Topic: Literature searching and literature reviews

Introduction
This is a brief tutorial that emphasizes of the importance of literature review. As a research you
need to explore various sources of information related to your study in order to know how your
research fits within the larger field of your study

Objectives
By the end of this topic you should be able to:

i. Describe the importance/purpose of literature review in a study

ii. Explain the organisation of literature in an academic study.
iii. Understand the process of literature surveys.
iv. Define and conduct a literature search

Review of Related Literature

In virtually all computing projects (especially at research degree level), you are assessed on what
you submit at the end, be it a written report, a working program, a specification, detailed system
designs, test plans or whatever. However, it is often your initial investigative work that can make
the difference between a good project and a borderline fail; even for practically-based
programming projects in which the development of a piece of software is the main component.
The initial foundation for your project is a literature survey. This survey has two main
components; a literature search and a literature review. The literature search represents the
mechanics of looking for, sorting, managing and digesting the available research material. The
literature review represents your written understanding, critical evaluation, conceptualisation and
presentation of the material you have obtained.

A literature survey acts as an introduction to your project and serves a number of purposes:

1. It justifies your project – i.e., it shows that your project is worth doing; the area that you
are investigating is recognised and meaningful. At research degree level you will also be
identifying that your project is not merely repeating the work of others, but has a
 contribution to make, perhaps by identifying a current gap in the literature of your field of
study which you intend to fill.
2. It sets your project within context by discussing and critically evaluating past and current
research in your area. Through this contextualisation you will identify how your project
fits within and contributes to wider issues. This will depend on the level (undergraduate
or postgraduate) of project you are undertaking.
3. It provides other researchers with a starting point from which they can understand how
your project evolved and to identify what literature is relevant to your project in order
that they can continue where you left off.

The importance of a literature survey within academic projects cannot be overemphasised. For
example, Figure helps to illustrate a literature survey’s contribution within the context of a
computing project by analogy to building a block of flats.

The literature survey process

Literature survey is split into two distinct, concurrent stages of search and review. For planning
purposes it might well be acceptable to define the literature survey in this simplistic way to aid
clarity. Although these two components represent the bulk of the work involved in performing
The starting point for your literature survey is the definition of your literature search -starting in
the top left hand quadrant of Figure. This definition begins to identify the boundaries of your
literature search and the topics you are interested in and provides a starting point from which to
focus on appropriate research material. This definition might be as simple as your subjective
understanding of your project area and might lead you to popular texts in your field. However,
you may be more focused and limit your search definition to key authors, specific journals and/or
particular research articles.

Sources of information

1. Books -Books will probably prove to be the starting point for your literature survey. They
will provide you with a good grounding and a good overview of your chosen topic area.
2. Journals-Journals Journals contain (normally refereed) articles discussing up-to-date
issues in their field. Journal articles will also tend to be quite specific – focusing on
developments in detailed areas of a particular topic. You may find that only part of an
article is suited to your need
3. Conference Conference- Conference Conference proceedings contain articles and
papers that have been preproceedings sented at national and international conferences.
4. CDs and DVDs-CDs and Increasingly these days material is being presented on CDs and
DVDs. DVDs CDs and DVDs generally present information from other sources in a more
easily accessible format. For example, CDs and DVDs contain varying types of
information from book-type material and conference proceedings to journal articles.
5. Company Company-Company Company reports and documentation can provide
valuable information reports for case studies.
6. Theses- Theses Theses are the published reports/dissertations of PhDs and MPhils. They
represent the work of a research degree and provide a contribution in their particular
field.
7. Manuals-Manuals Within technical computing projects, manuals may prove to be a
valuable source of information. For example, it might be impossible for you to perform
your project without having access to the relevant technical manual.
8. Software- Software Any software that you require for your project, such as software
tools, libraries and reusable components, should be obtained as soon as possible.
9. The Internet- The Internet The Internet is a valuable source of information but it must be
treated with caution. Some points that you should consider when evaluating the quality of
material on the Internet include (some of these points are adapted from Ohio State
University Library, 2008):
i. What is the purpose of the site – is it to provide information or to sell a product?
ii. When was the site updated? How up-to-date is the material on the site? Is it still
relevant?
iii. Is the site part of (or related to) an official organisation (a professional
iv. body, government department or academic institute or research group)? For
example, the IEEE, the Project Management Institute, British Computer Society,
etc.?
 v. Are there any copyright issues associated with the material? Will you
vi. be able to use the material without breaching copyright?
vii. Is there an author for the material? Is the author qualified to provide the
information? Are they presenting opinions rather than facts? Are they biased?
viii. Is the site recognised from other sources? Is it a recognised body?
ix. Are there other links to the site and is it reviewed anywhere?
x. Is the material biased? ‘Does the author have a “vested interest” in the topic’ or an
axe to grind?

The literature review helps the researcher to develop knowledge that will assist in
operationalizing the research

It Concretizes the research problem (i.e., making it more specific and unambiguous) (A very
important step in any research process)

Helps in specifying the objectives of the proposed study (which will determine the data to be
collected, relations to be examined, choice of techniques to use, and form of final report)

Characteristics of literature Review

(i) Comes after formulation of research problem

(ii) It is a search for studies that are related to the problem

(iii) The review summarizes and analyzes previous research and shows how the proposed
study is related to this literature

(iv)Length varies, but should be selective and should concentrate on how the present study
will contribute to the existing knowledge.

(v) It should be long enough to demonstrate that the research has sound understanding of the
relationship of what has been done and what will be done

The Purpose of Literature Review

1) Define and limit the problem

 2) Place the study in a historical perspective

3) Identifies the gaps between the study and previous similar studies

4) Avoid unintentional and unnecessary replication

5) Select promising methods and measures

6) Relate the findings to the previous knowledge and suggest further research

7) Develop research hypotheses

Organization of Literature Review

LR is organized by three sections: Introduction, critical review, and summary

1. Introduction – states the purpose or scope of the review, e.g., the purpose may be a
preliminary review in order to state a problem or develop a proposal, or it may be an
exhaustive review to analyze and critique the research-based knowledge of the topic

2. Criticism - the review must be organized logically as it relates to the selection and
significance of the problem. Studies are classified, compared, and contrasted in the way
they contribute or fail to contribute to knowledge, including criticism of designs and
methodologies

• Criticism in an LR serves to illuminate, to discuss both strengths and limitations of the

knowledge of the problem

3. Summary – states the status of knowledge on the topic, identifies gaps in it, and relates
the review to the present study. The gaps may be due to methodological difficulties, lack
of studies on the problem, or inconclusive results from prior research. Hence it provides
the rationale for the specific research statement, question or hypothesis

N/B: -LR can be organized in several ways: (a) historically, by dates of publication; (b) by
variables or treatments; (c) by research designs and methods; (d) by the most general literature
(least related) and ending with the closest related reference; or (e) by a combination of all these.

-LR should be cited and later referenced using various approved methods. This is because
most of the content is borrowed from previous work for other scholars/researchers.
 Revision Questions
1. Outline the four functions of literature review in research
2. With appropriate examples of how they can be used, explain any four types of research
that can be carried out in the area of Information technology
Topic: Data Collection
Introduction
In this tutorial we shall discuss techniques/methods of data collection. The research needs
determine the type data and the sources of data he needs for the study. Different types of data
and sources of these data is the focus of this tutorial.

Objectives
By the end of this topic you should be able to:

1. Explain the various techniques/methods of data collection

2. Differentiate between primary and second sources of data
3. Describe different types of data (quantitative, qualitative and mixed method
data)

Topic Notes
The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design
has been developed. When decided about the method of data collection, the research should keep
in mind about the types of data (quantitative, qualitative data, mixed methods data) and sources
of data (primary and secondary sources). The research has to decide on the sort of data he/she
will be using for the study and therefore has to select one or more methods/techniques of data
collection. Methods of collecting primary data differ from methods of collecting primary data.

Types of data

There are many ways to collect data to answer your evaluation questions. The data collection
technique you select may produce numerical information such as quantitative data, may be more
illustrative, such as qualitative data, or might include a combination of the two, such as mixed
methods data. Determining what type of data you will need to answer your evaluation questions
is an important step in figuring out the technique you will use. In the table below are some quick
facts and examples of different types of data you can collect.
Sources of data

When evaluating a program or conducting research, there are alternative ways to get the
information you need in addition to collecting the data yourself. Data that you retrieve first-hand
is known as primary data. Alternatively, data that is retrieved from pre-existing sources is
known as secondary data.

Primary data sources include information collected and processed directly by the researcher,
such as observations, surveys, interviews, and focus groups.

Collection of primary data

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research. We
also collect primary data when doing descriptive research types and when we perform surveys,
whether sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or through
personal interviews. This, in other words, means that there are several methods of collecting
primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive researches. Important ones are: (i)
observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through questionnaires (iv) through
schedules, and (v) other methods which include depth interviews, and (h) content analysis.

Secondary data sources include information that you retrieve through pre-existing sources such
as research articles, Internet or library searches. Pre-existing data may also include examining
existing records and data within the program such as publications and training materials,
financial records, student/client data, and performance reviews of staff, etc.

Collection of secondary data

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have
already been collected and analyzed by someone else. When the researcher utilizes secondary
data, then he has to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is
certainly not confronted with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of
original data. Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually
published data are available in: (a) various publications of the central, state are local
governments; (b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their
subsidiary organizations; (c) technical and trade journals; (d) books, magazines and newspapers;
(e) reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks,
stock exchanges, etc.; (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in
different fields; and (g) public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of
published information. The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries,
letters, unpublished biographies and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and
research workers, trade associations, labor bureaus and other public/ private individuals and
organizations.

Data Collection Techniques

Information you gather can come from a range of sources. Likewise, there are a variety of
techniques to use when gathering primary data. Listed below are some of the most common data
collection techniques.

 Interviews
 Questionnaires and Surveys
 Observations
 Focus Groups
 Ethnographies, Oral History, and Case Studies
 Documents and Records
 Revision Questions
1. According to Duncan (1984) there are four measurement levels in research. Explain these
measurement levels
2. Demonstrate why a researcher requires a clear understanding of both methodology and theory
while conducting scientific research enquires
3. Identify and exhaustively discuss three types of sampling techniques of any sound scientific
enquiry
Topic : Data Processing and Data Analysis
Introduction
After data collections, the data is subjected to processing and analysis. In this tutorial we are
going to discuss the various data processing operations, levels /types or elements of analysis
performed on data and the statistical tools used in research to analyses data

Objectives
Objectives by the end of this topic you should be able to:

 Describe the various data processing operations

 Explain the levels/types on analysis performed on data
 Explain the various statistical methods in research
Topic Notes
After data collection, the data has to be processed and analyzed in accordance with the research
purpose, objectives and plan laid out during the initial stages of the research process. This
ensures that we have the relevant data for comparison and analysis. Processing incorporates
editing, coding, classification and tabulation of collected data so that they fit for analysis.
Analysis of data involves the computation of various measures together with search for
relationships and patterns that exist among the data groups. Analysis involves subjecting the
data to statistical analysis to test hypotheses and thus indicate conclusions. Data analysis is
certain operations performed on the data with the purpose of summarizing the collected data and
organizing the data in a way that answers the research questions

Data processing operations

Here we brief discussing data processing operations. These activities include editing;

1. Editing

Editing of data is the process of examining the collected raw data to detect errors and omissions
and correcting these flaws when possible. Editing is scrutiny of data collected from interviews
and questions. It is doe to assure that the data are accurate, consistent with other facts gathered,
uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have been well arranged to facilitate coding and
tabulation. Editing begins in the field (central editing) and processes after data collection is
complete (central editing)
 2. Coding

Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to
the research problem under consideration. Coding is necessary for efficient analysis and through
it the several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes which contain the critical
information required for analysis. Coding decisions should usually be taken at the designing
stage of the questionnaire. This makes it possible to precode questionnaire choices and which in
turn is helpful for computer tabulation as one can straight forward key punch from the original
questionnaires. But in case of hand coding some standard method may be use. The other method
can be to transcribe the data from the questionnaire to a coding sheet. Transcribing texts in
qualitative studies into themes/categories/patterns is also considered coding.

3. Classification

In most cases, large studies result into humongous amount of raw data which must be reduced
into homogeneous groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This requires classification
of data. Classification is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of
common characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this
way the entire data get divided into a number of groups or classes. Classification done on the
data depends upon the nature of the phenomenon involved. Developing themes from large
classes of qualitative data is a good example of classification.

4. Tabulation

Tabulation is the process of arranging the data in some kind of concise and logical order. This is
necessary when massive data has been assembled. Thus, tabulation is the process of
summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of statistical
tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly arrangement of data in
columns and rows. Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices.
The choice depends on the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the
availability of tabulating machines or computers. Computers have taken over tabulation of large
data owning to the availability speed, and efficient of computers. Hand tabulation is usually
preferred in case of small inquiries where the number of questionnaires is small and they are of
relatively short length. Hand tabulation may be done using the direct tally, the list and tally or the
card sort and count methods. Tabulation may also be classified as simple and complex
tabulation. The former type of tabulation gives information about one or more groups of
independent questions, whereas the latter type of tabulation shows the division of data in two or
more categories and as such is designed to give information concerning one or more sets of inter-
related questions. Simple tabulation generally results in one-way tables which supply answers to
questions about one characteristic of data only. Complex tabulation usually results in two-way
tables (which give information about two inter-related characteristics of data), three-way tables
(giving information about three interrelated characteristics of data) or still higher order tables,
also known as manifold tables, which supply information about several interrelated
characteristics of data. Two-way tables, three-way tables or manifold tables are all examples of
what is sometimes described as cross tabulation.

Levels/Types of Analysis

Analysis is the process of computing certain indices or measures along with searching for
patterns of relationships that exist among groups of data. Analysis involves calculating the
values of unknown parameters of the population and testing of hypotheses for drawing
inferences/conclusions from survey or experimental data. Analysis may be categorized into
descriptive analysis (statistics) and inferential analysis. Inferential analysis is often known as
statistical analysis.

 Descriptive analysis

Descriptive analysis majorly analyses distribution of one variable. It provides description or

frequencies of characteristics such size, frequencies, percentages, preferences etc. Descriptive
analysis may be analysis in respect to one variable (unidimensional or univariate analysis) or in
respect to two variables (bivariate analysis) or in respect to more than two variables (multivariate
analysis).

In this analysis, we perform measures that show size/frequency and shape of a distribution along
with study of measuring relationships between two or more variables. We have correlational
analysis and causal analysis. Correlational analysis studies attempt to determine the amount of
correlation between two or more variables. Causal analysis on the other hand examines how one
or more variable affect changes in another variable. Casual analysis is considered more important
in experimental researches while in social and business researches the interest is more on
correlational analysis.

Computers have facilitated development of multivariate analysis. These are statistical methods
that analyses more than two variables on a sample of observations. Example of multivariate
analysis include multiple regression analysis, multiple discriminant analysis and multivariate
analysis of variance

 Inferential analysis

Inferential analysis is concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in
order to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or
conclusions. It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the
basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of drawing inferences and
conclusions) is performed.

Statistical Methods/Role of Statistics in Research

Statistical tools /statistics are used to analyses data and therefore make conclusions or infer
relationships from such data. Most researches yield massive data which must be reduced using
certain methods so it becomes manageable for further analysis. Statistical methods are mostly
used in qualitative studies. There are two major areas of statistics/statistical analysis; descriptive
statistics and inferential statistics

Descriptive statistics concern the development of certain indices from the raw data, whereas
inferential statistics concern with the process of generalization. Inferential statistics are also
known as sampling statistics and are mainly concerned with two major type of problems: (i) the
estimation of population parameters, and (ii) the testing of statistical hypotheses.

The important statistical measures that are used to summarize the survey/research data are:

(1) measures of central tendency or statistical averages; (2) measures of dispersion; (3)
measures of asymmetry (skewness); (4) measures of relationship; and (5) other measures.

Amongst the measures of central tendency, the three most important ones are the arithmetic
average or mean, median and mode. From among the measures of dispersion, variance, and
its square root—the standard deviation are the most often used measures. Other measures such
as mean deviation, range, etc. are also used. For comparison purpose, we use mostly the
coefficient of standard deviation or the coefficient of variation.

In respect of the measures of skewness and kurtosis, we mostly use the first measure of skewness
based on mean and mode or on mean and median. Other measures of skewness, based on
quartiles or on the methods of moments, are also used sometimes. Kurtosis is also used to
measure the peakedness of the curve of the frequency distribution.

Amongst the measures of relationship, Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is the

frequently used measure in case of statistics of variables, whereas Yule’s coefficient of
association is used in case of statistics of attributes. Multiple correlation coefficient, partial
correlation coefficient, regression analysis, etc., are other important measures often used by a
researcher.

Revision Questions
There has been an increase in software piracy in Kenya and this has had serious negative consequences on
the development of skills, innovation and business capital among upcoming software developers.
However despite increase in software piracy, little has been done to analyze the impact of this problem on
the software development among young software developers.

Required
i. From the above statement of the problem formulate an effective title
ii. What would be the objectives of your study
iii. Formulate research questions for the study
iv. Why is pilot study important?
v. Specify the appropriate design to be adopted by the research. Why?