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Very oftenwe view evaluation or assessment as something administered by the teachers and taken by
the students at the terminal stage of learning. When evaluation is seen as an end of the learning
exercise, both the teachers and the students are likely to keep it outside the teaching-learning process,
rendering assessment broadly inappropriate and strange to the curriculum. Further, such a perception
is associated with anxiety and stress for students. On the contrary, if evaluation is seen as an integral
part of the learning-teaching process, it tends to become continuous. Every situation for learning is
also a situation for evaluation. When it is included in the learning-teaching process, students will not
perceive tests and examination with fear. It will rather lead to identification of students’ strength and
weakness. Once students’ strength is explored, it will be easier to take follow-up action which may be
either remedial to remove their learning difficulties or enrichment to enhance their learning level.
The scope of evaluation in schools extends to almost all the areas of students’ personality
development. It includes both scholastic and co-scholastic areas to be called as comprehensive. For
example, scores or grades in Mathematics represent the scholastic competency and attitude towards
the subject, interest in the subject represent co-scholastic competency. Both the aspects are
interrelated and are in line with the goals of education. If evaluation is continuous, the strengths and
weaknesses of students will be more prominent giving them opportunity to understand and improve
themselves. It also provides feedback to the teachers for modifying their teaching strategies.
Concept, Process and the Need of CCE
Education intends to promote all-round development of the student. Hence, Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is to be carried out in relation to students’ cognitive, affective and
psycho-motor growth. Cognitive growth refers to the intellectual development of students (such as
students’ knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation). Affective
growth emphasizes students’ attitude, interest and personal development. Psycho-motor growth deals
with students’ ability to perform some activity or do some practical work. Therefore, if the learning-
teaching process is to ensure all-round development, evaluation of the students has to be continuous
and comprehensive.
To bring about improvement in the quality of education and the holistic development of the child,
evaluation process needs to focus adequately on both scholastic and non-scholastic areas of
development. The comprehensive evaluation also needs to have continuity at regular intervals
throughout the academic year.
Now analyse the on-going evaluation practice in elementary schools and try to answer the following
questions?
• Does it give a complete picture of the child about what s/he knows and what s/he can apply in
the real life?
• Does it say something about the students’ potentials?
• Does it help us as teachers to do something good enough?
• Does the result of evaluation help the teachers and the planners to improve the quality of
education?
You will realise that you donot get satisfactory answers to these questions. The need for CCE is
apparent and we can say that CCE is needed to:
• provide a holistic profile of the student through assessment of both scholastic and non-
scholastic aspects of education;
• identify the latent talents of the students in different contexts;
• identity strategies for raising students’ achievement;
• plan a Comprehensive Evaluation Programme for improving schools;
• suggest suitable tools and techniques for achieving continuous comprehensive evaluation;
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• use evaluation as a tool for continuous improvement of the school and the students;
• suggest ways and strategies of sensitizing school administrators, parents and the community
about CCE.
(Source: Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation: Manual for Teachers, CBSE, 2010)
The term ‘continuous’emphasizes that evaluation of identified aspects of student’s growth and
development is a continuous process rather than an event, built into the total learning-teaching process
and spread over the entire span of academic session. It means regularity ofassessment, frequency of
unit testing, diagnosis of learning gaps, use ofcorrective measures, retesting and feedback of evidence
to teachers andstudents for their self-evaluation.
The term ‘comprehensive’means that this process attempts to cover both the scholastic and the co-
scholastic aspects of the student’s growth and development. Since abilities, interest, attitudes and
aptitudes aremanifested in different forms and activities, the term impliesapplication of variety of
tools and techniques (both testing and non-testing)and aims at assessing a student’s development in
areas of learning, like: Knowing, Understanding, Applying, Analysing, Evaluating, Creating, and
Innovating etc.
We can hence define CCE as follows
CCE is a process of ensuring learning performance of students through both formative and summative
evaluation in different areas such as cognitive, affective and psycho-motor to promote all round
development of the students.
The features of CCE are:

• It is school based evaluation of students covering all aspects of students’ development.
• The ‘continuous’ aspect of CCE takes care of ‘continual’ and periodicity’ aspect of evaluation.
• Continual, means assessment of students in the beginning of instructions (placement evaluation)
and assessment during the instructional process (formative evaluation) done informally using
multiple techniques of evaluation.
• Periodicity means assessment of performance done frequently at the end of unit/term using
certain standards (i.e. acceptable level of performance based on the objectives).
• The ‘comprehensive’ component of CCE takes care of assessment of all round development of
the child’s personality. It includes assessment in Scholastic as well as Co-Scholastic aspects of
the student’s growth.
• Scholastic aspects include subject specific areas, whereas Co-Scholastic aspects include
Personal-Social Qualities, Co-Curricular Activities, Attitudes and Values.
• Assessment in Scholastic areas is done informally and formally using multiple techniques of
evaluation continually and periodically. The diagnostic evaluation takes place at the end of a
unit/term as a test. The causes of poor performance and the areas of poor performance are
diagnosed using diagnostic tests. These are followed with appropriate interventions followed by
retesting.
• Assessment in Co-Scholastic areas is done using multiple techniques on the basis of identified
criteria, while assessment of personal-social qualities is done on the basis of Indicators of
Assessment and Checklists.
(Source – Position Paper, National Focus Group: Examination Reforms, p.25).
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Let us consider the objectives of CCE.
The objectives of CCE are:

• To help develop cognitive, psychomotor and affective aspects of the students’ personality;
• To lay emphasis on thought process and de-emphasize memorization;
• To make evaluation an integral part of teaching-learning process;
• To use evaluation for improvement of students achievement and teachinglearning strategies on
the basis of regular diagnosis followed by remedial instructions;
• To use evaluation as a quality control device to bridge the gap between actual performance and
desired performance, and to maintain desired standard of performance;
• To take appropriate decisions about the student, the process of learning and the learning
environment;
• To make the process of learning and teachinga learning-centeredactivity.
(Source: Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation: Manual for Teachers, CBSE, 2010)
Objectives of CCE
Thus we can say that the major emphasis of CCE is on the continuous growth of the students ensuring
their intellectual, emotional, physical, cultural and social development and therefore it will not be
merely limited to assessment of students’ scholastic attainments. CCE uses assessment as a means to
provide feedback to both teachers and students tomake suitable changes in their efforts to improve
learning. It also motivates students and gives a comprehensive picture of the students’ profile.
As a teacher, while evaluating learning of the students, what should you do and what should you
avoid to do?
Use of Quantitative and Qualitative Data for CCE
Evaluation methods and the data they produce are grouped into two basic categories: quantitative and
qualitative. In general, quantitative methods produce ‘hard numbers’ while qualitative methods
capture descriptive data. The method(s) you generally use are determined by the purpose(s) of your
evaluation and the resources you have to design and use.
What do the teachers do? They want both a ‘number’ and ‘a description of the number explaining it’.
So, both quantitative and qualitative techniques produce a richer and more comprehensive
understanding about students’ learning in its varied aspects.
At the most basic level, data are considered quantitative if they are in terms of numbers and
qualitative if they are in terms of words. However, qualitative data can also include photos, videos,
audio recordings and other non-text data. For example; when you say ‘Soma has secured 80 marks out
of 100 in Mathematics in Class – V’,this indicates a quantitative picture about Soma in mathematics.
But when you say,‘Tapu is good at dancing’or‘Mahesh’s handwriting is excellent’ or ‘Akshayaattracts
everybody while singing’, these represent some qualitative information about the individual student.
There are different methods of collecting data. Some methods provide quantitative data while some
methods provide qualitative data.Quantitative methods(e.g. experiments, questionnaires, psychometric
tests, etc.) which focus on numbers and frequencies rather than on meaning and experienceprovide
information which can be easilyanalysed statistically and are fairly reliable but hardly provide indepth
description. Qualitative methods(e.g. case studies and interviews, etc.) which are concerned with
describing meaning, rather than with drawing statistical inferences provide a more in-depth and rich
description but are subjective in nature.
Different tools and techniques used to collect and analyse quantitative and qualitative data are given
in following Table 13.3.
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Table 13.3 Tools and Techniques for analyzing Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Quantitative Qualitative
• Achievement Tests • Observation, Interview, portfolio, case study, project, assignment

• Surveys • Focus Group Discussion
• Questionnaires • Field notes, Diaries
• Pre/post Tests • Video, Audio recordings, photographs
• Existing Database • Documents (reports, meeting minutes, etc.)
How are quantitative and qualitative data different?

The differences between quantitative and qualitative data are given in the following Table 13.4.
Table 13.4 Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Quantitative data Qualitative data
Explains ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘when’ Explains ‘how’ and ‘why’

‘how much’, and ‘how many’
Deals with numbers Deals with descriptions
Data can be observed and measured Data can be observed and assessed approximately/indirectly
exactly
Usually gathered by surveys from Data can be collected individually or from the group of
large number of respondents respondents
It is useful when pieces of It is useful when a broader understanding and explanation is

information required can be counted required on a particular topic for which quantitative data alone
mathematically and analyzed using is not sufficient
statistical methods
It is used when ‘accurate’ and When information is needed on ‘what students think about a
‘precise’ data are required particular situation, and what are their priorities’; it is useful. It
is also useful while seeking to understand ‘why students
behave in a certain way’.
Ensures objectivity, reliability and It can’t be generalized

the ability to generalize; but hardly
provides any in-depth description
Data can be generated through the Context is important in qualitative data

same tool irrespective of context
Data from multiple sources enrich decision making about learning that leads to increased results for
every student. Multiple sources include common formative and summative assessments, performance
assessments, observations, work samples, portfolios, assignments, projects and self-report, etc. The
use of multiple sources of data offers a balanced and more comprehensive analysis of students than
any single type or source of data.You must realise that, data alone can do a little to inform decision
making and increase effectiveness. Thorough analysis and cross-checking of data are essential for
taking decisions relating to learning.
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DESIGNING ASSESSMENT PLAN

If you are aiming at good assessment of student’s learning progress, then you have to consider the
learning style, strengths and needs of each student into account. You have to remember that
assessment is an integral part of the learning process and is neither an addition to teaching-learning
activities nor is a teachercentred activity. It is flexible, driven by the expected learning outcomes and
being an inseparable part of learning, is as continuous as the learning process. Therefore, planning for
assessment should also be a part of the plan for teachinglearning activities for the class.
While planning for assessment in the classroom, you have to consider the following basic conditions:
• Approaches to Assessment: While it is advisable to adopt all the three approaches discussed in
this unit, you have to decide how to go about it and which approach is to be your most preferred
one. From the point of view of promoting learning, assessment as learning is the ultimate
approach but not easy to adopt with group of students in our classrooms with diverse abilities.
Assessment of learning is the most familiar approach and has importance from curricular and
school management point of view. However, in day to day classroom transaction, assessment
for learning needs to be used as an undeniable part of classroom learning process.
• Purpose of assessment: It is necessary to clearly state the specific purposes of the type of
assessment you are conducting. This would help you as well as your students to act in desired
direction appropriate to the type of assessment that is going to be used. Specifying the type of
assessment would also help you to prepare or choose tools and strategies as per the levels of
students.
• Clarity in Learning Outcomes: The purpose and the approach of the assessment are
determined by the nature of the desired learning outcomes of the unit/topic taught. If the
objective of teaching a topic is only to acquire knowledge, then a written test for the assessment
of learning would be sufficient. But if the objectives are more towards developing
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis or creativity, the purpose of the assessment
would be to monitor the growth of the student’s learning by combining different methods to
have a holistic description of student’s learning on a continuous basis and assessment for
learning and/or assessment AS learning would be more preferred approaches.
• Vision of Effective Assessment: While planning an assessment programme, you must have a
clear vision of what would be happening when the programme is going on. If you intend to go
for assessment of learning you need to visualize the ideal and favourable conditions prevailing
in the classroom or examination hall like the seating arrangement, the cleanliness of the room,
the discipline among the students, a well prepared question paper, the availability of writing
materials, no book or other helping materials in the room etc. Similarly, you need to visualize
the scenario of your classroom where assessment for or assessment as learning is being
encouraged. Such a vision building shall help you to plan for an effective assessment
programme.
• Provision of Time: To conduct assessment of learning, you require specific time at the end of
the topic/unit, at the end of a term and/or at the end of the session. Since you have to make
elaborate preparation like preparing question paper, sitting arrangements, scrutiny of the answer
scripts, recording and sharing the results, you have to plan for such assessment programmes
much in advance. Of course for unit tests (at the end of a unit/topic), the time requirement
would be much less, say within a normal class period on any working day. You must keep in
mind that time spent for assessment of learning is at the cost of the available learning time in
the school. If you give more time for such assessment, learning time in the school would be
reduced accordingly.
However, since the assessment for learning and assessment as learning are both inseparable
parts of the classroom learning process, you do not need specific time for conducting them.
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What is required is that you have to mention in your lesson note/plan the assessment activities
you want to do during the period of instruction.
• Students’ Involvement: While the students’ roles are reduced to only responding to the tests in
the assessment of learning, they are actively involved in the assessment for learning through
their participation in different learning activities, responding to the teacher and peer group
members, asking questions for clarification of doubts, helping classmates and such other several
activities. The assessment as learning is totally driven by the student. You can only provide
facilitating conditions for it.
• Classroom Environment: At the time of conducting assessment of learning in the classroom
we usually ensure that there is no element in the classroom or its surroundings which might
provide any cue for answering the questions. But for other two types of assessment, the
classroom environment should be rich with learning materials. The walls, floor and every place
in the room are to be used to provide student friendly situation for encouraging students to
think, reflect and create ideas which are essential requirements for assessment FOR learning
and assessment as learning.
• Provision of Feedback: We have already discussed the importance of feedback in the
assessment programmes. The feedback in the assessment of learning is provided in well-
designed report using numerical scores or alphabetical grades indicating the level of
performance of the student. Besides the student, the report is shared with parents and others
who have some stake in the student’s learning. But in assessment for learning, the feedback is
instantaneous and mostly verbal and/or a description of student’s behaviour or actions for which
no elaborate planning is needed. However, these descriptions may be recorded on the response
sheets of the student or in his/her daily diary which can be shared with the parents. In
assessment AS learning, the student gets feedback from his own reflections and/or from peers
for which you need not make any provision.
• Incorporating the Change: The whole exercise of assessment is to bring about further
improvement in students’ learning. Basing on the results of assessment you have to develop
action points in consultation with each student for rectifying the mistakes, improving and
enriching the learning. The cycle of assessment, diagnosis of strengths and weaknesses in
learning, taking appropriate measures for improvement and enrichment goes on continuously in
a spiral manner moving higher and higher along with grades the students are likely to proceed
over the school years.
• System of Continuous Monitoring: For sustaining continuity and quality of the assessment
programmes in the school, a group of teachers may be given responsibility to monitor the
planning, conducting, recording, sharing the results and taking timely and appropriate follow up
measures. All monitoring should be carried out in relation to the expected learning outcomes.
RECENT TRENDS IN ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
In the last section, we discussed about certain concerns of evaluation system and also hinted upon new
trends in evaluation. In this section, we will discuss the emerging trends to make our examination
system effective. Before discussing the trends, let us highlight the issues concerning suitable use of
examination.
• The obtained results should be carefully systematized and conclusions should be scientifically
drawn and reported to the stakeholders involved in the system including the students.
• The number of external examination should be reduced. More scientific and systematic methods
of evaluation need to be devised.
• While conducting evaluation, the student’s work throughout the year should be assessed.
• Evaluation procedures should include variety of techniques and tools, new types of tests among
which objective type tests are of considerable importance.
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• In testing performance of students focus should be on what and how much the student knows,
not on what he does not know. Scoring should be objective and transparent.
• The evaluation should be treated, not as the end, but only as the means, since the purpose of
evaluation is to aid education/learning in achieving its primary goals.
• Oral testing should be given a suitable place in the system of evaluation.
• Evaluation should be in parts and not at one stroke.
• There is great need for reform and improvement in the question papers employed in the
prevailing system.
• The questions should be so designed that the child is stimulated to think for himself seeking for
the answers. Questions to test higher abilities should be included.
• Evaluation needs to be diagnostic, comprehensive and continuous. Stress should be on
performance in both scholastic and co-scholastic areas.
Keeping the above points in consideration, many new initiatives and trends are recently being
witnessed in our evaluation system. Let us discuss the trends of evaluation in detail.
Learner-centered Assessment Strategies
Learner-centred assessment is intended primarily to inform students and teachers about what students
need to do, as they are doing it, to improve their learning. As we have studied in the earlier units that
evaluation of learning is often classified into two categories: formative and summative. While
summative evaluation may involve a suite of evaluation tasks, formative evaluation involves ongoing
evaluation to provide timely and constructive feedback to students about the progress of their
learning. In contrast to summative evaluation, formative evaluation is often more learner-centered. It
is true that students tend to perform better when they are actively involved in their learning, when
they are under less stress and when assessment is woven into everyday classroom activities. Under
such conditions, the students are more easily and accurately able to show what they know and can do.
The main features of learner-centered assessment strategies are as follows:
• Learners are actively involved in assessment process.
• Learner-centered assessment relates to students’ learning goals.
• Learner-centered assessment has explicit criteria that can be negotiated, thus the focus may vary
between the learners.
• Learner-centered assessment involves multiple data sources.
• Learner-centered assessment is multimodal i.e. it allows for a range of learning preferences.
• Learner-centered assessment involves a range of skills, depending on the needs of the learners.
• Learner-centered assessment may include individual and collaborative elements.
In learner-centered assessment strategies, you should be a skilled observer and take time to carefully
watch the students at work, monitoring their behaviour, interactions with others and the way the
students approach to various learning tasks. You should observe each student closely on a regular
basis. In learnercentered assessment, you need to think about how you can involve students in making
decisions about their learning and assessment and how the assessment data can be used for improving
learning among students.
To sum up, we may say that strategic learner-centered assessment is primarily intended to make
students and teachers aware about how learning among students can be facilitated. Learner-centered
assessment involves various strategies like continuous and comprehensive evaluation, formative
evaluation, diagnostic evaluation, on-demand examination, open book examinations, portfolio
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assessment, self and peer evaluation and such other informal strategies which involve students in
evaluation process for improving their learning levels.
Question Banks
Question banks are databases of questions that can be shared between courses and programmes of
study. A question bank is the list of questions from the concerned subject. In other words, a question
bank is a planned library of test items pooled through cooperative efforts for the use of students,
teachers and evaluators. Question banks have been called by other names also, such as; ‘itembanks’,
‘item pools’, ‘item collections’, ‘item reservoirs’ and ‘test item libraries’. A ‘question bank is a
collection of large test items developed by a group of trained and experienced professionals and
printed on index cards or stored in the memory of a computer along with certain supporting data and
capable of being reproduced whenever needed (Aggrawal, 2005)’. Question banks are searchable so
that questions meeting specific criteria can be drawn from them to create assessment. The question
banks allow users with the appropriate access to create questions. A question bank serves many
purposes. It can be used by teachers at the pre-testing stage, for setting question papers, for measuring
learners’ achievement, etc. Questions for the question banks should be prepared by practicing
teachers. Enrichment of questions by updating, discarding, replacing, modifying and adding new
questions should be a continuous process. In question banks, all types of questions, such as objective
type, short answer type as well as long answer type that could be on a particular topic are included.
These question banks are of immense importance from teaching and general examinations,
competitive examinations and entrance tests. Large scale public examinations involving wider content
coverage can enhance the significance of question banks.
The following are the main reasons for preparing question banks:
• to meet the need of increasing number of students in various courses;
• to increase in knowledge and facing competition in all walks of life;
• to devising more reliable, valid, comprehensive, fair and objective testing techniques;
• to arrange more efficient, economical and comprehensive testing programmes; and
• to exploit the scientific and technology devices for data processing so as to increase the
efficiency of testing programmes.
Question bank can play an important role in making testing techniques more efficient and objective.
We shall now discuss the merits and demerits of a question bank.
Merits :
• There is a least chances of leakage of question paper as even experts do not know whether their
questions have been included in the test or not.
• The teachers know what types of questions are to be asked in the examination. So, they teach
accordingly.
• Question papers can be set immediately or in emergency.
• The students will be aware of as to what type of questions will be asked in the examination.
• Question bank helps in facilitating learning from various angles.
• Question bank helps as a guide for paper setters.
• Objectivity in evaluation is quite obvious as many teachers and experts take part in item
construction.
• Question banks are also used for admission and examination purpose.
• Question banks improve overall validity of examination.
• Due to standardized scoring procedure, reliability and objectivity of test results is maintained.
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• Sample tests drawn from the bank may be safely assumed to be parallel or equivalent in all
respects and the problem of non-comparability of marks over time or years is solved.
• Question banks may be used by teachers to get feedback for improvement of teaching-learning
process.
Demerits :
• Educators do not have uniform opinion with regard to secrecy of the question bank.
• Originality lacks in the construction of questions for question papers.
• In the present set-up, when examination aim is to pass or fail, there is no justification of such
banks for students and teachers.
• It requires subject specialization and special training on the part of itemwriters.
• It requires proficiency in the techniques of test construction on the part of item-writers.
• The item writer may not be well-versed with the psychological characteristics of the students
for whom the test is to be constructed or used.
Semester System
Semester system came into existence as an improvement over the annual examination system. When a
particular course of study is divided into different equal parts not on the basis of the session but on the
basis of months and examination is conducted after the completion of every part, it is called as
semester system. For example, if course of study is of two years, four semesters will be there and a
three year degree course will be divided into six semesters. Under this system, a student failing in one
subject in one semester is not declared to be failed, rather he is admitted to the next semester and is
given an opportunity to re-study the subject and re-appear the examination in that particular subject in
that semester. In semester system, examination becomes a part and parcel of the daily routine and the
system no more produces any sort of stress and strain among the students. The main objective of the
semester system is to broaden the outlook of the students and instil in them a sense of confidence and
responsibility. The semester system is a very proactive system as it engages both the faculty and the
students throughout the year in academic activity.
Semester system not only involves students throughout the year but also reduces examination burden.
Both the systems have its merits and demerits. Let us know the merits and demerits of the semester
system.
Merits :
• It keeps the students engaged in studies throughout the year.
• The progress of the students is constantly assessed and continuously their knowledge gets
improved.
• It allows greater interaction with teachers and students.
• It reduces workload among students as few courses are studied in a semester and the workload
gets equally distributed in all semesters.
• The semester system discourages students to study at the last minute and encourage rote
memory.
• Continuous internal assessment and periodical test is one of the greatest merits of this system.
• Students are free to discuss their performance and transparency in the assessment is ensured.
• It reduces stress and strain and makes learning purposeful, pleasant and joyful.
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Demerits :
• Because of continuous examination in the semester system, students are constantly under the
hammer of examinations.
• This system suits only to higher education.
• It is a difficult task to frame proper syllabus of each semester.
• A gap between the semesters sometime is loss for the students.
• The workload on teachers and students is increased.
• Sometimes, it is felt that examination is more than study.
• Students get involved in the curriculum, other aspects of students’ development gets hampered.
Continuous Internal Evaluation
You might be aware that the students spend most of their time in the class\school. The teachers, who
deal with the students everyday are the right person to judge their progress. It is therefore, many a
time, emphasized that internal assessment of the performance of the students in different areas should
be conducted. At present, continuous internal evaluation is an integral part of the teaching-learning
process. The objectives of implementation of continuous internal evaluation are as follows :
• To make an overall assessment of students personality.
• To motivate students and teachers to make the teaching-learning process effective.
• To provide feedback to teachers, students and the parents as well.
• To lay less emphasis on memorization and rote learning.
• To lay emphasis on the assessment of co-scholastic areas of child’s personality.
• To make evaluation system more meaningful, reliable, valid and objective.
The characteristics of continuous internal evaluation are as follows :
• It involves both ongoing observation and periodic testing of students by teachers who teach
them.
• It serves both formative and summative purposes. Formative in the sense that it is used to
improve instruction and summative because it is used to supplement final examination results.
• It enhances rapport between students and teachers.
• It incorporates both cognitive and other areas of students personality.
• The system compels the students to remain alert and regular throughout the course of their
studies.
Apart from its usefulness in the system of teaching and learning, the following weaknesses have also
been observed.
• The system requires a reasonable teacher-taught ratio in the class.
• In this system, the teachers have ample opportunities for favouritism.
• The system requires a healthy atmosphere in the institution.
• In this system, the students who arrange recommendations, impress their teachers or show
closeness to their teachers get more marks/grades than they deserve.
• Due to undue pressure, teachers may feel insecure.
• Proportion of internal and external assessment in the system is also a subject of debate.
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Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS)

Choice-Based Credit System (CBCS) essentially implies a redefining of the curriculum into smaller
measurable entities or ‘modules’ with the hours required for studying / learning (not teaching) these
modules. The primary focus is to combine the modules in different ways so as to qualify for a
certificate, diploma or degree. In a sense, therefore, the completion of a single ‘module’ of learning
can pave the way for learning other modules either in the same institution or elsewhere and a
combination of modules in keeping with the needs and interests of the learners. It is therefore inter
and intra institutional mobility of the students is possible.
Features of CBCS : As highlighted by the UGC (2015), the features of CBCS are:
• Enhance learning opportunities of the learners.
• Match the learners’ scholastic abilities and aspirations.
• Inter-institution transferability of learners (following the completion of a semester).
• Part-completion of an academic programme in the institution of enrolment and part-completion
in a specialized (and recognized) institution.
• Improvement in educational quality and excellence.
• Flexibility for working learners to complete the programme over an extended period of time.
• Standardization and comparability of educational programmes across the country and global
scenario as well.
Choice-based implies that the learner has the choice to select the subjects that he/she would like to
learn within the prescribed time period and the programme parameters. For example, a learner who
wants to major in Accountancy wishes to study History may be permitted to study. The CBCS enables
a student to obtain a degree by accumulating required number of credits prescribed for that degree.
The number of credits earned by the student reflects the knowledge or skill acquired by him/her. The
CBCS enables the students to earn credits across departments and provides flexibility in duration to
complete a programme of study. The CBCS facilitates transfer of credits earned in different
departments/centers of other recognized/accredited universities or institutions.
The following are the main advantages of CBCS :
• Teaching and learning process is shifting from teacher-centric to learnercentric education.
• All activities are taken into account - not only the time learners spend in lectures or seminars
but also the time they need for individual learning and the preparation of examinations etc.
• Learning is self-pacing and self-directed.
• Learners may undertake as many credits as they can cope with without having to repeat all the
courses in a given semester. In case they fail in one or more courses. Alternatively, they can
choose other courses and continue their studies.
• Affords more flexibility to the learners by allowing them to choose interdisciplinary courses,
change majors, programmes, etc.
• Respects ‘learner autonomy’. It allows learners to choose subjects according to their own
learning needs, interests and aptitudes.
• Helps in learner mobility. It offers the opportunity to study at different times and in different
places.
• Beneficial for achieving more transparency and compatibility between different educational
structures.
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Marking versus Grading System

The performance of students is represented in ‘marks’ or ‘grades’. ‘Marks’ are used to indicate the
raw scores of a student in a test like marks in a subject 40, 45, 67, 39, 86, etc. On the other hand,
grading system is a qualitative assessment of achievement of a student. On the basis of the quality of
the answer, the examiner gives various grades to different examinees by keeping the parameters from
‘excellent to very poor’. In grading, an attempt is made to identify relatively uniform score intervals
in a hierarchical order ranging from very poor to outstanding performance and vice versa. As
discussed in Table 1 of this Unit, CBSE has implemented 9-point grading system with a ‘Letter
Grade’ (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2, D1, D2, E) corresponding to a percentage limits (91-100, 81-90, 71-
80, 61-70, 51-60, 41-50, 33-40, 21-32, and 20 and above). Grading can also be made in five or seven
points scale. In Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), five-point grading system is
implemented. (A, B, C, D, and E).
Sometimes, the performance of students is also reported in terms of Grade Point Average (GPA)
which is obtained by assigning the letter grades to each question separately and awarding numerical
weights. Such system of grading is adopted by IGNOU for evaluation of students’ performance in
many of its programmes of study. In the statistical grading method, the teachers mark the answer
books as usual in terms of numerical scores and then grades are assigned. Here, scores are converted
into grades by fixing range of scores. Let us discuss the merits and demerits of grading system.
Merits :
• Achievement of examinees in different subjects can be known separately.
• Errors of measurement are reduced to minimum base i.e. achievement of different students may
by easily compared.
• In grading system, inter-subject comparison of the same examinee and interexaminees
comparison in a particular subject is possible.
• Grading system takes the emphasis away from marks.
• This system is much more meaningful and feasible in comparison to marking system.
• This system is a boon to weak students than the brights.
• It reduces fear and complexities among the students.
Demerits :
• There is lack of consensus among the educators with regard to points of the scale.
• The grade system is very sensitive. While awarding marks, examiner may switch over from 60
to 65 easily, but the same is not in the case of grades.
• Subjectivity in evaluation is possible like marking system.
• It is easy to convert marks into grades but vice-versa is difficult.
• Lack of uniformity in grading creates confusion and interpretation of the result.
Open Book Examination
An “open book examination” is one in which examinees are allowed to consult their class notes,
textbooks, and other approved material while answering questions. The essential difference between
closed book examination and open book examination is that the former can still be used to evaluate
how much the students have memorized, while the latter cannot. An open book question provides the
candidates with the theory the question is examining and then asks them to demonstrate their ability to
apply the theory to a scenario. A closed book question will require the candidate to state the theory
from memory. In this respect, the open book examination is closer to the working environment where
the employee has access to manuals and examples of past work to draw on. An open book question
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will rarely use the words ‘describe’ or ‘state’ or even ‘explain’ since these words usually preface a
question which requires the candidate to recall a theoretical approach from memory. Open-book
examinations often comprise of tasks based on a problem or argument to which the student is required
to respond, employing their knowledge of the subject and making use of the reference material as
appropriate. The open-book examination measuring high-level skills such as conceptualizing, problem
solving and reasoning corresponds almost completely to a total, real-world situation, less stressful,
less memorization, more room for logical and creative thinking.
There are two kinds of open book examination, the restricted type and the unrestricted type. In the
restricted type of open book examination, students are permitted to bring into the examination room
one or more specific documents approved by the course instructor. In the unrestricted type of open
book examination, students are free to bring books, documents whatever they like. When used
properly, it will be pointless for students taking the unrestricted open book examination to consult any
material they have brought, because the questions will be designed in such a way the answers will not
be found in the textbooks, handouts or class notes.
Open Book Examination has the following merits and demerits :
Merits :
• OBE not only tests students’ capacity to construct a coherent response to the assessment task,
but also require a demonstration of their ability to use resource material effectively in doing so.
• By allowing students access to relevant reference material, open-book examination reduces the
need to memorise information, and can therefore allow students to concentrate on
demonstrating their ability to understand and apply this information to the question.
• By providing students with reference material prior to the assessment, it may give them greater
confidence when taking examination and therefore produce a more accurate account of their
achievements.
• Students can use revision time more constructively, focusing on reinforcing their understanding
of the subject rather than attempting to memorised information.
Demerits :
• The students would stop studying and simply copy from the open book provided at the
examination hall.
• Where textbooks are allowed, teachers and other staff must either ensure that students are
provided with clean copies of the appropriate text or make clear in the assessment strategy any
alternative arrangements i.e. allowing students to make notes on the text.
• It is possible that arbitrary factors may be introduced into the process i.e. whether students have
the appropriate material, or whether any notes used are the student’s own.
• Teachers and staff must provide students with more detailed guidance on what they may or may
not take into the examination.
• Board examinations would lose their importance and no one would like to assess the ability and
competence of an individual on the basis of marks or grades awarded by the board or any
certifying agency.
ICT SUPPORTED ASSESSMENT AND EVALUATION
You might have realised that Information and Communication Technology is an integral part of
teaching-learning process. From last few decades, ICT is being used in the curriculum, teaching-
learning process, evaluation, and recording & reporting results of the students. But, during these days,
the use of ICT in education in general and evaluation processes in particular has been increased. In
this section, we will study ICT support to assessment and evaluation, particularly, the online and on-
demand examination and also application of computers in examination.
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Application of Computer in Examination

Use of computers in education is very wide. This is used not only for teachinglearning process but
also for assessment & evaluation and for various educational administrative purposes. In every school,
every year a lot of information and data relating to record of attendance, account of income and
expenditure, annual results etc. can be easily prepared, stored and retrieved with the help of
computers. Many schools have started using e-portfolio for assessment purpose, which is possible
through the use of computers. Information about the family background, personal qualities,
achievement and aspirations regarding every student should be essentially made available and used
for preparing portfolios of students so that the areas of their strengths and weaknesses could be
identified and appropriate educational guidance could be made available to them to improve their
educational standards. Computers can go a long way in helping to do this job. By pooling the student-
related data and making it available instantly to each teacher and the counsellor, the computer can
make full scale individualized instructional planning a reality. Computers can be used as counsellors
too. They may be programmed to initiate the behaviour of a human counsellor. A computer may be
taught to interact with individual students so as to render diagnosis.
The Central and various State Governments have launched various schemes on the use of ICT in
schools and have provided them computers. It is successfully working in many schools but at the
same time, it faces many difficulties in implementation because of the following reasons :
• Dedicated computer lab has not been developed in the schools for its use.
• Regular computer orientation is not given to the teachers for its use.
• Full time computer instructors are not appointed in schools.
• Heavy rush of students is also another difficulty to manage computer classes.
On-demand Examination
The scheme of on-demand examination is a comprehensive ICT enabled system of examination which
provides the learners an opportunity to appear in the examination as per their preparation and
convenience. In fact, it is a blended scheme of ICT and traditional examination system wherein
students can walkin any time at the selected examination centres and take examination. The demand
of flexibility in education system and changing profile of learners has necessitated starting such
innovative scheme which has made the existing examination system more flexible and learner-
friendly. This is very much successful in distance education system as most of the distance learners in
higher education are working people; they normally do not get leave from their organizations for
several days at a stretch for term end examination, and hence they fail to complete their courses in
stipulated time limit. Most on-demand examination are conducted through ICT. Its objective is to
enable the learners to appear in the examination as per their preparation and convenience on the date
and time of their choice.
The features of on-demand examination system are as follows:
• Learner-friendly innovative scheme of examination.
• More flexible and independent of traditional fixed time frame in examination.
• No need to wait for the six monthly term end examination.
• Different sets of question papers generated on the day of examination.
• A particular software specially developed for the purpose are used.
• Least possibility of malpractices or unfair means.
• May reduce load on the term-end exam in future.
• It reduces workload of students, teachers and also the entire system of examination.
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On-demand examination makes use of ICT to solve problems which arise due to human limitations.
The major advantages of on-demand examination are as follows:
Advantages :
• It makes possible instant generation of parallel question papers, and facilitates authorised data
entry at different points, leaving no chance for human error.
• It has very silently reformed the system of evaluation without making abrupt changes.
• It is not only simple and user friendly but it is also cost effective and saves time and effort in
setting question papers.
• It generates individualised and unique question papers on the day of examination by picking up
the questions randomly from the question bank as per the blueprint & design.
• It removes frustration, loss of self esteem, and depression that are generally characterized by the
term-end examination.
Online Examination
Online examination, sometimes referred as e-examination, are the examination conducted
through the internet or in an intranet (if within the organization) for a remote candidate(s). A
dedicated software is used to manage the entire online examination system. Candidates have
to sign up and create an account as per their student profile and sign in for its use for a
limited time to answer the questions and after the time of expiry, the answer paper is
disabled automatically and answers is sent to the examiner. The examiner evaluates
answers, either through automated process or manually and the results are being sent to the
candidate through email or made available in the website. Internet will be used as a media
for disseminating and conducting tests. The progress reports can be printed at any point of
time by just providing the necessary details of a candidate. Generally question banks are
prepared for online examination. The online examination system is a web based application.
The system can be modified and customized to suit the needs of any educational institution;
primary and secondary schools, colleges, professional and vocational institutes, universities
or coaching academies. This system aims at reducing costs associated with conducting
examination over a period of time and achieving total automation of examination system
and its related tasks like registration, publication of results, which leads to a very high
degree of system efficiency.
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Inclusive Education
UNDERSTANDING DIVERSITIES: LINGUISTIC, SOCIO-CULTURAL, ECONOMIC,
GENDER AND DISABILITY
Linguistic Diversity
Like many other countries in the world, India is pluri-lingual. The language canvas in India is like a
mosaic with an overwhelming variety of patterns of speech woven together in an organic whole. It is
usually difficult to attach language labels to the varied speech patterns across locales. There is seldom
any consensus on the dilemma about delineating between languages and dialects with a reasoned-out
argument for taking a stance. A countable proportion of the population is multilingual. There are
many languages that are used in social communication, which are often hybrids of other languages;
there are constant shifts from one language to another language; there are several layered patterns of
use of language among many communities, for example, use of the home or regional language by
parents with their children, while their ancestral language is used with their elders.
Socio-Cultural Diversity
Cultural diversity to a sociologist refers to the variety of human societies or cultures in the world; to
the variety of the makeup or the varied cultures of a group or organization or region. It is also called
multiculturalism. It includes the various social structures, belief systems, rituals, ways of living and
strategies the cultures adhere to, for adapting to life situations in various parts of the world. The
phrase “cultural diversity” is also sometimes used to mean the variety of human societies or cultures
in a specific region, or in the world. Over thousands of years, geographical, historical and religious
influences have woven the colorful fabric of Indian culture, one of the oldest known to humanity. The
complex demographic profile left in our society by the distinctly different looking Aryans, Asians and
Dravidians has been the fore runner of our socio-cultural diversity in many ways., religion, in many
forms, is the basis of our cultural context. This is enmeshed with every aspect of life and culture in
India and is a prime factor that contributes to our diversity. In fact, every region within a state of India
has its own identity owing to the rich cultural heritage quite different from the neighboring region and
of course the other states of the country. The types of festivals, the ways of celebration of these, even
if some are same across states and the religious rituals contribute to the unique identity of each of the
regions. It is this richness and uniqueness of the cultural heritage of the different regions of each state
that contribute to our cultural diversity.
Economic Diversity
The varied levels of social classes and the gap between these have been increasingly contributing to
diversity in our society. From the time, the caste system got rooted in our society and education got
monopolized by the upper caste people who knew Sanskrit, the seeds of class differences also got
sown in our soil. Thus, the money power related to caste and class gave rise to economic differences
and added yet another dimension to our diversity.
Gender Diversity
Gender is a social construct where as sex of a person is a biological status. Gender diversity refers to
the difference in the societal outlook to people around vis a vis their sex. Right from ancient times, a
female has been considered as the weaker of the two. A female, as a child, is to be protected by her
Father, as a wife, by her husband and as an old mother, by her son. Her role is to bear children and
look after everyone in the family. A male is looked upon as the bread winner, protector and savior of
the family. From this social discriminatory position of males and females, the life experiences of a girl
and boy have been very different simply because of their sex. This difference immensely contributes
to diversity in our society to varying degrees across regions.
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Ability, Disability and Diversity

Diversity in any social group has yet another dimension of disabilities and capabilities. Disability is a
diversity classification that transcends all other indices like class, caste, race, religion and language. It
represents the only minority group that anyone can become a member, anytime in life (Slorach, 2011).
“The principle of diversity provides the foundation to accept disability as part of human variation.
However, it is a sad reality that in practice our treatment of difference has been rather poor, especially
in the context of disability” (Ability Junction, 2011). Disability is a widely misused and
misunderstood concept, as illustrated by the World Health Organization (WHO) definition: Disability
is an umbrella term, covering impairment, activity limitations, and participation restrictions.
Impairment is a problem in body function or structure; an activity limitation is a difficulty
encountered by an individual in executing a task or action; while a participation restriction is a
problem experienced by an individual in involvement in life situations. Thus, disability is a complex
phenomenon, reflecting an interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society
in which he or she lives.
These definitions reflect the progress made since persons with disabilities were referred to officially
as spastics, imbeciles and cripples. However, they also obscure the vital distinction established by the
disability movement between individual impairment and disability as social discrimination.
It is a universal understanding that members of any social group will have varying capabilities and
abilities. We also know that all of us who have no disabilities at a point in time are temporarily able
bodied. Anyone can end up with disability anytime, especially physical disabilities. Many of the
persons with disability have been so from birth and others have acquired it through their years owing
to numerous factors. Disability is an inescapable element of human experience. It is so, first, in the
sense that, world-wide, an enormous number of people have disability/disabilities. The proportion of
people who have disability/ies in different national populations varies significantly with respect to the
country’s status of economic development, health care, general awareness and other factors.
Furthermore, because of the way this group of people is constituted, it is arguably more heterogeneous
than those of race, gender, class, and sexual orientation. Disabilities may affect one’s senses or one’s
mobility; they may be static or progressive, congenital or acquired, body form related (affecting the
shape of the body) or functional, visible or invisible. These differences converge to the point that any
population of disabled people is far from a monolithic; it stands out distinctly with differences that
affect the identity of each of its members. For example, people with congenital impairments are more
likely to identify themselves as disabled and reflect pride and self-respect in their social behaviour as
compared to those with acquired impairment. Indeed, most people born deaf and well versed with sign
language do not consider themselves disabled at all, rather they consider as akin to an ethnic minority,
set off the mainstream by their language and culture. Those with acquired impairment are more likely
to resist being identified as disabled and spend most part of their life time fighting for an identity of a
‘able person’ with medical and rehabilitative support. In any case, the border between the disabled
and the abled is less permanent and more permeable than those between races and religions and
classes. On the one hand, with the help of bio medicines and rehabilitation, individuals may pass from
the status of being disabled to that of non-disabled; on the other hand, anyone can become disabled at
any time and barring sudden or accidental deaths, most people will eventually become disabled to a
significant degree as one grows old. In fact, we are all temporarily able bodied in a way. So, as a form
of social diversity, disability is distinct in its variability, contingency and extent.
From all these facts, the most thought-provoking aspect is that each of these persons identified with
disability/ disabilities may also have certain talents, skills or capabilities which are overlooked or
overshadowed due to the strong disability identity. Disability is fundamental in that it may outrank
other minority statuses. For example, for people with a disability and other attributes that make them
distinct from the mainstream, their disability becomes their master label, their primary identifying
characteristic over-looking the others. So, it is justified that disability is a more fundamental form of
diversity than differences in race, religion, ethnicity and other such factors.
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CONCEPT OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

Every child is the concern of its nation. They are the future citizens of the country. Development of a
nation calls for the contribution of individual citizens. For this the nation is concerned with the health,
happiness, achievement, contribution, safety and success of all the children. The Right of Children to
Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE Act 2009) is one of the very recent steps towards
achieving this goal. Our contribution as teachers is crucial in fulfilling this national mission. In this
process, our active participation to empower every student irrespective of their diversity is important.
Diversity among learners could be with reference to their learning abilities, socio economic
backgrounds, cultural variations or even emotional behavioral characteristics. The system of
education calls for providing equal opportunity toevery child for optimal development. “Inclusive
Education”has emerged as a guiding principle to envisage this vision. Very encouraging and positive
move indeed! In this unit first we shall learn what inclusive education is. Once we know this we shall
understand why we are expected to practice this and the factors which affect the process. Let us try to
understand our role as teacher in creating such a classroom. Finally let us have a clear idea as to who
are the children struggling to adjust in the classroom. While we go through the unit, at every stage we
shall analyze our roles to suit the needs of children with diverse needs. I am sure by the time we go
through the unit completely we begin to realize the pleasures of rising to the occasion to contribute to
fulfill the national mission.
In our democratic country, equality of opportunity is guaranteed to the citizens. In spite of this
constitutional right bestowed upon us, informal discrimination is commonly observed in our society.
Restrictions are imposed upon individuals based ontheir deviation in social, economical, cultural,
physical, intellectual and behavioral attributes. This is not only undemocratic but also unnatural.
Segregation is against the law of nature. The Sun has no restriction on giving its heat and light, the
wind never says no to anybody on this earth. Nature provides equal opportunities for its members to
develop to their fullest abilities without any discrimination.
Some schools say no to some children, why? Some children are deprived of educational opportunity,
who are they? The practice of segregation in education and inability to be in school in the school
going age snatched away the right of children to equality and participation in the society. The value of
the individual capacity is totally neglected in this kind of situation. Realizing this, national and
international declarations have expressed support for including all the children without any
discrimination in the schools. Hence all the recent education plans and policies have supported a
system of education which provides equal opportunity to all the children for education. The
democratic system of governance worldwide is in tune with this philosophy. The same principle is
initiated in the field of education in the name of inclusive education. Inclusion is about building the
inner strength and mounting confidence among children. It is valuing difference, immaterial of the
limitations imposed due to external factors.
“The problem is not to wipe out the differences but how to unite with the differences intact” —
Rabindranath Tagore
MEANING AND NATURE OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
As a professional, a doctor is expected to deal with one patient at a time; a lawyer with one client at a
time; due to the diversity of the problems for which individuals seek assistance from them. But, as
professionals we deal with a group of young minds. This idea of providing quality education by
valuing the individual need in a group as a unit is called as inclusive education. You may be
wondering as you are doing it already but there was no name specifically given to such a practice.
You are right; we have been giving education to every child despite their diverse backgrounds since
ancient times. We would prepare them according to their ability and make them self dependent and
socially productive. Of late we have moved away from this democratic practice due to pressure from
various sectors in education. Let us learn now as to what is this inclusive education as conceived by
the visionaries in the field of education.
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Inclusive Education is an approach to educate all children who are at risk for neglect in education
system. It expects that all learners learn together through access to common educational
provisions.The crucial people in the system are the parents, and community, teachers, administrators
and policy makers. All these people have to be supportive towards the diverse needs of children. It
should be seen as an experience rather than a problem.
What should be our major focus in the inclusive classroom?
Let us understand it through a situation.
Latha was preparing to teach the lesson ‘Mango’ from the language textbook to grade 4 children. She
planned to teach the topic during the season when mangoes are available in plenty. She collected one
rupee from each child and brought ripe mangoes to the class. Students were made into small groups.
All of them settled in groups under a huge mango tree near the school. Two mangoes were placed in
front of each group. The color, flavor, shape and texture as given in the lesson were read out by the
teacher. All the students were writing the new words coming in the lesson. The teacher was
associating the meaning of the word with the mangoes in front of them. Children touched, smelt and
observed the unique shape of the fruit. The ‘mango shape’ which is very famous in art was identified
by the students in teacher’s Sarry. She showed few wedding cards and greeting cards where mango
motifs were printed. Except the taste of the mango every phrase was explained. Just before concluding
the lesson Latha directed all the students to wash their hands under the mango tree from the stored
water which was placed there. One student in each group poured the water as others cleaned their
hands. She cut the mangoes of each group as they came and settled from washing. The juicy bright
yellow fruit with the mouthwatering aroma and delicious taste was enjoyed by all the children. What
was the teacher doing throughout the lesson?
• She accepted every child as a member belonging to the group.
• Restructured the classroom physically and attitudinally to provide for the needs of all students.
• Planned activities in such a way that the participation of ALL students in class is ensured.
• Her focus was on a practice in school to respond to the diversity of students.
NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
It is the right of every child to get education.The society needs variety of people for the progress of
humanity. Inclusive education becomes important to fulfill this. Let us observe the need for inclusive
education from different angles.
Human Rights
• All children have the right to learn together.
• No one can discriminate children because of their learning ability and social, economical,
cultural and family background.
Education
• Research shows children do better, academically and socially in inclusive settings.
• Given commitment and support, inclusive education is a more efficient use of educational
resources.
Social
• All children develop relationships with variety of people around them and this prepares them
for life in the mainstream.
• Inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and build friendship
• Mutual respect, understanding and compassion increases among the fellow individuals.
Psychological
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• Development of safe and secure feeling in the group

• Confidence in the individual ability among the diversity
Inclusive education helps the development of children in different ways. Students with specific
challenges make gains in physical, cognitive and social development and motor skills. They do well
when the general environment is adjusted to meet their needs. Children in the schools develop higher
levels of tolerance for people with diversities in general and those who are disadvantaged. When we
exclude children from the education system, there begins a demarcation in the society. It is very
difficult to include them in the later stages for any purpose in the community. Thus, inclusive
education lays the foundation to an inclusive society accepting, respecting and celebrating diversity
(MHRD, 2005).
Benefits of inclusive education
• Inclusive education can help break the cycle of poverty and exclusion
• It encourages children to stay with their families and communities
• The school atmosphere can improve to the benefit of all the learners
• The practice can help overcome discrimination which is widespread in every sphere of society
• It promotes wider inclusion of individuals for the development of the nation
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION AS DISTINCT FROM OTHER RELATED CONCEPTS
Over the years the term ‘Inclusive Education’ has come to replace the term ‘Integrated Education’.
Many people working in the field of education consider these two terms to be meaning the same
thing. They understand it as only a change in terminology. But the term inclusive education means
much more than integrated education. Integration and mainstreaming are the terms used over the years
to denote the shift to stop the segregation of children with disability for the purpose of education.
Inclusive education is a very broad term that calls to stop the segregation of children for the purpose
of education. Let us understand these terms clearly.
Mainstreaming
Initially an attempt was made to implement the vision of providing education to children with
disabilities in the regular stream of education. According to this, special schools prepared the child
with disability to earn the placement option. Those children who were ‘ready’ got shifted to the
regular system of education from the special set up. Readiness here refers to the ability of the child to
cope up with the academic and social demands of the school. This process was referred to as
mainstreaming.
Integration
The term integration was used to describe the participation of children with disabilities in the
educational programme existing for the children without disabilities. Here, the responsibility of
participation was on the child. Classrooms and schools were not prepared to adjust to the needs and
requirements of the child with regard to material or method of teaching -learning. The placement was
more of spatial (being in the same classroom) and temporal (at the same time).
Inclusion
No doubt, all the above thoughts and practices prepared the ground for us to implement a broader,
democratic vision – inclusive education. This refers to restructuring schools as communities where all
children can learn in a common environment without any discrimination. The general philosophy of
inclusive education provides for good teaching practices, healthy relationship between teacher and
students to improve the quality of education for all children in a classroom. Regular classroom
environment is adjusted to meet the individual needs. The spatial and temporal placement as per
integration is utilized to the benefit of the child through adapting curriculum, providing extra time,
adapting specific methods of teaching and giving additional adult help.
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Difference between Inclusive education and integrated education

Both have one aim in common, that both are concerned with placement of children with disabilities in
the regular school. Other than this commonality, they are different in many ways.
Integration is the process of accommodating children and young people with disabilities into
mainstream schools. The emphasis within integration is to ‘fit’ the child into the system. In integration
children with disabilities had to be equipped to suit the existing system. The emphasis was on
preparing the child to adjust to the expectations of the classroom. For example, children with hearing
impairment will be fitted with suitable amplification devise (hearing aids). Auditory and speech
training will be given to the child in the resource room. A child with visual impairment will be sent
either to the resource room or to a specialized centre to learn Braille. A child with locomotor
handicap will be provided with mobility devices. The physical infrastructure of the school /classroom
will be modified, so that the child can have free access to the school. This was a welcome move
indeed towards changing the mindset of the people.
No doubt integration prepared us for the implementation of inclusion. Inclusive education is a method
for action and a way of thinking, which applies to all children in all contexts. Inclusion focuses upon
changes within the system than changing a child. In inclusive education children with disability and
so many other groups of children who are at risk for education are full time members of the general
education classroom. The emphasis here is on providing the support to every child to participate in the
ongoing classroom activities. The system has to be adapted itself to the needs and requirements of the
children by supporting them with adapted curriculum, materials and instructional practices. Support
may also include additional staff, consultation and specialized training for the existing staff. Places of
curricular and co curricular activities are modified to accommodate all the children without expecting
children to feel that they are inadequate to participate in the situation. The table below gives the
difference clearly.
Table –Difference between integrated and inclusive education
Integrated education Inclusive education
Placement for children with In addition to children with disabilities, other children who are at
disabilities in the regular school. risk for education also should find a place in the neighborhood
school
No segregation of children with No segregation of children with disabilities, children who are
disabilities socially, economically, culturally and linguistically disadvantaged
Students are expected to suit the The education system will make suitable modifications to suit the
existing education system needs of children
For additional support the child All the required support will be made available to the students in
is placed in a resource room. the regular classroom
The inadequacies of the students Students are never made to feel inadequate as curricular and co
are highlighted. curricular activities are modified to the requirement of the specific
The uniqueness of Indian society is its “unity in diversity”. Education system of a country functions in
line with the social system. Of late, in the process of development and progress, the diversity is seen
much more than unity. Hierarchies of castes, economic status, gender relations, uneven urban
expansion have created an artificial hurdle for access to education to all. Now national international
agencies are committed to extending education to the marginalized groups in the society as a matter of
right under the broad umbrella of inclusive education. In spite of the growing diversity we have to
prove our unity right from the classroom.
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FACTORS AFFECTING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION

As we all know, inclusion is a global trend in education. For the success of this programme
implementing agencies have to accept the rights of children. Schools should provide for the needs of
all the children in their communities, regardless of their ability. The idea seems simple but there are
significant barriers to achieving these goals. There are several difficulties on the path of fulfilling the
vision of inclusive education some of which are discussed in this section.
DIVERSITY AMONG THE LEARNERS
There is so much of diversity among a group of children belonging to the same age group. Children
differ with regard to their home background, motivation and ability to learn, personal attributes
contributing to success in academics,
PREPAREDNESS OF TEACHERS
Identifying that the child has a different need itself is a skill which a teacher has to be equipped with.
But the teacher preparation programme hardly addresses this issue. To tackle diversity in the
classroom on a daily basis, certain specific training is required by teachers. In our country this
requirement is not fulfilled. Hence it poses a threat to the implementation of inclusive education.
INFRASTRUCTURE
The location, space and arrangement of a classroom are essential factors to help inclusive education.
Most schools of our country are devoid of basic facilities suitable for learning. The location away
from noise, rooms with proper ventilation, space for free movement inside and outside of the
classroom, grounds to play and provision for other co curricular activities are very essential to support
inclusive education.
AVAILABILITY OF RESOURCES
Our schools have not yet explored the availability of resources to support children in their process of
learning. The teacher is not equipped with the skill of making use of the variety of learning materials.
Teachers find it difficult to tackle the diverse learning need in the classroom without appropriate
materials.
The support of professionals is very essential to handle some categories of children. Clinical
psychologists, social workers, audiologists, speech language pathologists, physiotherapists,
occupational therapists are required to help in the process of education of some of the children. But
we have limited people working in the field. Getting expertise to schools is a remote chance especially
in rural areas.
“Alone we do so little, together we do so much” — Helen Keller
EVALUATION SYSTEM
There is so much of rigidity in our pattern of evaluation, that the child is assessed wrongly. For
diverse learner, there is need to use diversified evaluation system. If a child is not able to write, all
other abilities of the child will go unnoticed. If the child requires some other mode of evaluation other
than reading and writing, we are not giving that option to children. This leads the learner to frustration
and they drop out of the education system, a major deterrent to the cause of inclusive education.
Every one is a genius. But if you judge afish on its ability to climb the tree, it will live its whole life
believing that it is stupid. – Albert Einstein
CREATING AN INCLUSIVE CLASSROOM
In the above section we have seen the barriers for achieving the well meaning dream of the visionaries
in the field of education. Whatever is the policy of the central and state governments to promote
inclusive education, the action has to be taken by the teacher in the classroom. So let us know our role
clearly to be effective in the classroom.
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What action can we take as teachers to create an inclusive classroom?

MAKING USE OF LEARNING MATERIALS
To bring quality to classroom, the teacher requires materials to support learning. Any child would
fully participate in the learning process if variety of materials are used.
Visual material in the form of pictures or photographs has to be used where ever appropriate to
support the learning. A picture of ‘seahorse’ or Tajmahal’ would convey much more to a child than
words. Pictures of great personalities, pictures of rare animals and plants, photographs of historical
places and events help children imagine in the right direction.
Tactual materials in the form of real objects or models make the concept very clear. No amount of
lecture and not any picture would explain the structure of a prism as effectively as a model. Internal
organs, three dimensional geometric figures are best understood with models. Tactual materials could
be the real items if they are available easily like a hibiscus flower to explain about structure of a
flower, the real mango to explain the qualities of the king of fruits!
Our surrounding environment is so rich in learning materials. Concepts like herbs, shrubs, trees,
climbers and creepers can be made clear with the plants around us. An exposure to post office, bank
and clinic would clarify how the people working there help us.
Demonstrating experiments with readily available things from our surroundings is another way of
making the children learn. A transparent plastic cover and a piece of thread can be used to show
transpiration through leaves. Waste cards can be used very effectively to demonstrate the derivation of
the theorems and formulae for the areas of geometric figures. Information and communication
technology gives endless options to make use of electronic learning materials. We can compensate for
bringing real objects to the classroom if we know how to use the computer. In all the schools, the
prism may not be there. But we can show the three dimensional picture of a prism with movements to
show the figure form all the sides. The complicated process of food getting digested inside the body
can be shown through a computer multimedia. The electrons participating in different types of
chemical bonding can be shown through a demonstration using auditory, visual and print media by
taking the assistance from the computer.
Teacher madelow cost learning materials are the best to use in teaching. It is nothing but making use
of the unwanted or readily available raw materials in our surrounding. Once we start making use of
these “waste” materials for teaching in the classroom, everything around us seems useful! The
happiness of children participating in the activity makes the teacher look at each and every thing
around with a creative mind. The colorful wedding cards take the shape of different type of houses.
The seeds from trees around us can make the concept of 2 + 2 = 4 meaningful. The satin ribbons
thrown around can make colorful boarders to the states of our country. The old magazines are
goldmines for collecting learning aids. The list is endless. Let us begin; we can enjoy the difference
for ourselves.
The varieties of learning materials have a great role in making all the children in a classroom actively
participate. It eliminates boredom from the classroom. Children start looking forward to come to
school daily.
MODIFYING THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The place where we live has to be suitable in all respects. If a child in the school has a problem in
moving from one place to another the places may be changed to suit the need of the child. The
classroom from the upstairs has to be changed to the downstairs if a child cannot climb the stairs. The
classroom in the distant corner can be changed close to the main entrance if a child finds it difficult or
takes enormous time to reach the room.
The space inside the classroom is another important aspect to pay attention to. The arrangement of the
furniture should not obstruct children to move inside. The seating arrangement has to be made
considering the requirement of children. A child having hearing impairment can be given the place in
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the first row preferably in the centre. A child requiring the teacher’s attention has to be seated in a
place which is easily accessible to the teacher. The child who has difficulty seeing in bright light has
to be seated in a place where direct light is not falling on the face.
The source of noise inside and outside the classroom has to be controlled. A student getting distracted
easily must be given a place away from the corridor, window and door. The noise making furniture
can be fitted with rubber bush. As much as possible, natural light and air has to be utilized. Fan and
light disturb some children. The flipping of charts creates unnecessary noise which has to be
controlled sticking them to the wall.
Above all keeping the surrounding clean and organized is very important. Our role as teachers is vital
in maintaining this. On rotation children can take the responsibility of cleaning and arranging the
classroom. Wall hangings / charts must be displayed with good planning and taste. The cleanliness
and orderliness of the room prepares the students to learn.
ADAPTING SIMPLE CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES
When children with diverse needs are in one room, we have to be prepared for challenges. When we
are prepared for the challenge, we can make use of techniques depending on the demand of the
situation. Yes, our preparedness makes all the difference in our daily dealing in the class.
Suraj is known for his naughtiness. He is happy to disturb those who are sitting around him. If we are
sensitive to his behavior, one glace at him conveying that “I am observing you” will make him
conscious. Priya enjoys pulling swathi’s hair as swathi is very timid and does not complain to the
teacher. Changing either priya’s or swathi’s place will eliminate priya’s behavior. In these two
situations giving long lectures on how to behave in the class wastes our time and in no way conveys
our intention to the students. Anil makes sounds to get the attention of his classmates and teachers. If
Anil’s timely and correct answer in the class and his efforts put for the project is appreciated, he stops
making those sounds. Shubha struggles to workout the problems in all her math class. When the
others in the class are involved in working, teacher can sit by the side of Shubha and support her to
solve the problem. Ramya avoids copying from the blackboard as she finds writing little difficult.
Teacher can go near her and motivate her to copy with encouraging words. Santosh struggles to read
and makes lots of mistakes. The whole class laughs and he feels insulted. The teacher can give him
some other task where he excels others. Without much effort his confidence level increases.
Classroom management gets refined with our experience. With very little time and effort many of the
day to day difficulties can be handled. All it requires is our love and faith in all our children in the
class.
EMPLOYING CHILD FRIENDLY EVALUATION SYSTEM
The rigid evaluation system is not practical in an inclusive classroom. The evaluation should assess
what the child is able to do rather than what the child is not able to do. We shall see how it can be
addressed in the classroom by teachers to suit every child in the classroom
Shruthi is a child in class 4. She is able to follow the lessons in the class. But when the teacher asks
her questions in oral exam, she is unable to tell. Her problem could be either in language expression
or shyness to answer in front of the teacher. Our concern is to know her level of learning, not her
ability to express. In such a situation as teachers what is the best alternate we can think of to assess
her learning? We can make modification in the way we elicit the response. Instead of oral response,
response may be obtained through computer, pictures or written form depending on the child’s
strength.
There may be a child who is unable to read the print material due to difficulties in seeing. Here, the
teacher has to make substitution with Braille or large print material for evaluation.
Vikram a 13 year old is in class 7. His ability to understand the abstract concepts in all the subjects are
below his age. But he is able to respond to simple questions. How should a teacher plan to assess this
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boy? Here the better option is omission. The difficult concepts may be kept out while assessing
Vikram, as the teacher is well aware that he is not able to respond to such questions.
Some children may not be able to learn any basic academic skills. But they may be having talent in
some other area. Here, teachers have to make use of compensationtechnique to assess the child. It is to
assess the child’s skills in vocational areas or self care depending on the individual.
If we take the freedom to evaluate the child on the basis of our understanding of the child, school is a
beautiful place. The horror of tests and exams will cease to haunt the child.
CHILDREN AT RISK FOR EXCLUSION FROM EDUCATION
SYSTEM
Millions of children and youth are denied of their right to education and they do not receive adequate
schooling in appropriate environment. Most of these out of school children are those for whom the
school environment is not conducive.They are either refused admission in the neighborhood school or
forced to remain away from school due to unavoidable circumstances. Let us know briefly the
prominent groups who are at risk to remain out of school.
CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES
Children with disabilities are at risk for education due to their problems in learning the academic
skills. Depending on the kind of disability children will face problems in the school. We shall briefly
look into the categories of such disabilities which are posing a threat to children in the process of their
education.
a. Children having cognitive and / or learning disabilities – Children having different degrees
of mental retardation struggle to master the minimum requirement of the classroom due to their
restricted cognitive capacity to learn. Children with specific learning disabilities suffer to
acquire basic academic skills like reading, writing and arithmetic. Many of these children
cannot be identified by a teacher for their difficulties in learning.
b. Children with social, emotional and behavioral disorders – there are certain disorders where
children find it very difficult to attend to the tasks in the classroom. It could be due to
deficiencies in their social skills, emotional disturbance or behavioral problems. Such children
are misunderstood by the people around them as the conditions are not familiar to teachers.
c. Problem with language and communication – some children outwardly look similar to their
age mates. But they will have major problems with understanding and / or expressing through
appropriate language. Such children face problems with academic and non academic activities
of the school.
d. Sensory impairment – we have come across children in schools who have hearing and visual
impairment. These problems range from mild to severe making it very difficult to cope in the
classroom. Partial sightedness and mild hearing impairment also have lots of educational
implications.
e. Physical deviations – difficulty in movement either gross or fine is observed among many
children in the school going age. It may be due to orthopedical, neurological and muscular
conditions leading to difficulty in coordination of the body parts. It leads to mild to severe
problems for children in the school.
f. Health problems – there are many childhood health problems which force children to avoid
schools for long duration. This is one of the reasons children stop continuing their education.
The variety of situations posed by the illness is serious cause for concern. Childhood diabetes,
arthritis, epilepsy, malnutrition leading to general weakness are some of the commonly
observed conditions in the elementary school age.
The above categories under disabilities leading to difficulty to attend to school or to learn impose
danger to continue schooling for children who suffer. As teachers we have to be sensitive to the
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minute aspects of the behavior of the children identified. If the condition seems beyond your purview,
it is best to refer them to professionals without losing much time.
CHILDREN FROM THE DEPRIVED ENVIRONMENTS
It is an established fact that deprivation in the living environment has a direct effect on concept
formation. Naturally children coming from poverty stricken families, daily wage workers, slum
dwellers and children from destitute families face problems with economic, social and psychological
environments.
GIRL CHILD
Girls are at disadvantage due to physical, social and cultural reasons. Especially in villages and
traditional joint families, girls are treated very differently. The educational needs of girls are ignored
as their roles are decided in the families. The encouragement they need at the young age to pursue
education is totally missing in certain families. Hence they are a vulnerable group for remaining out of
school.
CHILDREN WHO ARE GIFTED AND CREATIVE
Children sometimes have special talents in areas like sports, music, dance and art. The special ability
could also be in academic areas like science, maths or language. They feel dull inside a classroom as
our education system does not facilitate talent in any way. Some children are labeled as trouble
makers in the class due to their unique ideas, different thinking patterns. For such children our routine
classroom activity will be boring. At present education system is concerned with linear growth of
children with a focus on academic success. This puts gifted and creative children at a disadvantage in
the school activities. There is a danger that they drop out of the system.
OTHERS – UNDERACHIEVERS, MINORITY COMMUNITIES, GEOGRAPHIC
CONSTRAINTS
Underachievers are yet another group in our schools who cannot perform to their full potential. The
full ability of some children cannot bloom due to diversions in the surrounding. It could be TV,
Computer, and easy access to other pleasures in the society. Pressure for performance, over
expectations from schools, parents and self, rigid and monotonous school activities are other reasons
for deterioration in performance.
Some communities due to their unique physical, linguistic or cultural characteristics face collective
discrimination in the society. Their life style, language, culture, origin or faith differs from the
majority of people in their surroundings. They are referred to as people belonging to minority
community. Belonging to such a group restricts their full participation in the society. The
disadvantage multiplies if other risk factors like poverty and disability coexists among children
belonging to minority communities.
The location sometimes restricts children seeking education in an appropriate environment. Hilly
areas, very remote places, regions cut off due to poor transport facilities make it impossible for the
younger generation coming out to looking for a school.
CONCEPT OF Children With Special Needs (CWSN)
In the previous unit you have studied about who are the children with special needs, in this unit we
will discuss in detail. Children who require special attention and specific necessities that other
children do not, are said to be children with special needs. All classrooms have children with different
abilities. It is important to recognize the diversity in class rooms. Each one of us have experienced
some special need during our school/college years.
A special need is nothing but the need for additional help in order to understand a concept or perform
an activity (music, art and so on). No one is perfect, any problem either social, intellectual, sensory,
motor or long term illness will manifest itself as a difficulty in learning.This unit will tell you about
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the meanings, causes, early intervention and identification and national policies concerning children
with special needs
UNDERSTANDING CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Does My Child Have Special Needs? is a question that many parents of young children ask, This is
soon followed by another key question, what is a special need? A 14 month old child may not yet
walk like many of the other children. Does that child have a special need? Another child repeats back
everything she hears, including what is on television. Is that a special need? And if a child does have
one or more special needs, where can the family go to get services and supports that can help?
A teacher will be the first person to whom worried parents approach. First the teacher has to know
who the children with special needs are. Any child requiring attention due to physical problems or
suffering physical or emotional distress could be considered as children with special needs. Delayed
milestones, activities that cannot be done, Food that cannot be eaten and everyday tasks that we may
take for granted, that cannot be achieved without help.
“Special needs” is a term with many definitions, ranging from mild learning disabilities to severe
cognitive disability (mental retardation), terminal illnesses, food allergies or developmental delays.
When a child needs help, outside of the ordinary, they have different needs that have to be met and
different goals to achieve.
Definition of Disability: According to WHO the term disability should be changed to difficulties –
difficulty in seeing, listening, communication, moving, learning,
In order to understand children with special needs we must know the different adjectives or terms by
which they are often described. Impairment, Disability and Handicaps are terms which are frequently
used interchangeably. However, there are conceptual differences among the terms. The differencehas
been clearly outlined in the definition of each of the terms by WHO in the international classification
of impairment, disability and Handicaps.
Impairment is any structural loss, disability is functional incapability and handicap is a social
disadvantage experienced by a person.
Now, let us discuss about meaning, causes and probable affects of disability:
COGNITIVE DISABILITY
A term used when a person has certain limitations in mental functioning and in skills such as
communicating, taking care of him or herself, and social skills. These limitations will cause a child to
learn and develop more slowly than a typical child. Children with mental retardation may take longer
to learn to speak, walk, and take care of their personal needs such as dressing or eating. They are
likely to have trouble learning in school. They will learn, but it will take them longer. There may be
some things they cannot learn.
A mentally challenged child is one who has sub average general intellectual potential and slow
intellectual development. The retardation may range from mild to severe. It occurs early in life during
developmental period.
a) Meaning: Currently Cognitive disability is used to replace the old terms mental retardation ,
mentally handicapped ., The change in terminology is to remove the effect of labeling or stigma
associated with words such as ‘handicapped’ or ‘disabled’ .
A mentally challenged child’s IQ is also less than average. Some of them can be trained in a
class for normal children and can be made useful for themselves and the nation. But others are
so mentally deficient that they cannot trained for any work. Thus, some mentally deficient
children are ‘educable’ while others with severely deficient are ‘trainable’ only.
Depending on their IQ, Mental Retardation has be classified into:
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Classification Of (Mental Retardation) Cognitive Disability
Severity Levels Range of IQ
Mild Mentally Retarded 50-75
Moderate Mentally Retarded 35-49
Severe Mentally Retarded 20-34
Profound Mentally Retarded Below 20
b) Causes : Someof the important and known causes of cognitive disabilities can be
a. Infections and intoxication (For ex rubella, syphilis, encephalitis, meningitis)
b. Trauma and physical agent (for ex accidents, before during and after birth, anoxia)
c. Metabolism and nutrition (for ex phenyl ketoneuria )
d. Gross brain disease ( such as tumours)
e. Prenatal influence ( for ex hydrodphalus, micro cephalus)
f. Chromosomal abnormality ( such as Down’s Syndrome)
g. Psychiatric disorders (seldom cited as a cause till today)
c) Factors that are Influenced due to Cognitive Impairment:A child with a cognitive disability
may have memory problems, awareness problems, difficulty in problem solving, language
difficulties which cause difficulties in understanding and/or expression of written and /or
spoken language.
The type of cognitive impairment can vary widely, from severe retardation to inability to
remember, to the absence or impairment of specific cognitive functions (most particularly,
language). Therefore, the types of functional limitations which can result also vary widely
SENSORY IMPAIRMENT - HEARING AND SPEECH IMPAIRMENT
a) Meaning: Hearing impairment means any degree and type of auditory disorder, while deafness
means an extreme inability to discriminate conversational speech through the ear. Children with
hearing impaired, then, are those who cannot use their hearing for communication. People with
a lesser degree of hearing impairment are called hard of hearing. Usually, a person is considered
deaf when sound must reach at least 90 decibels (5 to 10 times louder than normal speech) to be
heard, and even amplified speech cannot be understood.
Hearing impairment may be sensorineural or conductive. Sensorineural hearing loss involves
damage to the auditory pathways within the central nervous system, beginning with the cochlea
and auditory nerve, and including the brain stem and cerebral cortex (this prevents or disrupts
interpretation of the auditory signal). Conductive hearing loss is damage to the outer or middle
ear which interferes with sound waves reaching the cochlea
b) Causes: The main causes of deafness are heredity, accident and illness. In about 50% of all
cases of deafness, genetic factors/heredity are probable cause of deafness. Environmental
factors (accidents, illness, auto toxic drugs, etc.) are responsible for deafness in many cases.
Rubella or other viral infections contracted by the pregnant mother may deafen an unborn child.
Hazards associated with process of birth,e.g. a cut-off in the oxygen supply may affect hearing.
Illness orinfection may cause deafness in young children. Constant high noiselevel can cause
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progressive and eventually severe sensory-neuralhearing loss. Similarly, tumors, exposure to

explosive sound, injuryto skull or ear could lead to deafness.
c) Factors that are Influenced due to Hearing Impairment:
A Hearing Impaired child (mainly who suffers from severe to profoundhearing loss) needs to
spend considerable time on learning languageand speech as communication skills that will help
him to gaineducation and develop social skills.
SPEECH IMPAIRMENT
a) Meaning : Speech Impairment may range from problems with expression or voice strength to
complete voicelessness, chronic hoarseness, stuttering or stammering. Speech difficulties can
also be associated with cerebral palsy, hearing impairment and brain injury. Children with
speech difficulties may have difficulty to understand and have difficulty in expressing ideas.
b) Causes : Delayed Speech: A number of conditions- Mental Retardation hearing Impairment and
behavioral disorders may cause delayed speech.Cleft Palate: The structural defects in the palate
mouth and lip cause speech disabilities, speech defects also have emotional and psychological
origin.Lack of stimulation, Maladaptive behaviours such as hyperactivity motor in coordination
and general behavioural disorders.Heredity
c) Factors that are Influenced due to Hearing Impairment:Suffering from a speech disorder
can have negative social effects, especially among young children. Those with a speech disorder
can be targets of bullying because of their disorder. The bullying can result in decreased self-
esteem. Later in life, bullying is experienced less by a general population, as people become
more understanding as they age.
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
a) Meaning: Visual impairment for children with poor vision, to children who can see light but no
shapes, to children who have no perception of light at all. However, for general discussion it is
useful to think of this population as representing two broad groups: those with low vision and
those who are legally blind.
A child is termed legally blind when its visual acuity (sharpness of vision) is 20/200 or worse
after correction, or when their field of vision is less than 20 degrees; in the best eye after
correction. Low vision includes problems (after correction) such as dimness of vision, haziness,
film over the eye, foggy vision, extreme near- or farsightedness, distortion of vision, spots
before the eyes, color distortions, visual field defects, tunnel vision, no peripheral vision,
abnormal sensitivity to light or glare, and night blindness.
b) Causes : Major causes of visual impairment are:
1. Vitamin A deficiency
2. Congenital Cataracts caused by some abnormalities during pregnancy or inheritance.
3. Pre maturity in the administration of high concentration of oxygen in the incubator giving
rise to retinopathy of prematurity , this may result total loss of sight.
4. Cataracts- usually occurring in middle old age. This condition is amendable to treatment
by surgery.
5. Glaucoma-High pressure in the eye resulting in damage of retina.
c) Factors that are Influenced due to Visual Impairment:Those with visual impairments have
the most difficulty with visual displays and other visual output (e.g., hazard warnings). In
addition, there are problems in utilizing controls where labeling or actual operation is dependent
on vision (e.g., where eye-hand coordination is required, as with a computer “mouse”). Written
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operating instructions and other documentation may be unusable, and there can be difficulties in
manipulation (e.g., insertion/placement, assembly).
Those with color blindness may have difficulty differentiating between certain color pairs. This
generally doesn’t pose much of a problem except in those instances when information is color coded
or where color pairs are chosen which result in poor figure ground contrast.
LOCOMOTOR/PHYSICAL IMPAIRMENT
a) Meaning
Locomotor Impaired children are one of the categories of special needs children and essentially
members of society, like others. There is not much difference between these children and
normal ones in their psychological make-up. They have their own exceptionalities and
influences in society. Previously, they were looked upon with sympathy or pity but with the
awakening of social awareness the general attitude towards the differently abled has also under
gone change.
A locomotor impaired condition is the state of the body which hinder the child from making
normal progress in school activities as average children do. They require special attention and
equipment to control or overcome different abilities.
b) Causes :
Arthritis. Arthritis is defined as pain in joints, usually reducing range of motion and causing
weakness. Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic syndrome. Osteoarthritis is a degenerative joint
disease
Cerebral Palsy (CP). Cerebral palsy is defined as damage to the motor areas of the brain prior
to brain maturity (most cases of CP occur before, during or shortly following birth). CP is a type
of injury, not a disease (although it can be caused by a disease), and does not get worse over
time; it is also not “curable.”
Spinal Cord Injury. Spinal cord injury can result in paralysis or paresis (weakening). The
extent of paralysis/paresis and the parts of the body effected are determined by how high or low
on the spine the damage occurs and the type of damage to the cord.
Head Injury (cerebral trauma). The term “head injury” is used to describe a wide array of
injuries, including concussion, brain stem injury, closed head injury, cerebral hemorrhage,
depressed skull fracture, foreign object (e.g., bullet), anoxia, and post-operative infections.
Stroke (cerebral vascular accident; CVA). The three main causes of stroke are: thrombosis
(blood clot in a blood vessel blocks blood flow past that point), hemorrhage (resulting in
bleeding into the brain tissue; associated with high blood pressure or rupture of an aneurysm),
and embolism (a large clot breaks off and blocks an artery)..
Loss of Limbs or Digits (Amputation or Congenital). This may be due to trauma (e.g.,
explosions, mangling in a machine, severance, burns) or surgery (due to cancer, peripheral
arterial disease, diabetes).
Parkinson’s Disease. This is a progressive disease of older adults characterized by muscle
rigidity, slowness of movements, and a unique type of tremor. There is no actual paralysis.
Multiple Sclerosis (MS). Multiple sclerosis is defined as a progressive disease of the central
nervous system characterized by the destruction of the insulating material covering nerve fibers.
Muscular Dystrophy (MD). Muscular dystrophy is a group of hereditary diseases causing
progressive muscular weakness, loss of muscular control, contractions and difficulty in walking,
breathing, reaching, and use of hands involving strength.
Factors that are Influenced due to Locomotor impairment Problems faced by individuals with
Locomotor impairments include poor muscle control, weakness and fatigue, difficulty walking,
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talking, seeing, speaking, sensing or grasping (due to pain or weakness), difficulty reaching things,
and difficulty doing complex or compound manipulations (push and turn). Individuals with spinal
cord injuries may be unable to use their limbs. Twisting motions may be difficult or impossible for
people with many types of physical disabilities (including cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury, arthritis,
multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy, etc.).
MULTIPLE IMPAIRMENTS
a) Meaning : It is common to find that whatever caused a single type of impairment also caused
others. This is particularly true where disease or trauma is severe, or in the case of impairments
caused by aging.
Deaf-blindness is one commonly identified combination. Most of these individuals are neither
profoundly deaf nor legally blind, but are both visual and hearing impaired to the extent that
strategies for deafness or blindness alone won’t work. People with developmental disabilities
may have a combination of mental and physical impairments that result in substantial functional
limitations in three or more areas of major life activity. Diabetes, which can cause blindness,
also often causes loss of sensation in the fingers. This makes braille or raised lettering
impossible to read. Cerebral palsy is often accompanied by visual impairments, by hearing and
language disorders, or by cognitive impairments.
b) Causes There are many social, environmental and physical causes of multiple disorders,
although for some a definitive cause may never be determined. Common factors causing
multiple disorders include:
• Brain injury or infection before, during or after birth;
• Growth or nutrition problems (prenatally, perinatally, or postnatally);
• Abnormalities of chromosomes and genes;
• Birth long before the expected birth date - also called extreme prematurity;
• Poor maternal diet and absent or minimal health care;
• Drug abuse during pregnancy, including alcohol intake and smoking;
• Drug-related prenatal developmental insult, such as thalidomide;
• Severe physical maltreatment (child abuse), which may have caused brain injury and
which can adversely affect a child’s learning abilities and socio-emotional development;
LEARNING DISABILITY
a) Meaning : Learning disability is any one of a diverse group of conditions, believed to be of
neurological origin, that cause significant difficulties in perceiving and /or processing auditory,
visual or spatial information, or any combination of these information forms.
Learning Difficulties often occur in children with average or above average intelligence and
they involve one or more of the basic processes used in understanding or using spoken or
written language.
They include disorders that impair functions such as reading(dyslexia) writing (dysgraphia) and
mathematical calculation (dyscalculia). They vary widely within each category in the patterns
they exhibit. The marked discrepancy between intellectual capacity, and achievement and
output (expressing information and responding) is what characterizes a learning difficulty.
b) Causes
The causes for learning disabilities are not well understood, and sometimes there is no apparent
cause for a learning disability. However, some causes of neurological impairments include:
• Heredity - Learning disabilities often run in the family.
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• Problems during pregnancy and birth - Learning disabilities can result from anomalies in
the developing brain, illness or injury, fetal exposure to alcohol or drugs, low birth
weight, oxygen deprivation, or by premature or prolonged labor.
• Accidents after birth - Learning disabilities can also be caused by head injuries,
malnutrition, or by toxic exposure (such as heavy metals or pesticides).
EMOTIONAL AND BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS
a) Meaning: Emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD) is a broad category which is used
commonly in educational settings, to group a range of more specific perceived difficulties of
children and adolescents A child exhibiting one or more of the following characteristics to a
marked degree for a long duration of time that adversely affects their education:
1. Difficulty to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
2. Difficulty to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers.
3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances.
4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.
b) Causes:
Biology can be a factor. Emotional and Behavior disorders may be inherited through one’s
genes, due to a chemical imbalance in the brain or occur as a result of brain injury. The person’s
surroundings can also come into play. If the youth has been exposed to abuse, extreme stress, a
death or loss in the family, and/or violence, he/she is more likely to develop these disorders
CONCEPT OF “WAITING CHILDREN”
Children who are waiting to be adopted, that is, children who are legally free for adoption. They are in
the care of the public child welfare system, cannot return to their birth homes and need permanent
families
This term generally refers to non-infant, school age children, who have become legally available for
adoption. They will generally be under the legal jurisdiction and care of public foster care agencies,
and will have come into the foster care system for a variety of reasons, which could include neglect,
abandonment, abuse and/or some other dysfunction within their family environment.
Many waiting children will have siblings who are also available for adoption, and who would prefer
to stay together as a family unit. In most geographic locations, more than half of the waiting children
will be ethnically diverse or will be children of color. Two things that all “Waiting Children” will
have in common are: 1) their need to become a permanent part of a responsible and nurturing family,
where they will be loved and encouraged to achieve their full potential, and 2) although imperfect and
most often challenging, they can bring tremendous joy and satisfaction for their new families.
According to the Indian Adoption system;Except for adoption by Hindus, Indian law has no provision
for adoption. Children are placed under guardianship of adopting parents to exit the country, and
adoption must take place in the parents’ home country.
EARLY IDENTIFICATION, ASSESSMENT AND INTERVENTION
The need for Early Childhood Care and Development is recognized by both Central and State
governments in India. Early Intervention is also recognized for its effectiveness in preparing the child
for schooling as well as in preventing primary and secondary handicaps. It is also intrinsically
important to make optimum use of the residual potential in every child as it lays the foundation for the
child’s future and promotes the overall development of children.
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The benefits of early identification and intervention have been acknowledged and documented by
experts in the field of rehabilitation. ICDS, started as a comprehensive child development program,
laid special emphasis on nutrition. This program later expanded to reach out to adolescent girls, pre
and post-natal care and pre-school education up to 6 years. As a training component for the grassroots
worker (Anganwadi worker), an awareness module on disabilities was included. However, children
with disabilities were not included by design in the Anganwadi centers.
Early Identification, Intervention and Stimulation of children with disabilities, of age under five years,
using appropriate technology and skills will help prevent secondary handicaps and severity of
problems
Many parents are worried that by labeling their child with a special need, their child will be
stigmatized. They are concerned that identifying a special need may pose a risk to the child, such as
excluding the child from normal programs and activities for children that age.
So it is very important for practical purposes that children who have special needs be identified as
early as possible and that they be defined as such, so that they can receive the special help they need
in order to live the best lives possible.
The role of the teacher here is very crucial, first the teacher finds some of the symptoms mentioned in
this unit in a child, then the teacher has to use the screening form and later send the child to a
professional for assessment.
Some of the warning signs of early childhood developmental delay:
• No reaction to loud noises
• Has not discovered their hands, and they don’t put their hands in their mouth.
• Don’t follow objects with their eyes or turn their head towards a sound.
• Can’t reach for toys or grasp them
• Have either very stiff or very floppy limbs
• Prefers one side of their body more than the other.
• Can’t pick up small objects
• Is clumsy, and falls often
• Continuous drooling
• Is not interested in playing with other children
• Cannot follow simple instructions
• Suffers from separation anxiety, when taken away from mother
• Is scared of strangers
• Cannot throw a ball, run or jump
• Looses interest in an activity very quickly
IDENTIFICATION OF DISABILITIES
Timely identification of impairments, a secondary prevention, can reducethe impact of the impairment
on the functional level of the individual andalso in checking the impairments from becoming a
disabling condition. Initiallythey need to be identified as soon as possible at home by the parents
andoutside (in the anganwadicentres/schools/sub-health centres/throughcamps), and then they need to
be assessed by a team of specialists in order toplan necessary interventions.
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Teachers in all the primary, upper primary and secondary government schools have a responsibility to
identify children with disabilities. Check list for identification of children with special needs (School
teachers and parents should use this check list) :
Impairment Symptoms
Visual (a) Watering of eyes. If any of the four

conditions are present,
(b) Recurrent redness.
then the child should be
(c) Frequent irritation. properly examined by a
(d) Frequent blinking. qualified
ophthalmologist to see if
(e) Squint. the existing condition
(f) Inappropriate stumbling upon objects or bumping can be improved by
into other people. medical treatment or by
using spectacles.
(g) Titling of the head or closure of one eye.
(h) Difficulty in counting the fingers of an outstretched
hand at a distance of one meter.
(i) Moving head side to side while reading.
(j) Difficulty in recognizing distant objects.
(k) Difficulty in doing fine work requiring perfect vision.
(l) Holding books too close or too far from the eyes.
(m) Frequently ask other children when taking down
notes from the blackboard.
(n) Exhibit difficulty in reading from the blackboard.
(o) Hitting against the objects on the side.
Hearing (a) Malformation of the ear. If any 3 to 4 of the

conditions are present, it
(b) Discharge from ear.
indicates some kind of
(c) Pain in ear. hearing/speech loss.
(d) Irritation in ear. Then the child should be
carefully examined by a
(e) Trying to listen from a closer distance. qualified ENT specialist
(f) Ask for the instructions repeatedly. an audiologist, and also
by a speech therapist for
(g) Not able to write properly. complete evaluation. In
(h) Trying to listen to the echo reflection rather than to case the child is below 4-
the speaker. 5 years, a psychologist
(i) Make errors while copying from blackboard. should also be consulted
to identify and address
(j) Frequently ask a colleague to show his workbook. any associated
(k) Problems in paying attention in the class. psychological problems
which may not be overtly
(l) Favour one ear for listening purposes. evident.
(m) Problems when anyone speaks from behind.
(n) Child speaks loudly or too softly.
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(o) Exhibit voice problem and mispronunciation.

(p) Tune the TV/Radio too loud.
(q) Irrelevant answers.
(r) The child keeps away from his age mates.
(s) The child is unable to respond when called from the
other room.
(t) The child understands only after few repetitions.
Speech (a) Inappropriate sounds in speech.

(b) Stammering.
(c) Baby speech.
(d) Inability to learn correct sound, and use incorrect
speech.
(e) Incomprehensible speech.
Locomotor (a) Deformity in the neck, hand, finger, waist or legs. If any of the conditions
Disabilities is/are
(b) Difficulty in sitting, standing or walking.
present, the child should
(c) Difficulty in lifting, holding or keeping things on
be carefully examined by
floor.
a qualified orthopaedic
(d) Difficulty in moving or using any part of body. surgeon and referred to a
(e) Difficulty in holding a pen. physiotherapist &/or
prosthetic/ orthotic
(f) Using a stick to walk. technician as needed.
(g) Jerks during walking.
(h) Lack bodily coordination.
(i) Epileptic movements of tremors.
(j) Joint pains.
(k) Any part of the body is amputated.
Cognitive (a) If the child does not sit unassisted even after 12-15 If the responses to any of
Disability months. the four indicators is
(Mental positive when compared
(b) Or does not walk even after 2½ years.
Retardation) to the average school
(c) Or does not talk even after 2½ years. going peers of the same
(d) If a child has undue problems in doing independently age group and class, then
any of the following activities by the age of 6 years: the child should be
properly assessed by a
— Eating qualified psychologist or
— Dressing a teacher who is
specially trained to taken
— Toilet activity care of the mentally
(e) Problems in holding a pencil/or using a pair of challenged children.
scissors.
(f) Unable to play with a ball or play ‘guilli-danda’ with
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the peers.
(g) Frequent tantrums, while playing with the peers.
(h) Usual inattentiveness to the spoken speech or
addressal.
(i) Requires too many repetitions to remember simple
things.
(j) Problems in naming even five fruits, vegetables or
plants.
(k) Problems in naming the days of the week.
(l) Exhibit problems in expressing the needs in a clear
language unlike the other peers.
(m) Unable to concentrate on tasks even for a short period
of time.
(n) Inappropriate oral responses.
(o) Difficulty in learning new things.
(p) Poor comprehension of lessons taught in the school
class.
(q) Difficulty in learning new things.
(r) Difficulty in conceptualization.
(s) Does not get well along with the children of same age
group.
(t) More efforts are required in learning or practicing as
compare tothe peers.
(u) Takes an unreasonable amount of time in perfecting
any work.
(v) Poor academic achievements.
(w) Show an undue dependency on visual clues or
material for learning
Learning (a) Difficulty in counting If any of the three to five

Disabilities conditions are present,
(b) Lack of concentration, or easily distracted by the
the child should be
surroundings, either at home or school.
examined by a qualified
(c) Difficulty in sitting quietly in the classroom. psychologist,
(d) Does not write down the spoken words correctly. pediatrician or a special
educator for initial
(e) Inappropriate additions to the right word, e.g., screening and further
‘ischool’ in place of school. consultations. One of the
(f) Always confused between right and left. main characteristics of
children with learning
(g) Unreasonable difficulty in remembering the verbal disabilities is that their
instructions. verbal skills are often
(h) General difficulty in memorizing the things. much better than the
writing skills.
(i) Extreme restlessness in a child which significantly
Therefore, they should
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interferes with the timely completion of various tasks. be formally tested .

(j) Reverses letters or symbols too frequently while
reading for example, b as d, saw as was, etc.
(k) Reverses numbers too frequently while reading, for
example,31 as 13, 6 as 9, etc.
(l) Excessive errors during reading like looses
place/repeat/ insert/substitute/omit words.
(m) Poor in mathematical calculations.
(n) Problems in accurate copying from the common
sources like a book or a blackboard, even though the
vision is normal.
(o) Write letters or words either too close or too far
(spacing problems).
(p) The child appears to comprehend satisfactorily but is
not able to answer the relevant questions.
ASSESSMENT
Early Identification and intervention for young children with special needs often leads to better school
adjustment and performance . The assessment will help determine the child’s individual needs. Some
children may have difficulties learning at a particular time and may require short term assistance.
However many special needs may have lifelong needs. The child’s needs may change, depending on
the environment and the coping strategies he or she develops. Many other factors can affect a child’s
educational needs, and it is important that the school team meet regularly to identify and discuss these
factors, and adjust the child’s programming as needed.
After the parents give consent to the school for referral of their child to a resource teacher or clinician,
an assessment plan will be developed. Parents can be involved in the assessment process in various
ways.
How an Assessment is carried out?
Assessment procedure addresses the following questions:
1. Who is the child? — including: interests, likes and dislikes, skills, and other strengths
2. What are the child’s “special needs”? Why is the child receiving special education?
3. Who is the child’s family and “circle of support”? — including: hopes and dreams, needs and
concerns
4. What are the student’s routines and daily activities?
5. Looking first hand at the routines and activities, one at a time, what might help the child be
more successful? Including,
— talking and communicating?
— moving and getting around?
— playing and socializing?
— learning and remembering?
— making choices and having control?
— participating with friends?
— increasing independence?
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— helping others?
6. Which IEP goals and objectives should we look at for Assistive Technology? (prioritizing 2 or
3), including
— language and communication
— play and socialization
— nutrition
— mobility and positioning
— “readiness” skills
— self help
— activities of daily living
— behavior
— Circle of Friends
Depending on the child’s needs, a number of specialists could include a resource teacher, reading
clinician, speech language pathologist, psychologist, occupational therapist, or others. Different
professional are qualified to assess different areas of the child’s development. For example a
psychologist assesses a child’s cognitive ability or potential. A class room teacher or resource teacher
can assess children’s learning skills .A questionnaire could be used by teachers for preliminary
assessment of disabilities (given in appendix)
After Developing an Assessment plan for the child and when all the assessment results for the child
are completed, the school could contact the parents and arrange for a meeting with the staff who
participated in the assessment to explain the results, discuss the recommendation and involve the
parents in making any related decisions. A written report is shared with parents, the teacher, and/or
others working with the child.
EARLY INTERVENTION
The term early intervention (or EI) , refers to services given to very young children with special
needs, with the purpose of lessening the effects of the condition. Services may include speech,
physical or occupational therapy, and can be provided in the home or at an office.
The hope is that these services, provided early, will help any delays in development so that the child
will not need therapy later on. If, however, when the child reaches a school going age and still needs
therapy, there are remedial schools catering for a variety of special needs.
At many of these schools, therapies are worked into the child’s day as part of the remedial curriculum.
WHY EARLY INTERVENTION IS SO IMPORTANT.
There are three main reasons why early intervention is so important and needs to begin as early as
possible; It helps to promote the child’s development, it is a support system not only for the child, but
also for the family, and finally it gives the child the abilities to become a function member of society.
The intervention process will include the following team activities:
• design an intervention plan
• consultation and partnership with parents.
• create and/or locate appropriate media
• create and/or locate appropriate material (both commercial and “locally” developed)
• create and/or locate other appropriate Assistive Technology (e.g., switch toys)
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• implement the plan on a daily basis for a minimum of 4-weeks

• evaluate the student learning outcomes, and
• propose “next steps” for Assistive Technology supports
Interventions may be school-based interventions or home-based interventions that are integrated with
a system for positive behavioral support intended to enable children’s success in school. The long-
term outcome of this program will be an array of tools and strategies (e.g., assessments tools,
preschool curricula) that have been documented to be effective for improving the cognitive, linguistic,
social, and emotional needs of young children with disabilities or at high risk for specific learning
disabilities from pre-kindergarten through kindergarten.
The learning requirements for each child differ individually according to their impairment, and
abilities. Individual Education Plan can be used. The activities should be simple to complex. The
teacher plays a very important role in planning the curriculum for each child. Observation is the only
way she can plan a perfect curriculum based on the needs of the child.
DISABILITY ACT AND POLICIES
The Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995 was proposed to be replaced by a new legislation in the light
of the experience gained in the implementation of the Act, developments that have taken place in the
disability sector over the years, and also the commitments under the UN Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD),” the statement said.
What are the human rights of persons with disabilities?
All members of society have the same human rights - they include civil, cultural, economic, political
and social rights. Examples of these rights include the following:
• equality before the law without discrimination
• right to life, liberty and security of the person
• equal recognition before the law and legal capacity
• freedom from torture
• freedom from exploitation, violence and abuse
• right to respect physical and mental integrity
• freedom of movement and nationality
• right to live in the community
• freedom of expression and opinion
• respect for privacy
• respect for home and the family
• right to education
• right to health
• right to work
• right to an adequate standard of living
• right to participate in political and public life
• right to participate in cultural life
All persons with disabilities have the right to be free from discrimination in the enjoyment of their
rights. This includes the right to be free from discrimination on the basis of disability, but also on any
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other basis such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social
origin, property, birth or other status.
CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH
DISABILITIES?
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities is an international treaty that identifies the
rights of persons with disabilities as well as the obligations of States parties to the Convention to
promote, protect and ensure those rights. The Convention also establishes two implementation
mechanisms: the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, established to monitor
implementation, and the Conference of States Parties, established to consider matters regarding
implementation.
States negotiated the Convention with the participation of civil society organizations, national human
rights institutions and inter-governmental organizations. The United Nations General Assembly
adopted the Convention on 13 December 2006 and it was opened for signature on 30 March 2007.
States that ratify the Convention are legally bound to respect the standards in the Convention. For
other States, the Convention represents an international standard that they should endeavour to
respect.
The existing Act is in the process of amendment. The document that is used in this chapter is the Act
prior to amendment.
In most of the countries in South Asia disability is a state subject and local governments have the
responsibility of translating UNCRPD commitments into action. For example in India under Indian
constitution, there are three lists of subjects divided into central, concurrent and state responsibilities.
The subjects that fall under central list such as defense, external affairs are the responsibilities of
central government. Under concurrent list there are subjects such as education, health etc. Disability is
listed under the State list. This means the main responsibility of implementation of UNCRPD at the
state level is with state or provincial Governments. Further down at village level Panchayath raj
institutions or local governments have the responsibility to address disability issues.
As we know Disability ACT in India was passed and it is a mixture of all the above. It talks about
policies, plans and legislations all in a Single document.
PERSONS WITH DISABILITY ACT 1995
Legal definitions of the terms used in the Act are given. Disability means :
• Blindness - No vision at all.
• Low vision - Person capable of execution of a task with appropriate assistive devices.
• Leprosy cured - cured but loss of sensation in hands or feet as well as loss of sensation and
paresis in the eye and eye lid
• Hearing Impairment - Loss of 60 decibels or more in the conversationalrange of frequencies.
• Locomotor Disability - Disability of the bone joints or muscles leading to substantial restriction
of limb movements or any of cerebral palsy.
• Mental Illness - Any mental disorder other than mental retardation
• Mental Retardation - Condition of arrested or incomplete development of the mind of a person.
A person with disability has to be certified by a medical authority that he or she is suffering from not
less than 40% of the disability.
Prevention and Early Detection of Disabilities
Within the limits of their economic capacity and development, the appropriate Governments and the
local authorities, with a view to preventing the occurrence of disabilities, shall
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a) undertake or cause to be undertaken surveys, investigations and research concerning the cause
of occurance of disabilities;
b) promote various methods of preventing disabilities;
c) screen all the children at least once in a year for the purpose of identifying at-risk cases;
d) provide facilities for training to the staff at the primary health centers;
e) sponsor or cause to be sponsored awareness campaigns and disseminate or cause to be
disseminated information for general hygiene health and sanitation;
f) take measures for pre-natal, peri-natal, and post-natal care of mother and child;
g) educate the public through the pre-schools, primary health centers, village level workers and
anganwadi workers;
h) Create awareness amongst masses through television, radio and other mass media on the causes
of disabilities and the preventive measures to be adopted.
Education
The Central and State Governments and local authorities shall ensure that every child with disability
has access to free and adequate education till the age of 18,
Employment
Government shall identify posts which can be reserved for persons with disabilities. These
reservations shall not be less than 3% of which 1% will be reserved for each of the below mentioned
disabilities.
1. Blindness or low vision
1. Hearing Impairment
2. Locomotor disability or Cerebral palsy
Affirmative Action
The Govt. shall provide aids and appliances to persons with disabilities and shall provide land at
concessional rates for allotment to persons with disabilities for housing, business, special recreation
centers, special schools, research centers and factories by entrepreneurs with disabilities.
Non Discrimination
Govt. transport shall take special measures to adopt their facilities and amenities so that they permit
easy access to persons with disabilities, inclusive of persons on wheel chairs.
Government and local authorities shall also within their capacity, provide auditory signals along red
lights, crossing constructions shall be designed for wheel chair users and engraving on zebra crossing
for blind people. Warning signals shall be provided at appropriate places for the people with
disabilities etc. Building and toilets shall be constructed with ramps and other features so that wheel
chair users can have access to them. No employer shall terminate an employee who acquires a
disability during service. No employer shall also deny promotion to an employee on grounds of
disability, but provide for circumventing this, based on the type of work.
Research and Manpower Development
Government and local authorities shall promote and sponsor research in order to prevent disability,
rehabilitate the disabled, develop assistive devices, identify jobs for disabled and develop pre-disabled
structural features in factories and offices.
Institution for Persons with Severe Disabilities
Person having eighty per cent or more of one or more disabilities are considered persons with severe
disability. Governments shall establish and maintain institutions for them. Where private
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institutionsexists, which meet Government standards, they shall be recognized as institutions fit for
persons with severe disabilities.
The Chief Commissioner and Commissioners for Persons with Disabilities
The Central Government shall appoint a Chief Commissioner for persons with disabilities for the
implementation of this Act. The Chief Commissioner shall coordinate the work of the Commissioners,
monitor the utilization of funds given by the Central Government for persons with disabilities, ensure
that rights and facilities made available to persons with disabilities are protected, and submit an
annual report to the Central Government on the implementation of this Act.
THE RIGHTS OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES BILL, 2011
The proposed bill recognizes the equality of persons with disabilities and Prepared by Centre for
Disability Studies, NALSAR University of Law. The Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995 has
provided for an impairment based exhaustive definition of disability. Consequently, people with
impairments not expressly mentioned in the Act have often been denied the rights and entitlements
recognized in the Act.
The salient features of the proposed legislation are as follows:
• guarantee equality and non-discrimination to all persons with disabilities; The Rights of Persons
with Disabilities Bill, 2011
• recognize legal capacity of all persons with disabilities and make provision for support where
required to exercise such legal capacity;
• recognize the multiple and aggravated discrimination faced by women with disabilities and
induct a gendered understanding in both the rights and the programmatic interventions;
• recognize the special vulnerabilities of children with disabilities and ensure that they are treated
on an equal basis with other children;
• mandate proactive interventions for persons with disabilities who are elderly, confined to their
homes, abandoned and segregated or living in institutions and also those who need high
support;
• establish National and State Disability Rights Authorities which facilitate the formulation of
disability policy and law with active participation of persons with disabilities; dismantle
structural discrimination existing against persons with disabilities and enforce due observance
of regulations promulgated under this Act for the protection, promotion and enjoyment of all
rights guaranteed in this Act;
• specify civil and criminal sanctions for wrongful acts and omissions.
EDUCATION OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
As a teacher, you have been teaching children with varying abilities. You would have also taught
children having special needs. Some children have special needs due to disabilities that are visible
such as limbs affected as in the case of birth defects, poliomyelitis or due to accidents, some may be
having blindness or low vision and some with hearing loss. There are some children with disabilities
that are invisible such as intellectual disability (earlier known as mental retardation) and some with
specific learning disabilities. You are aware that Education is the fundamental right of all children in
our country. In addition, in our country, there is legislation for protecting the rights of persons with
disabilities known as Persons with disabilities (equal opportunities, protection of rights and full
participation) Act (P.D Act, 1995). Currently, the Act is being revised. The Act further emphasizes
the Right to Education. Children with special needs (CWSN), as noted in SarvaSikshaAbhiyan (SSA)
include all these children with disabilities to provide appropriate education to them. In this Unit we
will see the learning characteristics of such children, curricular adaptations and teaching learning
materials, role of Information and communication technology (ICT) and various provisions made for
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inclusion of children with special needs. Despite all these arrangements, there may be children with
severe disabilities who may not be able to reach the schools. As education is their right, it is only
appropriate that the education reaches their door step. Therefore, we will also discuss the
arrangements made under home based instructions for such children in this unit.
EDUCATIONAL CHALLENGES OF CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
As a teacher, you will be used to a class having over 35 children and you transact the lesson with
considerable ease. This is because the children of a given age and class generally have ability levels
and potentials within a certain range. When you have a CWSN in your class, he/she is likely to have
certain needs that have to be addressed. The needs will vary from child to child depending on the
disability he has. For example, a child with hearing impairment may need to have sufficient light to
see the board or visuals and the teacher should talk clearly allowing him to look at her face so that he
can lip read. On the other hand, a blind child will need along with verbal instructions, tactile material
that he can touch and learn when the teacher uses visuals. A child with mental retardation will need
concrete material and repeated instructions to understand a concept. A child with motor disabilities
will need physical support depending on the need. We will now see how you will identify and address
the individual needs of such children in your class.
LEARNING CHARACTERISTICS OF CWSN
All children are not alike and there can be varied strengths and needs among children. Such an
understanding is a step towards helping others as well as seeking help in an inclusive class room. This
is a necessary skill for adult living, as human beings are interdependent and yet independent. Such an
understanding early in life promotes values to be a good citizen. This leads to positive
interdependence.
A child with motor disability involving his hands and legs/feet will learn like any other child in the
class room. He will have difficulty in writing and manipulation of objects if hands are affected,
difficulty in moving if legs are affected. Such children will need suitable support with the aids and
appliances to compensate for their disability.
A child with hearing impairment tends to learn predominantly using his vision and to some extent, his
tactile/kinesthetic sense. Remember that the child with hearing impairment is like other students in the
class except that he has just the faculty of hearing affected in him. He does not speak because he does
not hear. Helping the child look at the face of the person who is talking help them lip read. Use of
chalk board and charts and other visuals to teach help them learn in the regular class room. Encourage
the child to wear the prescribed hearing aid all the time. If he does not have one, insist on getting
assessed by the team that certifies and provides the aid free of cost. This is a provision of the
government and it is our duty to ensure that every child has his hearing tested and the necessary
support provided.
Legally, visual impairment includes blindness and low vision. A child who is totally blind learns
using his hearing and tactile/kinesthetic senses. He also uses the sense of smell more than a sighted
person does. For instance, if you enter the class, he will know your presence before you speak, by the
perfume you wear every day! A child with low vision wears specially prescribed glasses and reads
using his available vision. However, he will need large print and contrast back ground. Assessing the
child’s needs and suitably making arrangements in the class will lead to inclusion of the child.
Specific learning disability (SLD) is a condition, though not covered by the P.D. Act, in which
children exhibit poor academic performance though they do not have any intellectual or other
disabilities. Children with SLD have difficulty in processing information due to a neurological
condition and exhibit symptoms such as difficulty in reading (dyslexia), difficulty in writing
(dysgraphia) and difficulty in doing mathematical calculations (dyscalculia). Some exhibit problems
related to attention, memory, reasoning and organizing themselves. Careful assessment and
programme planning help them overcome their learning problems to a great extent.
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A child with developmental disabilities such as intellectual disability (mental retardation), autism,
cerebral palsy or multiple disabilities will have specific learning characteristics. Children with
intellectual disability will be slow to learn and will have limited capacity to absorb what is taught.
They will have difficulty in understanding abstract concepts. A child with cerebral palsy will be able
to learn but may have difficulty in coordination, mobility and speech. If he has intellectual disability
also, he may exhibit the learning characteristics of that also. Children with Autism will have difficulty
in social relationship and communicating with others. They also are likely to have restricted interests
and need to be taught with proper understanding. Some of them are likely to have intellectual
disability also which further compounds the challenge. Multiple disabilities as the name indicates, is a
combination of two or more disabilities and need individually planned educational programmes.
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM AND THE NEEDS OF CWSN
As a teacher you are aware of our educational systems. You may be working in a school having
affiliation to Central Board or respective State Board of education. Whichever is the system followed,
children have to learn a set number of subjects up to class ten. Usually children learn three languages,
one of them being the medium of instruction. We have the formative and summative evaluations in
schools. Formative evaluations are done every quarter in addition to class tests and summative
evaluation is done at the end of the year. In early years, these evaluations had a major role in deciding
on promotion of children to the next class. As you are aware, currently the system of ‘automatic
promotion’ and no retention policy is in place. Activity based learning and Continuous and
comprehensive evaluation (CCE) are exercised in most schools, especially the schools governed by
the Central Board of secondary Education (CBSE).
In this given situation, many a time children with disabilities, especially those having mild intellectual
disability or specific learning disability tend to go unnoticed. For instance, you may find such children
attending class VIII but having the performance of class II or III in some subjects. It is important to
identify them early and provide the right support early in their lives so that the problem does not get
further compounded. You will agree that low self esteem due to disability, lack of peer approval or
sometimes even the teacher ignoring the child leaves him with a permanent scar in his mind thus
damaging his personality forever. You as a teacher, have a significant role to play in identifying the
child’s problem and providing his such support by which the class mates also show understanding and
support to him.
Appropriate aids and appliances such as Braille for students with blindness, hearing aids for those
with hearing impairment and mobility aids (such as walker, crutches, wheel chair, calipers) and
writing aid (such as adapted pencils and note books) for those with motor and physical disabilities are
provided to meet the challenges.
Further, to meet the challenges, government at Central and state levels have introduced certain
benefits and concessions to children with disabilities. Some examples include, a child with blindness
or learning disability can have a person assigned to write exam for him as he/she verbally says the
answer. They are also given additional time of 30 minutes in the three hour examinations. A child
with hearing loss may not do the second/third language and the subject is substituted with another
subject.
CURRICULAR ADAPTATIONS
A good curriculum should provide knowledge, skills and values that impacts the students at National
and International levels of understanding. When we talk of Special Education, it is time to look
beyond just ensuring access to education as an end point, and focus on improving the quality of
education.A good curriculum is the key to achieving quality in education. Educational reforms is not
just the concern of the teacher alone, but also the policy makers, media and the citizens as such,
because education makes us the kind of citizens that we are.Curriculum decisions are founded on the
beliefs and values regarding the purpose of education and the benefits of its outcome. Every
curriculum aims at realizing the fullest potentials of the students and helping them become productive
and contributing members of the society.When we look at children with disabilities, their abilities and
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needs are varied, demanding adaptation in curriculum content and transaction without compromising
on the objectives and learning outcomes.
NEED FOR CURRICULAR ADAPTATION
“Curriculum development is the deliberate process whereby an individual or a team identifies
educational aims and objectives for particular learners, designs an appropriate curriculum, implements
curriculum with the learners and improves it in the light of an evaluation of its effects and
effectiveness” - A dictionary of Education (1981)
The key points noted in the definition are:
• learner group
• the curriculum developers
• aim towards ‘appropriate’ curriculum
• implementation
• evaluation
• improvement of the curriculum
It reflects that curriculum development is an ongoing process requiring improvement based on
effects/effectiveness with the changes in trends. Curriculum development is modified with the aim to
provide ‘the best’ to the students.
Students have limited interest in learning things that they do not understand or that the content seems
irrelevant for them. This creates not only lack of motivation in students but also challenging
behaviours due to boredom or frustration. If the teacher makes the content more meaningful to the
student his interest level will increase and the frustration will reduce. To do this the curriculum and
the teaching method need to be modified. Another challenge the teacher faces in the inclusive set up is
to prepare the child for examinations which follow a rigid pattern. Adaptations in curriculum and
evaluation system are essential for successful inclusion of children with disabilities in regular schools.
ADAPTATION OF CURRICULUM TO MEET THE NEEDS OF CWSN
Content adaptation: Generally adaptation includes accommodations and modifications.
Accommodations refer to changes in input and output processes in teaching and learning. It does not
change the task content or the evaluation system. Accommodation may include for example
alternative teaching modes such as learning by doing, video tape, talking book, Braille and so on
while the other children learn from the conventional teaching.
Modifications refer to changes in the content or standards itself. For example, modification may mean
less content to learn, substitution of content with another, different objectives to achieve or different
evaluation pattern. A student who is deaf and is allowed to substitute second language with another
work experience or a different course is a modification in curriculum.
Curricular Adaptation - omission, substitution, expansion:
We have discussed that curricular adaptation demands accommodation and modification. This
involves various sub steps including modification, substitution or omission of content depending on
the need. Let us see this in detail.
Omission refers to removal of certain content areas from the curriculum. For example, the boards of
education in central and state levels have made concessions for students with disabilities. As we have
the three language policy in education in our country which includes the medium of instruction,
second language and third language in the curriculum, students with hearing impairment and those
with specific learning disabilities have difficulty learning all the three languages.
The Boards of secondary education has permitted them to drop a language. Such children need not do
the third language.
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There are also lessons within the curriculum which are omitted such as colour concepts for blind
children or music for deaf children.
Substitution of content area is carried out when one content area is replaced by another. In the
example under omission we saw that second language is omitted for deaf children. In some boards of
education, it is replaced by a subject involving computer application, work experience and so on. This
is substitution of the content.
For children with motor disabilities, physical education is substituted by physiotherapy or any other
suitable co curricular activity like music.
Expansion is elaborating the curriculum content to help the child understand the concept.Let us
consider teaching the content area in math that involves money concept to a child with mental
retardation. While all other children in the class may do the sum written in their note book, the child
with mental retardation may need concrete examples with real money and shopping experience to
understand the concept better. Here, the teacher expands the content to give him the real life
experience and then follow up with the work sheets involving sums on money concept.
Flexibility in time for learning
Another important aspect of adaptation is the time. The curriculum for each academic year is
programmed so strictly that the conduct of the classes and the formative and summative evaluation are
planned well ahead of time, in fact, even before the academic year begins and the schedule is
meticulously followed. In an inclusive class room where there are children with varying abilities and
needs, time allocation for activities also need to be considered for modification. Some children with
intellectual disabilities need extra time to learn as they learn at their own pace. Some children with
disabilities such as visual impairment and Specific learning disabilities need additional time to do the
examination. As mentioned earlier, the Board of education for class X and class XII provide
additional 30 minutes during examination for such children.
Material adaptation: As you are aware, a wide variety of materials are used in schools which include
print material such as books, work sheets and note books and non print material such as globes,
science lab apparatus, models and videos. Depending on the type and extent of disability, the decision
on adaptations is to be made. Keeping the standardized curriculum as the index the adaptation may be
done in terms of content substitution or content enhancement to suit the need of children with specific
disabilities in the class. Substitution refers to omitting a content area and adding another content area
in its place. Enhancement refers to use of material and strategies to increase comprehension and
retention of learnt content over time. Both of these help in optimum learning in the student with
disability.
ADAPTATION OF EVALUATION METHODS FOR CWSN
Testing and evaluation need to be adapted to suit the child with disability. These adaptation may be in
the test construction (objective/subjective), test administration time (extra time if needed), method of
response (oral /written, provision of a scribe to write the exam), seating arrangement during testing (to
have enough light for a child with low vision), grading procedures and so on.
Assessment is part and parcel of teaching learning process. The assessment methods do not differ
substantially as students are assessed on the content that is meaningful to them as per the prescribed
curriculum. However, in the rigid general educational environment the student is assessed on what he
achieves independently under testing conditions (such as prescribed tests and examinations). Though
it is a standard practice, for children with disabilities objective assessment is best done under
instructional conditions as well as in natural environment. Information so gathered, helps the teacher
to make informed decision on what needs to be adapted for the child for optimum learning.
Determining difficulty levels is best done when the child is continuously assessed in and out of class
room by varied assessment methods. Formal test may be one part of assessment. Criterion based
assessment, ecological assessment, observation, anecdotal records, parent appraisal and self
evaluation by the student can all contribute to decision making on determining difficulty levels.
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Consistency in the correct or incorrect responses from the student is a major clue to the teacher on
deciding on adaptation. Curriculum based assessment/measurement is popular in deciding placement
and curriculum adaptation for students with disabilities.
FACILITIES TO CATER TO LEARNING NEEDS OF CWSN
As mentioned earlier, government has made provision to meet the learning needs of children which
includes, establishment of special and inclusive schools, home based instructions, curricular and
instructional adaptation, examination provisions and above all suitable human resources to meet the
educational challenges of CWSN.
AT SCHOOL, CLUSTER, BLOCK, DISTRICT, STATE AND NATIONAL LEVELS
The eleventh five year plan (2007 – 2012) of government has the following objectives for education
of all children which include CWSN:
• Reduce dropout rates of children from elementary school from 52.2% in 2003-04 to 20% by
2011-12
• Develop minimum standards of educational attainment in elementary school, and by regular
testing monitor effectiveness of education to ensure quality
• Increase literacy rate for persons of age 7 years or above to 85%
• Lower gender gap in literacy to 10 percentage point
• Increase the percentage of each cohort going to higher education from the present 10% to 15%
by the end of the plan.
To realize the objectives, programmes are developed to be carried out at school, block, district, state
and national levels. This very course under NIOS is one such effort to prepare teachers to include
children with disabilities in regular schools. Sarvasikshaabhiyan (SSA), a centrally sponsored scheme
implemented by all states is another mega project of the Government of India which aims to ensure
education to all children in the country. The SSA focuses on education of CWSN by engaging a large
number of special educators and training them to be effective teachers. Rehabilitation Council of India
(RCI) which regulates and ensures standard and quality of rehabilitation professionals generates
human resources in special education through organizations/universities through out the country. Such
teachers are engaged by SSA to reach CWSN in schools at villages, with systematic monitoring at
block, district and state levels. Block resource centers (BRCs) are established in some states to
provide resource materials and professional support to the needed schools in the block. The resource
teachers reach a number of schools periodically through itinerant model of training and teach the
children by coordinating with the teachers in the schools. It is expected that such a system will result
in reaching CWSN with education all over the country.
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION OF CHILDREN WITH DISABILITY
In many schools in rural and urban areas, children with mild disabilities do get admission to the
school but tend to drop out/get rejected as the teachers find him not learning like the other children.
The teachers in the regular schools are not trained to include such children and therefore, they tend to
inform the parents to refer the child for special supports. In some occasions, the children stay in
regular school, but are rejected from elementary classes as the academic content of the curriculum
increases. In some places, the regular schools have trained teachers who understand disabilities and
the rejection rate is relatively less. But such schools are predominantly private schools. The results of
current effort of SSA as mentioned above is likely bring positive change and more CWSN included in
schools. Children with severe/profound disabilities usually require therapeutic and/or medical support
in early years. Home based instruction is generally found viable for such children.
INCLUSIVE CLASS ROOMS
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Systematically done, it is possible to include the children in regular classes. The earlier the efforts are
taken towards inclusion, the better the results will be. It is ideal to have resource rooms in every
elementary school with a competent resource teacher. If organising a resource room is difficult, you
can think of including the CWSN with the available resources. There are a few key points to be
considered for successful inclusion. This includeshavingupdated profile of the child with special
needs, concern of the class teacher about the child’s learning abilities parental concerns and
competencies of the teacher.
CLASS ROOM ADJUSTMENT AND MANAGEMENT
Some of the points to consider for class room adjustment and management include
• Planning for teaching
• Coordination between the class teacher and parents, resource teacher and others depending on
the needs of the child
• Teaching based on individual needs
• Teaching in groups
• Material requirement
• documentation systems
One of the best resources you have as a teacher is the huge human resource in the form of students in
class. Use them effectively by adopting peer tutoring and cooperative learning techniques.
Kagan (1994) defines cooperative learning as a type of structured peer interaction emphasizing
positive human relationships, collaboration between peers, active learning, academic achievement,
equal participation, and equal status of students in the classroom. It can be used to teach any subjects
in the curriculum
Peer tutoring is a strategy that can be used with students with a wide range of disabilities and at all
grade levels. However, successful implementation necessitates training all students in the process and
roles of peer tutoring. Children with disabilities, especially those with mental retardation require
individualized educational programming and teaching. In a regular class, the teacher is empowered
with a great number of human resources in the form of students. A smart teacher will effectively use
them as peer tutors in helping students with disabilities learn. By this, not only her work load is
reduced, but also the children with and without disabilities benefit. A sense of responsibility towards
weaker students is developed in children without disabilities and seeking help and respecting the class
mate for helping them develops in children with disabilities.
USE OF SUITABLE TEACHING LEARNING MATERIAL (TLM) AND INFORMATION
AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY (ICT)
When we work with children with disabilities, selection and use of TLM needs special care and
consideration as we as teachers have to compensate for their disability by use of the aids and
appliance as well as transact the curriculum using the material in such a manner that they learn the
concepts well. The selection of teaching materials is an importantcomponent of the teaching process.
After procedures and techniques of teaching programme have been determined, it is necessary to
either select, adapt or construct the teaching materials that will be used to teach a task.
Points to consider while selecting TLM
• Age appropriate – For example, a child with intellectual disability aged 10 years with a mental
ability matching that of 5 year old children, should have material suitable to his age rather than
toys meant for five year olds.
• Active participation –the student should be able to use the material, explore and learn.
• Creative use – should be versatile, allowing for varied usage creatively
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• Availability - should be easily available, affordable and /or accessible if the student has to buy
the material for extended home training
• Level appropriate – the material should suit the level of functioning of the child with MR so
that the learning is meaningful to him
• Transfer of training – use of the material should allow the child to easily generalize the
concept learnt to other contexts and situations
Information and communication technology:
You will agree that children of present generation is technology savvy as compared to the older
generation. Communication with any one anywhere any time is now easy because of the technological
advances. At the touch of a button many things are accomplished. Use of aids and appliances for
CWSN and teaching using technology is also in vogue now. Many schools have computer labs with
adaptations for CWSN. Talking books and computers for children who are blind, sophisticated wheel
chairs and educational soft wares are on the increase in recent days.
HOME BASED EDUCATION
As we mentioned earlier, some of the children with severe/multiple disabilities may have difficulties
will have difficulty in reaching the school. As education is a fundamental right of every child in our
country, appropriate education should reach these children also. Hence, these children are educated at
home.
CONCEPT
Though the educational facilities are on the increase, education of CWSN pose many challenges.
Some children have such severe disabilities with complex conditions that they cannot reach the school
to learn. In remote rural, tribal or mountain terrains of our country a CWSN reaching a school may
not be possible. In some remote places schools may be too far for the CWSN to access. In such
situations, education has to reach the child. Training the family members to teach the child is one way
of ensuring education to these children. Hence home based education is one of the methods to educate
children who are unable to reach the school.
PROCEDURE FOR HOME BASED EDUCATION
A special educator, also known as itinerant teacher, generally visits the home of the student and
appraises the child and the environment in which he lives. The family and the teacher decide on the
periodicity of the visit of the teacher and the suitable time. After a detailed assessment, an educational
plan is developed with suitable goals and objectives. Teaching strategies are taught through
demonstration by the teacher to the family member who is identified as a trainer in the family.
Systematic records are maintained by the teacher. Some children will require therapy for speech and
motor aspects and it will be coordinated by the itinerant teacher. As the child improves, next level
programme is planned.
DEVELOPMENT OF ADOPTIVE SKILLS (DAS), ASSISTIVE DEVICE
(AS), SPECIAL THERAPIES (ST)
ADAPTIVE SKILLS
Children with disabilities have various non capabilities. They are not able to lead the same level of
lifestyle as other children due to their disabilities. Their disabilities become problems to their personal
and intellectual growth.
Hence, these children need to adapt/ learn new skills which will make up for their disabilities. These
adaptive skills will help children in their school and day to day activities.Daily activities demand
these children to substitute normal procedures with newly acquired proceduresAccessibility is yet
another question, open source is the answer. These adaptations differ from people to people.
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Adaptations for children with intellectual disability. A teacher for children with ID should have
competencies
MEANING OF ADAPTIVE SKILLS
Adaptations are the easier methods made by parents, teachers to acquire competencies and developing
skills in persons with disabilities (PWD). Children should be able to apply the adaptations in learning
skills in natural settings. Adaptations lead them to independent living. These include Reading, writing
and arithmetic (3 Rs).In adaptations, skills are divided into simpler tasks so that they learn easily.
ADAPTIVE SKILLS FOR CHILDREN WITH HEARING AND SPEECH IMPAIRMENT
Here these children are normal and have no problem in comprehension. Psychological attributes are to
be corrected firstly for adaptation and can normally learn other important skills.To enable the hearing,
pitch and loudness are corrected through loud conversation. Normally, HI children acquire speech
during their early years of life. Communication is very important a acquiring speech without hearing
will be different. Two ways of communication are non-verbal and verbal.
Here the non-verbal is the only way where they can communicate. Sign languages are ASL-American
Sign Language, BSL- British Sign Language, gestures and talking boards.The main idea is not to
teach signs but language through the use of signs supported by speech reading and aided listening.Lip
reading and following facial movements by standing in front of the mirror will also help to a great
extent.
ADAPTATIONS FOR MULTIPLE DISABILITY/CEREBRAL PALSY (CP)
Cerebral palsy is caused due to malfunctioning of brain. As age advances the person might have
motor and spasticity( tightness of muscle) problem. A person having 2 or 3 disabilities is called
multiple disabled and needs educational method in a special way. Hence curriculum adaptation is
required.These children will have problems in retaining information in short and long term
memory.They have trouble with abstract thinking. Each child has his/her temperament, experiences
and disability.
The team approach should be to use design and implement a comprehensive programme for each
individual. The team should be composed of a variety of professionals, family members and care
takers. The multi-disciplinary team may consist of:
• Special educator
• Physiotherapist
• Occupational therapist
• Psychologists
• Social workers
• Family members
ADAPTATIONS FOR LEARNING DIFFICULTIES (LD)
Adaptations made in the general curriculum helps the learning disabled children. Sometimes, they are
mistaken for slow learners. There are many kinds of LD.
• Dyslexia (problem in reading): the child while reading may omit, substitute or reverse letters
or words
• Disgraphia (problem in writing): the child is unable to write constantly. His handwriting is
clumsy and spaced improperly.
• Dyscalculia (problem in calculating): the child may have difficulty in making normal
calculations.
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• Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD) (problem in paying attention): in this

condition the span of attention is very limited and the child is restless. He is inclined to pay
attention to irrelevant stimuli and shows considerable amount of hyperactivity. The child cannot
sit at one place even for a moment.
• Dysphasia (language disorder): there are 2 types of dysphasia. Either the child is unable to use
the language meaningfully or is unable to understand spoken words. Main method of dealing
with such children is task analysis.
Task analysis:
• Teacher should choose a learning task
• It has to be stated in behavioral terms
• Teaching a skill by cutting down the main task into simpler ones
• Teaching step by step
• Other name for this ‘shaping’
• Each step is reinforced
• Acquiring first step will motivate the pupil to acquire second one
• Structural lesson presentation
ADAPTIVE SKILLS FOR PERSONS WITH
1) Intellectual disability
One of the objectives of Adaptation in Special Education is to train children with Intellectual
Disability to look after their personal needs; eating, drinking, toileting, brushing, bathing,
dressing & grooming when required in different environments in different ways.
For example, we eat & drink at home, schools & hotels. Many times parents/family members
may not take children with intellectual disability to these places & functions due to lack of
appropriate eating skills or any other skills,teaching manners
# analyse each task
# use task analysis; teaching each skill in smaller &easier steps
# use teaching material appropriate to the task
# follow reinforcers(rewards) after each step the child learns
This procedure can be done while teaching Reading (Sight Words - TOILET, POISON, DANGER),
writing (DOTS, LINES, ACTUAL ALPHABHETS) & Arithmetic (simple to complex procedure as to
be adapted)
This way, we can teach the Intellectually deficient children using adaptations in their learning process
Visual Impairment
For these visually impaired children, we could have
# Braille writing
# More optical devices
• Lens - Low vision can be corrected to a certain extent
• Special spectacles which enlarges the alphabets & facilitates in reading
• Large print books
• Good illumination to identify the object
• Retinal operation to correct the sight
• Cataract & other temporary problems can also be corrected
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Locomotor disability
These people have problems such as movement, loss of limb, pain & tightness in their limbs
Main adaptations for these people will be
• Massaging& regaining the muscle power in the weak muscles
• Strengthening of normal muscles
• Providing splint or calipers for support
• Thorough surgery- a sort of support is given using a steel rod & this is the permanent adaptation
by the locomotor disability person for walking
These people will have pain which is not quantifiable or measurable.
It is nature’s warning that there is damage to the body. The relief in pain can be either achieved by
pain killer or by use of heat or cold package at the spot. Locomotor disabled people will have pressure
sores (ulcers). Applying boric powder & changing bed sheets & hygienic conditions can avoid these
problems.
Role of Teachers
A Child with any form of disability faces two problems. One- he/she is not able to carry out his/her
daily activities like other children.Two -faces challenges in pursuing education due to disability. The
school authorities should be able to understand child’s problem & to help the child. Teacher is the
mediator between the child & knowledge given in the books & hence should be well trained in
recognizing the disability faced by the child
An example illustrates the above; in the popular movie, “TaareZameen Par”, the child’s teacher does
not understand the child’s problem; dyslexia, a learning disorder & punished him because he was not
able to score marks & for being inattentive in class.
A teacher must be educated in recognizing these disabilities & should be in a position to adopt new
methods to encourage & help the child to shed his/her inhibitions. The teacher must help the child in
attaining education in spite of his/her disabilities.A teacher can help the child in many ways.The first
step is to understand & learn about the disability, encourage the child, helping the child in studies by
devoting extra time to teach, making adequate seating arrangements in case of loco motor disability or
cerebral palsy or adapting new methods of teaching etc.
ASSISTIVE DEVICES
Children with disabilities find it difficult to perform many functions, especially daily activities.
Hence, they lag behind others. We need to make them selfsufficient or fit enough to function among
other children as equals.Assistive devices are those devices which help these children in their daily
activities. They are of 2 types:Those which can be used by the concerned person and those which
have to be used by the disabled person with the help of others.
AD have to be in such a way that the disabled person should get the maximum benefit out of using it.
For example, a person with loco motor disability will have to use a wheel chair or crutch. This device
substitutes for his disabled legs. Or, a person with hearing disability will use hearing aid in order to
listen to others and will therefore be able to converse with others, listen to lectures, music etc
MEANING OF ASSISTIVE DEVICES
Assistive devices are any devices that directly help persons with disabilities in undertaking activities
of daily living(ADL), pursuing education, acquiring access to information, enjoying freedom of
movement in the built environment, and working and engaging in leisure activities to improve
physical performance. Assistive devices should also enable person with disabilities to fulfill their
aspirations.Using assistive devices one can prevent further disability and also train the person with
residual abilities to achieve independent living.
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ASSISTIVE DEVICES FOR IMPAIRED AND DISABILITY

Type of Impairment Devices
/disability
Locomotor disability Standing frame, splinters
Cerebral palsy Walking aid, wheel chair
Visual impairment Abacus, Braille, arithmetic frames
Hearing impairment Hearing aid, communication aids, communication boards, talking boards
Speech impairment Lip reading, speech model, observation of lip movement through mirror
usage
Learning disability Big and attractive alphabets, matching pictures and objects
Multiple disability Ramps, good seating arrangement, crutches, walker, wheelchair
Intellectual disability This accompanied by any form of disability like hearing impairment, visual
impairment requires assistive devices. Otherwise, there is noneed.
ROLE OF TEACHER IN THE CLASSROOM
The assistive devices are different for children with different disabilities
The first role is to accommodate them in the class room. In case of intellectually disabled children, it
is U or Y Shaped seating arrangement. Lots of big, colorful & attractive Teaching learning materials
have to be used. Charts, beads, flash cards are very useful.Individual teaching helps these children.
Multiple disabled & Cerebral palsy children have only mobility problem
Barrier free environment & good seating arrangement will help these children to learn better in the
classroom. Hearing impaired children will be in a classroom with the sound amplification system &
hearing aids will aid in the learning process. Visually impaired children with white cane & Braille
material will aid them to learn better. A special teacher has to have training in managing 2 or 3
disabilities. The combined efforts of teachers in a special school will act as a facilitating factor in
learning process of disabled children
ASSISTIVE DEVICES FOR PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES WITH MULTIPLE
DISABILITIES (INCLUDE PERSONS WITH CEREBRAL PALSY, LOCO MOTOR
DISABILITY)
Having more than one disability is called as multiple disability. The person can be intellectually
disabled plus visually impaired. Another person can have hearing impairment and physical handicap.
These people due tom conditions associated have problems in understanding, mobility, learning and
physical deformity. Hence these are unable to function independently. The following are assistive
devices for such people:
# Potty Chairs (sitting comfortably at Toilet)
# Wheel Chairs, Walkers, Crutches, Ramps, Tricycles etc. for free movement
# CP Children should hold adapted tooth brush, thick pens etc. for good grasp
# western type of toilets
# Should be cost effective, repairable & easily available at NGOs or under Government schemes
free of cost
# light weight below knee braces
# walking frames may help in learning to walk
# caliper
# corner chair suitable for children who are not able to use ordinary chair
VISUAL IMPAIRMENT
A blind person is a person so blind that he/she is unable to perform any task for which eyesight is
essential. On the other hand, many people with visual impairments have some residual vision, which
can be effectively utilized by the provision of an appropriate assistive device. Vision will be partial or
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it might not be possible for the person to see anything. Following are the assistive devices for such
people:
# White cane for free & safe movement
# ABACUS ( Beads Frame) for counting
# Arithmetic Frames – to solve mathematical problems
# BRAILLE – dot system for blind children (learn at slow pace)
# Talking thermometer
# Talking watch
# Talking mobile
LEARNING DISABILITY
Learning disability affects people’s ability in either interpreting what they see and hear or in linking
information from different parts of the brain. Such difficulties extend to school work and can impede
(affect) learning to read, write or do math.More than any assistive device, assistance can be given at
class room. They are as follows:
• To improve eye-hand coordination
• To improve sequential memory
• Position of the letters
• Space/ forms to be identified easily ie reversed, inverted or rotated
• Matching pictures to the actual objects
• Use of auditory facts in writing
• Copying group figures
HEARING IMPAIRED
Some children have hearing impairment, a difficulty to hear, detect and interpret sounds. The natural
process of acquisition of language and speech is therefore prevented. Unless this problem is resolved,
the long-term consequences are severe and wide- ranging.
# Hearing Aids
# Listening devices such as tape recorder, overhead projector
# Talk pad – enhances voice
# Computers
# Teaching the child spelling words via overhead projector
# have normal intelligence
SPEECH IMPAIRMENT
Speech has always been the primary medium of use of language for communication. Signs and
gestures to words are used to communicate. There are many sign languages- American Sign
Language(ASL), British Sign Language(BSL), Indian Sign Language(ISL).Following are the assistive
devices for such people:
# communication board
# finger signals
# talking boards
# Flash cards
# charts
# sight words such as “toilet”, “danger”, “exit”, “enter”, “poison”
SPECIAL METHODS
Some of the methods have impact on persons with disabilities and can also lead to their smooth
functioning in the environment. Medical treatment has to be provided in case of severe disability.
• Family counseling: it is very important to educate the person’s family about his/ her condition.
This helps in providing the needed emotional support to the person with disability.
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• Correction of problem behavior: This helps in rectifying negative behavior.

• Correction through play method: play way method will reduce tension, body spasticity and will
also act as leisure and pass time
• Yoga: it helps in making the concerned person fit and reducing the disability upto an extent
• Correction of speech problem: this leads the concerned person to express himself/herself more
freely
• Physical and mental stimulation : physical well being and information storing is enhanced
• Method of exercise: it reduces mental and physical strain
• Improving age- appropriate activities: age appropriate activities will be the first step towards
proper understanding and treatment of a disability
• Correct positioning and carrying method: correct postures can do wonders for people with
physical disabilities.
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS, POLICIES, PROGRAMMES AND
ACTS
International scenario
International organisations, United Nations being the prominent of them, have focused their efforts on
the needs of persons with disabilities and their better education and living.
The Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons was a declaration of the General Assembly of
the United Nations, made on 9 December 1975. World Conference on Special Needs Education,
Salamanca, 1994 and The UN Council on Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), 2006
have been landmarks in the global efforts in the path of inclusion and empowerment of persons with
disabilities.
Indian Scenario
Looking back into our country’s history, the Sargent Report, 1944 written prior to independence and
the Kothari Commission (1964- 1966) signal the government’s approach of integration of children
with disabilities with other children. This was reiterated in the National Policy of Education (1986).
The RCI Act (1992) and National Trust Act (1999) were the subsequent major legislations in this
field. The Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995 (PWD Act) has been a landmark in the path of
legislations in welfare of people with disabilities. This act has been replaced by the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities Act 2016.
Constitutional Provisions
It is stated in the preamble of the Constitution of India that people of India solemnly resolved to
constitute India as a Sovereign, Socialist, Secular and Democratic, Republic which secures to all its
citizens right to Justice; Liberty; Equality; and Fraternity. The Constitution guarantees Fundamental
Rights to all its citizens. There are specific provisions in the Constitution of India that ensure social
justice and empowerment to all citizens including “persons with disabilities” and other disadvantaged
and marginalized groups.
Legislations, Policies and Programmes
Over the years, the government of India (GoI) has launched various programmes and schemes
dedicated to fulfilling the education and inclusion of children with disabilities. India became signatory
to the Salamanca Statement, 1994 and with it came the incorporation of the term ‘inclusive education’
in various official documents and reports of GOI.
There have been several attempts by the Government in the form of Acts, Rules and Regulations,
Policies and Guidelines for the welfare of persons with disabilities.
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147
The legislative framework for the protection of the rights of persons with disabilities is covered by the
following Acts:
The Mental Health Act (1987) consolidates and amends the law relating to the treatment and care of
mentally ill persons to make better provision for them.
Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) Act (1992) deals with the development of manpower for
providing rehabilitation services. The Act was amended by the Parliament in 2000 to make it broad
based. The RCI standardizes syllabi and maintains a Central Rehabilitation Register of all qualified
professionals and personnel working in the field of Rehabilitation and Special Education. The Council
also regulates and monitors the training of rehabilitation professionals and personnel, promoting
research in rehabilitation and special education.
Persons with Disability (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act
(PWD Act- 1995) is one of the key acts, which provides for education, employment, creation of
barrier free environment, social security etc of persons with disabilities. As per the Act every child
with a disability has access to free education in an appropriate environment until he or she attains the
age of eighteen years. This Act has been replaced by Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (RPwD
Act) , 2016.
National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and
Multiple Disability Act, (National Trust Act-1999) The Act has provisions for legal guardianship of
persons under each of the four categories of disability and for creation of enabling environment for as
much independent living as possible. The main objectives are to enable and empower persons with
disabilities to live as independently and as fully as possible, to extend support to registered
organizations providing need based services, and to evolve procedure for appointment of legal
guardians for persons with disabilities requiring such protection’.
The Right to Education Act (RTE Act), 2009
The RTE Act provides for the right of children to free and compulsory education to the children of 6-
14 years age group including children with special needs.
The RTE Act was subsequently amended in 2012 which came into effect from 1 August 2012 and
contains provisions relating to children with disabilities such as:
(i) Inclusion of children with disabilities in the definition of “child belonging to disadvantaged
group” under Clause (d) Section 2 of the RTE Act.
(ii) Children with disabilities (including children with cerebral palsy, mental retardation, autism and
multiple disabilities) shall have the right to pursue free and compulsory education.
The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act (RPWD Act), 2016
As mentioned earlier, this Act Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPwD) 2016 has replaced the
existing PWD Act, 1995. In this Act disability has been defined based on an evolving and dynamic
concept. The types of disabilities have been increased to 21 and the Central Govt has power to add
more types of disabilities. The new Act is in line with the United Nations Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), to which India is not only a signatory but one of the early
countries to ratify.
The 21 disabilities are given below: -
1. Blindness
2. Low-vision
3. Leprosy Cured Persons
4. Hearing Impairment (deaf and hard of hearing)
5. Locomotor Disability
6. Dwarfism
7. Intellectual Disability
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148
8. Mental Illness
9. Autism Spectrum Disorder
10. Cerebral Palsy
11. Muscular Dystrophy
12. Chronic Neurological Conditions
13. Specific Learning Disability
14. Multiple Sclerosis
15. Speech and Language Disability
16. Thalassemia
17. Hemophilia
18. Sickle Cell Disease
19. Multiple Disabilities including Deaf-Blindness
20. Acid Attack Victims
21. Parkinson’s Disease
National Programmes
Some of the important national level programmes in the field of education of CwD are presented
below:
Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA)
The SSA attempts to implement inclusive education of children with disabilities and provides multiple
options for these children. It ensures that every child in the age group of 6-14 years with any kind of
impairment, irrespective of the kind, category and degree of impairment, is provided meaningful and
quality education. It extends the range of options from special and mainstream/ ‘regular’ schools to
Education Guarantee Scheme/Alternative and Innovative Education (EGS/AIE) and HomeBased
Education (HBE). Each district is given the necessary flexibility to plan activities depending on the
resources available for the effective implementation of inclusive education programme.
Under the scheme of Home Based Education (HBE) within SSA, children with severe disability can
be educated within home-based and alternate educational settings to enable them to achieve
independent living skills.
Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS)
IEDSS is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of GOI the aim of which is to enable all students with
disabilities, to pursue four years of secondary schooling i.e. classes IX to XII after completing eight
years of elementary schooling (Class I –VIII) in an inclusive and enabling environment. The Scheme
of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) was launched in 2009-10 replacing
the earlier scheme of Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC). The IEDSS Scheme will
cover all children passing out of elementary schools and studying at secondary stage in Government,
local body and Government-aided schools in the age group 14+ to 18+ (classes IX to XII).
Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA)
The RMSA scheme was launched in March 2009 with the objective to enhance access to secondary
education and improve its quality. The scheme aims to enhance the enrollment of students at
secondary stage by providing a secondary school within a reasonable distance of habitation, targeted
to ensure general enrolment rate of 100% by 2017 and universal retention by 2020.
What is evident from the constitutional provisions, acts and policies and national programmes is that
there is a focus on the education of children with disabilities in all these with an obvious movement
towards inclusive education. The ball has started rolling although it is a long way ahead for us.
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149
COMMUNICATION
Significance
Communication is an important principle of organisation and is eesential for realising its objectives.
Millet desribes communication as the "blood stream of an administrative organisation". According to
Pfiffner, communication is the "heart of management".
Chester Barnard remarked : "The first executive function is to develop and maintain a systwm of
communication". He called it the foundation of co-operative group activity.
According to peter Drucker, "good communication is the foundation for sound administration".
Notbert Wiener said, "communication is the cement that makes an organisation". Terry observed :
"coomunication serves as the lubricant, fostering the smooth operations of the management process".
Definition
The word communication is derived from the Latin word communis which means common. Hence,
communication means sharing of ideas in common.
Kith Davis: "Communication is the process of passing information and understanding from one
person to another."
Newton and Summer : "Communication is an exchage of facts, ideas, opinions or emoitions by two
or more person".
Koontz and O.Donnell: "Communication is an intercourse by words, letters, sybols or messages; and
is a way that onre organisation's membe shares meanings and understandings with other."
MC Farland: "Communication may be broadly yedfined as the process of meaningful interaction
among human beings More specifically, it is a process by which meaning are perceived and
understanding are reached among human beings."
M.W. Cunning: "The word communication decribes the process of conveying messages (facts, Ideas
attitudes and opinions) from one person to another so that they are understood."
Millet: "Communication is the shared understanding of a shared purpose."
Ordway Tead: The underlying aim of communication is the meeting of minds on common issues."
Louis A. Allen: "Communication is the ssum of all the things mone person does when he wants to
create an understanding in the mind of another. It involves a systematic and continous process of
telling, listening and understanding."
Chester Barnard: "Acommunication that cannot be understood can have no authority."
Peter Drucker: "Communication is the ability of the various functional groups withing a enterprise to
understand each other and each other's functions and conerns."
Thus, the above definitions make it clear that the essence of communication is usnderstanding
informations, snot ransmitting information.
Types
Organisation communication has three aspects, viz., internal communication, external communication
and inter-personal communication.
Internal communication is concerned with the relationship of the organisation iwth its
employees. It can be upward, dewnward, and across.
Upward communication is concerned with the employees' relationship with the management.
Downward communication is concerned with the management's relationship with the employees. The
former consists of performance reports and work problems, while the latter consists of orders and
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150
directions, Across communication is concerned with relationshps between co-equal authorities in an

organisation. Thus unntile the upward and downward communications which are vertical in nature,
the across communication is horizontal in nature.
External communication deals with the relationship of the organisation with the public, Hence,
it is known as 'public relations', Inter-personal communication is concerned with the relationshp
among employees.
Media
Media of communication are of three types namely audio, visual and audio-visual, Audio media is
conferences, interviews, and so on. Visual media comprises circulars, reports, pictorial forms and
others. Audio-visual media is television, sound-motion pictures, and son on.
The conference method of eommunication has attained poplarity in public administration. This
method avoids delay, reduces red-tape and minimises correspondence, According to millet, the
conference method
i) enables to gain awareness of a problem,
ii) helps in problem solving,
iii) enables to gain acceptance and implementation of decisions,
iv) promotes a sense of unity among the officials working in the organisation,
v) encourages an exchange of information among administrative personnel and
vi) helps in appraising personnel.
Theoretical Contributions
The contributions of the following scholars led to the growth of communication as an important
aspect of organisational behaviour.
Henry Fayol : He is the first administrative thinker to give a comprehensive analysis of the problem
of communication in an organisation. he highlighted the importance of speedy communication and
provided a meaningful solution in the form of 'gang plank'. This novel concept implies the system of
horizontal communication to avoid delay in the disposal of business.
Chester Barnard : He viewed organisation as a 'cooperative system' having three elements, viz,
common purpose, willingness to contribute, and communication. Thus, he viewed communication as
a vital dynamic of the orgnisational behaviour and believed that it is a major shaping force in the
organisation. In his wards, "The absence of a suitable technique of communication would eliminate
the possibility of adopting some purposes as a basis of organisation. Communication techiques shape
of orm and the internal economy of an organisation."
Herbert Simon : He defines communication as any process whereby decisional premises are
transmitted from one member of the organisation to another. He says, "It is obvious that without
communication there can be no organisation, for threre is no possibility then of the group influencing
the behaviour of the individual."
Like Barnard, Simon also stresses the informal channels of communication (also known as the
'grapevine') for the transmission of information. According to him, the informal communication
system is built around the social relationships of the members of the organisation.
Simon highlighted the importance of informal channel of communication when he said, "the
grapevine is valuable as a barometer of 'public opinion' in the organisation. If the administrator listens
to it, it apprises him of the topics that are subjects of interest to organisation members, and their
attitudes toward these topics."
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151
Norbert Weiner He pioneered in the field of 'cybernetics'. The word 'Cybernetics' is derived from the
Greek term 'Kybernetes', meaning steersman or helmsman. this has greatly influenced the
contemporary approach to communication.
Weiner says that organisational systems move in the direction of 'positive entropy', that is, the
organisations have a natural tendency towards disorder, disintegration and self-destruction. This
tendency of organisational systems can be arrested through methodical information processing. Thus,
information is an anitdote to posigtive entropy and enables the organisational systems to reach a state
of negative entropy', that is, moving towards order and integration.
As observed by Hicks and Gullett, Weiner's concepts of systems control by information
feedback directly contributed to development of the electronic computer. Hed described an adaptive
system (including an organisation) as utterly dependent upon measurement and correction through
information feedback."
Process
Claude shannon and Warren Weaver developed the most widely used model of communication
process. This model consists of eight components: (i) source, (ii) encoding, (iii) message, (iv) channel,
(v) decoding (vi) receiver, (vii) feedback, and (viii) noise. This is shown in the diagram below:
Fig. Shannon and Weaver's Model of communication Process

i) The source is the initiator of communication, who wants to transsmit his ideas, thoughts, needs,
intentions or other pieces of information to another person.
ii) Encoding is a process in which the ideas to be conveyed are translated into a code or set of
symbols or some other format of expression.
iii) The message is the actual physical product from the source-encoding. It represents the meaning
which the source wants to conveyy.
iv) The channel is the medium through which the message transmits. It is the connecting link
between the sender (the source) and the receiver.
v) Decoding is the process which translates the message into a form that can be understood by the
receiver.
vi) Receiver is the person to whom the message is directed (conveyed).
vii) Feedback is the respons from the receiver which enables the sender (the source) to determine
whether the message was received and understood as originally intended.
viii) Noise includes those factors in each of the components of communication that reduces the
accuracy or fidelity of meassage. Thus, it can occur at any stage in the communication process.
Channels or Networks
The channels (also known as networks) of communication are of two types, viz. formal and informal.
A formal channel of communication is deliberately established by management form the transmission,
of official information. An informal channel of communication, on the other hand, is an unofficial
channel and is the result of the operations of social forces at the workplace. It is also known as the
'grapevine' and supplements formal communication.
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152
There afre six types of formal communication networks, vis., chain, star, circle, all-channel,
inverted V and Y. These are diagrammatically shown in Fig. 4.3.
i) Under the chain network, the information and message flow only up or down in a hierarchical
chain of command. In other words, the chain network rigidly follows the formal chain of
command in the organisation.
ii) Under the star network, the information and message flows among the group members through
a leader, that is, the central point. In other words, the group members do not communicate with
each other directly but rely on the leader to act as the central conduit. It is the most centralised
type of formal communication network. It is also known as the 'wheel' network.
iii) Under the circle network, the group members interact with the adjoining members only. In other
word,s the information and message is transmitted laterally among the group members.
iv) Under the all-channel network, all the members of a group actively communicate with each
other freely. It is the most decentralised type of formal communication network. It is also
known as the 'completely connected' network.
v) Under the inverted V network, a ub-ordinate communicates with his immediate superior as well
as second superior (that is, his superior's superior). However, the matters on which information
and message can be sent in the second case are specified.
vi) Under the Y network, two sub-ordinates through the hierarchical chain communicate with a
superior. In turn, the superior communicates with two superiors who are above him. This
network is less centralized than the star network.
Fig. Types of formal Communication Networks

Keith Davis has investigated the phenomena of grapevine (informal communication) in organisations.
He observed that the grapevine "cannot be abolished, rubbed out. hidden under the basket, chopped
down, tied up, or stopped. If We suppress it in one place. It will pop up in another. If we cut off one of
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153
its source, is set ... . In a sense, the grapavine is man's birthright, because wherever men congregate in
groups, the grapevine is sure to develop."
He identified four types of grapevine networks. viz. single strand, gossip, probability and
cluster. These are diagramatically shown in Fig. 4.4.
i) Under the single strand network, the information passes from one to one, that is one member
communicates to another member who in turn communicates to another member, and so on.
ii) Under the gossip network, the member communicates non-selectively, that is, a member having
information passes it on to everyone he meets.
iii) Under the probability network, information passes according to the law of probability, that is,
one member communicates randomly with other who in turn communicate to some others.
iv) Under the cluster network, the information passes selectively, that is one number communicates
with only those members whom he trusts and they in turn pass it on to some other slected
members.
According to Keith Davis, the cluster type of grapevine network is the most popular and widely
prevalent in organisation.
Fig. Types of Informal Communication (Grapevine) Networks

Barriers and Problems
The communication process in organisations face the following barriers and problems.
Semantic Barriers : These barriers are concerned with the language difficulties. These occur due to
the differences in the individual interpretations of words and symbols used in the process of
communication. Rudolf Flesch in his article More About Gobbledygook (1945) observed "all official
communications develop a curiously legalistic ring, humorously called 'Gobbledygook' language,
which becomes impossible for a layman to understand. In a desire to be over-exact, over abstract, and
over-impersonal, official language can become quite curt and even disagreeable."
Similarly, Terry obbserved, "intentional words do not refer to something that can be pointed
out. They neither always connote an identical meaning to different persons nor the same meaning to
the same person at all times".
Ideological Barriers : The members of the organisation do not share the same ideological
perspectives and orientation. This affects the effective communication process. Pfiffner said,
"Differences in background, education and expectation result in different social and political views.
These are probably the greatest handicaps to effective communication and probably the most difficult
to overcome."
Filterning : It refers to the sender's purposeful and deliberate manipulation of information to be
passed on to the receiver. It may be due to various factors. However, the extent of filterning is
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154
determined mainly by the number of levels in the organisation's structure. Thus, more the vertical
levels in a hierarchy, the more scope for filtering and vice-versa.
Dogmatism : This means that the attitudes, opinions and beliefs possessed by a person prevents him
from accepting accurate and additional information as it conflicts with the current situation. This
obviously affects the effective communication.
Halo Effect : As explained by Hicks and Gullett, "The halo effect is the result of two-valued
thinking. In this situation, we see things only as dichotomies—good and bad, right and wrong, white
and black, and so forth .... . The danger here is that most situations are not dichotomous and,
therefore, such thinking may over-simplify most real situations."
Stereotyping : This means that the content of communication is determined by the expectations due
to inadequate distinctions of objects or events. This interferes with effective communication.
Other Barriers : In addition to the above, the communication process is affected by the following
factors:
i) Lack of will to communicate due to the attitudes of superiors.
ii) Absence of definite and recognised means of communication.
iii) The size of the organisation and distance between members.
iv) Cultural barriers.
v) Feedback barriers.
Elements or Principles
Millet identified seven elements (essentials or principles) of effective communication. These are :
1. Clarity —communication should be clearly and precisely stated.
2. Consistency — communication should be consistent with the expectations of the receiver.
3. Adequacy—information in the communication should be sufficient, neither over-burdening nor
too little.
4. Timeliness—communication should be timely, neither too late nor too early.
5. Uniformity—communication should be uniform (and not discriminatory) for all those who are
supposed to behave similarly.
6. Flexibility—communication should not be rigid either in the form or character.
7. Acceptability—communication shhould stimulate acceptance and positive response in the
receiver. According to Terry, the following eight factors make the communication effective.
a) Inform yourself fully.
b) Establissh a mutual trust in each other.
c) Find a common ground of experience
d) Use mutually known words.
e) Have regard for context.
f) Secure and hold the receiver's attention.
g) Employ examples and visual aids.
h) Practice delaying reactions.
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1

Carter V. Good (1959) describes curriculum as “a systematic group of courses or sequences of

something is to be learned is not considered. Curriculum in this context refers to knowledge of

Humanistic - Aesthetic Approach

Fig. 6.1: The

Fig. 6.3: Area of Development and their Interrelationships

Fig. 6.4: Social Forces Exerting Influence on Curriculum

ii) Quasi-legal Forces

d) Miller and Seller’s Model: It emphasizes that curriculum

APPROACHES OF CURRICULUM DESIGNING

• Selection and organisation of content

b) Formulating Educational Objectives

Fig. 7.5: Content Selection

i) Sequencing: Establishing a sequence in curriculum means putting the content

• Do the learning experiences enable learners to develop thinking skills and

• Responses during interactive teaching-learning sessions, discussions in different

The purpose of curriculum evaluation is to collect and use feedback for

4) Civic Development Activities:

SI. Units Time in Month Special Teaching- Co-curricular

1. Environment 4 July Narration of a Picture of Celebration of

2. Inside Our 4 July Demonstration, Model of Preparation of

3. Our Changing 6 August, Demonstration, Chart of Preparation of

4. Air 7 September, Discussion, Chart of Library

5. Water 7 October Map reading, Chart of water Collage on

6. Natural 6 October, Narration of a Pictures on Preparation of

7. Human 7 November Discussion, Pictures of Survey on

8. Human 7 January, Discussion, World Map Project on

9. Life in the 5 February Map Reading, World Map, Model of

10. Life in the 4 February, Discussion, Map filling, Desert game

The outline of a unit plan in social science is given as an example.

Sub-units No. of Specific Main Teaching Methods Evaluatio Co-

Environme 1 To define The place, The Narration Define the Prepare a

Componen To Environme From a Picture Differentia Prepare a

Domains 1 To Lithospher The Discussio Note

Eco- 1 To define Eco- The Observati What is an Planting of

To find set of the picture Picture system? surrounding

Human To Human The Note Comparati

Teaching is organized in three phases: pre-active,

a) Outline learning objectives

• What will I do to illustrate the topic in a different way?

according to his or her current conceptions. Therefore children learn

Gives a monologue continuous dialogue with the learners

5Es Suggested Activity What the Teacher What the Student

Engage • Demonstration • Creates interest. • Asks questions

Explore • Perform an • Encourages the • Thinks freely but

Explain • Student Analysis • Encourages the • Explains possible

basis for explanations.

Extend • Problem Solving • Expects the • Applies new labels,

Evaluate • Any of the Above • Observes the • Answers open-

Stage 2- Explore (Introduction to the topic)

Teacher’s Activities Learners’ Activities(

What this picture is related with? Surrounding

Announcement of the topic

Fig. 8.5: Picture A

Fig. 8.5: Picture B

Whether buildings and cars are a part of

Building is constructed by human beings and cars

Can you classify these two types of environments

Environment can be classified into natural

Aspects Natural environment Man-made Environment

Stage 5- Evaluate (Reflective Questions and Activities)

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL (TLM)

Fig : 7.5: Purposes of using TLMs