CONCEPTUALIZING POLITICAL TERRORISM: A Typology

Author(s): Richard Shultz

Source: Journal of International Affairs , SPRING/SUMMER 1978, Vol. 32, No. 1,
INTERNATIONAL TERRORISM (SPRING/SUMMER 1978), pp. 7-15
Published by: Journal of International Affairs Editorial Board

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/24356769

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 CONCEPTUALIZING mon linkages and specific differences. Given this
deficit in the literature, the following exercise
POLITICAL TERRORISM: seeks to take the initial steps in constructing a
more flexible and useful typology of political ter
A Typology*
rorism.

Richard Shultz
A Typology of Political Terrorism
Although the contemporary importance of the
Introduction
phenomenon of political terrorism and its impact
Throughout history, the strategies and tactics ofat the national and transnational levels is undeni
political terrorism have maintained a trenchant
able, a review of the literature reveals a lack of
position in the political calculus within and concern with theoretical and conceptual issues.
between nations. However, since World War II, Before presenting the typology developed in this
the practice of political terrorism has undergone a study, a brief review of the few classifications of
frightful proliferation at the national and transna political terrorism that have been conceptualized
tional levels. Given this proliferation, and given will be presented.
the immense complexity of political terrorism, it As a first step, it is necessary to define, in a
would seem fruitless to attempt to analyze this generalized sense, what constitutes political ter
process without first developing a systematic ty rorism. While definitions of political terrorism
pology. Typology development is important, for it have been affected by journalistic license and
represents the first step in the process of theory value generated notions, certain scholars have
building. According to Meehan, "scientific expla presented definitions that are cast in a more
nation requires the systematic ordering and rigorous and objective perspective. While the
classification of empirical data."1 In the case of works of Thornton, Wilkenson, Crozier, and
the study/analysis of political terrorism, such Walter meet these requirements of objectivity and
developments have generally not been un
dertaken. While an intense study has ensued this
post-war proliferation of political terrorist in
*An
*Anexpanded
expanded
version
version
of thisof
paper
thiswaspaper
presented
wasatpresented at
cidents, the literature has been primarily descrip the International Studies Association annual con
tive, prescriptive and very emotive in form. Very ference, Washington, D.C., February 22-26, 1978. It
few studies have approached the issue from a contains an examination of the role and effectiveness of
more analytical, theoretical, and objective posi terrorism in insurgency warfare. The insurgency wars
examined include Greece, Malaya, the Philippines and
tion. In addition, one is hard pressed to locate Vietnam.
studies aimed at developing typologies that lend 1. Eugene Meehan, The Theory and Method of
themselves to the rigorous analysis of the various Political Analysis (Homewood,
(Ffomewood,III.:
III.:Dorsey
DorseyPress,
Press,1965),
1965),
forms political terrorism has taken, to depict com p. 40.

Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 32, No. 1,1978

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Journal of International Affairs

rigor,2 for our purposes, Brian Jenkins presents than its immediate victims. However, influencing
one of the more perceptive delineations of the behavior is not necessarily the only aim of terrorist
■ » • „ -u » t 1^ a acts. The ramifications of political terrorism may or
characteristic attributes of political terrorism. Ac- nQt extend
cording to Jenkins:
While a workable definition of poli
the threat of violence, individual acts of violence, jsm ma be drawn
or a campaign of violence designed primarily to , . ! . _ .
instill fear—to terrorize—may be called terrorism. useful developments exis
Terrorism is violence for effect: not only, and tion. Furthermore, th
sometimes not at all, for the effect on the actual have been conceptua
victims of the terrorists. In fact, the victim may be scope basically categ
totally unrelated to the terrorists cause. Terrorism . „ » „ ' v., ° i
is violence aimed at the people watching. Fear is 10 . ■ P ^P0 °SY . ,
the intended effect, not the by-product, of terror- (employed by those in power), and a
ism.3 ror (employed by those aspiring to power).7
In essence, political terrorism is goal directed, em- Thorton u
ployed in pursuit of political objectives. It is calcu- Crozier an
lated violence directed at affecting the views and Resistance, W
behavior of specific groups. While we generally his typology, s
agree with this definition, there are certain points
2. Brian
with which we would take issue. Crozier,of
First The Rebels
all, (Boston:
while Beacon Press,
2. Brian Croz
the instilling of fear characterizes 1960); the
Thomasuse
Thorton,
of "Terror
ter- as a Weapon
I960); of Political Thor
Thomas
Agitation,"
_ ^ I " _ . • . .. , Agitation, in Internal War, in Internal
ed. byWar, ed. byEckstein
Harry Harry Eckstein
rorism by many groups, it .s not the
(London: Thepr.nc.pal a.m (LS0ndon:
Free Press of Glencoe, The F
1964); E. V. Walter,
of all terrorist acts. Furthermore, such
Terror and acts(New
Resistance may York:Terror and Resis
Oxford University
have certain tactical and strategic Press, 1969); and Paul
aims Wilkinson,
quite re-Political
Press, Terrorism
1969); an
(London: MacMillian,
mote from instilling fear.4 Based on the 1974).
above (London: MacM
3. Brian
-.^^1 -, ~ , 3. Brian Jenkins, Jenkins, International
International Terrorism:
Terrorism: A A New
New
observations and a liberal borrowing from (Los
Mode of Conflict a Mode
Angeles: of Conflict
Crescent (Los A
Publications,
recent government research study of interna- 1975), p. 1.
1975), p.1.
tional and transnational terrorism,5 the
4. I am following
grateful 4. I am
to Bard E. O'Neill of thegrateful
National Warto Ba
working definition of political College for these perceptive
terrorism is Collegeclarifying
for points.
these percep
5. International and Transitional Terrorism:
proposed" 5. International and Transitional Terrorism:
' Diagnosis and Prognosis
Diagnosis
(Washington:
and Prognosis (Washington:
Central CentralIn In
Political terrorism may be defined as the
telligence Agency, threat
April, 1976), p. 8-10. and telligence
or use of extranormal forms 6. Extranormal
of politicalforms of political
violence,6violence would6. Extran
in varying degrees, with the consist of very extreme
objective ofand brutal tactics thatconsist
achieving would be of
certain political objectives/goals.
considered evenSuch
beyond the goals
conventionsconsidered
of war if they ev
were used in a declared war between
constitute the long range and short-term objectives were used two nations. Such
that the group or movement actsseeks
are too numerous to list. Examples
to obtain. These wouldacts
include are t
will differ from group toblowing
group. up a school with children
Such action present,blowing
torture of up
generally is intended to influence tne kidnapping/execution,
political prisoners, behavior and etc. political p
attitudes of certain targeted7. Thorton,
groups p. 73. much wider 7. Thorton

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 Conceptualizing Political Terrorism: A Typology

and reign of terror (employed by those in addition, by developing a set of variables sensitive
power).8 It should be apparent that a typology to the complexity of political terrorism within
based on this ruler-ruled, rebel-regime di- each category, as well adaptable to cross category
chotomy falls short of the classificatory specifica- comparison, one would be able to generate and
tions outlined above. It is too simplistic, fails to test broader and more comparatively derived
analytically differentiate within these two cate- hypotheses.
gories, and does not present related comparative With these rather elaborate but nonetheless im
variables that generate assayable hypotheses portant preliminary remarks over, we may now
within and between categories. As a result of present our typology. In essence, we have at
these weaknesses, Wiikenson sought "to tempted to take Wilkenson's three categories,
construct a more flexible typology which is not partially re-conceptualize them, and then
rigidly tied to the ruler-ruled dichotomy and select a set of variables that may be opera
which encompasses terrorism which stems from tionalized in order to improve our understanding
motives other than revolution or repression." 9 of political terrorism within and between
The Wiikenson typology divides terrorism into Wilkenson's three categories. Definitionally, our
three generalized categories: Revolutionary Ter- three categories of political terrorism—Revolu
rorism, Sub-Revolutionary Terrorism, and tionary, Sub-Revolutionary, Establishment—may
Repressive Terrorism. According to Wiikenson, be defined as follows:
Revolutionary Terrorism is directed at "bringing _ , .. T . , , , ,,
. I. . a , . t>c l r> I . Revolutionary Terrorism may be defined as the
about political revolution, Sub-Revolutionary threat and/or employm
Terrorism "is employed for political motives other political violence, in
than revolution," while Repressive Terrorism is jective of successful
government directed terror aimed at "restraining tionary change (c
certain groups, individuals, or forms of
deemed to be undesirable. 10 While this was an ments indigenous to
improvement over prior attempts at classification,
the Wiikenson typology also contains a number of
weaknesses. In the first place, there is no Chapter
8. Walter, hint as 1.
to 8. Walter, Chapter
how an observer is to distinquish 9. Wilkenson,
between p. 35.
Revo- 9. Wiikenson, p. 35
lutionary and Sub-Revolutionary10. Ibid., p. 36-40.
Terrorism. p. 36-40.
11.
c I i_■ r I I I I I • . . I 11. Definitions of Definitions
political of political
revolution are manyrevolution
and are m
Second, whiie he does broaden his categories,
varied. We wouldhe subscribe
varjed We to wouid subscr
the eight dim
fails to precisely specify the boundaries finitionof each, finition
proposed by Mostafaproposed
Rejai. Heby Most
summar
eight dimensions
especially in terms of the internal-external envi-into the
eight following brie
dimensions int
ronmental level. Finally, and mosttion—"Political
significantly, revolution refers torevolution
tion—"Political the abrupt
mass violence aimed at the overthrow of the
Wilkenson's three dimension typology isoverall
... , , « , 11 , regime as a step toward
not ac- mass
social
Vl°'ence
change.
aimed at the
Rejai,
regime as a step toward overall social chang
companied by a set of variables that allows
The tor The
Strategy Strategy
of Political of Political
Revolution Revol
(Garden C
more rigorous and discriminate classification.
Doubleday and In Doubleday
Co., Inc., 1973),and Co., Inc., 1
p. 7-9.

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 Journal of International Affairs

or by similar groups acting outside of the various notions/forms of irrational behavior, it is

geographical boundaries of the system. our position that most extranormal political vio
Sub-Revolutionary Terrorism may be defined as the lence is employed to achieve certain political
threat and/or employment of extranormal forms of goals. Although certain forms of violence may
political violence, in varying degrees, with the ob- result from irrational behavior, organized goal
jective of effecting various changes in the ,. „ , ... . , ,, . ^ °. .
structural-functional aspects of the particular directed po
political system.12 The goal is to bring about certain category
changes within the body politic, not to abolish it in that mak
favor of a complete system change. Perhaps the ner;
broadest of the three categories, groups included
here span the political spectrum from left to right Causes
(i.e., ethnic, religious, linguistic, regional, anti- Causes may
colonial, secessionist, reactionary, restorationist, or array o
etc.). Such means are employed primarily by and/or psyc
groups or movements indigenous to the particular ing the decis
political system, though similar elements beyond political
the system's geographical boundaries may also rely These g
on such means. divided into two categories: long-term factors (pre
conditions extending over a lengthy period o
Establishment Terrorism may be defined as the time), and short-term factors (ignitin
threat and/or employment of extranormal forms of the case of non-revolutionary terro
political violence, in varying degrees, by an es- causal factors might include prol
tablished political system, against both external and inequities, political disfranchisemen
internal opposition. Specifically, such means may depression; while short-term cau
be employed by an established political system result of a rapid upsurge of ethnic
against other nation-states and groups external to privation, or government repression
the particular political system, as well as internally .
to repress various forms of domestic opposi- environment
tion/unrest and/or to move the populace to This concerns the various forms pol.t.cal terrorism
comply with programs/goals of the state. can take within the typology s three general cate
r ' r ° gories. Conceptualized on the basis of geo
Although a long list of possible variables could graph
be selected, for the sake of parsimony, we have may
■ „„,i, mental (within the nation-state) and external envi
chosen seven, causes, environment, goals, ronment
strategy, means, organization, and participation. For exam
Together, they yield the typology of political ter
rorism presented in Figure 1. "
12. axiom
As was noted above, the These structural-functio
that political te
changes will be left open ende
rorism is goal direc.ed underlies
include the .he
vast multitude of d
proach of this typology.the
Although
various various writers t
groups spanning
10 have attributed the use ofmay
who political
employ terrorism
terrorism. to

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 Conceptualizing Political Terrorism: A Typology

Figure
Figure 1. Typology
1. Typology of Political
of Political Terrorism Terrorism
selected
variables
variables
general ORGANI- PARTICI
categories CAUSES ENVIRONMENT
ENVIRONMENT GOALS STRATEGY MEANS ZATION PATION
GOALS

REVOLUTIONARY Economic,
REVOLUTIONARY Economic,
Internal (urban Internal
Internallurban
Long Range/ (urbanLong
LongRange/
Range/Primary
Primary
oror Various
Various ca
TERRORISM Political, or rural rev- Strategic
or rural rev Strategic Secondary bilities and degrees of profiles
Social, olutionary
olutionary Objectives role in the techniques organizational
Objectives
Psychological groups) groups) overall employed structures
factors
factors , strategy strategy
External
External(auton Short Term/
(auton- Short Term/ Leadership Leadership
Tactical
omous non
omousnon-
state revolu
Tactical style/
style/
state revolu-
Objectives Objectives attitude
attitude
tionary
actors)

SUB- Economic,
SUB- Economic, Internal
Internal (urban- Long Range/
Internal (urban
(urban- Long Range/Primary
non Range/Strategic
Primary
Long or Various
or Various capa- Nature—
capa- Nature— ParticipantParticipant
REVOLUTIONARY Political, rural non- Strategic Secondary bilities and degrees of profiles
rural
TERRORISM Social, revolutionary) Objectives
revolutionary) role in the techniques organizational
Objectives
Psychological
groups) groups) overall employed structures
factors strategy
External (non Short Term/
External (non- Short Term/ Leadership
Leadership
revolutionary,
revolutionary, Tactical
Tactical style/ style/
autonomous,
autonomous, Objectives Objectives attitude
attitude
non-state
actors)
actors)

InternalInternal
ESTABLISHMENT
ESTABLISHMENT Economic,
Economic, Internal (re- (re
Long Range/
Long (re- LongorRange/
Primary
Range/ Primary
Variouscapa- Nature— or Various capa- Nature— Par
Participant
TERRORISM Political, pression pression ofof Strategic
urban or rural
Strategic Secondary bilities and degrees of profiles
Social, urban or rural Objectives Objectives role in the techniques organizational
Psychological opposition) overall employed structures
opposition)
factors
factors , , strategy
, Short
strategy
External (aimed Term/
External
at other
(aimed~ ' Short Term/ Leadership
Leadership
at
nation-states
other
Tactical
Tactical style/ style/
nation-states
Objectives Objectives attitude
attitude
or non-state
actors)

internal variations include the use of varying of revolutionary terrorism, the long range/strategic
degrees of extranormal violence by urban and/or objective would be to assist in the overthrow of tne
rural movements, while the external variation established order, while short term/tactical objec
would include such actions when carried out by tives might include disruption of the government's
basically autonomous, non-state, actors. controls, demonstrations of the movement's
Qoals strength, and building solidarity within the move
Goals are the objectives at which terrorism is ment. In this case, the
directed, categorized in terms of long range ideology underlying t
(broader strategic objectives) and short term Strategy
(specific tactical objectives) political ends. Political For our purposes, this
terrorism may be directed towards both types of the overall plan—a
objectives simultaneously. For example, in the case instruments, and

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 Journal of International Affairs

of one's goals. It entails the deployment of men, leaders who employ political terrorism to achieve
materials, ideas, symbols, and forces in pursuit of their particular goals. Thus, with regard to the pro
thèse goals. With regard to political terrorism, the file of the terrorist, pertinent factors to be
issue to be determined concerns whether it examined include: age, social background, occu
constitutes the primary or secondary tactics in the pation, education, ideology, personality, and belief
overall strategy. For example, in rural insurgency system. While many of these factors would also be
strategy, political terrorism has tended to be rele- pertinent to the examination of leadership in
gated to a secondary tactical position, while in the volved, we would suggest focusing on the issues of
urban guerrilla and transnational variation, political "willingness to employ" and "attitude towards
terrorism has been elevated to a primary tactical employing" terror and violence,
consideration, and, in certain situations, to the T, . . . , _ , _ . , ,
level of a strategy. ' he imt'al steps in the construction of such a ty
pology are encumbered with the paradoxical di
ly[eans 1 ... ..... lemma of selecting a group of variables relevant to
Means are categorized as any and all capabilities , , ? • c i.„. , _
and techniques utilized within the broader each of the three c
strategic framework to achieve the goals projected. ar|a sensitive to
Capabilities available may include the most primi- maintaining a
tive or the most sophisticated forms of weaponry, tional variables
~nyn^Än future scrutiny and revision, we have sought, in
communications, etc. The techniques utilized can ...... / . '
range from kidnapping, barricade and hostage, th|s initial per
bombing, armed assault or ambush, hijacking, in- scheme that
cendiary attack or arson, assassination, chemical, variables sele
bacteriological or radiological pollution. Qf ^g general
Organization themselves to cross category comparison.
As a fundamental adjunct to political terrorism, or- Whether this is
ganization provides the formalized structure as (^g study/a
utilized for the planning, coordination, and ap- , .. ' ■ ,
plication of extranormal forms of political violence. con
The success or limitations in the use of such forms this
of violence will be determined, in part, by the na- s
ture of the organization. For example, in the case of re
rural insurgent movements, an essential feature in ,
the use of political terrorism is its detailed prépara- . . T .. *? . re o
tion. The effective use of terrorism is predicated on ture concerned with
a thorough knowledge of localities, people, eus- sought to construct a
toms and habits. In essence, a great deal of time is Mayer's "criteria
spent in preparation, ana organization is —exhaustive and preci
inextricably linked to this preparation. jn term$ Qf {he same crj
Participation
This variable is broadly conceptualized to refer to
13. Lawrence
-|2 the type of individual who takes part in political 13. Lawrence C. Mayer,
C. Mayer, Comparative
Comparative Political
Political Inquiry
Inquiry
terrorism, as well as the various types of political (Homewood, III.: The
(Homewood, III.:Dorsey Press,Press,
The Dorsey 1972), p. 17-18.
1972), p. 17-18.

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 Conceptualizing Political Terrorism: A Typology

be recognized that the typology presented is only this skeletal typology is fleshed out, we will find
in its initial stages of development. As future that while the general categories tend to differ
improvements and revisions occur, it will become when compared as integrated systems of factors,
more consistent with Mayer's criteria. This matter similarities between categories will emerge in
withstanding, the typology does provide a frame- terms of specific variables. For example, with
work from which the phenomena of political ter- respect to manipulation of the media, little
rorism can be more systematically and analytically difference may exist between a conservative
studied. In the first place, it does provide a ethnic or regional sub-revolutionary group
general classificatory scheme into which most employing terrorism and a radical left terrorist
instances of political terrorism, as well as its un- group. However, in terms of long range goals and
derlying factors, can be placed. Within each of the strategic objectives, significant differences will
three political terrorism categories, a number of probably exist between two such divergent
interrelated issues can be examined, and addi- groups.
tionally, as will be noted below, the typology The type of propositions that can be derived
lends itself to cross category comparison. from this classificatory scheme may be divided
Second, the typology draws attention to the into six categories. First are propositions specify
complex nature of political terrorism, and the ing relationships between the seven variables
various pertinent factors involved in such activity. within each of the three categories. In other
Given the emotionalism, controversy, and outrage words, how are the seven variables interrelated
surrounding political terrorism, monistic explana- within the different categories. Propositions at this
tions such as the notion that all those who resort level take a macro or holistic approach. Macro
to such tactics are "abnormal ... in the sense of analysis "refers to taking social groups or systems
being psychologically disturbed,"14 are pervasive as the basic unit of analysis,"15 and propositions in
in the literature. In fact, the literature in general this category will be conceptualized at this level,
has tended to be descriptive, prescriptive and For example, rural insurgency movements would
obliquely emotive in form. Hopefully, this ty- be approached as a system in which the seven
pology will move the study of political terrorism specified variables interact. The same approach
away from such subjective analysis. could be taken toward sub-revolutionary groups
Finally, a third attribute of this typology is that and establishment regimes employing terrorism,
it's more than simply a device for pigeonholing A comparative-within-category corollary of this
data. Classifying data is only the first step in first set of propositions consists of the compara
explaining and predicting social phenomena. In tive analysis of different variations within each of
addition, from a well developed typology, assay- the general terrorism categories. For example,
able propositions can be derived. This will then
result in the clarification of specific differences »,, , n T c n .
14. Albert Parry, Terrorism:
...... ... . . K . . 14. Albert Parry, Terrorism: From FromRobespierre
Robespierre to to
and similarities within and between the
Arafat (New three
York: The ter-
Vanguard Press, Arafat (New 13York: T
Inc., 1976).
rorist categories. In effect, this suggests
15. Mayer, p. 162. that once 15. Mayer, p. 1

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 Journal of International Affairs

within the general category of revolutionary ter- merous and would include: the role of terrorism
rorism, one might compare the urban variation in the overall strategy of the PLO; the techniques
with the rural variation. Likewise, within particu- and capabilities of the Japanese Red Army;
laristic sub-revolutionary groups employing ter- leadership profiles of reactionary regimes relying
rorism, comparison of linguistic, ethnic, regional, on terrorist tactics such as the Chilean junta, etc.
or rural variations might be undertaken. A com- This is perhaps the most bountiful of all of the
parative-between-category corollary of the first categories. A comparative-within-category
class of propositions consists of the comparative corollary of this fourth set of propositions consists
analysis of variations of political terrorism across of the comparative analysis of a single or a few
the three general categories. Thus, one might variables among variations within each of the
compare various urban revolutionary terrorist three general categories. Examples would include
movements, with various sub-revolutionary urban the examination of the goals of various sub-revo
groups employing terrorism to achieve whatever lutionary groups who employ terrorism; the
ends they seek. role/type of organization developed by urban
While these three types of propositions are and rural revolutionary movements and
derived at the macro level, the typology also lends position of their domestic base; or t
itself to "middle range" or micro level analysis.16 the tactics employed by regimes ut
Given the problems of macro level analysis, aptly rorism to maintain order. Finally, a
noted by LaPalombara,17 a micro level approach between-category corollary of the fo
may presently be more appropriate. Concurring propositions would allow for the com
with LaPalombara's position concerning the im- one (or a few) variable across the
mediate need to pay "greater attention to 'partial gories of political terrorism. As wi
systems,'or a'segmented approach'to theory and propositional categories, numero
research," we would suggest that until concepts could be cited, including a compa
are more clearly defined, the empirical data base tactics utilized by various revolution
broadened, and the gap between "theoretical revolutionary groups who utilize terrori
concepts and what (can be measured) in the field" In sum, it is apparent that once the
narrowed, political terrorism analysis should focus been fleshed out in terms of data c
on the middle range of micro level.18 The final
three propositions lend themselves to the dis
16. The term
covery of similarities and differences within "middle-range"
and 16. The termis "middle-range"
borrowed from is bor
Joseph's LaPalombara's,
between categories at this level. Joseph's "Macrotheories
LaPalombara's, and Microap
"Macrotheories an
Ti r -, plications in Comparative
plicationsPolitics," Comparative
in Comparative Politics," Comparative
The fourth set of propositions focuses
Politics onp. a
(October, 1968), p0//t/cs (October,
52-78.
single or a few variables within onep. of
17. Ibid., the general 17. Ibid., p. 5
57-63.
18. Ibid.
categories of political terrorism. Examples are nu- 18. Ibid.
14

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 Conceptualizing Political Terrorism: A Typology

assayable propositions at both the macro and done before it meets the requirements of a
micro levels will emerge. While the matrix only soundly conceptualized typology,
suggests that the three general categories of
political terrorism may differ, as well as share simi
larities, this will be determined only through fu- Conclusion
ture research focusing on the six classes of The purpose of this study was to take the initial
propositions discussed above. In addition to these steps in developing a typology that will allow for
propositions derived directly from the typology, a the systematic and analytical examination of
number of important tangential issues are also political terrorism, and from which assayable
readily apparent. For example, there is the com- propositions can be derived. While much work
plex issue of how the international community is remains to be done to flesh out, improve, and
to respond effectively to the various forms of revise the typology, as well as develop the
international terrorism, as well as possible future propositions suggested, hopefully, this study's
trends and new variations in international ter- focus on the analytical and systematic study of
rorism. Finally, it should be recognized that this is political terrorism is a step in the right direction,
only the first cut in the development of a typology In particular, case studies must be examined
of political terrorism. Much work remains to be before any final conclusions can be drawn.

15

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