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Assessment as Learning
Based on a solid theoretical basis of assessment-as-learning and updated empiri-

cal evidences, this timely book significantly expands the existing scope of assess-
ment-as-learning typically developed in Western contexts.
This edited volume updates theoretical and empirical advances in assess-
ment-as-learning in complex learning processes, brought together by an interna-
tional panel of authors. The contributors provide a wide range of practical ways
to harness the power of assessment-as-learning to make it work more effectively
not only in the classroom, but also across other achievement-related situations
(e.g., examinations, learning processes before and after classes).
Assessment as Learning provides a deep contemporary insight into the field
of formative assessment, and brings much-needed international perspectives to
complement the current Western-focused research. This is a valuable contribu-
tion to the discussion and provides useful insight for researchers in Education.
Zi Yan is an Associate Professor at the Department of Curriculum and Instruc-
tion, the Education University of Hong Kong. He is also the Co-Director of the
Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching (CELT) and Associate Director
of the Assessment Research Centre (ARC). His main publications and research
interests focus on two related areas, i.e., educational assessment in the school
and higher education contexts with an emphasis on student self-assessment, and
Rasch measurement, in particular, its application in educational and psychological
research. He is currently leading the Key Research Area on Assessment Research
to Improve Student-learning and Teaching (ARTIST) (https://www.eduhk.hk/
artist) at the Education University of Hong Kong.
Lan Yang is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Curriculum and Instruc-
tion, the Education University of Hong Kong. She obtained her PhD from the
University of Hong Kong in 2012 on examining the effects of performance feed-
back and a combination of performance and attributional feedback on enhanc-
ing Chinese students’ academic self-concept and academic achievement. She was
the recipient of the Global SELF Research Network Highly Commended PhD
Award (2013) based on her PhD research. Her research focuses on harnessing
the power of formative assessment from the perspective of psychology including
a range of influential psychological constructs (e.g., self-concept, achievement
emotions, learning engagement etc.). Recently, the Psychology and Assessment
SIG led by Dr. Yang has been established under the KRA (https://www.eduhk.
hk/artist), the Education University of Hong Kong.
Asia-Europe Education Dialogue
URL: https://www.routledge.com/Asia-Europe-Education-Dialogue/book-
series/AEED
Series Editor: Kerry J. Kennedy
This Routledge book series provides a forum for dialogue on key educational
issues and challenges faced by Asian and European societies. Its distinctiveness
is its broad focus on Education in Asia and Europe. In essence, it will address
major issues in education reform, student learning, leadership, curriculum,
higher education, multicultural education, and other major educational issues
affecting Asia and Europe.
Published books:
Theorizing Teaching and Learning in Asia and Europe

A Conversation between Chinese Curriculum and European Didactics
Edited by John Chi-Kin Lee and Kerry J Kennedy
Young People and Active Citizenship in Post-Soviet Times

A Challenge for Citizenship Education
Edited by Beata Krzywosz-Rynkiewicz, Anna M. Zalewska
and Kerry J. Kennedy
Schools and Informal Learning in a Knowledge-Based World

Edited by Javier Calvo de Mora and Kerry J Kennedy
Multiculturalism in Turbulent Times

Edited by Christine Halse and Kerry J. Kennedy
Maximising Opportunities for Student Learning and Achievement
Edited by Zi Yan and Lan Yang
Quality in Teacher Education and Professional Development

Chinese and German Perspectives
Edited by John-Chi Kin Lee and Timo Ehmke
Maximising Opportunities for Student
Learning and Achievement
Edited by Zi Yan and Lan Yang

First edition published 2022
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2022 selection and editorial matter, Zi Yan and Lan Yang;
individual chapters, the contributors
The right of Zi Yan and Lan Yang to be identified as the authors of
the editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters,
has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
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or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Yan, Zi, 1979- editor. | Yang, Lan, editor.
Title: Assessment as learning: maximising opportunities for student
learning and achievement / edited by Zi Yan and Lan Yang.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2022. |
Series: Asia-Europe education dialogue | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021007950 (print) | LCCN 2021007951
(ebook) | ISBN 9780367509972 (hardback) | ISBN
9780367509989 (paperback) | ISBN 9781003052081 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Educational tests and measurements. | Learning. |
Education, Higher–Aims and objectives.
Classification: LCC LB3051 .A6667 2022 (print) | LCC LB3051
(ebook) | DDC 371.26–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021007950
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021007951
ISBN: 978-0-367-50997-2 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-50998-9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-05208-1 (ebk)
Typeset in ITC Galliard

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
Contents
List of Figures viii

List ofx
Tables
Acknowledgementsxi
List of Contributorsxii
Series Editor’s Notexviii
1 Assessment-as-learning in the global assessment reforms1

ZI YAN AND LAN YANG
PART I
Revisiting assessment-as-learning from new perspectives 9
2 Conceptualising assessment-as-learning11
ZI YAN AND DAVID BOUD
3 Assessment-as-learning for the development of students’

evaluative judgement25
DAVID BOUD
4 Assessments cause and contribute to learning: If only

we let them38
GAVIN T. L. BROWN
5 The role of feedback orientation in converting external

feedback to learning opportunities for implementing
assessment-as-learning in the context of feedback53
LAN YANG
vi Contents
PART II
Meeting the challenge of implementation 77
6 Interplay between students’ perceived utility,

accountability, self-efficacy, and social awareness when
engaged with peer feedback: A qualitative interpretation79
MIN YANG, LAN YANG, AND BAORU SONG
7 Designing nested tasks to facilitate students’

meta-cognitive development: Assessment-as-learning
practice from two award-winning university teachers98
JING WANG AND YUETING XU
8 Dancing with chains: How does assessment-as-learning

fit in China?112
HONGLING LAO AND ZI YAN
9 Fostering students’ evaluative judgement through

assessment-as-learning in tertiary English
language classroom127
YANGYU XIAO AND JIAHE GU
10 The conceptualisation of student self-assessment literacy:

A case study of Chinese undergraduates143
WUYUAN GUO, YICHAO HUANG, AND ZI YAN
11 Assessment-as-learning through the lens of self-regulated

learning: The role of normative competence158
SER HONG TAN, GREGORY ARIEF D. LIEM, AND JOYCE S. PANG
12 Involved and autonomy-supportive teachers make

reflective students: Linking need-supportive teacher
practices to student self-assessment practices173
NORMAN B. MENDOZA AND ZI YAN
13 Changing external feedback to learning opportunities:

A study on Filipino university students’ feedback
orientation190
CHERRY E. FRONDOZO AND LAN YANG
Contents vii
14 Harnessing the learning potential of feedback:
Dedicated improvement and reflection time (DIRT)
in classroom practice206
NAOMI E. WINSTONE AND NEIL T. WINSTONE
15 Synchronous self-assessment: Assessment from the

other side of the mirror217
ANA REMESAL
16 Supporting quality of learning by letting students

give their own grades: An innovative self-assessment
model in university mathematics232
JOKKE HÄSÄ, JOHANNA RÄMÖ, AND JUUSO HENRIK NIEMINEN
17 Supporting students to use assessment-as-learning244

BEVERLEY BOOTH, MARY F. HILL, AND HELEN DIXON
18 The reciprocal nature of assessment-as-learning

and feedback literacy: Case studies from higher
education in Australia257
JOANNA TAI, CHRISTINE CONTESSOTTO, JANINE MCBURNIE,
KELLI NICOLA-RICHMOND, AND PETRA BROWN
Index 270
Figures
1.1 Annual occurrences of assessment-as-learning on Google scholar

(1970–2020)3
2.1 The relationship between learning and assessment in assessment
of/for/as learning15
5.1 The conceptual framework of external feedback, FO and learning
opportunities that constitute AaL in the context of feedback 55
5.2 PRISMA flow of the selection process 57
5.3 The review results mapped onto the conceptual
feedback model shown in Figure 5.1 64
5.4 Links between external feedback, FBUT, and learning
opportunities65
5.5 Links between external feedback, FBSE, and learning
opportunities65
5.6 Links between external feedback, FBSO, and learning
opportunities65
5.7 Links between external feedback, FBAT, and learning
opportunities66
6.1 Interrelationships of the dimensions of peer feedback orientation
and influencing factors of the dimensions in this study94
7.1 Nancy’s summary of the major assignment design104
11.1 Moderating effects of competitive learning preference in the
relationship between other-approach goals and help-seeking
intentions165
11.2 Moderating effects of competitive learning preference in the
relationship between other-avoidance goals and help-seeking
intentions166
13.1 Hypothesised relationship between feedback utility (FBUT),
feedback self-efficacy (FBSE) and feedback social awareness
(FBSO) to feedback accountability (FBAT) (Model 1)194
13.2 Mediation model, with feedback utility (FBUT) and feedback
social awareness (FBSO) as parallel mediators to the association
between feedback self-efficacy (FBSE) and feedback accountability
(FBAT) (Model 2)195
Figures ix
13.3 SEM for model 1: control and value model with feedback self-
efficacy (FBSE), feedback social awareness (FBSO) and feedback
utility (FBUT) linked to feedback accountability (FBAT)
The figure shows the standardised parameter estimates
and standard errors in parentheses198
13.4 SEM for Model 2: mediation model on feedback self-efficacy
(FBSE) linked to feedback accountability (FBAT) through
feedback utility (FBUT) and feedback social awareness (FBSO).
The figure shows the standardized parameter estimates
and standard errors in parentheses199
14.1 Percentage of students agreeing with statements about the
impact of using feedback213
15.1 Approaches to assessment research219
15.2 Participation structure of the exam situation221
15.3 Assessment programs for the participants, location of the
exam under study (dotted line)223
15.4 Emotional activation categories: exemplary excerpts226
15.5 Evaluative activation categories: exemplary excerpts227
16.1 Diagram describing how the software is used to assist student
self-assessment237
18.1 Feedback literacy frameworks in higher education259
Tables
3.1 Components of evaluative judgement developed through

assessment-as-learning29
4.1 University student SCoA factor mean scores by jurisdiction 44
5.1 Demographic information of selected articles in this review 59
5.2 Overall results of FO dimensions as converters to change external
feedback to learning opportunities 60
6.1 Participants of focus groups 83
7.1 Summary of two case teachers’ course information 101
7.2 The emergence of students’ McK in vivo (Megan’s case) 102
7.3 Overview of two case teachers’ assessment designs 103
7.4 The number of signals of students’ MCK related to nested
task design in Nancy’s case 106
7.5 The number of signals of students’ MCK related to nested
task design in Megan’s case 107
8.1 Background information of participants 118
11.1 Correlations between variables 163
11.2 Hierarchical multiple regression analyses results 164
12.1 Bivariate correlations between the variables 179
12.2 Teaching practices and demographic covariate standardised
predictors of self-assessment scores 180
13.1 Means, standard deviations, and the latent variable correlations
of the study variables 196
13.2 Summary of model fit indices 198
14.1 Activities used to enable response to feedback, aligned with
dimensions of the SAGE taxonomy (Winstone et al., 2017) 209
14.2 Perceived benefits to the use of DIRT 210
14.3 Feedback orientation scale 212
15.1 Frequency of categories related to emotional activation 225
15.2 Frequency of categories related to evaluative activation 226
15.3 Students’ weighed grading choice 227
16.1 Part of the learning objectives matrix of the course 235
17.1 Assessment capability framework based upon Sadler’s (1989)
conditions247
18.1 Overview of assessment activities designed to develop students’
feedback literacy 261
Acknowledgements
We would like to express our deep gratitude to Professor Kerry Kennedy, the
series editor, for his warm encouragement and endless support. Special thanks
are due to Professor David Boud who has given thoughtful and constructive
feedback to the original idea underlying the book. We would like to thank all
the scholars who contributed their chapters to this book. It has been a pleas-
ure to work with these committed scholars. We also gratefully acknowledge the
Routledge team, particularly Katie Peace, for their professional work through-
out all aspects of the publication process. Our sincere appreciation is extended
to the team of the Key Research Area “Assessment Research to Improve
Student-Learning and Teaching”, funded by the Department of Curriculum
and Instruction at The Education University of Hong Kong, for the support
throughout the book project.
Our preparation of this book is partially supported by two General Research
Fund (GRF) projects (Project codes: 18607118; 18610920) awarded by the
Research Grants Council, Hong Kong SAR.
Contributors
Beverley Booth is the Principal at Devonport Primary School in Auckland, New

Zealand. Her interest in assessment for learning has spanned a lengthy career
in primary education in both England and New Zealand. Her educational
doctorate thesis at The University of Auckland, investigated how teachers
use assessment for learning practices to engender assessment as learning for
student self-regulation.
David Boud is Alfred Deakin Professor and Foundation Director of the Cen-
tre for Research in Assessment and Digital Learning at Deakin University,
Melbourne. He is also Emeritus Professor at the University of Technology
Sydney and Professor in the Work and Learning Research Centre at Middle-
sex University, London. He has published extensively on teaching, learning,
and assessment in higher and professional education. His current work focuses
on the areas of assessment-for-learning in higher education, academic forma-
tion and workplace learning. He has been a pioneer in developing learning-
centred approaches to assessment across the disciplines, particularly in build-
ing assessment skills for long-term learning, developing evaluative judgement
and designing new approaches to feedback.
Gavin T. L. Brown is currently the Associate Dean, Postgraduate Research
and Director of the Quantitative Data Analysis and Research Unit in the
Faculty of Education & Social Work at The University of Auckland. He is
also an Honorary Professor in the Department of Curriculum & Instruction
at The Education University of Hong Kong and an Affiliated Professor in the
Department of Applied Educational Sciences at Umea University, Sweden.
As an applied psychometrician, his research focuses on the psychology of
assessment among teachers and students in cross-cultural and cross-level con-
texts. He is a named co-investigator for grants funded by EARLI, Academy
of Finland, Spanish Ministry of Science, the Hong Kong General Research
Fund, the Swedish Research Council, and the New Zealand Health Research
Council.
Petra Brown is a lecturer at Deakin University in the School of Humanities
and Social Sciences, and Director of Level 1 Studies for the Faculty of Arts
Contributors xiii
& Education. She has extensive expertise in teaching commencing students
as they transition into higher education. Her pedagogical approaches are
informed by Universal Design for Learning and Transitions Pedagogy. Petra
used an outcomes-based teaching and learning approach, where curriculum
design and teaching methods make explicit the skills that students will learn.
She views education as a transformative process and experience that develops
the individual learner’s unique capacity to critically engage with and act in
the world.
Christine Contessotto is the Associate Dean, Teaching and Learning in the
Faculty of Business and Law and a Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Accounting at Deakin University. She is particularly interested in authentic
learning activities (such as business simulations, case studies, the use of pro-
fessional software as teaching tools and interview techniques) to assist stu-
dents to develop graduate learning outcomes and enhance their employability
skills. She researches in the educational field and also in auditing.
Helen Dixon is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social
Work at The University of Auckland, New Zealand. Her research interests are
in the areas of assessment for learning, self-regulation, self-efficacy, and teach-
ers’ beliefs. Feedback and self- and peer assessment are of particular interest
to her. How assessment for learning may play out in practice both within
the compulsory schooling sector and within higher education are questions
of interest. In 2008, she won the New Zealand Association for Research in
Education (NZARE) Sutton-Smith award, awarded annually to an NZARE
member for an excellent doctoral thesis.
Cherry E. Frondozo is a PhD student at the Department of Curriculum and
Instruction and a member of the Assessment Research Center at the Educa-
tion University of Hong Kong. Prior to this, she worked on research projects
in the fields of psychology, cognitive science, and education fields within the
Philippines, Italy, and Hong Kong.
Jiahe Gu is an undergraduate student majoring in translation in The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen. Her expertise and interest lie in mutual
translation between Chinese and English, and Teaching English as a second/
foreign language.
Wuyuan Guo is a PhD candidate at The Education University of Hong Kong.
Her research focus is a combination of educational assessment and educa-
tional psychology. She is also interested in Rasch analysis and structural equa-
tion modelling.
Jokke Häsä works as a Senior Lecturer in University Pedagogy in the Centre
for University Teaching and Learning at the University of Helsinki. Before
specialising in university pedagogy, he studied mathematics at the Univer-
sity of Helsinki, obtained his PhD in mathematics from Imperial College
London, and taught mathematics at the University of Helsinki and in Durham
xiv Contributors
University, UK. His research focuses on assessment methods and mathemat-
ics education, in particular in higher education. He is a member of Teachers’
Academy, a network of distinguished teachers at the University of Helsinki.
In addition to conducting research, he collaborates actively in all matters of
teaching and learning in the university.
Mary F. Hill is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social

Work at The University of Auckland, New Zealand. She is a fully registered
teacher with extensive teaching experience in primary and tertiary settings.
Her major professional and research interests revolve around issues of educa-
tional assessment, professional learning, teacher education and practitioner
research. Before working as an academic she was deputy principal of a large
primary school. She has extensive experience in leading and mentoring prac-
titioner research projects. She is the General Editor of the academic journal
Assessment Matters.
Yichao Huang is a Lecturer from the Department of Humanities and Foreign

Languages at China Jiliang University. Her major research interests focus on
Anglo-American literature and world literature.
Hongling Lao is a Post-doctoral Fellow in the Department of Curriculum and

Instruction at The Education University of Hong Kong. She majored in edu-
cational measurement at graduate school, specialised in diagnostic classifica-
tion models. Her current research interest is the integration of educational
measurement and assessment to enhance learning and teaching in K-12 con-
text, with a focus on teacher and student assessment literacy.
Gregory Arief D. Liem is an Associate Professor in the Psychology and Child and
Human Development (PCHD) Academic Group at the National Institute of
Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. He currently serves
as an Associate Editor of Educational Psychology: An International Journal
of Experimental Educational Psychology and School Psychology International.
He is also a member of the Editorial Boards of Measurement and Evalua-
tion in Counselling and Development, Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors
in Schools, The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, and The Educational and
Developmental Psychologist. He is the Editor of the Book Series “Research on
Sociocultural Influences on Learning and Motivation” (Information Age Pub-
lishing, Charlotte, North Carolina). His recent book published by Routledge
(Taylor & Francis) is Asian Education Miracles: In Search of Sociocultural and
Psychological Explanations. E-mail: gregory.liem@nie.edu.sg
Janine McBurnie is a Senior Lecturer at Deakin University, Associate Head of

School (Student Learning) School of Life and Environmental Science, and
Director of First Year Studies for the Faculty of Science, Engineering and
the Built Environment. Her research and teaching focuses on how to com-
municate complicated environmental issues to students, as well as providing
students with opportunities to practice interdisciplinary learning skills they
Contributors xv
can use and practise in their professional lives. A focus on interdisciplinary
learning and collaboration has underpinned her teaching practice throughout
her career. Her main aim is to help students to become independent learners,
who will contribute to solving complex environmental issues, both now and
in the future.
Norman B. Mendoza is a doctoral student at The Education University of

Hong Kong, under the Department of Curriculum and Instruction. His
research interests are in assessment, motivation, and psychology in the school
and educational contexts.
Juuso Henrik Nieminen is a Project Researcher at the University of Eastern

Finland. His multi-disciplinary research concerns the socio-cultural aspects
of assessment in the contexts of higher education and mathematics education.
Also, Nieminen has studied inclusive and accessible assessment practices. His
PhD thesis, conducted at the University of Helsinki, concerns student self-
assessment from the viewpoints of agency and power.
Kelli Nicola-Richmond is a Senior Lecturer at Deakin University, Deputy Chair

of Academic Progress for the School of Health and Social Development, and
Coordinator of Practice Education for the Bachelor of Occupational Therapy.
She is also a Director on the Board of Great Ocean Road Health Services. Her
research interests focus on quality teaching and learning, and include work
in the fields of threshold concepts, evaluative judgement, simulated learning,
student failure of clinical placement and evidence-based practice. In 2018,
Kelli received an Australian Award for University Teaching (AAUT) Citation
for Innovation, leadership or scholarship that has influenced and enhanced
learning and teaching and/or the student experience.
Joyce S. Pang is a personality and social psychologist and currently an Associate

Professor and the head of the psychology program at the School of Social
Sciences of Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. Her publications
broadly cover the intersection of persons with society and touch on diverse
topics such as gender differences in motivation, the contribution of age and
gender in the distribution of proactive and reactive aggression in children,
the role of cultural stereotypes in shaping anti-immigrant prejudice, and the
contribution of personality to the study and detection of online radicalism.
She is also an associate editor for the Gender, Sex, and Sexuality section of
Frontiers Journal and on the editorial board of the Journal of Pacific Rim
Psychology.
Johanna Rämö is a University Lecturer in mathematics in Tampere University,

Finland. She received a Master’s degree in mathematics from the Univer-
sity of Helsinki and a PhD in mathematics from Queen Mary, University of
London, United Kingdom. She now focuses on university mathematics edu-
cation development and research, especially by creating and studying new
learning environments and assessment methods.
xvi Contributors
Ana Remesal is an Educational Psychologist and Teacher Educator, currently
working as a Junior Lecturer, teaching and researching at the Universidad de
Barcelona (Spain). She presented her PhD back in 2006 in the field of teach-
ers’ and pupils’ conceptions of assessment. Since then, she has been deepening
her work in this field, presenting a qualitative model of teachers’ conceptions
of assessment. Also, her research activity proceeds in other fields, searching
balance with other projects in the area of e-learning and CSCL, mostly from
a qualitative perspective or a mixed-method approach. The results presented
in her chapter correspond to a research project funded by the Institute of
Education at the University of Barcelona (REDICE-1822/ICEUB).
Baoru Song is currently a student of the Doctor of Education programme at

the Department of Curriculum and Instruction in The Education University
of Hong Kong. Her research examines the academic and social dimensions of
university students’ peer feedback process.
Joanna Tai is a Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for Research in Assess-
ment and Digital Learning, Deakin University. Her research interests include
student perspectives on learning and assessment, inclusive assessment, peer-
assisted learning, feedback and assessment literacy, developing capacity for
evaluative judgement, and research synthesis. Joanna is a Senior Fellow of
the Higher Education Academy, co-convenor of the Australian Association
for Research in Education (AARE) Assessment and Measurement SIG, and
sits on the Committee of Management for the Australian and New Zealand
Association for Health Professions Education. Her doctoral work won the
Association for Medical Education Europe (AMEE) inaugural PhD prize in
2016. She has a background in medicine and health professions education.
Ser hong Tan is a Research Fellow at Office of Education Research in National

Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore. Her
research seeks to understand individual differences and sociocultural perspec-
tives of achievement motivation. Specifically, she studies motives and achieve-
ment goals in relation to motivational and educational outcomes. She is also
interested in the study of how the broader social and cultural factors influence
the development of one’s motives and one’s achievement motivation. She is
a co-editor of the book titled Asian Education Miracles: In Search of Socio-
cultural and Psychological Explanations published by Routledge, Taylor &
Francis.
Jing Wang is a Lecture at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China.

She obtained her PhD in English Language Education from The University
of Hong Kong and her MA degree from University of Warwick. Her current
research interests and publications are in the fields of English language assess-
ment, language teacher education, and metacognition.
Naomi Winstone is a Reader in Higher Education and Director of the Sur-
rey Institute of Education at the University of Surrey. Naomi is a cognitive
psychologist specialising in the processing and impact of feedback information
Contributors xvii
in compulsory and higher education, and leads the Surrey Assessment and
Learning Lab at the University of Surrey. Naomi is a Senior Fellow of the
Higher Education Academy and a UK National Teaching Fellow. She is also
an Honorary Associate Professor in the Centre for Research into Assessment
and Digital Learning (CR ADLE) at Deakin University, Australia.
Neil Winstone is a Senior Tutor at Godalming College. He has worked in the
Sixth Form sector for 14 years, and has taught A Level, Applied A Level,
and BTEC Level 2 and 3 courses in PE, Sport, Hospitality, Leisure, Travel
and Tourism. Neil is a PGCE Mentor and contributes to the training of new
teachers in the S7 Consortium of Sixth Form Colleges. He supports Colleges
across the South of England to develop their practice through his role as an
External Quality Reviewer. Neil is also a qualified football and cricket coach.
Yangyu Xiao is a Lecturer in English for Academic Purposes in The Chinese
University of Hong Kong, Shenzhen. She obtained her PhD in from The
University of Hong Kong and her MA degree from University of Warwick
(with distinction). Her research interests and publications are in the fields of
English language assessment and testing, English language curriculum, lan-
guage teacher education, and discipline-specific language learning.
Yueting Xu is Professor at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies. Her
research interests include teacher assessment literacy, teacher professional
identity, and teacher emotion. Her recent publications have appeared in
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, Teaching in Higher Educa-
tion, and Teaching and Teacher Education.
Zi Yan is an Associate Professor in the Department of Curriculum and Instruc-
tion at The Education University of Hong Kong. He is also the Co-Director
of the Centre for Excellence in Learning and Teaching, and Associate Direc-
tor of the Assessment Research Centre of the same university. His main pub-
lications and research interests focus on two related areas, i.e., educational
assessment in the school and higher education contexts with an emphasis on
student self-assessment; and Rasch measurement, in particular its application
in educational and psychological research.
Lan Yang is Assistant Professor of the Department of Curriculum and Instruc-
tion in The Education University of Hong Kong. Her research interests
include the power of feedback, self-concept, achievement emotions, stu-
dent motivation, and positive youth development. She is leading Psychology
and Assessment SIG under the Key Research Area on Assessment Research
to Improve Student-learning and Teaching in The Education University of
Hong Kong. For details, please see https://www.eduhk.hk/ci/en/research.
php?s=key_research_projects.
Min Yang is an Assistant Professor of Department of Curriculum and Instruc-
tion in The Education University of Hong Kong. Her current research
explores the processes of learning and assessment in technology supported
blended or online learning environments.
Series Editor’s Note
Asia and Europe together represent the largest landmass, the largest popula-
tion, and the largest concentration of economic resources along with a diversity
of cultural traditions. The 21st Century is characterized as “the Asian century”
and therefore its interactions with Europe are fundamental. In this new century,
the Asia-Europe connection is of utmost importance. This is indicated by the
existence of the Asia-Europe Foundation (supported by the EU and housed in
Singapore), the Asia Europe Meeting (ASEM), that is the regular platform for
dialgoue between EU member states and the Association for South East Asian
Nations (ASEAN) plus other Asian societies, by the flow of students from Asia
to Europe and vice versa, and by the growing academic literature that highlights
the benefits of two way cross cultural communication. Education is a fundamental
policy tool in both regions as each seeks to move to take advantage of the knowl-
edge economy. The European Union (EU) has recognized this with its policies in
support of Asia-Europe mobility programmes and different countries in Asia con-
stantly look to Europe not so much for support, as in the past, but as a source of
investment. The success of Asian students in international large scale assessments is
a constant reminder to European countries that there is much to learn from Asia.
This Series provides a forum for dialogue on key educational issues and chal-
lenges faced by Asian and European societies. Its distinctiveness is its broad
focus on Education in Asia and Europe. In essence, addresses major issues in
education reform, student learning, leadership, curriculum, higher education,
multicultural education, and other major educational issues affecting Asia and
Europe. Most often a comparative perspective is provided but there are also
opportunities for focusing on distinctive issues in one or other regions.
Against this background the current volume, dealing with the way learning
opportunities can be provided for students as part of assessment processes, makes
a welcome addition to the Asia Europe Education Dialogue Series. It explores in
a broad range of cultural and social contexts a role for assessment as a learning
process. The purpose is both to engage students and contribute to improved
learning outcomes. This is a welcome addition to the international literature.
Kerry J Kennedy
Series Editor
Asia Europe Education Dialogue Series
1 Assessment-as-learning in the
global assessment reforms
Zi Yan and Lan Yang
Why focus on assessment-as-learning?

Assessment can contribute to learning, or it can hinder it depending on how the
assessment is designed and implemented in a particular learning environment.
Important decisions have to be made about what it should do and how it should
do it. Making assessment act as leverage to facilitate student learning is not only
a desirable practice in classrooms but also an important goal of global assessment
reforms. This book argues that assessment-as-learning is a purpose that can be
considered for all assessment designs because inspiring and promoting students’
learning through the assessment activity should always be an important aspect
of assessment design.
Assessment-as-learning is not a new concept. However, there is a lack of clear
theorisation of it. The term “assessment-as-learning” has started to gain pub-
lic awareness since the 1970s, largely due to Alverno College’s (1994) work in
the context of higher education where it was defined as “a process, integral to
learning, that involve observation and judgment of each student’s performance
on the basis of explicit criteria, with resulting feedback to the student” (p. 3).
Their framework emphasised using assessment feedback to support learning
and acknowledges self-assessment as a crucial student experience for learning.
Later, research on assessment-as-learning started to flourish in K-12 settings and
obtained more attention in pedagogical applications. It has been regarded as a
regulatory process in metacognition, and the student is expected to act as the
critical connector between assessment and learning (Dann, 2002; Earl, 2006).
However, the available attempts to conceptualise assessment-as-learning mainly
focus on students’ active role in the assessment process but do not speak to what
happens to assessment per se (see Chapter 2 for a more detailed account). There
is no clear description in terms of what the unique features of assessment-as-
learning activities are, and how to design meaningful assessment-as-learning
tasks.
In this book, we advance assessment-as-learning as a learning strategy,
rather than an assessment method, that requires students to learn from engage-
ment with the assessment task itself as well as activities associated with it. An
assessment-as-learning task has to generate learning opportunities for students
2 Assessment as learning
beyond recalling and using their prior knowledge and foster the development
of metacognition and self-regulation for students to monitor their performance
and cater for their ongoing learning needs.
Due to its promise in developing longer-term learning capacities, assess-
ment-as-learning has become a rising trend in educational reforms around the
world. Despite the heterogeneity in the status and process of education reforms
in different countries, self-regulated learning and life-long learning have become
the common goals of educational systems in the European Union (Cankaya,
Kutlu, & Cebeci, 2015; Delors et al., 1996) as well as educational systems in
Asia, such as Mainland China (China Ministry of Education, 1998), Hong Kong
(Hong Kong Education Commission, 2000), and Singapore (Shanmugaratnam,
2014). Embracing these educational goals requires assessment inter alia to be
designed and used in a formative way to inform future learning and teaching
(Black & Wiliam, 1998). In this sense, assessment-as-learning is situated well
in the worldwide education reforms because, on the one hand, it reshapes the
role of teachers and students in the assessment process to focus on new learning
through deliberate assessment design and, on the other hand, it is compati-
ble with developing learners’ self-regulatory abilities to facilitate their life-long
learning (Lee, Mak, & Yuan, 2019).
Since assessment-as-learning emphasises students’ active role in the assess-
ment process, the teacher becomes no longer the sole source of feedback and
every individual student becomes a learning resource for themselves, and for one
another. Thus, assessment-as-learning has the potential to overcome, at least
relieve, the practical constraints encountered in the implementation of assess-
ment reforms, such as big class size and heavy teaching workload (Yan & Brown,
2021). If assessment-for-learning is a big step in terms of conceptualising assess-
ment as an integral part of learning, rather than just a summary of learning, then
assessment-as-learning takes a further step in advocating the role of the assess-
ment activity in maximising learning opportunities and student responsibility in
the assessment process.
Fortunately, the assessment shift from teacher-directed to student-initiated
is taking place in many education systems. For example, in a review of edu-
cation reforms in eight systems in the Asia-Pacific region, Mok et al. (2003)
found that the purpose of assessment is being changed from summative eval-
uation as the sole purpose to serving multiple purposes, including supporting
learning; and student involvement in the assessment process is consistently high-
lighted. Accordingly, research and practice relevant to assessment-as-learning
have developed substantially. A simple search on Google scholar with “assess-
ment-as-learning” as the key term demonstrated that the increase of the research
interest on assessment-as-learning has significantly increased in the middle
1990s and boomed since the start of the 21st century (see Figure 1.1).
However, the increasing trend demonstrated in Figure 1.1 represents only the
more frequent use of the term, but it does not necessarily imply an enhanced level
of understanding of assessment-as-learning. Although assessment-as-learning
practices (e.g., self- or peer-assessment that provide students with opportunities
to reflect on their learning strengths and weaknesses) have gained increasing
Assessment-as-learning in the global assessment reforms 3
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Figure 1.1 Annual occurrences of assessment-as-learning on Google scholar (1970–2020).
recognition and been widely seen in classrooms, a clear theorisation is still

missing. The lack of consensus on the understanding of assessment-as-learning
presents a challenge for its effective implementation as well as enacting its ped-
agogical merits in real classrooms. Furthermore, a number of issues related to
assessment-as-learning remain unresolved or understudied. For instance, how to
ensure that the educational values of both assessment-for-learning and assess-
ment-as-learning can be maximised? What role can emerging digital technologies
play in facilitating innovative assessment-as-learning activities? As assessment is
a culture- and context-dependent event, what kinds of cultural, psychological,
and contextual factors need to be considered when designing meaningful assess-
ment-as-learning activities or programmes?
What approach does the book take?

This book offers new insight into assessment-as-learning in terms of conceptu-
alisation and practice. Too much prior research on assessment-as-learning has
taken its meaning for granted and failed to elaborate on what it is and how it is
done. Without clarity about assessment design and implementation, it is hard to
evaluate the quality and validity of the assessment.
In this book, we present current theoretical perspectives that conceptualise
assessment-as-learning as a learning strategy and elaborate its role in the teach-
ing, learning, and assessment nexus. Different from an exclusively psychometric
viewpoint focusing on assessment reliability or accuracy, the perspective taken
in this book focuses more on the role of assessment-as-learning in maximising
opportunities for student learning and achievement and developing students’
longer-term learning capacities.
As assessment is a complex process that is susceptible to the cultural context
in which it is implemented, this book brings together a collection of innova-
tive designs and implementations of assessment-as-learning across different
education sectors. These examples showcase how assessment-as-learning can be
integrated into various assessment designs for different levels of students under
diversified cultural and pedagogical contexts. We aim to bring more attention
to the challenges of transferring assessment-as-learning ideas into practice and
contribute to the pursuit of potential solutions.
Structure of this book

This book draws on research in both higher education and school education from
nine countries/regions across the Asia-Pacific region and Europe. It provides
a wide coverage of diversified perspectives and practices regarding assess-
ment-as-learning. The work included in this book has involved 32 contributors,
including leading international researchers as well as newly emerging scholars.
Following this chapter, there are two sections. The first is a theoretical sec-
tion that revisits the concept of assessment-as-learning from different theoretical
perspectives. Yan and Boud (Chapter 2) propose a new view of assessment-as-
learning which draws from both traditions in higher education and school edu-
cation. Their definition highlights the necessity of assessment tasks themselves
providing learning opportunities for students as well as promoting students’
active role in activities associated with them. Based on this defining feature,
assessment-as-learning is contrasted with and distinguished from other assess-
ment concepts, such as assessment-for-learning, self and peer assessment,
sustainable assessment, and self-regulated learning. Boud (Chapter 3) explores
how assessment-as-learning can be deployed to foster students’ evaluative
judgements. He compares features of assessment-as-learning with those of
developing evaluative judgement and sets out criteria for examining how assess-
ment-as-learning can have a longer-term benefit for students. Brown (Chapter 4)
focuses on a fundamental question: Does assessment trigger self-regulatory
responses? Based on research with Asian students who are learning in high-stakes
examination contexts, he suggests that “compliance-driven” assessment-as-learn-
ing already takes place because of the meaning attached to assessments. Yang
(Chapter 5) investigates the key role feedback orientation plays in assess-
ment-as-learning to maximise students’ learning opportunities. She proposes a
theoretical framework of feedback orientation to illustrate detailed relationships
between the self-processing strategies to covert external feedback to internal
learning opportunities.
The second section presents innovative designs and implementations of assess-
ment-as-learning and its impact on student development in different pedagogical
contexts. This section embraces a wide variety of assessment-as-learning activities
given that it can be integrated into various assessment designs as a fundamental
purpose. The order of the chapters is based on the geographic regions where the
empirical evidence comes from: Chapters 6 and 7 are from Hong Kong, Chapters 8
to 10 are from Mainland China, Chapter 11 is from Singapore, Chapters 12 and 13
are from the Philippines, and Chapters 14 to 18 are from the UK, Spain, Finland,
New Zealand, and Australia respectively. All the empirical chapters are consistent
in terms of emphasising the role of assessment-as-learning in providing learning
opportunities and promoting students’ active role in the assessment process.
Some chapters focus on the role of feedback in assessment-as-learning.
Treating peer feedback as an assessment-as-learning activity, Yang, Yang, and
Song (Chapter 6) employ a multi-dimensional concept of feedback orientation to
examine how peer feedback gives Hong Kong undergraduates opportunities to
develop self-evaluation and self-reflection skills. Frondozo and Yang (Chapter 13)
investigate how university students’ perceptions of feedback utility, feedback
self-efficacy, and social awareness affect their responsibility for responding
and using teacher feedback to promote learning. Assessment-as-learning is
demonstrated when students actively engage with feedback. Tai, Contessotto,
McBurnie, Nicola-Richmond, and Brown (Chapter 18) focus on the recip-
rocal nature of assessment-as-learning and feedback literacy observed in case
studies from an Australian higher education context. They argue that while
assessment-as-learning provides opportunities in developing students’ feedback
literacy skills, students’ feedback literacy is a positive contributor to implement-
ing assessment-as-learning.
Self-assessment is regarded as a typical assessment-as-learning activity. Guo,
Huang, and Yan (Chapter 10) advance the concept of student self-assessment lit-
eracy and explore the self-assessment literacy of Chinese undergraduates through
a case study. Using data from the Philippines, Mendoza and Yan (Chapter 12)
examine the link between three types of teaching practices (i.e., involved, struc-
tured, and autonomy-supportive) and student’s four self-assessment actions (i.e.,
seeking external feedback by monitoring, seeking external feedback by inquiry,
seeking internal feedback, and self-reflection) in a secondary school. Remesal
(Chapter 15) introduces the synchronous self-assessment, as a particular form
or praxis of assessment-as-learning, designed for a teacher education programme
in Spain. It takes place in parallel with the teacher-led classroom assessment and
demonstrates pedagogical potentials. As a meaningful alternative to the tradi-
tional end exam in university mathematics courses, Häsä, Rämö, and Nieminen
(Chapter 16) propose a digital self-assessment model that serves both formative
and summative purposes in the Finnish higher education context.
Some chapters investigate assessment-as-learning from the perspective of
metacognition or self-regulation. Wang and Xu (Chapter 7) depict the interac-
tions between assessment-as-learning task design and metacognition. Drawing on
data from multiple sources, they explore how two award-winning tertiary tutors
designed nested tasks to stimulate students’ metacognitive knowledge. Tan,
Liem, and Pang (Chapter 11) examine assessment-as-learning through the lens
of a self-regulated learning process. Specifically, the moderating role of competi-
tive learning preference was studied in the relationships between other-approach
or other-avoidance goals and Singaporean undergraduates’ intentions to seek
help for their academic problems. Viewing assessment-as-learning as a uni-
tary process that builds student assessment capability, which in turns enables
students to become self-regulated learners. Booth, Hill, and Dixon (Chapter
17) report an empirical study discovering how six primary school teachers in
New Zealand created the conditions necessary for their students to become
assessment-capable learners.
Taking a sociocultural viewpoint, Lao and Yan (Chapter 8) examine how
assessment-as-learning fit in China’s examination-oriented culture. Based on a
case study conducted in a primary school, they identify the existing conflicts
and offer suggestions for future development of assessment-as-learning in order
to better fit itself in examination-oriented contexts. Xiao and Gu (Chapter 9)
share their experiences in using assessment-as-learning activities (e.g., analysing
exemplars, peer assessment, and self-reflection) to help Chinese undergraduates
develop their capacity of making evaluative judgements in classrooms. Winstone
and Winstone (Chapter 14) describe the use of “Dedicated Improvement and
Reflection Time”, or “DIRT”, as a strategy for assessment-as-learning based
on data from a survey of teachers and a small-scale implementation of DIRT in
seven different subjects in a sixth form college in the UK.
In summary, this book highlights the pivotal role of assessment-as-learn-
ing in maximising students’ learning opportunities and achievement. It
incorporates new theoretical perspectives regarding the educational values of
assessment-as-learning and re-positions it in relation to the current trend of
education reform. Taking cultural and contextual factors into account, it also
provides a collection of empirical studies that gives a comparable perspective
on the uptake of assessment-as-learning in Asia-Pacific and European countries
and regions. By revisiting the assessment-as-learning concept and emphasising
its key features, we seek to bring more attention to assessment-as-learning in
terms of its nature, design, merits, as well as challenges in order to inspire more
research work on exploring how to maximise opportunities for student learning
and achievement.
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Assessment as Learning

Based on a solid theoretical basis of assessment-as-learning and updated empiri-

Theorizing Teaching and Learning in Asia and Europe

Young People and Active Citizenship in Post-Soviet Times

Schools and Informal Learning in a Knowledge-Based World

Multiculturalism in Turbulent Times

Quality in Teacher Education and Professional Development

Edited by Zi Yan and Lan Yang

ISBN: 978-0-367-50997-2 (hbk)

Typeset in ITC Galliard

List of Figures viii

1 Assessment-as-learning in the global assessment reforms1

3 Assessment-as-learning for the development of students’

4 Assessments cause and contribute to learning: If only

5 The role of feedback orientation in converting external

6 Interplay between students’ perceived utility,

7 Designing nested tasks to facilitate students’

8 Dancing with chains: How does assessment-as-learning

9 Fostering students’ evaluative judgement through

10 The conceptualisation of student self-assessment literacy:

11 Assessment-as-learning through the lens of self-regulated

12 Involved and autonomy-supportive teachers make

13 Changing external feedback to learning opportunities:

15 Synchronous self-assessment: Assessment from the

16 Supporting quality of learning by letting students

17 Supporting students to use assessment-as-learning244

18 The reciprocal nature of assessment-as-learning

1.1 Annual occurrences of assessment-as-learning on Google scholar

3.1 Components of evaluative judgement developed through

Beverley Booth is the Principal at Devonport Primary School in Auckland, New

Mary F. Hill is an Associate Professor in the Faculty of Education and Social

Yichao Huang is a Lecturer from the Department of Humanities and Foreign

Hongling Lao is a Post-doctoral Fellow in the Department of Curriculum and

Janine McBurnie is a Senior Lecturer at Deakin University, Associate Head of

Norman B. Mendoza is a doctoral student at The Education University of

Juuso Henrik Nieminen is a Project Researcher at the University of Eastern

Kelli Nicola-Richmond is a Senior Lecturer at Deakin University, Deputy Chair

Joyce S. Pang is a personality and social psychologist and currently an Associate

Johanna Rämö is a University Lecturer in mathematics in Tampere University,

Baoru Song is currently a student of the Doctor of Education programme at

Ser hong Tan is a Research Fellow at Office of Education Research in National

Jing Wang is a Lecture at Guangdong University of Foreign Studies, China.

Why focus on assessment-as-learning?

Figure 1.1 Annual occurrences of assessment-as-learning on Google scholar (1970–2020).

recognition and been widely seen in classrooms, a clear theorisation is still

What approach does the book take?

Structure of this book

Assessment-as-learning for the development of students' evaluative

Assessments cause and contribute to learningIf only we let them

The role of feedback orientation in converting external feedback to

Interplay between students' perceived utility, accountability, self-

Designing nested tasks to facilitate students' meta-cognitive

Dancing with chains: How does assessment-as-learning fit in China?

Fostering students' evaluative judgement through assessment-as-

The conceptualisation of student self-assessment literacy

Assessment-as-learning through the lens of self-regulated learning: The

Involved and autonomy-supportive teachers make reflective students:

Changing external feedback to learning opportunities

Harnessing the learning potential of feedback: Dedicated improvement

Supporting students to use assessment-as-learning

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1 Assessment-as-learning in the global assessment reforms1

17 Supporting students to use assessment-as-learning244