MODULE 3 Topic 6-7

Republic of the Philippines
CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

Sta. Rosa Del Norte, Pasacao, Camarines Sur, 4417
Website: www.cbsua.edu.ph
Email Address: ca.pasacao@cbsua.edu.ph
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
MODULE 3
Unfolding the Mental Self
Topic 6-7: Human Learning, Cognition, Memory, and Intelligence, and Kinds of
Intelligence
IntroductIon
Cognition, memory, and intelligence are faculties of the human mental self, which
introduces an individual's self differently. It will provide a better understanding of how they
deliberately process their thinking to arrive at a better solution in problemsolving.
At the end of this module, the students are expected to:
1. explain the learning process;

2. explain and elaborate concepts and processes on cognition, memory, and
intelligence;
3. analyze and demonstrate how cognition, memory, and intelligence are
manifested in various aspects of their life.
Pre–Competency ChecklIst
1. In your opinion, what do you think is the meaning of human intelligence? Cite an
example.
LearnIng Resources
Text books:
Alata, E.J., Pastor; C., Bernardo N. Jr., Serafica, J.P., & Pawilen, R.A.. (2018).
Understanding the Self: Rex Book Store, Inc.
Brawner, D. G. & Arcega, A. F. (2018). Understanding the Self. C & E Publishing, Inc.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
Electronic Sources:
Kendra, C. (2019, October 8). Theories of Intelligence in Psychology. Very well mind
https://www.verywellmind.com/theories-of-intelligence-2795035
Kendra, C. (2020, May 15). What is Memory? Very well mind
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-memory-2795006
Kendra, C. (2020, July 25). What is Cognition? Very well mind
https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-cognition-2794982
Miyake, A., Friedman, N.P., Rettinger, D.A., Shah, P., & Hegarty, M. (2001). How are
Visuospatial Working Memory, Executive Functioning, and Spatial Abilities Related?
A Latent-Variable Analysis. Journal of Experimental Psychology – General, 130(4).
https://www.memory-key.com/memory/individual/wm-intelligence
Short Film
Sa Dulo ng Buhay na Alaala

Story and film by Divina Gracia R. Galang, PhD
Explore
Overview of the Topic
This module will talk about how humans learn, and such were described in the three
prominent learning theories of Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism. These three
have the most comprehensive way of explaining how an individual learns.
Likewise, every human being is capable of thinking, knowing, remembering, judging, and
problem-solving. These are the functions of our cognition. Cognition is terminology for
mental processes that include the attainment of knowledge and comprehension.
Before the discussion, the teacher should assign the students to read the article and
watch the mini-film. The teacher, as a facilitator, should introduce the fundamental
concepts of the topic.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
Activity 1. This activity will be conducted individually and through analysing a short
film. It intends to provide the students the experience of being aware of how their thinking
works and how they used it in their decision-making.
Activity 2. This activity will promote reaction regarding the students' ideas about the
topic. The students are tasked to post a brief concept about their learning from the topic
on their FB wall.
Terminologies used in the topic
1. Behaviorist 6. learning 11. Memory

2. Memory loss 7. Cognitivist 12. Intelligence Quotient
3. Triarchic Intelligence 8. Multiple intelligence 13. Alfred Binet
4. G-factor 9. Remembering 14. Constructivist
5. Alzheimers 10.Tip-of-the-tongue 15. Mental disability
phenomenon
How do People Learn?
Behaviorist
―Stimulus and response are the main acquisition of learning new behaviors or its
changes.‖
BF Skinner pioneered behaviorism as he introduced the concept of Operant
Conditioning. An operant conditioning is a method of learning that promoted the reward
and punishment scheme for a displayed behavior and the reward for a positive act and
punishment for the negative one. Such reward and punishment was associated with the
consequences or an outcome of behavior. Behaviorism believed that a learning
opportunity is not within the person but somewhat outside of people. Only the experience
of the individuals brought them learning and thus changes one's behavior. When one
changes the behavior, the learning, therefore, took place.
Learning Process. For behaviorism, the learning process occurs when there was an
observable change in the behavior. It means that learning took place in an individual.
For example, a student who cheats inside the class when punished changed the
behavior and did not exhibit cheating anymore. The situation expressed that the new
learning took place. The learning process in that situation happened using
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
stimulusresponse. A stimulus is anything that provokes a response. When one responded

because of stimulation, the individual is expected to learn. The consequences of the acts
lead to follow the expected behavior. The criticism of this work is that Behaviorism does
not prepare the learners for problem-solving and creative thinking. The learners were only
instructed to do but never propose improvement and innovation on things. The learners
are only expected to recall the basic facts and automatic responses in performing tasks.
The following are the applications of behaviorist learning theory: ―Drill/Rote work,
Repetitive Practice, Bonus Points (providing an incentive to participate), Verbal
Reinforcement (saying a good job) and establishing rules.‖
Cognitivist
―The processes of information resulted to understanding and retention‖
Cognitivism is credited to Jean Piaget. They believe that individuals merely

respond to stimulations. To them, the person learns because of the processing of
information behind the behavior. The cognitivists maintain that humans learn because of
the information gained from the experiences encoded in the memory – acquired, stored,
retained, and possible for retrieval. To the cognitivist, an individual's behavior is only an
expression of what is inside their minds. The learner learns best when individuals receive
and relate information stored in the memory and then retrieve it. The ability to relate and
associate the retrieved information proves that learning is taking place.
Learning Process. Unlike behaviorism, the cognitivist inferred that learning occurs
internally, not externally. The mental processes are more critical than the observable
behavior. Learning is happening when an individual achieves a reorganization of
information based on their experiences. The attainment of new insights, changing the old
ones indicates a change of learning. The change is considered the learning of individuals.
The following are the applications of cognitive learning theory such as: ―Classifying
or chunking information, Linking concepts (association of one content with something
known), Providing structure (organizing your lecture in efficient and meaningful ways,
Real-world examples, Discussions, Problem-solving, Analogies, imagery/providing
pictures, mnemonics.‖
Constructivist
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
―Individual experiences are the basis of our knowledge construction.‖
Constructivism is another human learning theory that gives importance to the

construction of our perception of the world. Lev Vygotsky popularized it. The internal
knowledge of individuals is based on the experiences gained. The learning takes place
by creating meaning and interpretation of the experience encountered. Learning is
different for all individuals as learning is also differently accepted. To the constructivist,
the individuals are unique.
Learning Process: The constructivists advocated that individuals ―construct‖ new

ideas from the knowledge previously learned. The individuals produced mental models
that are employed to make use of the experiences. Learning happened when one tried
to adjust the mental models to accept new experiences. The constructivist is centred on
making people solve problems in order for them to be successful. The learner needed
fundamental knowledge to use to interpret and create new ideas. The constructivist
promoted that individuals learn because they learn to ―construct‖ their knowledge.
The applications of constructivism can be seen in ―Case Studies, Research

Projects, Problem based learning, Brainstorming, Collaborative learning/group work,
discovery learning, stimulations".
(Please continue to read the attached readings below)
Activity 1. Tell me your opinion

1. Upon watching the film, describe according to your own opinion which
character is the most intelligent in the short film? Explain why. Use the concepts of
cognition, memory, and intelligence in elaborating your discussion.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
Activity 2. Post your opinion

1. Each student will summarize their understanding in one sentence of their idea about
the topic and post it in their own social media account with a hashtag #GEC3Human
Learning
Discussion Board
1. Choose five key terminologies listed above and define each according to the
topic.
2. Explain how cognition, memory, and intelligence work together and provide an
example.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
3. What situation you think our intelligence should be best applied? Kindly cite an
example
Post–Competency Checklist
1. Which among the theories do you think are responsible for your learning, Is it
Behaviorism? Cognitivism? Or Constructivism? Explain why.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
QuIz
To be arranged.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
Additional Materials for learning
Continuation of the topic…
What Is Cognition?
Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowlege

and comprehension. These cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering,
judging, and problem-solving. These are higher-level functions of the brain and
encompass language, imagination, perception, and planning.
Cognitive psychology is the field of psychology that investigates how people think
and the processes involved in cognition
.
There are many different types of cognitive processes. These include:
Attention: Attention is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a specific

stimulus in the environment.
Language: Language and language development are cognitive processes that

involve the ability to understand and express thoughts through spoken and written words.
It allows us to communicate with others and plays an important role in thought.
Learning: Learning requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new things,

synthesizing information, and integrating it with prior knowledge.
Memory: Memory is an important cognitive process that allows people to encode, store,
and retrieve information. It is a critical component in the learning process and allows
people to retain knowledge about the world and their personal histories.
Perception: Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information

through their senses (sensation) and then utilize this information to respond and interact
with the world.
Thought: Thought is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows people to

engage in decision-making, problem-solving, and higher reasoning.
Trunkline: (054) 513-9519
Uses of Cognition
Cognitive processes affect every aspect of life, from school to work to relationships.
Some specific uses for these cognitive processes include the following.
1. Learning New Things

Learning requires being able to take in new information, form new memories, and
make connections with other things that you already know. Researchers and educators
use their knowledge of these cognitive processes to help create instructive materials to
help people learn new concepts.
2. Forming Memories
Memory is a major topic of interest in the field of cognitive psychology. How we

remember, what we remember, and what we forget reveal a great deal about how the
cognitive processes operate.
While people often think of memory as being much like a video camera, carefully
recording and cataloging life events, and storing them away for later recall, research has
found that memory is much more complex.
3. Making Decisions
Whenever people make any type of decision, it involves making judgments about
things they have processed. It might involve comparing new information to prior
knowledge, integrating new information into existing ideas, or even replacing old
knowledge with new knowledge before making a choice.
Impact of Cognition
The cognitive processes have a wide-ranging impact that influences everything

from daily life to overall health.
1. Perceiving the World
As you take in sensations from the world around you, the information that you see,
hear, taste, touch, and smell must first be transformed into signals that your brain can
understand. The perceptual process allows you to take in sensory information and
convert it into a signal that your brain can understand and act upon.
2. Forming Impressions
The world is full of an endless amount of sensory experiences. To make meaning

out of all this incoming information, it is important for your brain to be able to reduce your
experience of the world down to the fundamentals. You remember everything, so events
are reduced down to the critical concepts and ideas that you need.
3. Filling in the Gaps
In addition to reducing information to make it more memorable and

understandable, people also elaborate on these memories as they reconstruct them. In
some cases, this elaboration happens when people are struggling to remember
something. When the information cannot be recalled, the brain sometimes fills in the
missing data with whatever seems to fit.
4. Interacting With the World
Cognition involves not only the things that go on inside our heads but also how
these thoughts and mental processes influence our actions. Our attention to the world
around us, memories of past events, understanding of language, judgments about how
the world works, and abilities to solve problems all contribute to how we behave and
interact with our surrounding environment.
Tips to protect your cognition
Cognitive processes are influenced by a range of factors including genetics and

experiences. While you cannot change your genetics, there are things that you can do
to protect and maximize your cognitive abilities:
Stay healthy. Lifestyle factors such as eating healthy and getting regular exercise
can have an effect on your cognitive functioning.
Think critically. Question your assumptions and ask questions about your thoughts,
beliefs, and conclusions.
Stay curious and keep learning. One great way to flex your cognitive abilities is to
keep challenging yourself to learn more about the world.
Skip multitasking. While it might seem like doing several things at once would help you
get done faster, research has shown it actually decreases both productivity and work
quality.
The Cognitive and Productive Costs of Multitasking
Potential Pitfalls
It is important to remember that these cognitive processes are complex and often
imperfect. Some of the possible pitfalls that can affect cognition include:
1. Problems with attention: Selective attention is a limited resource, so there
are a number of things that can make it difficult to focus on everything in your
environment. Attentional blink, for example, happens when you are so focused on one
thing that you completely miss something else happening right in front of you.
2. Memory problems and limitations: Short-term memory is surprisingly brief,

typically lasting just 20 to 30 seconds. Long-term memory can be surprisingly stable and
enduring, on the other hand, with memories lasting years and even decades. Memory
can also be surprisingly fragile and fallible. Sometimes we forget, and other times we are
subject to misinformation effects that can even lead to the formation of false memories.
3. Cognitive biases: Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking related

to how people process and interpret information about the world. The confirmation bias
is one common example that involves only paying attention to information that aligns
with your existing beliefs while ignoring evidence that doesn't support your views.
History of the Study of Cognition
The study of how we think dates back to the time of the ancient Greek
philosophers Plato and Aristotle.
Philosophical Origins
Plato's approach to the study of the mind suggested that people understand the
world by first identifying basic principles buried deep inside themselves and then using
rational thought to create knowledge. This viewpoint was later advocated by
philosophers such as Rene Descartes and linguist Noam Chomsky. This approach to
cognition is often referred to as rationalism.9
Aristotle, on the other hand, believed that people acquire their knowledge through their
observations of the world around them. Later thinkers including John Locke and B.F.
Skinner also advocated this point of view, which is often referred to as empiricism.10
Early Psychology
During the earliest days of psychology and for the first half of the twentieth century,
psychology was largely dominated by psychoanalysis, behaviorism, and humanism.
Eventually, a formal field of study devoted solely to the study of cognition emerged as
part of the ―cognitive revolution‖ of the 1960s. The field of psychology concerned with
the study of cognition is known as cognitive psychology.11
The Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
One of the earliest definitions of cognition was presented in the first textbook on
cognitive psychology published in 1967. According to Neisser, cognition is "those
processes by which the sensory input is transformed, reduced, elaborated, stored,
recovered, and used."
What Is Memory?
Memory refers to the processes that are used to acquire, store, retain, and later
retrieve information. There are three major processes involved in memory: encoding,
storage, and retrieval.
Human memory involves the ability to both preserve and recover information we
have learned or experienced. As we all know, however, this is not a flawless process.
Sometimes we forget or misremember things. Sometimes things are not properly encoded
in memory in the first place.
Memory problems can range from minor annoyances like forgetting where you left
your car keys to major diseases, like Alzheimer's and other kinds of dementia, that affect
the quality of life and the ability to function.
The study of human memory has been a subject of science and philosophy for
thousands of years and has become one of the major topics of interest within cognitive
psychology.
How Memories Are Formed
In order to form new memories, information must be changed into a usable form,
which occurs through the process known as encoding. Once the information has been
successfully encoded, it must be stored in memory for later use.
Much of this stored memory lies outside of our awareness most of the time, except
when we actually need to use it. The retrieval process allows us to bring stored memories
into conscious awareness.
How Information Retrieval From Memory Works
How Long Do Memories Last?

Some memories are very brief, just seconds long, and allow us to take in sensory
information about the world around us.
Short-term memories are a bit longer and last about 20 to 30 seconds. These
memories mostly consist of the information we are currently focusing on and thinking
about.
Finally, some memories are capable of enduring much longer, lasting days,
weeks, months, or even decades. Most of these long-term memories lie outside of our
immediate awareness, but we can draw them into consciousness when they are needed.
Using Memory
To use the information that has been encoded into memory, it first has to be
retrieved. There are many factors that can influence how memories are retrieved such as
the type of information being used and the retrieval cues that are present.
Of course, this process is not always perfect. Have you ever felt like you had the
answer to a question right at the tip of your tongue, but you couldn’t quite remember it?
This is an example of a perplexing memory retrieval problem known as lethologica or the
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
Why Does the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Happen?
Organizing Memory
The ability to access and retrieve information from long-term memory allows us to
actually use these memories to make decisions, interact with others, and solve problems.
But how is information organized in memory?
One way of thinking about memory organization is known as the semantic network
model. This model suggests that certain triggers activate associated memories. A memory
of a specific place might activate memories about related things that have occurred in
that location. For example, thinking about a particular campus building might trigger
memories of attending classes, studying, and socializing with peers.
Types of Memory
While several different models of memory have been proposed, the stage model
of memory is often used to explain the basic structure and function of memory. Initially
proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin, this theory outlines three
separate stages of memory: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term
memory.
Sensory Memory
Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory. During this stage, sensory
information from the environment is stored for a very brief period of time, generally for no
longer than a half-second for visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory
information. We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory memory, allowing some of
this information to pass into the next stage: short-term memory. How Long Do Sensory
Memories Last?
Short-Term Memory
Short-term memory, also known as active memory, is the information we are
currently aware of or thinking about. In Freudian psychology, this memory would be
referred to as the conscious mind. Paying attention to sensory memories generates
information in short-term memory.
While many of our short-term memories are quickly forgotten, attending to this
information allows it to continue to the next stage: long-term memory. Most of the
information stored in active memory will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.
The term "short-term memory" is often used interchangeably with "working

memory," which refers to the processes that are used to temporarily store, organize, and
manipulate information.
How Long Does Short-Term Memory Last?
Long-Term Memory
Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian

psychology, long-term memory would be called the preconscious and unconscious. This
information is largely outside of our awareness but can be called into working memory to
be used when needed. Some of this information is fairly easy to recall, while other
memories are much more difficult to access.
How Does Your Long-Term Memory Work?
Losing Memory
Forgetting is a surprisingly common event. Just consider how often you forget
someone’s name or overlooked an important appointment. Why do we forget
information we have learned in the past? There are four basic explanations for why
forgetting occurs:
• Failure to store
• Interference
• Motivated forgetting
• Retrieval failure
Research has shown that one of the critical factors that influence memory failure
is time. Information is often quickly forgotten, particularly if people do not actively review
and rehearse the information.
Sometimes information is simply lost from memory and, in other cases, it was never
stored correctly in the first place. Sometimes memories compete with one another,
making it difficult to remember certain information. In other instances, people actively try
to forget things that they simply don’t want to remember.
It's Not Always Alzheimer's: What Causes Memory Loss

Tips to maintain a well-functioning memory
No matter how great your memory is, there are probably a few things you can do
to make it even better. Fortunately, cognitive psychologists have discovered a number
of techniques that can help improve memory:
Jot it down. The act of writing with a pen and paper helps implant the memory into
your brain—and can also serve as a reminder or reference later on.1
Attach meaning to it. You can remember something more easily if you attach
meaning to it. For instance, if you associate a person you just meet with someone you
already know, you may be able to remember their name easier.
Repeat it. Repetition helps the memory become encoded beyond your shortterm
memory.
Group it. Information that is categorized becomes easier to remember and recall.
For example, consider the following group of words: Desk, apple, bookshelf, red, plum,
table, green, pineapple, purple, chair, peach, yellow. Spend a few seconds reading
them, then look away and try to recall and list these words. How did you group the words
when you listed them? Most people will list using three different categories: color,
furniture, and fruit.
In addition to these techniques, keeping your brain healthy by exercising regularly,

maintaining social connections, managing stress, and performing challenging activities
(like doing crossword puzzles or playing an instrument) have been proven to help boost
memory.
INTELLIGENCE
While intelligence is one of the most talked about subjects in psychology, there is
no standard definition of what exactly constitutes intelligence. Some researchers have
suggested that intelligence is a single, general ability. Others believe that intelligence
encompasses a range of aptitudes, skills, and talents.
What Is Intelligence?
Intelligence has been a controversial topic throughout psychology's history.

Despite the substantial interest in the subject, there is still considerable disagreement
about what components makeup intelligence. In addition to questions of exactly how to
define intelligence, the debate continues today about whether accurate measurements
are even possible.
At various points throughout recent history, researchers have proposed some

different definitions of intelligence. While these definitions can vary considerably from one
theorist to the next, current conceptualizations tend to suggest that intelligence is the
ability to:
• Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an

important component of intelligence.
• Recognize problems: To put knowledge to use, people must be able to identify
possible problems in the environment that need to be addressed.
• Solve problems: People must then be able to take what they have learned to
come up with a useful solution to a problem they have noticed in the world around
them.
Intelligence involves some different mental abilities including logic, reasoning, problem-
solving, and planning. While the subject of intelligence is one of the largest and most
heavily researched, it is also one of the topics that generate the greatest controversy.
While psychologists often disagree about the definition and causes of intelligence,
research on intelligence plays a significant role in many areas. These areas include
decisions regarding how much funding should be given to educational programs, the
use of testing to screen job applicants, and the use of testing to identify children who
need additional academic help.
Brief History of Intelligence
The term "intelligence quotient," or IQ, was first coined in the early 20th century by
a German psychologist named William Stern. Psychologist Alfred Binet developed the
very first intelligence tests to help the French government identify schoolchildren who
needed extra academic assistance. Binet was the first to introduce the concept of
mental age or a set of abilities that children of a certain age possess.
Since that time, intelligence testing has emerged as a widely used tool that has
led to developing many other tests of skill and aptitude. However, it continues to spur
debate and controversy over the use of such testing, cultural biases that may be
involved, influences on intelligence, and even the very way we define intelligence.
Theories of Intelligence
Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of

intelligence. Here are some of the major theories of intelligence that have emerged
during the last 100 years.
1. General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he

referred to as general intelligence or the g factor. After using a technique known as factor
analysis to examine some mental aptitude tests, Spearman concluded that scores on
these tests were remarkably similar.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests,
while those who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others. He concluded
that intelligence is a general cognitive ability that can be measured and numerically
expressed.
2. Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence.
Instead of viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on
seven different primary mental abilities.
Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall
Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems
Perceptual speed: The ability to see differences and similarities among objects
Reasoning: The ability to find rules
Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships
Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words
Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly
3. Theory of Multiple Intelligences
One of the more recent ideas to emerge is Howard Gardner's theory of multiple
intelligences. Gardner proposed that the traditional idea of intelligence, based on IQ
testing, did not fully and accurately depict a person's abilities. His theory proposed eight
different intelligences based on skills and abilities that are valued in different cultures:
Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence: The ability to control your body movements and to

handle objects skillfully
Interpersonal intelligence: The capacity to detect and respond appropriately to

the moods, motivations, and desires of others
Intrapersonal intelligence: The capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner

feelings, values, beliefs, and thinking processes
Logical-mathematical intelligence: The ability to think conceptually and

abstractly, and the capacity to discern logically or numerical patterns
Musical intelligence: The ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch, and
timbre
Naturalistic intelligence: The ability to recognize and categorize animals, plants,

and other objects in nature
Verbal-linguistic intelligence: Well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the
sounds, meanings, and rhythms of words
Visual-spatial intelligence: The capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize

accurately and abstractly
4. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "mental activity directed

toward purposive adaptation to, selection, and shaping of real-world environments
relevant to one's life."
While he agreed with Gardner that intelligence is much broader than a single,
general ability, he suggested that some of Gardner's types of intelligence are better
viewed as individual talents. Sternberg proposed what he referred to as "successful
intelligence," which involves three different factors:
Analytical intelligence: Your ability to evaluate information and solve problems
Creative intelligence: Your ability to come up with new ideas
Practical intelligence: Your ability to adapt to a changing environment
Working Memory and Intelligence
• Intelligence tends nowadays to be separated into 2 components: fluid

intelligence and crystallized intelligence.
• Fluid intelligence refers to general reasoning and problem-solving functions,

and is often described as executive function, or working memory capacity.
• Crystallized intelligence refers to cognitive functions associated with

knowledge.
• Different IQ tests measure fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence to
varying extents, but the most common disproportionately measures
crystallized intelligence.
• Increasing evidence suggests that even fluid intelligence is significantly

affected by environmental factors and emotions.
You may have heard of ―g‖. It’s the closest we’ve come to that elusive attribute
known as ―intelligence‖, but it is in fact a psychometric construct, that is, we surmise its
presence from the way in which scores on various cognitive tests positively correlate.
In other words, we don’t really know what it is (hence the fact it is called ―g‖, rather
than something more intelligible), and in fact, it is wrong to think of it as a thing. What it is,
is a manifestation of some property or properties of the brain — and we don’t know what
these are.
Various properties have been suggested, of course. Speed of processing; synaptic
plasticity; fluid cognition. These are all plausible, but experimental studies have failed to
provide clear evidence for any of them. The closest has been fluid cognition, or fluid
intelligence, which is paired with crystallized intelligence. These two terms point to a useful
distinction.
Fluid intelligence refers to cognitive functions associated with general reasoning

and problem-solving, and is often described as executive function, or working memory
capacity.
Crystallized intelligence, on the other hand, refers to cognitive functions

associated with previously acquired knowledge in long-term store.
There is of course some interplay between these functions, but for the most part they are
experimentally separable.
There are a couple of points worth noting.
For a start, different IQ tests measure fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence
to varying extents – the Raven’s Progressive Matrices Test, for example, predominantly
measures fluid intelligence, while the WAIS disproportionately measures crystallized
intelligence. An analysis of the most widely used intelligence test batteries for children
found that about 1/3 of the subtests measure crystallized intelligence, an additional ¼
measure knowledge and reading/writing skills, while only 7% directly measure fluid
intelligence, with perhaps another 10% measuring skills that have a fluid intelligence
component – and nearly all the fluid subtests were found in one particular test battery,
the W-J-R.
The so-called Flynn effect – the rapid rise in IQ over the past century – is for the
most part an increase in fluid intelligence, not crystallized intelligence. While it has been
hypothesized that fluid intelligence paves the way for the development of crystallized
intelligence, it should be noted that the distinction between fluid and crystallized
intelligence is present from a very early age, and the two functions have quite different
growth patterns over the life of an individual.
So, what we’re saying is that most IQ tests provide little measure of fluid
intelligence, although fluid intelligence appears to reflect ―g‖ more closely than any
other attribute, and that although crystallized intelligence is assumed to reflect
environment (e.g., education) far more than fluid intelligence, it is fluid intelligence that
has been rising, not crystallized intelligence.
In fact, for this and other reasons, it seems that fluid intelligence is far more affected
by environment than has been considered.
I’ll leave you to ponder on the implications of this. Let me make just one more
point.
The brain areas known to be important for fluid cognition are part of an interconnected
system associated with emotion and stress response, and it is hypothesized that functions
heretofore considered distinct from emotional arousal, such as reasoning and planning,
are in fact very much part of a system in which emotional response is involved.
We’re not saying here that emotions can disrupt your reasoning processes, we all
know that. What is being suggested is more radical – that emotions are part and parcel
of the reasoning process. Okay, I always knew this, but it’s nice to see science coming
along and providing some evidence.
The point about the close interaction between emotional reactivity and fluid
intelligence is that stress may have a significant effect on fluid intelligence.
How Low IQ Scores Are Determined
While you might often hear a lot of talk about high and low intelligence quotient
(IQ) scores, many people aren't quite sure what these designations really mean. IQ is short
for "intelligence quotient," which is a measurement of human intelligence and mental
abilities derived from standardized tests.
IQ tests include questions that are designed to measure a range of different

mental abilities and intellectual potential. These questions focus on things such as spatial
recognition, analytical thinking, short-term memory, and mathematical ability. These tests
are not meant to measure what a person has learned, but rather what they are capable
of doing.
Low IQ scores may be associated with deficits in mental abilities that may impact
life areas including school performance and job performance. Low Iq may also affect an
individual's ability to live and function independently.
What Is a Low IQ Score?
An IQ score of 70 or below is considered a low score. On most standardized tests

of intelligence, the average score is set at 100. Anything over 140 is considered high or
genius-level. Approximately 68% of all people score somewhere between 85 and 115, the
range within 15 points of the average.
So what does it mean to have a score 70 or below? In the past, an IQ score below
70 was considered a benchmark for mental retardation, an intellectual disability
characterized by significant cognitive impairments.
Today, however, IQ scores alone are not used to diagnose intellectual disability.
Instead, the criteria for diagnosis include:
• An IQ of 70 or below
• Evidence that these cognitive limitations existed before the age of 18
• Serious limitations in areas such as learning and reasoning
• Severe limitations in adaptive areas such as communication and self-help skills.
Intellectual disability is the most common type of developmental disorder and affects
approximately 0.05% to 1.55% of all people.
Low IQ Score Classifications
IQ Range Descriptive Classification
1 to 24 Profound mental disability
25 to 39 Severe mental disability
40 to 54 Moderate mental disability

Low IQ Score Classifications
IQ Range Descriptive Classification
55 to 69 Mild mental disability
70 to 79 Borderline mental disability
80 to 89 Low average
History of Low IQ
IQ is a score derived from a standardized test designed to measure intelligence.

IQ tests formally emerged in the early 1900s with the introduction of the Binet-Simon test,
which was later revised and became known as the Stanford-Binet. Binet developed his
initial test to help the French government identify students with cognitive impairments
who needed additional assistance in school.5
IQ tests have proven to be very popular both within psychology and with the
general public, but there remains a great deal of controversy about exactly what IQ tests
measure and how accurate they are.
Older conceptions of low IQ tended to focus purely on cognitive abilities. However, more
modern approaches also stress how well an individual functions mentally and in areas of
everyday life.
Individuals with an IQ score below 70 may be diagnosed with an intellectual disability if

they also experience impairment in one adaptive domain.6 Examples of such adaptive
behaviors include the ability to take care of oneself and the ability to communicate and
interact with other people.
The term "mental retardation" was previously used to describe individuals
diagnosed with low IQ, but this term is now viewed as an insult and has been largely
replaced by the term "intellectual developmental disorder" or "intellectual disability." 6
The term "mental retardation" is still used in some settings, including some diagnostic
codes and for insurance purposes.
Common Causes of Intellectual Disability
The most common causes of intellectual disability include:
• Genetic conditions such as Down syndrome

• Injuries such as head trauma and illnesses such as meningitis and seizure disorders7
• Labor and delivery problems, such as not getting enough oxygen at birth
• Problems during pregnancy that impact brain development such as drug and
alcohol use
Effects of Low IQ
Low cognitive ability can present a range of challenges in many different areas of life.
Research suggests that low IQ is associated with an increased risk of unsuccessful
educational and occupational achievement. Because of this association, it is important
to identify potential problems as soon as possible in order to provide effective
interventions and assistance.
IQ testing is sometimes used as part of the job screening process. For example, the
U.S. military has enlistment standards stipulating that applicants must score at or above
the tenth percentile on the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery (ASVAB). Such
scores are roughly equivalent to an IQ score of 85.
How Aptitude Tests Measure What People Are Capable of Doing
IQ scores below 70 may indicate the presence of some type of intellectual

disability and may be accompanied by difficulties in functioning including learning,
selfcare, and independent living.
IQ testing is often offered in educational, healthcare, and psychological settings,

often to diagnose intellectual disability in children. IQ tests are also available online, but
many of these are informal assessments and should not be used for diagnosis purposes.
According to the American Academy of Pediatrics, around 85% of kids with an
intellectual disability score between 55 and 70.

MODULE 3 Topic 6-7

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

MODULE 3 Topic 6-7

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Republic of the Philippines

CENTRAL BICOL STATE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

At the end of this module, the students are expected to:

1. explain the learning process;

Sa Dulo ng Buhay na Alaala

Overview of the Topic

Terminologies used in the topic

1. Behaviorist 6. learning 11. Memory

How do People Learn?

stimulusresponse. A stimulus is anything that provokes a response. When one responded

―The processes of information resulted to understanding and retention‖

Cognitivism is credited to Jean Piaget. They believe that individuals merely

―Individual experiences are the basis of our knowledge construction.‖

Constructivism is another human learning theory that gives importance to the

Learning Process: The constructivists advocated that individuals ―construct‖ new

The applications of constructivism can be seen in ―Case Studies, Research

(Please continue to read the attached readings below)

Activity 1. Tell me your opinion

Activity 2. Post your opinion

Additional Materials for learning

Continuation of the topic…

Cognition is a term referring to the mental processes involved in gaining knowlege

Attention: Attention is a cognitive process that allows people to focus on a specific

Language: Language and language development are cognitive processes that

Learning: Learning requires cognitive processes involved in taking in new things,

Perception: Perception is a cognitive process that allows people to take in information

Thought: Thought is an essential part of every cognitive process. It allows people to

1. Learning New Things

Memory is a major topic of interest in the field of cognitive psychology. How we

The cognitive processes have a wide-ranging impact that influences everything

1. Perceiving the World

The world is full of an endless amount of sensory experiences. To make meaning

In addition to reducing information to make it more memorable and

4. Interacting With the World

Tips to protect your cognition

Cognitive processes are influenced by a range of factors including genetics and

The Cognitive and Productive Costs of Multitasking

2. Memory problems and limitations: Short-term memory is surprisingly brief,

3. Cognitive biases: Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking related

History of the Study of Cognition

How Memories Are Formed

How Information Retrieval From Memory Works

How Long Do Memories Last?

Why Does the Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon Happen?

The term "short-term memory" is often used interchangeably with "working

Long-term memory refers to the continuing storage of information. In Freudian

How Does Your Long-Term Memory Work?

It's Not Always Alzheimer's: What Causes Memory Loss

In addition to these techniques, keeping your brain healthy by exercising regularly,

Intelligence has been a controversial topic throughout psychology's history.

At various points throughout recent history, researchers have proposed some

• Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of knowledge is an

Brief History of Intelligence

Different researchers have proposed a variety of theories to explain the nature of

British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he

2. Primary Mental Abilities

Associative memory: The ability to memorize and recall

Numerical ability: The ability to solve arithmetic problems

Reasoning: The ability to find rules

Spatial visualization: The ability to visualize relationships

Verbal comprehension: The ability to define and understand words

Word fluency: The ability to produce words rapidly

3. Theory of Multiple Intelligences