Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition

CURRICULUM
DEVELOPMENT
IN LANGUAGE
TEACHING
SECOND EDITION
Jack C. Richards
University Printing House, Cambridge CB2 8BS, United Kingdom
One Liberty Plaza, 20th Floor, New York, NY 10006, USA
477 Williamstown Road, Port Melbourne, VIC 3207, Australia
314-321, 3rd Floor, Plot 3, Splendor Forum, Jasola District Centre, New Delhi - 110025, India
79 Anson Road, #06-04/06, Singapore 079906
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781316625545
© Cambridge University Press 2017
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2001
Second edition 2017
20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-316-62554-5 Paperback
ISBN 978-1-316-62556-9 Apple ibook
ISBN 978-1-316-62555-2 Google ebook
ISBN 978-1-316-62557-6 Kindle ebook
ISBN 978-1-316-62558-3 ebooks.com ebook
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is,
or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
CONTENTS
Thanks and acknowledgments v
Introduction 1
1 The nature of curriculum 3

3
3
6
11
13
18
19
Extract from a state curriculum (Hong Kong Government 2004, 4–6) 20
The Austrian education system 21
Extract from an institutional curriculum (Lone Star College System 2013–2014, 6–7) 23
Extract from a general curriculum (Council of Europe 2001) 25
Extract from a teacher’s curriculum 25
Dino Mahoney 27
An institutional curriculum for a pre-service English teacher-education program
Christian Rudianto 29
2 Syllabus design: a brief history 35

35
35
37
37
40
44
45
iii
The most frequent content words in the British National Corpus
(from Kennedy 1998) 46
Headwords of the Academic Word List (Coxhead 2011) 47
Part of an early English grammatical syllabus (from Hornby 1959) 52
A course in English for baristas Kyle Smith 53
3 New directions in syllabus and curriculum design 56

56
57
57
59
59
61
63
65
68
69
Threshold level syllabus (from Van Ek and Trim 1998) 70
An ESP course for international students Sasha Wajnryb 74
Language learning and technology Christoph A. Hafner 76
4 Needs analysis 79
79
80
81
82
83
85
85
86
90
91
92
92
iv
Questionnaire to determine learners’ subjective needs 93
Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English-background students
(from Gravatt, Richards, and Lewis 1997) 94
Needs assessment questionnaire for use in designing a course for adults
at beginner level (from TAS 2011, Appendix K, pp. 81–82) 100
Planning a course in technical communication Lindsay Miller 104
Developing a foundation course for college students Rob Haines 107
5 Context and the curriculum 110

110
111
114
117
119
122
124
126
127
127
Matrix for identifying factors in curriculum renewal process (from Rodgers 1984) 129
Husai Ching 131
A blended undergraduate course in Ecuador José Lema 135
6 Curriculum aims and outcomes 140

140
141
141
149
152
155
155
Developing a course on discussion skills 156
v
7 Course planning (1) 160
160
161
164
165
169
173
176
179
180
Description of performance levels; writing (adapted by Paltridge from the

IELTS test [Paltridge 1992]) 186
Some common text types 188
Designing a course from texts (from Burns and Joyce 1997) 189
Developing a content-based course Lindsay Miller 191
A CLIL course: The Thinking Lab Science Rosa Bergadà 195
A pre-university course for international students in Australia Phil Chappell 198
8 Course planning (2) 201

201
201
203
206
208
210
212
213
213
215
Skills syllabus for listening and speaking From Malaysian Secondary
School Syllabus form IV (1989) 216
Curriculum for a listening class - Curriculum design: Low-Intermediate
Adult ESL Listening Class by Rebecca Nicholson 218
vi
and Bohlke 2012) 219
Phil Wade 221
A general English course for international students Frank S. Rogers 224
9 Curriculum as process 227

227
227
229
230
232
238
239
Example of exploratory practice (EP) (Edwards 2005) 239
Thinking through English Alan S. Mackenzie 241
10 Textbooks, technology, and the curriculum 244

244
245
246
248
249
251
251
252
254
258
261
262
263
ESL reading textbook evaluation checklist (from Miekley 2005) 264
Evaluating technology 266
Using textbooks in a large-scale language program Eric Anthony Tejeda Evans 267
Using the resources of technology in a college English program Hiroyuki Obari 270
vii
11 Approaches to evaluation 277
277
278
279
281
282
283
286
286
287
291
294
297
297
Best practice in English language teaching 298
Evaluating an in-service program for English language teachers
301
Evaluating the content of an EAP program 303
Evaluating an English course for tertiary-level learners David Crabbe 305
References 308
Index 321
viii
INTRODUCTION
Curriculum in language teaching refers to the design and implementation of language courses as well
as to the nature of the teaching and learning that occurs as curricula are implemented. All language
teachers are involved in curriculum, although the nature of their engagement depends on their
teaching context. Sometimes teachers teach to a prescribed curriculum framework established by
their ministry of education or school, and they may have little leeway in terms of how they interpret
and apply the curriculum. In other contexts, teachers may be more actively involved in curriculum
development for their own classes and institutions. In both situations, however, teachers are generally
required to make decisions about their learners’ needs and how best to organize and teach a course
in order to achieve successful learning outcomes. They have to make decisions about methods of
teaching and assessment as well as prepare and select learning resources, including both textbooks
and digital resources. Language teaching thus encompasses a great deal more than simply teaching
SHUN\HNL (U \UKLYZ[HUKPUN VM [OL WYPUJPWSLZ WYHJ[PJLZ HUK WYVJLK\YLZ PU]VS]LK PU [OL KPќLYLU[
stages of curriculum development and implementation is therefore an important aspect of the
knowledge base of language teachers. Curriculum development is an essentially practical activity,
since it seeks to improve the quality of language teaching through the use of procedures that can be
used in the planning, design, development, and implementation of curriculum innovations. Curriculum
is also concerned with the processes that occur when teachers and learners engage with learning in
the classroom. This book provides examples of how some of these issues have been addressed by
WYHJ[P[PVULYZPUKPќLYLU[WHY[ZVM[OL^VYSK
When we review the history of language teaching, one is struck by the fact that the nature of
language teaching has often been viewed from a very narrow perspective. This is evident from the
fascination with teaching methods that has characterized development in language teaching over
the last 100 years. Methods have often been regarded as the most important factor in determining
the success of a language program, and advances in language teaching have sometimes been seen
as being dependent on the adoption of the latest method or approach, whether this be text-based
teaching, task-based teaching, or CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning). A perspective
often missing from the method-based view of teaching is that of how methods interact with other
factors in the teaching-learning process. What is the context for the introduction of new methods or
HUL^J\YYPJ\S\T&3HUN\HNL[LHJOPUNVJJ\YZPU]LY`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMZP[\H[PVUZHUK[OLZLPTWHJ[
SHUN\HNLWYVNYHTZPUKPќLYLU[^H`Z>OVHYL[OLSLHYULYZHUK[OL[LHJOLYZ&@V\UNSLHYULYZOH]L
]LY`KPќLYLU[ULLKZMYVTHK\S[ZHUK[LHJOLYZ[VVKPќLYNYLH[S`PU[LYTZVMRUV^SLKNLZRPSSZHUK
beliefs. What expectations do they have for the program? What learning and teaching styles do they
IYPUN[V[OLWYVNYHT&(UKSLHYULYZZ[\K`ZLJVUKSHUN\HNLZMVYKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMW\YWVZLZ!MVYZVTL
it may be a luxury, while for others it may be a necessity. What goals does the program have, and
how are these goals expressed? In what settings will teaching take place? Out-of-class learning may
be more important for some learners than classroom-based learning. The organizational structure in
place to support and maintain good teaching varies considerably from one school to another as do
the resources that are available to support teaching and learning. What is the role of textbooks and
other resources such as technology? And what measures will be used to determine the success of
the program?
1
Choice of teaching approach or method cannot therefore be made unless a great deal is known about
[OLJVU[L_[MVY[OLSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTHUK[OLPU[LYHJ[PVUZIL[^LLU[OLKPќLYLU[LSLTLU[ZPU]VS]LK0[
is this perspective that characterizes a curriculum-based approach to language teaching.
This book seeks to describe and examine the processes of curriculum development and
implementation in language teaching in order to acquaint language teachers and teachers-in-training
with the fundamental issues and practices involved in language curriculum. It provides examples
VM [OLZL PZZ\LZ HUK WYVJLK\YLZ HUK OPNOSPNO[Z [OVZL [OH[ JHU OH]L H ZPNUPÄJHU[ PTWHJ[ VU [OL
LќLJ[P]LULZZ VM HU PUUV]H[PVU PU J\YYPJ\S\T ;OL IVVR VќLYZ [^V WLYZWLJ[P]LZ VU J\YYPJ\S\T ;OL
ÄYZ[YLÅLJ[Z[OL[YHKP[PVUHSHWWYVHJO[OH[JVUZPKLYZHULќLJ[P]LJ\YYPJ\S\THZVULYLZ\S[PUNMYVT[OL
systematic procedures of needs analysis, planning goals and outcomes, syllabus design, course
planning, selection of teaching methods and materials, and evaluation. This is referred to as a
product-focused curriculum perspective. The second perspective presented in this book considers
curriculum from the standpoint of classroom processes. While this is a less prominent approach
to understanding the nature of curriculum, it complements the product-focused perspective by
describing how curriculum arises from the processes of teaching and learning that teachers create
in the classroom.
Changes in the second edition

A number of changes have been made in preparing the second edition of the book. New chapters have
been written and new material included in a number of chapters to address the process perspective
YLMLYYLK[VHIV]L*OHW[LYZHUK HYLUL^[V[OPZLKP[PVU:VTLTH[LYPHSMYVT[OLÄYZ[LKP[PVU[OH[PZ
UV^SLZZYLSL]HU[OHZILLUYLTV]LK4VYLV]LYHSSJOHW[LYZOH]LILLUYL]PZLKHUK\WKH[LK[VYLÅLJ[
contemporary issues in curriculum development. An important addition to this edition is the inclusion
of case studies from practitioners at the end of each chapter. These enable readers to see how the
PZZ\LZKPZJ\ZZLK[OYV\NOV\[[OLIVVRHYLHKKYLZZLKI`WYHJ[P[PVULYZ9LÅLJ[P]LX\LZ[PVUZHYLHSZV
included within chapters to help clarify or exemplify topics that are discussed, and new discussion
questions have been added at the end of each chapter.
3PRL[OLÄYZ[LKP[PVUVMCurriculum Development in Language Teaching, this book examines key stages

and procedures in curriculum development, including needs analysis, syllabus design, planning goals
and outcomes, course planning, materials development, and evaluation. It also seeks to provide an
“insider” understanding of curriculum through exploring the processes teachers draw on in engaging
with the curriculum. The book is intended for use in in-service courses and workshops and as a
sourcebook for teachers, program administrators, and other language-teaching professionals. I hope
that this revised edition will continue to provide teachers and teachers-in-training with a useful guide
to the issues and practices involved in developing second language programs.
2
1 THE NATURE OF CURRICULUM
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the following aspects of approaches to curriculum:
• 0U[LYUHSHUKL_[LYUHSPUÅ\LUJLZ • Curriculum and the teacher

on curriculum – The teacher’s curriculum or
• The nature of curriculum course outline
– A national or state curriculum – The enacted curriculum
– An institutional curriculum – The emergent curriculum
– A general curriculum • Curriculum as product and process
Case study 1+L]LSVWPUNHJV\YZLPUJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVUDino Mahoney

Case study 2 An institutional curriculum for a pre-service English teacher-education program
Christian Rudianto
Introduction
The nature of the world and the role of English within it have changed substantially in recent years as a
consequence of globalization and the spread of English as an international language. Since the 1980s
and the advent of the World Wide Web, English has become not only the language of international
communication, commerce, trade, travel, media, and pop culture but also a medium of instruction for
some or all subjects in schools, colleges, and universities. The role of English as the world’s de facto
ZLJVUK SHUN\HNL TLHUZ [OH[ LќLJ[P]L WYVNYHTZ MVY [OL [LHJOPUN VM ,UNSPZO HYL PUJYLHZPUNS` ZLLU
HZLZZLU[PHS[VUH[PVUHSKL]LSVWTLU[PUTHU`JV\U[YPLZ4HZ[LY`VM,UNSPZOI`H[SLHZ[HZPNUPÄJHU[
segment of the population is also increasingly viewed as the key to progress in education, business,
industry, trade and commerce, and to membership of the international community. The growing
KLTHUKMVYWYVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZOPUKPќLYLU[ZWOLYLZVMSPMLOHZIYV\NO[^P[OP[[OLKLTHUKIÙH[PVUHS
educational authorities for new language-teaching policies, for the development of standards for
English teaching and teacher preparation, for new approaches to curriculum design, teaching, and
assessment, and for greater central control over teaching and teacher education. This book seeks to
examine the nature and role of the language curriculum as a response to these issues. It addresses
curriculum both as a framework developed to guide and monitor teaching and as it is created and
enacted by the teacher through the processes of teaching and learning within the classroom.
1.1 Internal and external influences on curriculum

If we consider the response of the language-teaching profession to the challenges faced by
J\YYPJ\S\TWSHUULYZ^LÄUK[^VZV\YJLZVMPUÅ\LUJLHUKKPYLJ[PVU;OLÄYZ[JVTLZMYVT^P[OPU[OL
language-teaching profession itself (or from “applied linguistics” as it is sometimes known), and the
other from the world beyond academia and applied linguistics. Let us consider these two parallel
ZV\YJLZVMPUÅ\LUJL¶PU[LYUHSHUKL_[LYUHS¶VUJ\YYPJ\S\THWWYVHJOLZHUKWYHJ[PJLZ
3
4 • Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
Internal influences on curriculum change

Many innovations in language teaching arise from within[OLÄLSKVMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN(Z^P[OHU`
ÄLSKVMLK\JH[PVUUL^[OLVYPLZLTLYNLMYVTYLZLHYJOHZPKLHZJOHUNLHIV\[[OLUH[\YLVMZLJVUK
SHUN\HNL SLHYUPUN VY HZ LHYSPLY \UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ HYL YL]PZLK VY TVKPÄLK ;OL OPZ[VY` VM SHUN\HNL
[LHJOPUN PU [OL SHZ[ `LHYZ OHZ ILLU JOHYHJ[LYPaLK I` Z[YVUNS` KPќLYPUN \UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ VM IV[O
the nature of language itself and how a second language is learned (Richards and Rodgers 2014).
Scholars, pedagogues, and applied linguists have generated a body of assumptions and principles
that serve as one source for reviewing approaches to language curriculum design and implementation.
;OLZL HZZ\TW[PVUZ HUK WYPUJPWSLZ HYL YLÅLJ[LK PU [OL KPќLYLU[ WYVWVZHSZ MVY H SHUN\HNL Z`SSHI\Z
that we discuss in Chapters 7 and 8. For example, Ellis (2011) proposed ten principles derived from
second language research as a basis for instructed language acquisition:
1. Instruction needs to ensure that learners develop both a rich repertoire of formulaic expressions
and a rule-based competence.
2. Instruction needs to ensure that learners focus predominantly on meaning.
3. Instruction needs to ensure that learners also focus on form.
4. Instruction needs to be predominantly directed at developing implicit knowledge of the second
language while not neglecting explicit knowledge.
5. Instruction needs to take into account the learner’s built-in syllabus.
6. Successful instructed language learning requires extensive second language input.
7. Successful instructed language learning also requires opportunities for output.
8. The opportunity to interact in the second language is central to developing second language
WYVÄJPLUJ`
9. 0UZ[Y\J[PVUULLKZ[V[HRLHJJV\U[VMPUKP]PK\HSKPќLYLUJLZPUSLHYULYZ
10. 0U HZZLZZPUN SLHYULYZ» ZLJVUK SHUN\HNL WYVÄJPLUJ` P[ PZ PTWVY[HU[ [V L_HTPUL MYLL HZ ^LSS HZ
controlled production.
-VY HU HS[LYUH[P]L I\[ KPќLYLU[ ZL[ VM ¸WZ`JOVSPUN\PZ[PJHSS` IHZLK¹ [LU WYPUJPWSLZ ZLL +V\NO[` HUK
Long 2003.)
Choose any two of the principles above. What are their implications for classroom language
teaching?
*\YYLU[ HWWYVHJOLZ [V TL[OVKVSVN` YLÅLJ[ THU` VM [OLZL WYPUJPWSLZ ;O\Z JSHZZYVVT HJ[P]P[PLZ
typically have some of the following characteristics:
• They seek to develop students’ communicative competence through linking grammatical
development to the ability to communicate. Hence, grammar is not taught in isolation but
VM[LUHYPZLZV\[VMHJVTT\UPJH[P]L[HZR[O\ZJYLH[PUNHULLKMVYZWLJPÄJP[LTZVMNYHTTHY
:[\KLU[ZTPNO[JHYY`V\[H[HZRHUK[OLUYLÅLJ[VUZVTLVM[OLSPUN\PZ[PJJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZVM[OLPY
performance.
• They create the need for communication, interaction, and negotiation of meaning through the
use of activities such as problem solving, information sharing, and role play as well as through
opportunities provided by technology and the Internet.
• They provide opportunities for both inductive and deductive learning of grammar.
1 The nature of curriculum • 5
• They make use of content that connects to students’ lives and interests.
• They allow students to personalize learning by applying what they have learned to their own lives.
• They make use of authentic texts from both print sources and the Internet to create interest and
to provide valid examples of language use.
To what extent do you make use of authentic texts as learning resources for your students?
External influences on curriculum change

;OLV[OLYZV\YJLVMPUÅ\LUJLVUJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUPZTVYLWYHNTH[PJHUKYLÅLJ[Z[OLKLTHUKMYVT
governments, educational authorities, employers, and learners for language-teaching programs that
KLSP]LY [OL WYHJ[PJHS V\[JVTLZ [OH[ Z[HRLOVSKLYZ HYL ZLLRPUN 7YVÄJPLUJ` PU ,UNSPZO PZ UV[ H S\_\Y`
but a necessity in many countries, and growing demand for competency in English puts pressure
VU[OVZLYLZWVUZPISLMVYKLZPNUPUNTVYLLќLJ[P]LSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNWYVNYHTZ.VVK^Ù9LPKHUK
Durrant 2014). In many countries English is viewed as being important to economic development.
*V\U[YPLZ ^P[O ML^ WYVÄJPLU[ ,UNSPZO SHUN\HNL ZWLHRLYZ HYL YLWVY[LK HSZV [V OH]L SV^LY SL]LSZ VM
[YHKL PUUV]H[PVU HUK PUJVTL ( YLWVY[ PU YHURLK JV\U[YPLZ ÔLYL ,UNSPZO PZ UV[ H ÄYZ[
SHUN\HNL HUK HYN\LK [OH[ ,UNSPZO PZ RL` [V PUUV]H[PVU HUK JVTWL[P[P]LULZZ ;OL Ä]L [VWYHURLK
countries were Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, and Norway, while the bottom-ranked
were Colombia, Panama, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and Libya. The report also suggested that Italy,
:WHPUHUK7VY[\NHS^LYLOLSKIHJRHZHYLZ\S[VMSV^SL]LSZVM,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`HTVUN
the workforce (New York Times, October 28, 2012).
Large business organizations are increasingly multinational in their operations, and English is
increasingly the most frequent language used for both written and spoken communication within such
organizations. Many of the world’s English-language learners require knowledge of English in order to
enter the workforce in their countries and to advance professionally. Moreover, in many parts of the
world where English has traditionally had the status of a school subject, it is now becoming a medium
of instruction, particularly at university level. The motivation for teaching subjects through English
is partly to improve the English language skills of graduates (as with universities in Turkey, where
THU`JV\YZLZHYL[H\NO[PU,UNSPZO/V^L]LY[OPZ[YLUKHSZVYLÅLJ[Z[OLNYV^PUNULLKMVY,\YVWLHU
\UP]LYZP[PLZ [V VќLY WYVNYHTZ PU ,UNSPZO [V H[[YHJ[ HU PU[LYUH[PVUHS IVK` VM Z[\KLU[Z HUK YHPZL [OLPY
PU[LYUH[PVUHSWYVÄSLZ¶HUHZWLJ[VM[OLPU[LYUH[PVUHSPaH[PVUVM,UNSPZO[OYV\NOOPNOLYLK\JH[PVU
Do universities in your country seek to attract international students? If so, where do many of
these students come from?
These pressures engender a number of demands that need to be addressed when designing
language curricula and courses (Education and Training Foundation 2015). Among the requirements
of curriculum development are the following:
• 6\[JVTLZ[OH[JHUILKLSP]LYLKLѝJPLU[S`HUKPU[OLTPUPT\THTV\U[VM[PTL
• Language that can be used to access content and information.
• Potential for delivery to large numbers of learners, both face-to-face and distant.
• Material that can be delivered in self-access mode.
• Opportunities for using technology and the Internet.
• 6WWVY[\UP[PLZMVYJVU[L_[HUKZP[\H[PVUZWLJPÄJSLHYUPUN
• Enabling learners to self-manage their own learning.
• -VJ\ZVUKVTHPUZWLJPÄJSHUN\HNL\ZL
• Promotion of skills needed to access authentic materials.
• Promotion of problem-solving and critical thinking skills.
• Outcomes that are performance based.
• Assessment linked to task performance.
The challenge for the language-teaching profession, therefore, is to develop language programs that
YLZWVUK[V[OLWYHJ[PJHSKLTHUKZMVYWYVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZOI\[HYLHSZVPUMVYTLKI`J\YYLU[YLZLHYJO
theory, and best practice. In comparing Ellis’s list with the one above, we could say that researchers
focus on means, while administrators and planners are more interested in ends or outcomes.
Teachers, of course, are interested in both means and ends.
“Researchers focus on means, while administrators and planners are more interested in ends
or outcomes.” Is this true in your experience?
In order to respond to the demand for programs that deliver practical outcomes and are both
evidence-based and research-based, educational planners in ministries of education, schools, tertiary
institutions, and vocational training institutions as well as providers in the private sector are regularly
engaged in reviewing their approaches to language teaching. This involves ongoing evaluation
of current language-teaching policies, curriculum guidelines and syllabuses, teaching methods,
textbooks, and tests. The nature and role of the curriculum is central to this process. In this chapter
^L ^PSS YL]PL^ [OL KPќLYLU[ ^H`Z PU ÔPJO J\YYPJ\S\T PZ \UKLYZ[VVK PU SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN HUK [OL
KPќLYLU[^H`ZPUÔPJOJ\YYPJ\SHHYLKL]LSVWLK
1.2 The nature of curriculum

CurriculumPZ\UKLYZ[VVKPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZHUK[HRLZTHU`KPќLYLU[MVYTZPUJS\KPUNHZ[OL[LHJOLY»Z
plans for his or her own course as well as a document developed within a ministry of education
to guide language teaching at a national level. The latter is perhaps the most familiar type of
J\YYPJ\S\T HUK [OLZL HYL KLZPNULK [V N\PKL TVUP[VY HUK L]HS\H[L [OL LќLJ[P]LULZZ VM [LHJOPUN
They have an important planning and managing function. Here we refer to a curriculum as a set
of statements, documents, and resources, typically developed by teams of experts in a ministry of
LK\JH[PVU\UP]LYZP[`W\ISPZOLY»ZVѝJLVYZJOVVS[OH[YLWYLZLU[HWSHUMVY[OLHJOPL]LTLU[VMZWLJPÄJ
educational goals, which may be at the national, regional, school, or institutional level. Curriculum in
this sense refers to a product, and the development of this type of curriculum can be described as
H¸[VWKVÛ¹L_WLY[KYP]LUWYVJLZZ;OLJ\YYPJ\S\TJHUILZLLU[VYLÅLJ[[OLILZ[PU[LYWYL[H[PVUVM
the current state of knowledge concerning what a second language is and how it can be taught, as
well as an understanding of how best to organize a language-teaching program. It may be regarded
HZH[LJOUPJHSVYZLTPZJPLU[PÄJMYHTL^VYRMVY[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN[OH[OHZILLU]HSPKH[LK[OYV\NO
current theory, research, and expert knowledge (see, e.g., Long 2015).
Curriculum and syllabus
The terms curriculum and syllabus HYL \ZLK KPќLYLU[S` PU KPќLYLU[ WHY[Z VM [OL ^VYSK 0U 5VY[O
America curriculum PZ ZVTL[PTLZ \ZLK [V YLMLY [V H [OL [V[HS WYVNYHT VM JV\YZLZ VќLYLK PU H
school and the knowledge and skills students are expected to acquire in a program of study,
HZ ^LSS HZ I [OL ZWLJPÄJ NVHSZ JVU[LU[ SLZZVUZ HUK TH[LYPHSZ \ZLK [V VYNHUPaL HUK [LHJO H
particular course. The latter is known as the teacher’s curriculum, although the term syllabus
is often used with this meaning in the UK, Australia, and some other countries to refer to a
description of the content of a course and the sequencing of content within it.
CurriculumHSZVYLMLYZ[V[OLÄLSKVMLK\JH[PVUHS[OLVY`YLZLHYJOHUKKL]LSVWTLU[[OH[MVJ\ZLZ
on the nature and development of curriculum.
Curriculum development includes the processes that are used to determine the needs of a group
of learners, to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those needs, to determine
an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching methods, and materials, and to carry out an
evaluation of the language program that results from these processes.
-VYV[OLY[LYTZYLSH[LK[VJ\YYPJ\S\TZLL[OL.SVZZHY`VM,K\JH[PVU9LMVYTO[[W!LKNSVZZHY`
VYNNSVZZHY`J
What kinds of curricula are you familiar with in your teaching context? How do you make use
of them?
;OPZL_WLY[KYP]LU]PL^VMJ\YYPJ\S\TOHZILLUKVTPUHU[PU[OLÄLSKVMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNMVYTHU`
years, and throughout this book we will examine how this has led to a focus on such things as
syllabus design, needs analysis, competencies, objectives, and standards as planning tools and
approaches that are seen as essential to good curriculum design. Examples of curricula of this kind
are detailed below.
A national or state curriculum

A national or state curriculum is typically formulated in a public document that describes the goals
of the educational system in a particular country or state, generally covering education from K
through 12 (kindergarten to year 12) but not including tertiary-level education. It normally includes the
following elements:
• An account of the underlying philosophy of the curriculum (e.g., the beliefs or principles on
which it is based).
• +L[HPSZVM[OLKPќLYLU[Z\IQLJ[Z[OH[^PSSIL[H\NO[Z\JOHZ,UNSPZOZJPLUJLHUKTH[OLTH[PJZ
• A syllabus for each subject.
• Details of what levels of attainment are expected for each subject.
• The teaching methods that are recommended in teaching the curriculum.
• Information on how learning will be assessed.
A national or state curriculum describes the goals of learning for all students and generally includes
both content to be taught and performance standards. For example, the National Curriculum in
England states the following aims:
The national curriculum provides pupils with an introduction to the essential knowledge
that they need to be educated citizens. It introduces pupils to the best that has
been thought and said; and helps engender an appreciation of human creativity and
achievement.
The national curriculum is just one element in the education of every child. There is time
and space in the school day and in each week, term and year to range beyond the national
curriculum specifications. The national curriculum provides an outline of core knowledge
around which teachers can develop exciting and stimulating lessons to promote the
development of pupils’ knowledge, understanding and skills as part of the wider school
curriculum.
(Department of Education 2013, 6)
National or state curricula such as these are often very comprehensive. See, for example, the
English Language Curriculum Guide (Primary 1-6) produced by the Curriculum Development
Institute of the Hong Kong Department of Education, which contains 359 pages of information
O[[W!IP[S`]4Q]5 ZLL (WWLUKP_ VY [OL Massachusetts Adult Basic Education Curriculum
Framework for English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) produced by the Massachusetts
+LWHY[TLU[ VM ,K\JH[PVU (K\S[ HUK *VTT\UP[` 3LHYUPUN :LY]PJLZ O[[W!IP[S`[*NSJ 4HU`
countries have a single curriculum that provides the basis for teaching across the whole nation
(e.g., Singapore, the United Kingdom). In some countries there is no national curriculum, and each
state develops its own (e.g., Australia, the United States). National and state curriculum documents
are usually developed by specialists in the curriculum department in a ministry of education or a
state planning agency. Such curricula typically undergo periodic revision and renewal based on
changes in goals, educational philosophies, educational trends and developments, as well as
VU [OLPY LќLJ[P]LULZZ PU IYPUNPUN HIV\[ KLZPYLK SLHYUPUN V\[JVTLZ :LL (WWLUKP_LZ HUK MVY
examples of a state curriculum.)
0Z [OLYL HU VѝJPHS J\YYPJ\S\T MVY [OL [LHJOPUN VM ,UNSPZO PU `V\Y JV\U[Y`& /V^ PZ P[ THKL
available to potential users?
Curriculum philosophies
3HUN\HNL J\YYPJ\S\T NLULYHSS` YLÅLJ[Z H WHY[PJ\SHY WOPSVZVWO` VY ZL[ VM ILSPLMZ JVUJLYUPUN [OL
UH[\YLHUK]HS\LVMSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNÔPJOZLY]LZHZQ\Z[PÄJH[PVUMVYHWHY[PJ\SHYHWWYVHJO[V
language teaching. Among those that have been used in the last 100 years are:
Academic rationalism: This stresses the intrinsic value of the subject matter and its role in
developing the learner’s intellect, humanistic values, and rationality. The content matter of
KPќLYLU[ Z\IQLJ[Z PZ ]PL^LK HZ [OL IHZPZ MVY H J\YYPJ\S\T HUK THZ[LY` VM JVU[LU[ PZ HU LUK PU
P[ZLSMYH[OLY[OHUHTLHUZ[VZVS]PUNZVJPHSWYVISLTZVYWYV]PKPUNLѝJPLU[TLHUZ[VHJOPL]L[OL
goals of policymakers. It has been used to justify the teaching of ancient languages such as Latin
VYJSHZZPJHS.YLLR
:VJPHS HUK LJVUVTPJ LѝJPLUJ`! This emphasizes the practical needs of learners and society
and the role of an educational program in producing learners who are economically productive.
:VJPHS LJVUVTPJ HUK V[OLY ULLKZ VM ZVJPL[` JHU IL PKLU[PÄLK HUK WSHUULK MVY I` YH[PVUHS
analysis and planning. Curriculum development is viewed as an applied science whose goal is
to prepare learners to be productive members of society. In language teaching, this philosophy
leads to an emphasis on practical and functional skills in a foreign or second language.
Constructivism: This emphasizes that learning involves active construction and testing of one’s
own representation of the world and accommodation of it to one’s personal conceptual framework.
All learning is seen to involve reorganization of one’s previous understanding and representation
of knowledge. The American educator John Dewey (1859–1952), one of the founders of this
philosophy, emphasized that all intellectual growth involves some reconstruction.
Progressivism: This views education as providing opportunities for growth and development
through experience and through the child’s natural psychological, physical, and social
development. It is a learner-centered approach that emphasizes learning through practical
HJ[P]P[PLZ[OYV\NOJYLH[P]LZLSML_WYLZZPVUHUKHMVJ\ZVUSLHYULYKPќLYLUJLZSLHYULYZ[YH[LNPLZ
and learner self-direction and autonomy. The Italian educator Maria Montessori (1870–1952) was
a prominent advocate of this approach.
Social reconstructionism: This perspective emphasizes the roles schools and learners can and
should play in addressing social injustices and inequality. Schools must engage teachers and
students in an examination of important social and personal problems and seek ways to address
them. Representatives of this viewpoint are associated with the movement known as critical
theory and critical pedagogy. The Brazilian educator Paolo Friere (1921–1997) was a prominent
advocate of this philosophy.
Cultural pluralism: This philosophy argues that schools should prepare students to participate in
ZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[J\S[\YLZHUKUV[TLYLS`[OLJ\S[\YLVM[OLKVTPUHU[ZVJPHSHUKLJVUVTPJNYV\W
;OL ]PL^WVPU[Z VM KPќLYLU[ J\S[\YHS NYV\WZ ZOV\SK IL KL]LSVWLK ^P[OPU [OL J\YYPJ\S\T *\S[\YHS
pluralism seeks to redress racism, to raise the self-esteem of minority groups, and to help
children appreciate the viewpoints of other cultures and religions.
See Clark (1987). See also White’s discussion of Clark’s account of curriculum philosophies in
The ELT Curriculum (1988).
An institutional curriculum
;OL YHUNL VM JV\YZLZ [OH[ \UP]LYZP[PLZ ZJOVVSZ JVSSLNLZ HUK V[OLY LK\JH[PVUHS PUZ[P[\[PVUZ VќLY PZ
HSZV YLMLYYLK [V HZ H J\YYPJ\S\T 0[ ^PSS YLÅLJ[ [OL ULLKZ VM Z[\KLU[Z PU [OL PUZ[P[\[PVU H[ HU` NP]LU
time, since students’ needs often change and changes in the curriculum may also be required to
YLÅLJ[ JOHUNLZ PU [OL Z[\KLU[ WVW\SH[PVU 0[ TH` WYV]PKL PUMVYTH[PVU [OH[ OLSWZ H[[YHJ[ Z[\KLU[Z [V
the institution and accountability to parents and other stakeholders with an interest in the institution’s
performance; it can also serve as a basis for the selection of textbooks and the development of
classroom materials, tests, and other forms of assessment. The curriculum may describe in detail
the language content and skills expected to be covered in each course. These may form the basis of
syllabuses for individual courses. An institutional curriculum is often developed by a team of teachers
^P[OYLSL]HU[L_WLYPLUJLHUKL_WLY[PZLHUK^PSSVM[LUILIHZLKVUHULLKZHUHS`ZPZVM[OLKPќLYLU[
students’ groups or clients that the institution serves. An example of an institutional curriculum is
given in Appendix 3, and an account of how an institutional curriculum was developed is given in
Case study 2.
Who produces the curriculum guidelines in your institution? How are they developed?
A general curriculum
Some curricula are developed by national or international educational bodies, by vocational or
technical training bodies, or by organizations such as the Council of Europe or the United Nations
O[[W!IP[S`WW[_OHUKHYLH]HPSHISL[VIL\ZLKI`HU`VULMVYÔVT[OL`HYLYLSL]HU[(UL_HTWSL
of a curriculum of this kind was the Council of Europe’s Threshold Level. It was one of a series of
communicative syllabuses for the teaching of general English at the elementary, intermediate, and
upper-intermediate levels that have been widely used as the basis for the development of courses
and textbooks. Another example is the commonly cited Common European Framework of Reference
(CEFR). While the latter is not a fully developed curriculum, it is often used worldwide as a reference
PUKL]LSVWPUNJV\YZLZMVYWHY[PJ\SHYNYV\WZVMSLHYULYZO[[W!IP[S`P5](0)0[JHUIL\UKLYZ[VVKHZ
a response to the external pressures for curriculum change noted above. (See Appendix 4 for part of
the rationale for the CEFR.) Its impact on language curriculum development in Europe is summarized
in a 2007 report:
In general, the CEFR seems to have a major impact on language education. It is used – often
as the exclusive neutral reference – in all educational sectors. Its value as a reference tool to
coordinate the objectives of education at all levels is widely appreciated ... In some countries
the CEFR has helped to develop both strategic language policy documents and practical teach-
ing materials. In others, it is becoming the most reliable reference for curriculum planning.
(Martyniuk and Noijons 2007, 7, cited in Byram and Parmenter 2012, 1)
.LULYHS J\YYPJ\SH VY J\YYPJ\SHY MYHTL^VYRZ VM [OPZ RPUK HYL VM[LU WYVTV[LK HZ L_HTWSLZ VM L_WLY[
derived curricula based on research and needs analysis (depending on the target learners) and
include social-survival or occupationally related curricula (e.g., for engineers, new arrivals, nurses,
factory workers, restaurant employees, telephone operators) as well as curricula for more general
purposes, as is the case with the CEFR.
A general competency-based curriculum for adult leaners
*(:(:B*VTWYLOLUZP]L(K\S[:[\KLU[(ZZLZZTLU[:`Z[LTZDPZH<:IHZLKUVUWYVÄ[VYNHUPaH[PVU
that focuses on assessment and curriculum development of basic skills for youth and adults.
CASAS is used by federal and state government agencies, business and industry, community
colleges, education and training providers, correctional facilities, and technical programs.
An important and essential component of the CASAS system is the Competency List. All
assessment is linked to these competencies. The list of more than 300 competencies for
adult and secondary level learners is validated annually by the CASAS National Consortium of
(NLUJPLZ HUK OHZ ILLU JVYYLSH[LK [V JVTWL[LUJPLZ PKLU[PÄLK I` [OL <: +LWHY[TLU[ VM 3HIVY
to help learners and instructors apply teaching and learning in a “real-world” context. CASAS
competencies in the domain of Basic Communication:
0.1 communicate in interpersonal interactions are:
• Identify or use appropriate non-verbal behavior in a variety of situations (e.g., handshaking)
• Understand or use appropriate language for informational purposes (e.g., to identify,
describe, ask for information, state needs, agree or disagree)
• <UKLYZ[HUKVY\ZLHWWYVWYPH[LSHUN\HNL[VPUÅ\LUJLVYWLYZ\HKLLN[VJH\[PVUHK]PZL
persuade, negotiate)
• Understand or use appropriate language in general social situations (e.g., to greet,
introduce, thank, apologize)
• 0U[LYHJ[LќLJ[P]LS`PU[OLJSHZZYVVT
• *SHYPM`VYYLX\LZ[JSHYPÄJH[PVU
• Understand, follow or give instructions, including commands and polite requests (e.g., Do
this; Will you do this?)
• Understand or use appropriate language to express emotions and states of being (e.g.,
happy, hungry, upset)
(CASAS 2016)
1.3 Curriculum and the teacher

Curriculum also refers to how teachers enact or implement their teaching plans. From this perspective,
curriculum refers to the teaching and learning that come about as a result of the teacher’s beliefs,
understanding, teaching philosophy, and experience and how these shape the choice of activities,
tasks, and strategies he or she makes use of in the process of turning course plans and syllabus
JVU[LU[PU[VSLHYUPUN;OPZ^H`VMKLZJYPIPUNJ\YYPJ\S\TYLÅLJ[ZH¸IV[[VT\W¹]PL^VM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T
ZPUJLP[YLMLYZ[VOV^[OL[LHJOLY¸JYLH[LZ¹[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TPUHZWLJPÄJ[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[[OYV\NOH
process of negotiation and interaction with learners as they engage in learning activities.
;LHJOLYZ»LUNHNLTLU[^P[OJ\YYPJ\S\T[HRLZKPќLYLU[MVYTZ([VULSL]LS[OL[LHJOLYTH`ZLLOPZ
or her task as one of “implementation,” that is, to match his or her teaching as closely as possible to
the stated goals and content of the institutional curriculum. Alternatively, the teacher may see his or
OLY[HZRHZVULVMHKHW[PUNVYTVKPM`PUN[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T[VIL[[LYYLÅLJ[OPZVYOLY[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[
Z[\KLU[Z» ULLKZ HUK [LHJOPUN Z[`SL )LSV^ 0 IYPLÅ` KPZJ\ZZ ZVTL VM [OL ^H`Z PU ÔPJO [LHJOLYZ
engage with curriculum.
The teacher’s curriculum or course outline

The teacher’s curriculum is often referred to as a course outline or syllabus and is intended to assist the
teacher in planning his or her lessons. It can be thought of as an action plan based on the information given
in the school curriculum for a particular course. It will typically describe the course goals, the objectives or
SLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZHUK[OLZJVWLHUKZLX\LUJLVMTH[LYPHSZ[VILJV]LYLK0[TH`HSZVSPZ[ZWLJPÄJP[LTZ
[VIL[H\NO[HUK[LZ[LKH[KPќLYLU[Z[HNLZVM[OLJV\YZL0[THÌLKL]LSVWLKI`HUPUKP]PK\HS[LHJOLYVY
group of teachers, or by others in the institution who have the responsibility for developing courses. The
level of detail included in the teacher’s curriculum will depend on how the teacher or the school intends it
to be used. Two teachers may develop a course that addresses the same aims and learning outcomes,
I\[LHJO[LHJOLYTH`[HRLH]LY`KPќLYLU[YV\[L[VHJOPL]LOPZVYOLYV\[JVTLZ0UZVTLZL[[PUNZP[TH`
be a requirement that teachers prepare a fully elaborated syllabus and associated scheme of work that
is available for review by others. In others much more leeway is given to teachers to develop a syllabus
[OH[YLÅLJ[Z[OLPYVÛWLYZVUHS^VYRPUNZ[`SL0[THÌLHT\JOTVYLWYV]PZPVUHSZL[VMN\PKLSPULZ[OH[
teachers use as a “springboard” rather than a lesson-by-lesson template that he or she will follow. This
can be described as the enacted curriculum. (See Appendix 5 for an example of a teacher’s curriculum.)
Do individual teachers develop their own curriculum for the courses they teach in your
institution?
The enacted curriculum

The enacted curriculum refers to how teachers individualize the curriculum and create their own as a
response to the unique features of each group of learners. Enactment suggests the process by which
teachers adapt their institutional or course curriculum to make it as relevant as possible to their learners or
to enable it to accommodate their own style of teaching. It includes the day-to-day practices the teacher
employs, the resources the teacher makes use of, such as realia, workbooks, worksheets, videos, and
mobile devices, the teaching arrangements he or she uses, such as whole-class teaching, group work,
and individual study, as well as activities taking place beyond the classroom, such as in a media lab.
;LHJOLYZ ^VYRPUN ^P[O HU PUZ[P[\[PVUHS J\YYPJ\S\T TH` OH]L [V THRL ZPNUPÄJHU[ PUKP]PK\HS KLJPZPVUZ
concerning how to achieve the intended learning outcomes. In doing so, they will make choices
concerning the kinds of materials, resources, and activities they will use, the sequencing of activities,
the methods of teaching they will make use of, and the ways in which they will assess their students’
learning. Teachers will make such decisions based on their students’ interests, preferred learning styles,
and preference for certain kinds of classroom activities. The kind of teaching the teacher engages in
^PSSHSZVYLÅLJ[OPZVYOLYWYLMLYYLK[LHJOPUNZ[`SLILSPLMZHUKWYPUJPWSLZ/LUJLHZUV[LKHIV]L[^V
[LHJOLYZPTWSLTLU[PUN[OLZHTLJ\YYPJ\S\THUKZ`SSHI\ZTH`JVUK\J[[OLPYJSHZZLZ]LY`KPќLYLU[S`
For example, a teacher may have been given a list of 2,000 of the core words that her learners are
expected to master during a period of instruction. However, the teacher approaches her task not by
systematically working her way through the word list but by exploring with her learners their out-of-class
experiences and using these as the basis for developing vocabulary knowledge. She invites her learners
to bring words to class that have powerful or vivid meanings for them, that relate to incidents and
experiences in their lives – both happy and sad – and then the teacher and learners use these words and
collaborate in crafting poems and stories (as Sylvia Ashton Warner described in her 1963 book Teacher).
Another example of a teacher turning a topic from the curriculum into a powerful opportunity for
learning and engagement is described by Stock (2014, 190), in which a teacher demonstrates how
reading, writing, discussion, and role-playing can be used to prepare students to read Silverstein’s
The Giving Tree ¶ H JSHZZPJ WPLJL VM JOPSKYLU»Z SP[LYH[\YL -PYZ[ [OL Z[\KLU[Z ^YP[L IYPLÅ` HIV\[ HU
incident where they were disappointed by a friendship, which they then share and discuss in groups.
Through discussion they explore the notion of strong friendships. After listening to the text of the story
and following on from the ideas they had developed about the nature of friendship, the students go
on to imagine roles they might play in a mock trial that charged the boy in the story with being or not
being a good friend. They read the text to identify sets of questions they might ask to prove that the
boy either had or had not been a good friend. Students then write their individual opinions on the boy
HUKÄUHSSÌLJVTLHQ\Y`HUK]V[LVUÔL[OLY[OLIV`PU[OLZ[VY`^HZHNVVKMYPLUK
*HU`V\Z\NNLZ[HUL_HTWSLVMH[LHJOPUNWYPUJPWSL[OH[^V\SKPUÅ\LUJL[OL^H`H[LHJOLY
conducts his or her teaching?
The emergent curriculum

*\YYPJ\S\TJHUHSZVIL\UKLYZ[VVK[VKLZJYPIL[OLHќVYKHUJLZVYVWWVY[\UP[PLZMVYSLHYUPUN[OH[LTLYNL
HZ [OL [LHJOLY HUK [OL SLHYULYZ LUNHNL PU JSHZZYVVT SLHYUPUN .PL]L HUK 4PSSLY >OLYLHZ [OL
enacted curriculum describes what teachers do when they seek to implement a curriculum, the emergent
curriculum refers to the processes – both planned and unplanned – that occur during teaching. Anderson
(2015, 231) refers to the “learning opportunities” that arise during teaching as core features of lessons
rather than planned learning outcomes. These learning opportunities are described as “potential acts
of explicit or implicit learning that may occur during or as a consequence of the lesson.” This involves
viewing the classroom as a site where teachers and learners participate in classroom tasks and activities,
adapt and extend teaching materials and resources based on moment-to-moment incidents that arise
during the teaching process, and where teachers and learners negotiate their identities through the
interactional processes involved (Richards 2006). The participants in the curriculum – teachers and
learners – “create” the curriculum through the processes of interaction they make use of to negotiate
and understand the content of their course and the materials and resources that they employ. Tudor
emphasized that to understand what takes place in classrooms they have to be considered in their own
light and in their own terms. They have to be understood in terms of the people, actions and events
that unfold within them and the meanings these have for the participants at the time, for students and
teachers, rather than looking at them in terms of external criteria and assumptions.
This understanding of curriculum is discussed further below as an example of a process or ecological
approach to curriculum.
1.4 Curriculum as product and process

Curriculum as product
The most familiar form of a curriculum for many teachers is the curriculum as product, that is,
the curriculum as a document that contains a framework for teaching, materials’ development,
and assessment and that serves to direct and manage the enterprise of language teaching. Two
approaches have emerged in developing a curriculum as product: we will refer to them as forward
design and backward design (Richards 2013).
Forward design
Forward design is based on the assumption that curriculum design constitutes a sequence of stages
[OH[ VJJ\Y PU H Ä_LK VYKLY ¶ HU HWWYVHJO [OH[ OHZ ILLU YLMLYYLK [V HZ H ¸^H[LYMHSS¹ TVKLS ;LZZTLY
and Wedman 1990) where the output from one stage serves as the input to the stage that follows. In
language curriculum design, this approach views language as a kind of generalized commodity that can
be broken down into its core components. These form the basis for a syllabus. Wiggins and McTighe
(2005, 15) give an illustration of this process with an example of a typical forward-design lesson plan:
• The teacher chooses a topic for a lesson (e.g., racial prejudice).
• The teacher selects a resource (e.g., To Kill a Mockingbird).
• The teacher chooses instructional methods based on the resource and the topic (e.g., a seminar to
KPZJ\ZZ[OLIVVRHUKJVVWLYH[P]LNYV\WZ[VHUHSàLZ[LYLV[`WPJHSPTHNLZPUÄSTZHUKVU[LSL]PZPVU
• The teacher chooses essay questions to assess student understanding of the book.
A similar example would be a teacher planning a topic-based lesson in a writing class. The starting
point might be for students to brainstorm and choose a suitable topic for a composition. Once a topic
has been agreed on, students work in groups and map out the kind of composition they will write.
Later, after completing their compositions, they review each other’s work in terms of style, interest
level, and choice of language.
In language teaching, forward planning may be an option when the aims of learning are not clearly
KLÄULK ;OL` TH` IL \UKLYZ[VVK PU ]LY` NLULYHS [LYTZ Z\JO HZ ^P[O JV\YZLZ PU NLULYHS ,UNSPZO VY
with introductory courses at primary or secondary level where goals may be described in such terms
HZ¸WYVÄJPLUJ`PUSHUN\HNL\ZLHJYVZZH^PKLYHUNLVMKHPS`ZP[\H[PVUZ¹VY¸JVTT\UPJH[P]LHIPSP[`PU[OL
four language skills.” Curriculum planning in these cases involves operationalizing the notions of “general
English,” or “intermediate-level English,” or “writing skills” in terms of units that can be used as the basis
for planning, teaching, and assessment. This is the approach that was adopted by the Council of Europe
in the 1970s. John Trim was a key member of the group of experts commissioned by the Council of
Europe to develop a new approach to language teaching, and he described what they wanted to achieve:
We set out to identify a number of coherent but restricted goals relevant to the communicative
needs of the learner. We then attempt to work out in detail the knowledge and skills which
will equip the learner to use the language for the communicative purposes defined. In the light
of his characteristics and resources, we then have to establish a formal language programme
leading to the mastery of this body of knowledge and skills, and a means of testing and evalu-
ation to provide feedback to all parties concerned as to the success of the programme.
(Trim 1978, 9)
A new approach to syllabus design was central to this enterprise.

With a forward-design approach, decisions about teaching processes or methodology follow from syllabus
ZWLJPÄJH[PVU0KLHSS`[OLWSHUULYZ[HY[Z^P[OH[OLVY`VMSHUN\HNLHUKHZ`SSHI\ZKLYP]LKMYVTP[HUK[OLU
looks for a learning theory that could be used as the basis for an appropriate pedagogy. In some cases
there has been a natural link between input and process, between content and method, such as the natural
link between structural linguistics and behaviorist learning theory that led to the Audiolingual Method.
What are some typical teaching procedures that are based on the principles of the Audiolingual
Method?
However, in theory a syllabus does not necessarily imply a particular methodology. A structural
syllabus can be embodied in an audiolingual as well as a task-based course, and there are many
KPќLYLU[^H`ZPUÔPJOH[L_[IHZLKVYM\UJ[PVUHSZ`SSHI\ZJHUIL[H\NO[;OLWVPU[OLYLPZZPTWS`
that with forward design, decisions about how to teach follow from decisions about the content of a
course, and decisions about output or learning outcomes follow from decisions about methodology.
The curriculum design process associated with forward design can be represented as follows:
content syllabus method outcomes assessment
Syllabus design is central to the process of forward design and is the focus of Chapters 2 and 3.
Backward design
The second approach used in developing a product-based curriculum is known as backward design
(Wiggins and McTighe 2005). Backward design starts with a careful statement of the desired results
or outcomes: appropriate teaching activities and content are derived from the results of learning.
Wiggins and McTighe argue for starting with a clear description of learning outcomes as the basis
for curriculum planning. In backward design they recommend that three steps are required:
1. To identify desired results.
2. To determine acceptable evidence of learning.
3. To plan learning experiences and instruction.
In education this approach is more commonly associated with the use of objectives in curriculum
planning and with other outcome-based strategies, such as through the use of competencies,
benchmarks, and standards. These are discussed in Chapter 10.
This is a well-established tradition in curriculum design in general education, and one that in recent
years has re-emerged as a prominent curriculum development approach in language teaching. It was
sometimes described as an “ends–means” approach, as seen in the work of Tyler (1949) and Taba
ÔV]PL^LKPUZ[Y\J[PVUHZ[OLZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMLUKZHZHWYLYLX\PZP[L[VKL]PZPUN[OLTLHUZ
to reach them. The process consists of the following steps (Taba 1962, 12):
1. Diagnosis of needs
2. Formulation of objectives
3. Selection of content
4. Organization of content
5. Selection of learning experiences
6. Organization of learning experiences
7. Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways of doing it
Tyler’s work had a considerable impact on curriculum planning and helped establish the use of
VIQLJ[P]LZ HZ WSHUUPUN \UP[Z PU PUZ[Y\J[PVUHS KLZPNU (U VIQLJ[P]LZIHZLK HWWYVHJO YLÅLJ[Z [OL
essential assumptions of backward design. Tyler argued that educational objectives should form the
basis for educational decisions concerning the selection and organization of content, for the choice
of teaching procedures, and for the development of tests and examinations. By stating objectives, it is
possible to determine the kinds of changes in students that need to be achieved and to choose and
design suitable instructional activities to enable the objectives to be achieved.
From the 1950s, educating teachers in how to describe learning outcomes in the form of objectives
became a minor industry, and since then generations of teachers have been taught to write objectives
as a basis for lesson and course planning. The use of objectives does not imply any particular
pedagogical approach or instructional theory or philosophy. A variety of teaching strategies can be
employed to achieve the desired goals, but teaching methods cannot be chosen until the desired
V\[JVTLZ OH]L ILLU ZWLJPÄLK 0U SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN H U\TILY VM WYVJLK\YLZ OH]L ILLU \ZLK HZ
part of the process of backward design, including needs analysis, objectives, competencies, and
standards. These are discussed in Chapter 6.
The curriculum design process associated with backward design can be represented as follows:
needs outcomes syllabus method assessment
What are some typical teaching procedures that are based on the principles of the Audiolingual
Method?
Choice of forward or backward design

Forward design is often employed where the primary focus is mastery of a body of knowledge, skills,
and processes that are seen as providing the core or essence of a given domain of learning, as we
saw with the literature example above. It is also an option when the learners’ primary contact and
need for English is limited to the classroom, as is often the case with courses for young learners (see
Chapter 4). Since forward design can be used to develop published materials, there will generally
be a wide range of teaching resources and materials to choose from. Forward design may also be
HWYLMLYYLKVW[PVUPUZP[\H[PVUZÔLYL[LHJOLYZTHÒH]LSPTP[LK,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`HUK
limited opportunities for professional development, since much of the planning and development
involved can be accomplished by specialists rather than left to the individual teacher.
A backward-design option may be preferred in situations where a high degree of accountability
needs to be built into the curriculum design and where resources can be committed to needs
analysis, planning, and materials development. Well-developed procedures for implementing
backward-design procedures are widely available, making this approach an attractive option in
some circumstances. In the case of large-scale curriculum development for a national education
system, much of this development activity can be carried out by others, leaving teachers mainly
with the responsibility of implementing the curriculum. In other circumstances, such as a private
institute developing company-specific courses, a more bottom-up approach may be adopted
and the work required is carried out by a well-trained and skillful individual teacher or group of
teachers working together.
However, forward and backward design might also work concurrently in some circumstances.
David Crabbe (personal communication, 2014) suggests that, in fact, design goes backwards and
forwards whatever the starting point: “It’s not that curriculum designers don’t think of goals when
designing a syllabus. It’s just that a content item is not expressed as a goal. Similarly, a backward
design will often take account of the process of teaching an item in formulating the outcome and it
will often have content built into it.”
,HJO HWWYVHJO OV^L]LY THRLZ KPќLYLU[ HZZ\TW[PVUZ HIV\[ [OL JVU[L_[ MVY [OL J\YYPJ\S\T MVY
example:
• The need for large-scale or small-scale implementation.
• The role of instructional materials and tests.
• The level of training of teachers.
• The roles of teachers and learners.
• ;LHJOLYZ»WYVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZO
• The demands made on teachers, and the level of teacher-autonomy assumed for teachers.
• The amount of support provided for teachers.
The role of contextual factors is the focus of Chapter 5.
Curriculum as process
As we noted above, curriculum can also be understood as emanating from the classroom experiences
that characterize language teaching “in action,” that is, as something that emerges from the activities
of teaching and learning. We referred to this above as the emergent curriculum. This perspective is
also referred to as a process or ecological approach to curriculum.
The word ecology comes from the Greek oikos, meaning “household”, combined with the
suffix -logy, meaning “the study of.” Thus, the discipline of ecology is literally the study of
households, including the plants, animals, microbes, and people that live together as interde-
pendent beings. It is a discipline that has increasingly placed an emphasis on holistic studies
of both parts and wholes.
(Zhao and Frank 2003, 8)
Similarly Aoki (in Pinar and Irwin 2005) talks of the “lived curriculum” and of the curriculum as “lived
practice.” Van Lier (2004) has been a powerful advocate of the ecological understanding of curriculum:
In the ecological perspective, the curriculum does not start out by specifying and sequencing
materials, but with the activities, needs, and emergent purposes of the learner. On the basis
of activities and emergent needs, the teacher makes resources available in the environment,
and guides the learner’s perception and action towards an array of affordances that can
further his or her goals.
(Van Lier 2009, 7)
;OLWYVJLZZJ\YYPJ\S\THSZVYLÅLJ[Z[OL]PL^VM[OLJSHZZYVVTHZHSLHYUPUNJVTT\UP[`>LUNLY "
Van Lier 2004, 2009). The classroom becomes a site for social participation structures that can enhance
or inhibit learning opportunity. These include both the discourse and the activities of classroom life,
ÔPJOHќLJ[OV^TLHUPUNPZTHKLHUKRUV^SLKNLJVUZ[Y\J[LK>LUNLY "3HU[VSM"/H^RPUZ
2004; Singh and Richards 2006). Learning is not viewed as the mastery of pre-determined content
I\[HZJVUZ[Y\J[PUNUL^RUV^SLKNL[OYV\NOWHY[PJPWH[PUNPUZWLJPÄJSLHYUPUNHUKZVJPHSJVU[L_[ZHUK
through engaging in particular types of activities and processes.
In general education this approach was advocated by Bruner (1966) and Stenhouse (1975) who
argued that curriculum development should start by identifying the processes of inquiry and
deliberation that drive teaching and learning – processes such as investigation, decision making,
YLÅLJ[PVUKPZJ\ZZPVUPU[LYWYL[H[PVUJYP[PJHS[OPURPUNTHRPUNJOVPJLZJVVWLYH[PUN^P[OV[OLYZHUK
so on. Content is chosen on the basis of how it promotes the use of these processes, and outcomes
KVUV[ULLK[VILZWLJPÄLKPUHU`KLNYLLVMKL[HPSPMH[HSS
[The curriculum] is not designed on a pre-specification of behavioural objectives. Of course

there are changes in students as a result of a course, but many of the most valued are not to
be anticipated in detail. The power and the possibilities of the curriculum cannot be contained
within objectives, because it is founded on the idea that knowledge must be speculative and
thus indeterminate as to student outcomes if it is to be worthwhile.
(Stenhouse 1975, 92)
Clark’s (1987, 49–90) description of the features of “progressivism” captures the essence of the
curriculum as process:
• 0[WSHJLZSLZZLTWOHZPZVUZ`SSHI\ZZWLJPÄJH[PVUHUKTVYLVUTL[OVKVSVNPJHSWYPUJPWSLZHUK
procedures.
• It is more concerned with learning processes than predetermined objectives.
• It emphasizes methodology and the need for principles to guide the teaching-learning process.
• It is learner-centered and seeks to provide learning experiences that enable learners to learn by
[OLPYVÛLќVY[Z
• It regards learners as active participants in shaping their own learning.
• It promotes the development of the learner as an individual.
• It views learning as a creative problem-solving activity.
• It acknowledges the uniqueness of each teaching-learning context.
• It emphasizes the role of the teacher in creating his or her own curriculum in the classroom.
With a process understanding of curriculum, priority is attributed to learning processes, classroom

participation, and the role of the teacher and the learners in creating opportunities for learning. The syllabus
or learning input – rather than being something that is predetermined or prescribed and regarded as essential
in initiating curriculum development – is an outcome of teaching and learning. Whereas with product-based
curriculum approaches testing has the role of assessment of learning (i.e., achievement testing), in the
process curriculum a more dynamic role for assessment is assumed – assessment for learning – where
teaching and assessment inform each other at every stage of the teaching-learning process.
Can you suggest examples of processes that you think are essential to achieve successful
language learning in classroom-based learning?
Conclusions
*\YYPJ\S\TJHUIL\UKLYZ[VVKHUKYLHSPaLKMYVTHU\TILYVMKPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]LZ6U[OLVULOHUKP[JHU
be understood as a framework that has been developed by experts to guide and manage the process of
teaching and learning. As such, curriculum development is a process of both forward and backward design
and involves well-established processes of syllabus design, needs analysis, planning of learning outcomes,
content selection, and choice of teaching methods. The role of the teacher is to understand the intentions of
[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THUK[VÄUK^H`Z[VPTWSLTLU[P[;OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVM[LHJOPUNHUKVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T^PSSIL
YLÅLJ[LKPU[OLL_[LU[[VÔPJO[OLJVU[LU[VM[OLZ`SSHI\ZOHZILLUSLHYULKHUK[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TV\[JVTLZ
have been achieved. This is the dominant view of curriculum in language education – one we referred to as
a product approach to curriculum – and it will be explored in depth in subsequent chapters of this book.
The other view of curriculum we have introduced in this chapter is concerned with the understandings,
activities, and processes that teachers make use of as they transform curriculum goals into practical
actions. This has been described as a process approach to curriculum and is described more fully in
*OHW[LY *\YYPJ\S\T MYVT [OPZ WLYZWLJ[P]L PZ \UKLYZ[VVK [OYV\NO VIZLY]H[PVU JYP[PJHS YLÅLJ[PVU HUK
PUX\PY`HUKPZZOHWLKI`[LHJOLYZ»PUKP]PK\HSWOPSVZVWOPLZVM[LHJOPUNHUK[OLZWLJPÄJZVMLHJO[LHJOPUN
context. This is a less prescriptive view of curriculum than that associated with the product approach, and
ILJH\ZLP[VM[LUYLÅLJ[ZZ\IQLJ[P]LHUKHќLJ[P]LMHJ[VYZ¶PLX\HSP[H[P]LKPTLUZPVUZ¶P[PZZVTL[PTLZ
regarded as fuzzy and not amenable to rigorous inquiry. However, it is a well-established alternative
WLYZWLJ[P]LVUJ\YYPJ\S\T[OH[VќLYZ]HS\HISLPUZPNO[ZÔPJOJVTWSLTLU[TVYL[YHKP[PVUHS\UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ
of curriculum, and as such it will be examined in more detail in several chapters of this book.
In order to understand the nature of current approaches to curriculum design, it is useful to consider
OV^[OLKPZJPWSPULVMSHUN\HNLJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[ILNHU^P[OPUP[PHSLќVY[Z[VPKLU[PM`[OLJVYL
vocabulary and grammar that provide the foundation for second language development. This is the
focus of the next chapter.
Discussion questions
1. Does your country have a national curriculum? If so, in relation to language teaching, is a
particular language teaching approach or method recommended?
2. Have policies or practices in regard to language teaching changed in recent years? If so, in what
way and what prompted such changes?
3. In what ways do “internal factors” (i.e., those derived from applied linguistics) and “external factors”
PUÅ\LUJLJ\YYPJ\S\T[YLUKZ&
4. (YLHU`VM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TWOPSVZVWOPLZKLZJYPILKPU[OPZJOHW[LYYLÅLJ[LKPU`V\YUH[PVUHSVYZ[H[L
curriculum? Are other philosophies referred to?
5. 0U ÔH[ ^H`Z KV `V\ [OPUR WYVÄJPLUJ` PU ,UNSPZO JV\SK JVU[YPI\[L [V H JV\U[Y`»Z LJVUVTPJ
development?
6. What do you understand by the terms the enacted curriculum and the emergent curriculum?
7. /V^^V\SK`V\L_WSHPU[VHJVSSLHN\L[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLUMVY^HYKHUKIHJR^HYKKLZPNU&
8. Why do you think there has been a move toward backward design in many countries in recent
years?
9. What are some of the “processes” that a process-oriented curriculum seeks to encourage?
10. Read the account of the education system in Austria in Appendix 2. How does it compare with
the situation in your country? Are teachers also able to operate fairly freely within the general
curriculum framework, as in the Austrian example?
11. Read Case study 1 by Dino Mahoney at the end of this chapter.
• 0UÔH[^H`ZKVLZ[OLJV\YZLKLZJYPILKYLÅLJ[MLH[\YLZVMIV[OMVY^HYKKLZPNUHUK[OL
curriculum as process?
• What role did technology play in the course?
• What was the role of authentic materials?
12. Read Christian Rudianto’s account of the development of an institutional curriculum in Case
study 2.
• >OH[HYLZVTLVM[OLJVU[L_[\HSMHJ[VYZ[OH[PUÅ\LUJLK[OLKLZPNUVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T&
• What was the purpose of the tracer study?
• How was the information collected made use of?
APPENDIX 1 Extract from a state curriculum (Hong Kong Government 2004, 4–6)
English Language Curriculum Guide (Primary 1-6)
The English Language curriculum in primary schools aims to help learners lay a good foundation in
SLHYUPUN,UNSPZOWH]PUN[OL^H`MVYPUKLWLUKLU[HUKSPMLSVUNSLHYUPUNHUKLќLJ[P]LJVTT\UPJH[PVU
of knowledge, ideas, values, attitudes and experience. It is built on existing good practices, with
emphases on learner-centredness and task-based learning, promoting a balanced use of approaches
HWWYVWYPH[L[V[OLULLKZHUKPU[LYLZ[ZVMZLJVUKVYMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLSLHYULYZ;VMHJPSP[H[LLќLJ[P]L
learning and teaching, teachers are encouraged to enhance learners’ experience through:
1. providing ample opportunities and a conducive environment for the learning and practice
of language forms (including text types, vocabulary, and grammar items and structures),
communicative functions, and language skills in meaningful contexts;
2. making extensive use of a variety of text types (including stories, informational reports,
expositions) to develop critical thinking and encourage free expression and creativity; and
3. promoting the development of learning and language development strategies, values and
H[[P[\KLZ[VLUOHUJLLќLJ[P]LPUKLWLUKLU[HUKSPMLSVUNSLHYUPUN
Emphases for design and implementation

The following emphases, which are by no means exhaustive, can serve as entry points and convenient
platforms for teachers to design and implement their schools’ English Language curriculum based on
the central curriculum framework:
• Facilitating the development of a “reading to learn” cultureOLSWPUNSLHYULYZHJX\PYLLќLJ[P]L
reading skills and develop good reading habits through the use of language arts materials and
texts, incorporating a wide variety of text types to develop their critical thinking skills, creativity
and cultural awareness
• Developing learners’ generic skills, values and attitudes and exposing them to rich learning
experiences through moral and civic education, project learning, reading to learn, information
technology (IT) for interactive learning (the four key tasks promoted in the curriculum reform)
• Using a learner-centred and a task-based approach in the planning and organization of learning,
teaching and assessment materials and activities, ensuring that emphases are put on helping
learners master both language forms and communicative functions for use in appropriate contexts
• Catering for learner diversity through developing a wide range of open-ended learning tasks
HUKHJ[P]P[PLZHUKLTWSV`PUN[LHJOPUNZ[YH[LNPLZ[OH[Z\P[[OLZWLJPÄJULLKZVMIV[OSLZZHISL
SLHYULYZHUKTVYLHISLSLHYULYZHZ^LSSHZ[OLULLKZVMSLHYULYZ^P[OKPќLYLU[SLHYUPUNZ[`SLZ
• Promoting learner independence through the development of lifelong language learning skills and
strategies such as vocabulary building skills, phonics skills and information skills, and providing
opportunities for the mastery of these skills through purposeful tasks and in meaningful contexts
• Creating a language-rich environment through promoting a cross-curricular approach to learning,
and making use of community resources to facilitate learner participation in life-wide learning
activities
• Promoting assessment for learning in addition to assessment of learning through greater use
of formative and criterion-referenced assessment to gain insights into learners’ strengths and
weaknesses, to provide feedback informing learners about their performance, and to indicate
how to make further progress in their learning.
APPENDIX 2 The Austrian education system

Austrian curricula
(\Z[YPH OHZ H OPNOS` KPќLYLU[PH[LK ZJOVVS Z`Z[LT HUK PZ KP]PKLK PU[V WYPTHY` SV^LY ZLJVUKHY` HUK
upper secondary education. Nine years of education are compulsory. Following their sixth birthday, all
children in Austria have to go to primary school (Volksschule) for four years. After having completed
WYPTHY` LK\JH[PVU [OLYL HYL H YHUNL VM KPќLYLU[ ZJOVVS [`WLZ ÔPJO JHU IL JOVZLU HJJVYKPUN [V
the pupils’ interests and abilities. Secondary education is also compulsory and comprises Academic
secondary school – Lower level (Allgemein bildende höhere Schule – Unterstufe), which can be chosen
PMJLY[HPUYLX\PYLTLU[ZHYLTL[[OH[PZPM[OLJOPSK»ZZJOVVSWLYMVYTHUJLPZQ\KNLKHZZ\ѝJPLU[S`NVVK
New secondary school (Neue MittelschuleHUK.LULYHSZLJVUKHY`ZJOVVSHauptschule). According
[V[OL(\Z[YPHU-LKLYHS4PUPZ[Y`VM,K\JH[PVUHUK>VTLU»Z(ќHPYZBundesministerium für Bildung und
Frauen HSS .LULYHS ZLJVUKHY` ZJOVVSZ ^LYL JVU]LY[LK [V 5L^ ZLJVUKHY` ZJOVVSZ PU
After four years of secondary education, pupils will have to make yet another decision about which
school type to attend. At the completion of lower secondary education, at least one more year has
to be spent at school, but many pupils decide to stay in school longer for higher education. They can
attend Academic secondary school – Upper level (Allgemein bildende höhere Schule – Oberstufe)
for four years, which prepares them for the Matriculation examination (Reifeprüfung), success in
which entitles the pupil to go to university or to pursue post-secondary education. Another type
of upper secondary schools are the Colleges for Higher Vocational Education (Berufsbildende
höhere Schulen). These colleges have a career focus which can be technical, tourism, business
HKTPUPZ[YH[PVUL[J(M[LYÄ]L`LHYZVM[OPZLK\JH[PVUW\WPSZT\Z[WHZZ[OL4H[YPJ\SH[PVUHUKKPWSVTH
examination (Reife- und Diplomprüfung) in order to pursue post-secondary or tertiary education (e.g.
\UP]LYZP[` HUK OH]L JVTWSL[LK ]VJH[PVUHS [YHPUPUN LUHISPUN [OLT [V ^VYR PU ZWLJPÄJ QVIZ ( [OPYK
option for secondary education are Secondary technical and vocational schools (Berufsbildende
mittlere Schulen), completed after one to four years, which do not enable pupils to pursue post-
ZLJVUKHY`VY[LY[PHY`LK\JH[PVU7\WPSZHYL[OLULU[P[SLK[V^VYRPUZWLJPÄJQVIZ[OH[[OLÒH]LILLU
trained for. However, Add-on courses (Aufbaulehrgänge) permit pupils who have completed three or
four years of education in a Secondary technical and vocational school to train for the Matriculation
HUK KPWSVTH L_HTPUH[PVU ^P[O [OL HPT VM JVU[PU\PUN LK\JH[PVU H[ H WVZ[ZLJVUKHY`[LY[PHY` SL]LS
Another alternative would be passing the Higher education entrance examination (Berufsreifeprüfung/
Studienberechtigungsprüfung) in order to be authorized to pursue post-secondary or tertiary
education; candidates for the exam either study privately or enroll in special training courses. Pupils
who plan to take an apprenticeship or start working immediately after school often opt for Pre-
vocational school (Polytechnische Schule), which lasts only one year. Those who then go on training
in a company as an apprentice will have to attend Part-time vocational school (Berufsschule) whilst
doing their apprenticeship (dual system) for the time of their training in the company (two to four years,
usually three years). Pupils who have completed their apprenticeship and Part-time vocational school
(including the Apprenticeship examination) but want to go to university or enroll in post-secondary
courses have the opportunity to pass the Higher education entrance examination (Berufsreifeprüfung/
Studienberechtigungsprüfung). In Austria, there are also schools for adult education and for children
^P[OZWLJPHSULLKZ0[ILJVTLZL]PKLU[[OH[[OL(\Z[YPHUZJOVVSZ`Z[LTPZOPNOS`JVTWSL_VќLYPUNH
OPNOKLNYLLVMZWLJPHSPaH[PVUHUKÅL_PIPSP[`HZP[WLYTP[ZW\WPSZ[VW\YZ\LKPќLYLU[WH[OZHJJVYKPUN[V
their changing capacities, abilities, interests, and goals. Each and every one of the aforementioned
school types has its own curriculum.
Austrian curricula are mandated in each of the nine federal states, with the exception of schools for
ethnic minorities in Burgenland and Carinthia. As already mentioned above, every school type has
P[Z VÛ J\YYPJ\S\T .P]LU [OL U\TILY HUK KP]LYZP[` VM \WWLY ZLJVUKHY` LK\JH[PVU ZJOVVSZ [OLYL
HYLKVaLUZVMKPќLYLU[J\YYPJ\SH;OLJ\YYPJ\SH\Z\HSS`JVUZPZ[VMZPTPSHYLSLTLU[ZHWHY[ZWLJPM`PUN
NLULYHS LK\JH[PVUHS HPTZ NLULYHS KPKHJ[PJ WYPUJPWSLZ HUK \Z\HSS` ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ JVUJLYUPUN ZJOVVS
organization. The curricula also identify the number of hours per week for every subject and every
grade and the syllabi for the various subjects. As the Austrian school system is in the middle of a far-
reaching process of reformation, curricula have been and are revised on an ongoing basis. For several
types of Colleges for Higher Vocational Education, there are two generations of curricula which are
J\YYLU[S`PU\ZL;OLYL]PZLKJ\YYPJ\SH^LYLHWWSPLK[VJSHZZLZLU[LYPUNZJOVVSPUÔPSL[OL
VSKLYJ\YYPJ\SHHYLZ[PSSPULќLJ[MVYOPNOLYSL]LSZ[\KLU[Z^P[OPU[OLZHTLZJOVVS;OLYL]PZLKJ\YYPJ\SH
have been implemented in the framework of pilot projects and were decreed for the school year
;OL` YLÅLJ[ UL^ KL]LSVWTLU[Z Z\JO HZ [OL TVK\SHYPaH[PVU VM ZLUPVY JSHZZLZ HUK [OL
organization of subjects in clusters (e.g., “Languages and Communication” or “Mathematics, Natural
Sciences and Nutrition”).
(\Z[YPHU J\YYPJ\SH KLÄUL NVHSZ HUK VIQLJ[P]LZ HUK WYLZLU[ N\PKLSPULZ HUK [OL` T\Z[ IL ZLLU
as frameworks within which the teachers are relatively free to operate. This ties in with §17(1) of
the Austrian education regulations (Schulunterrichtsgesetz) which states that teachers may work
H\[VUVTV\ZS`HUKYLZWVUZPIS`^P[OPUHZWLJPÄLKMYHTL
(SchUG §17 Abs. 1)
This means that teachers make choices on their own authority; they decide which didactic means
they want to use in order to achieve the given objectives, and they also have to set certain priorities
concerning content.
Sources
+PќLYLU[(\Z[YPHU*\YYPJ\SH!
7YPTHY`ZJOVVS.LULYHSZLJVUKHY`ZJOVVS5L^ZLJVUKHY`ZJOVVSZJOVVSZMVYJOPSKYLU^P[OZWLJPHS
ULLKZ 7YL]VJH[PVUHS ZJOVVS (JHKLTPJ ZLJVUKHY` ZJOVVS ^^ÎTIMN]H[ZJO\SLU\U[LYYPJO[SW
lp_abs.html (24.7.2015)
Secondary technical and vocational schools, Colleges for Higher Vocational Education, Add-on
JV\YZLZ 7HY[[PTL ]VJH[PVUHS ZJOVVS ^^^HIJILY\MZIPSKLUKLZJO\SLUH[KLKSJVSSLJ[PVUHZW
(24.7.2015)
90::JO\S\U[LYYPJO[ZNLZL[a^^^YPZIRHN]H[.LS[LUKL-HZZ\UN^_L&(IMYHNL$)\UKLZUVYTLU .LZ
L[aLZU\TTLY$
>LIZP[L VM [OL (\Z[YPHU -LKLYHS 4PUPZ[Y` VM ,K\JH[PVU HUK >VTLU»Z (ќHPYZ ^^ÎTIMN]H[
(22.7.2015)
2YPZ[PUH:[LSaLY:JOHLɈLYZ[\KPLK-YLUJO,UNSPZOHUK.LYTHUH[[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM=PLUUH(\Z[YPH
/LYTHPUPU[LYLZ[ZHYLSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNTL[OVKVSVN`HUKYLZLHYJO*\YYLU[S`ZOL[LHJOLZPUHU
\WWLYZLJVUKHY`ZJOVVSPU=PLUUH
APPENDIX 3 Extract from an institutional curriculum (Lone Star College System

2013–2014, 6–7)
Curriculum and mission
The mission of the LSC-CyFair English for Speakers of Other Languages Program is to provide a
dynamic learning community, wherein excellence is distinguished by responsiveness and innovation,
allowing non-native English speakers to acquire language and cultural adaptation skills necessary to
function and succeed in a global society.
To carry out the mission, the goals of the ESOL program are to:
• Prepare learners for academic success in American college settings
• Develop communication skills in global workplace environments
• Enhance intercultural understanding
The curriculum meets the varying needs of non-native English speakers as it addresses the needs of
both working professionals and students preparing for college study or vocational programs.
Students can enroll in either ESOL for Academic Preparation (CREDIT) or ESOL for Work Skills and
Professional Development (CE).
The Academic track focuses on academically bound students. It emphasizes preparation for college
study while at the same time teaching students about American culture and English for everyday living
and communication with Americans. Instruction includes:
• Academic English and practical vocabulary development
• Pronunciation skill development
• Speaking activities: discussions, debates, role plays, oral reports, and formal speeches
• Writing skills for academic purposes and practical needs: forms, letters, compositions,
summaries, essay exams, and short research papers
• Listening skills for academic purposes and everyday needs: lectures, video, and audio tapes
• Reading for academic purposes and everyday needs
• .YHTTHYHUK\ZHNLMVYJVSSLNLHUKL]LY`KHÙLLKZ
• TOEFL preparation, test-taking, and academic study skills
• Computer-assisted instruction
The Professional track focuses on professionals, participants preparing to enter careers requiring
,UNSPZO WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK [OVZL ZLLRPUN NLULYHS IYVHKIHZLK ,UNSPZO ZRPSS KL]LSVWTLU[ ^P[OV\[
college entrance as a focus. It emphasizes English for everyday living, carrying out informal business
transactions, and reading and listening to news sources for information and entertainment.
Instruction includes:
• Practical vocabulary and idioms
• Pronunciation skill development
• Speaking activities: discussions, negotiations, role play, conversation practice, and oral
presentations
• Reading for everyday needs, entertainment, and information

• Writing skills for business and practical purposes: notes, memos, letters, report writing, and
editing for grammatical correctness
• Listening skills for professional and everyday needs: video and audio tapes
• .YHTTHYHUK\ZHNLMVYI\ZPULZZHUKL]LY`KHÙLLKZ
• Activities emphasizing the cultural aspects of business and everyday communication
• Computer-assisted instruction
Instruction is highly individualized to meet learner goals, and group work is planned for maximum
relevance to the audience. Skill building activities reinforce basic skills acquired in earlier instruction,
and instructors plan programs to assist learners in meeting their goals. Discrete language
points are presented by the instructor, followed by student practice and production of material
presented. Students are encouraged to work in large and small group situations to foster problem-
ZVS]PUN ZRPSSZ HUK ZLSMJVUÄKLUJL 0UZ[Y\J[PVU PUJS\KLZ YL]PL^Z VM LHYSPLY TH[LYPHSZ [V KL[LYTPUL
student readiness to progress to additional skills. Some classes are designed as learning labs,
using computer-assisted instruction and other interactive instructional materials. These classes
allow the instructor to work with students individually and in small groups to maximize the rate of
student progress.
For Advanced ESOL students, academic subject areas serve as the content for English language
practice in reading, writing, listening, and speaking activities. Educational skills necessary for passing
college entrance exams are presented, with primary focus on reading and writing skills. Reading skills
(literal and inferential comprehension, application of ideas, and analytical skills) and test taking skills
are explored. Writing is taught as a combination of grammar skills and writing process.
In addition, although the curriculum is designed to provide a clear and understandable entry into
North American culture, it values all the cultures found in the ESOL classroom. Students have
JVUZ[HU[VWWVY[\UP[PLZ[VILJVTL¸J\S[\YHSS`Å\LU[¹PU<:J\S[\YLÔPSL[OL`HYLSLHYUPUN,UNSPZOI\[
they also have the chance to think about the cultures of their classmates and even understand their
OVTLJ\S[\YLMYVTKPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]LZ
APPENDIX 4 Extract from a general curriculum (Council of Europe 2001)

The Common European Framework
The CEFR: transparent, coherent and comprehensive
The result of over twenty years of research, the Common European Framework of Reference for
Languages: Learning, teaching, assessment (CEFR) is exactly what its title says it is: a framework
of reference. It was designed to provide a transparent, coherent and comprehensive basis for the
elaboration of language syllabuses and curriculum guidelines, the design of teaching and learning
TH[LYPHSZHUK[OLHZZLZZTLU[VMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`0[PZ\ZLKPU,\YVWLI\[HSZVPUV[OLY
continents and is now available in 39 languages.
6L[OHYHOVRIIRUHLJQODQJXDJHSURðFLHQF\
;OL*,-9KLZJYPILZMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`H[ZP_SL]LSZ!(HUK()HUK)*HUK*
0[ HSZV KLÄULZ [OYLL ºWS\Z» SL]LSZ ( ) ) )HZLK VU LTWPYPJHS YLZLHYJO HUK ^PKLZWYLHK
consultation, this scheme makes it possible to compare tests and examinations across languages
and national boundaries (see the section “The CEFR and language examinations: a toolkit”). It
HSZV WYV]PKLZ H IHZPZ MVY YLJVNUPZPUN SHUN\HNL X\HSPÄJH[PVUZ HUK [O\Z MHJPSP[H[PUN LK\JH[PVUHS HUK
occupational mobility.
The CEFR’s illustrative scales of “can do” descriptors are available in a bank of descriptors together
with many other related descriptors.
7KH&()5LVPXFKPRUHWKDQSURðFLHQF\VFDOHV
;OL *,-9»Z ZJHSLZ VM MVYLPNU SHUN\HNL WYVÄJPLUJ` HYL HJJVTWHUPLK I` H KL[HPSLK HUHS`ZPZ VM
communicative contexts, themes, tasks and purposes as well as scaled descriptions of the
competences on which we draw when we communicate. This helps to explain why the CEFR is
increasingly used in teacher education, the reform of foreign language curricula and the development
of teaching materials (in this connection see the results of a survey carried out in 2006 among Council
of Europe member states).
8VLQJWKH&()5LQVSHFLðFFRQWH[WV
;OL*,-9KVLZUV[VќLYYLHK`THKLZVS\[PVUZI\[T\Z[HS^H`ZILHKHW[LK[V[OLYLX\PYLTLU[Z
of particular contexts, for example, the teaching and learning of Romani and of French Sign
Language. The need for careful interpretation and adaptation is especially acute when the CEFR’s
KLZJYPW[P]LHWWHYH[\ZHUKWYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSZHYL\ZLK[VL_WSVYL[OLJVTT\UPJH[P]LULLKZVMHK\S[
TPNYHU[ZHUK[VN\PKL[OLHZZLZZTLU[VM[OLPYWYVÄJPLUJ`PU[OLSHUN\HNLVM[OLPYOVZ[JVTT\UP[`
(see the relevant studies).
APPENDIX 5 Extract from a teacher’s curriculum

English for Science (Department of English, City University of Hong Kong,
2015)
1. Overview
This course aims to provide students with the necessary communicative competence to operate
LќLJ[P]LS`PUHYHUNLVMZJPLU[PÄJJVU[L_[Z:[\KLU[ZVU[OLJV\YZL^PSSSLHYUOV^[VÄUKHUKJYP[PJHSS`
L]HS\H[L H YHUNL VM [L_[Z YLSH[LK [V [OLPY ZJPLU[PÄJ PU]LZ[PNH[PVU HUK \ZL HWWYVWYPH[L ,UNSPZO [V
present these texts. Students will take part in an English for science project, which involves an
PU]LZ[PNH[PVU VM H ZJPLU[PÄJ PZZ\L HUK SLHYU [V WYLZLU[ HUK PU[LYWYL[ [OL YLZ\S[Z VM [OPZ WYVQLJ[ HZ H
ZJPLU[PÄJKVJ\TLU[HY`MVYHUVUZWLJPHSPZ[H\KPLUJLHUKHZJPLU[PÄJYLWVY[MVYHZWLJPHSPZ[H\KPLUJL
:[\KLU[Z ^PSS SLHYU OV^ [V L_WSVYL HJHKLTPJ ZJPLU[PÄJ [L_[Z \ZPUN SPUN\PZ[PJ ZLHYJO [VVSZ THRPUN
KPZJV]LYPLZ[OH[PUMVYT[OLPY\ZLVM,UNSPZOMVYZJPLU[PÄJJVTT\UPJH[PVU-PUHSS`Z[\KLU[Z^PSSOH]L[OL
VWWVY[\UP[` [V JVSSLJ[P]LS` YLÅLJ[ VU [OLPY SLHYUPUN I` LUNHNPUN PU VUSPUL KPZJ\ZZPVUZ YLSH[LK [V RL`
concepts of the course.
2. Course aims
The course aims to:
• provide students with opportunities to improve their English communication skills in the context
VM[OLPYVÛPU[LYLZ[ZKPZJPWSPULZHUKVYM\[\YLJHYLLYHZWPYH[PVUZ"
• give students further opportunities to explore how to use English as a tool for inquiry, learning,
[OPURPUNHUKJVTT\UPJH[PUN^P[OPU[OLPYJOVZLUÄLSKZVYHYLHZVMPU[LYLZ["
• help students to master the conventions (including citation, referencing and avoiding plagiarism)
HZZVJPH[LK^P[OJVTT\UPJH[PUNPU,UNSPZOPU[OLPYWHY[PJ\SHYÄLSKZVYHYLHZVMPU[LYLZ["
• develop students’ critical and evaluative thinking within their disciplines or areas of interest;
• develop students’ capacity to become self-directed English language learners within the context
VM[OLPYJOVZLUÄLSKZVYHYLHZVMPU[LYLZ["
• help students to understand the role of English communication in the development of
professional identities and membership in disciplinary communities or interest groups.
3. Intended learning outcomes

Upon successful completion of this course, students should be able to:
1. *YP[PJHSS`L]HS\H[LZJPLU[PÄJ[L_[ZPU[LYTZVMJVU[LU[^YP[LYZ[HUJLYLSPHIPSP[`HUK[Y\Z[^VY[OPULZZ
and apply the knowledge generated to their own reading and writing.
2. *YLH[LZOHYLHUKKPZJ\ZZHT\S[PTLKPHZJPLU[PÄJKVJ\TLU[HY`VUHUH\[OLU[PJZJPLU[PÄJPZZ\L
ÔPJOPZVYNHUPaLKPUHSVNPJHS^H`MVSSV^HJJLW[HISLZJPLU[PÄJJVU]LU[PVUZHUKTHRLLќLJ[P]L
and creative use of verbal and non-verbal delivery techniques.
3. >YP[L H ZJPLU[PÄJ YLWVY[ VU HU H\[OLU[PJ ZJPLU[PÄJ PZZ\L THRPUN JYLH[P]L HUK LќLJ[P]L \ZL VM
HWWYVWYPH[LZJPLU[PÄJSHUN\HNLVYNHUPaH[PVUHUKHJHKLTPJYLMLYLUJPUNJVU]LU[PVUZPLH]VPKPUN
plagiarism).
4. <ZL JVYW\Z [VVSZ [V L_WSVYL SHUN\HNL PU \ZL PKLU[PM` JVTTVU SHUN\HNL WH[[LYUZ PU ZJPLU[PÄJ
[L_[ZHUKHWWS`[OLPYVIZLY]H[PVUZPU[OLPYVÛ\ZLVM,UNSPZOMVYZJPLU[PÄJW\YWVZLZ
5. Use writing as a tool for lifelong learning, by monitoring and evaluating their own learning
processes and the impact of their learning on their development as a member of professional
ZJPLU[PÄJJVTT\UP[PLZ
CASE STUDY 1+L]LSVWPUNHJV\YZLPUJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVU

Dino Mahoney
What is the context of the course?
Creative Non-Fiction (CNF) is a preparatory course for adult students in their twenties and early thirties
who are either enrolled in or hoping to be enrolled in university undergraduate and, in some cases,
graduate courses. Many of the students had not lived in England before. They had varying levels of
^YP[PUNJVTWL[LUJLI\[MLSSIYVHKS`PU[VHU\WWLYPU[LYTLKPH[LHK]HUJLKIHUK;OLZ[\KLU[Z^LYL
hoping to study a broad mix of subjects mainly in humanities, social sciences, and business studies.
CNF involves many transferable attributes of creative writing, e.g., active, personal engagement with
the subject and process of writing, freedom of language choice, freedom to express a point of view,
VYPNPUHSP[Ù\HUJPUNHUKH^HYLULZZVMLќLJ[HUKYLZWVUZL[OH[JHUILHWWSPLK[VHJHKLTPJ^YP[PUN¶P[
is this transferability that gives the course its legitimacy within an academic context.
What are the goals of the course?

The primary goal of the course is to help raise students’ writing skills to a level suitable for
\UKLYNYHK\H[L HUK PU ZVTL JHZLZ NYHK\H[L JV\YZLZ [OYV\NO ^YP[PUN JYLH[P]L UVUÄJ[PVU ;OL
course also aims to increase students’ motivation to write through exposure to and composition of
Z[PT\SH[PUNHUKLUNHNPUNJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVU[L_[Z
The goals are to:
• OLSWZ[\KLU[ZKL]LSVW[OLPY^YP[PUNZRPSSZ[OYV\NOL_WLYPTLU[PUN^P[OKPќLYLU[JYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVU
genres and building a portfolio of work;
• enhance writing skills through the use of core literary techniques and devices, such as metaphor,
simile, alliteration, non-standard word choice, voice, characterization, point of view, when writing about
UVUÄJ[PVUL]LU[ZLNKPHYPLZTLTVPYZH\[VIPVNYHWOPLZLZZH`ZVIP[\HYPLZQV\YUHSPZT[YH]LS"
• KL]LSVWHJYP[PJHSH^HYLULZZVM[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVM^YP[PUN[OYV\NOZOHYLKYLHKPUNVMMLSSV^
students’ writing;
• increase students enjoyment of the process of writing and stimulate motivation to write.
What planning was involved in developing the course?

The course involved 10 three-hour sessions. Planning involved deciding
• genres to be included;
• writing skills and literary devices to focus on;
• focus of each session around a particular genre or a particular writing skill;
• balance of suitable source texts, print or digital;
• subject and content of texts;
• balance of tutor and student selected texts;
• balance of reading, responding, writing;
• JVU[LU[VMWVY[MVSPV¶TP_VMZ\IQLJ[P]LVIQLJ[P]L^YP[PUNSVUNLYHUKZOVY[LY[L_[ZYHUNLVM
UVUÄJ[PVUNLUYLZ
There was no textbook for this course and so assembling CNF texts and identifying useful sources
MVYZ\JO[L_[Z^HZPTWVY[HU[;OL0U[LYUL[PZH^HZO^P[OJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVU[L_[ZVM]HY`PUNX\HSP[`
and so my role was one of gate-keeper and guide, identifying internet sites and magazines that
have high-quality blogs, articles, and reviews. I am an experienced teacher and found the freedom
to assemble texts and build a course around them both liberating and exciting. As well as engaging
and motivating the students, I was also motivating myself. Ownership of the course gave me a high
degree of personal involvement and enjoyment in both preparation and teaching.
0THKLSPZ[ZHUK[OLUÄSSLKPUHJV\YZLNYPK[VLUZ\YL0OHKJV]LYLKZ\ѝJPLU[NLUYLZKPZJV\YZL[`WLZ
HUKSP[LYHY`LќLJ[Z
How is the course organized?

There was no coursebook for this course, and so I decided to develop the course by
• KYH^PUNVUZWLJPÄJJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVUNLUYLZHUKL_[YHWVSH[PUN[LHJOPUNHPTZMYVT[OLJVU[LU[
of chosen texts;
• using a circular read, respond, write, read, respond model;
• harvesting texts from a mix of print and digital sources;
• selecting texts on subjects that would interest and motivate young adults;
• selecting texts that would give insight into the culture of the country the students would be
studying in.
I selected texts and set tasks for the ten-week period based on a cline of brief to extended, simple
to complex.
What teaching and learning methods do you use?

I switch between teacher-directed teaching to a student-centred workshop employing mixed media:
KLZRJVTW\[LYSHYNLZJYLLUÔP[LIVHYKÅPWJOHY[Z[\KLU[Z»ZTHY[WOVULZHUKVYJVTW\[LYZHUK
H\[OLU[PJ TH[LYPHSZ Z\JO HZ UL^ZWHWLYZ HUK THNHaPULZ <WWLY PU[LYTLKPH[LHK]HUJLK Z[\KLU[Z
have often reached a plateau in their writing skills, and I wanted to try to break through to a higher
level by exciting and motivating them with intrinsically interesting materials presented through
KPќLYLU[ZVTL[PTLZL`LJH[JOPUNTLKPH
The cycle of a lesson would involve movement between teacher-led activities to pair, small group
and individual work, feedback and workshop. So a lesson might start with me leading an interactive
introduction to a text, e.g., an online blog, then giving the students pair or small group work tasks
based on the text. I would then elicit feedback and highlight features and target discourse patterns,
point of view, literary markers, and then set individual workshop tasks to produce a similar blog. This
would be followed by sharing of work and feedback from peers and teacher.
What is the role of materials and other resources?

Authentic materials, both digital and hard copy, such as online blogs, reviews, articles plus
magazines and newspapers, play an important role in the CNF course. These materials may be
freely accessible online, and students are also encouraged to bring along free newspapers and
magazines that they can pick up easily from train stations and outside newsagents. There is no
JV\YZLIVVR ;OL H\[OLU[PJ TH[LYPHSZ HYL TVKLSZ MVY ]HYPV\Z JYLH[P]L UVUÄJ[PVU NLUYLZ :[\KLU[Z
are also given a directory of recommended sites to explore by themselves so that they can pursue
their own particular interests and be exposed to a variety of writers, styles, and points of views.
Assembling authentic materials is, to some extent, a collaborative venture with students sharing
[L_[Z [OL` OH]L KPZJV]LYLK HUK [L_[Z [OL` OH]L ILLU HZRLK [V ÄUK LN H WVZP[P]L HUK ULNH[P]L
YL]PL^VM[OLZHTLÄST
'LG\RXH[SHULHQFHDQ\GLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
As I had not taught the students before, I had no idea of their particular interests and so was obliged to
second-guess the interests of students based on their age. Many of them were new to the UK, so I selected
a higher proportion of texts on subjects with a particular cultural reference to London or the UK, for example
an online blog piece about the joys and woes of travelling on the London Underground, a magazine travel
WPLJLHIV\[3VUKVUT\ZPJ]LU\LZ/V^L]LY0SLM[LUV\NOÅL_PIPSP[`PU[OLJV\YZLMVYZ[\KLU[Z[V[YHJRKVÛ
and discover their own texts so that their own individual interests would be catered for.
(Z[OPZ^HZ[OLÄYZ[[PTL0OHKY\U[OPZJV\YZLP[[VVR[PTL[VTVUP[VYVUSPULZP[LZTHNHaPULZHUK
newspapers and to make sure that the body of texts assembled embodied and illustrated target
discourse structure and language.
Having assembled my corpus, I then had to decide what to use and what to keep in reserve.
What role does assessment play in the course?

Assessment of creative writing can be more subjective than assessment of academic writing; if a
student has invested personal opinion and emotion in their writing, a low grade can be hurtful and
demotivating. At the start of each unit of the course, I gave a clear task objective, e.g., to write a
^VYK JYP[PJHS ÄST YL]PL^ PU ÔPJO JYP[PJHS HZZLZZTLU[ HUK WVPU[ VM ]PL^ HYL JSLHYS` Z[H[LK ^P[O
supporting examples. In this way I was able to focus on how successful the task was, how to award
an appropriate grade, and how to explain that grade to the student. The portfolio formed the core of
work for assessment with six short and two extended pieces of writing.
Dino Mahoney moves between his base in London and his former home in Hong Kong. In London
he has taught English at both Imperial College and Birkbeck College. In Hong Kong he is a lecturer
in creative writing at the School of English at Hong Kong University. Dino is an award-winning
playwright with plays published by Oberon Press and HKU Press. He is also a poet and performer.
CASE STUDY 2 An institutional curriculum for a pre-service English teacher-

education program
Christian Rudianto
What is the context of the curriculum?
The curriculum described here was designed for the English Language Education (ELE) program at
Satya Wacana Christian University, a private university in Salatiga, central Java, Indonesia. The ELE
program is an undergraduate program preparing mainly pre-service English teachers to teach in schools
H[KPќLYLU[SL]LSZ;OLWYVNYHTWYV]PKLZNYV\UKPUNPU,UNSPZOHWWSPLKSPUN\PZ[PJZ[LHJOPUNTL[OVKZ
and materials design. Indonesia is a multilingual country where English has traditionally been described
as a foreign language. However, as English becomes more prominent as an international language, the
curriculum seeks to position English in relation to its changing role in Indonesian society. It also seeks
to prepare teachers for changes in government policy toward the role of English in Indonesia.
With the emergence of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in 2015, all member states are
committed to preparing their people with the skills needed to use English in various situations as a
means of communication among the AEC members.1 Against this background, the ELE curriculum
seeks to provide teachers with the skills and competences needed.
OLLZ[HISPZOTLU[VM[OL(,*PUPZHTPSLZ[VULPU[OLYLNPVUHSLJVUVTPJPU[LNYH[PVUHNLUKHPU(:,(5VɈLYPUNVWWVY[\UP[PLZ
;
PU[OLMVYTVMHSHYNLTHYRL[VM<:+[YPSSPVUHUKV]LYTPSSPVUWLVWSL;OL(,*)S\LWYPU[JVUZPZ[ZVM¸Ä]LPU[LYYLSH[LK
and mutually reinforcing characteristics, namely: (i) a highly integrated and cohesive economy; (ii) a competitive, innovative and
dynamic ASEAN; (iii) enhanced connectivity and sectoral cooperation; (iv) a resilient, inclusive, people-oriented and people-
centred ASEAN; and (5) a global[ly integrated] ASEAN” (www.asean.org/communities/asean-economic-community).
As a consequence of the role of the AEC, the Indonesian Ministry of Education has developed
a 2LYHUNRH 2\HSPÄRHZP UH[PVUHS 0UKVULZPH 0UKVULZPHU 8\HSPÄJH[PVU -YHTL^VYR ÔPJO ZOV\SK IL
YLÅLJ[LKPU[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TVMHSSOPNOLYLK\JH[PVUJ\YYPJ\SHVќLYLKPU0UKVULZPHU[LY[PHY`PUZ[P[\[PVUZPU
HKKP[PVU[V[OLZ[HUKHYKZPKLU[PÄLKPU[OLStandar Nasional Perguruan Tinggi (National Standards of
Higher Education). The ELE curriculum described here was developed in accordance with these two
national curriculum frameworks.
What are the goals of the curriculum?

The mission statements of the ELE program are described as follows:
• To produce responsible educators through service and commitment to lifelong learning.
• ;VWYVK\JLLK\JH[VYZÔVWVZZLZZYLÅLJ[P]L[OPURPUNWYVISLTZVS]PUNSLHKLYZOPW[LHT^VYR
and professional knowledge.
• To develop and share knowledge through research, teaching, and community service.
The ELE curriculum is derived from the mission statements. The goal of the curriculum is to
provide a systematic learning program which will help pre-service English teachers acquire the
knowledge and skills needed to teach English in Indonesian schools. The specific objectives of
the curriculum are derived from the mission statements above as well as the characteristics of
good teachers as specified in the Act No. 14 (2005) and in relation to Level 6 of the Indonesian
Qualification Framework that describes the general competencies required to complete an
undergraduate program in Indonesia.2 In order to achieve the curriculum goal, a four-year
program of study was developed covering the skills, knowledge, and competences of an English
language teacher.
The ELE curriculum encompasses four parameters, consisting of personal qualities (the personal
qualities a teacher should possess), specialist knowledge[OLZWLJPÄJKPZJPWSPUHY`HUKWLKHNVNPJHS
content knowledge an English teacher should possess), ZWLJPÄJZRPSSZHUKJHWHJP[PLZ(what an English
teacher can do with his or her expertise), and general skills and capacities (the managerial roles an
English teacher can perform in school). Each parameter is elaborated in the form of the detailed
learning outcomes of the program.
What planning was involved in developing the curriculum?

;OL WYVJLZZ VM KL]LSVWPUN [OL ,3, J\YYPJ\S\T PU]VS]LK MVYT\SH[PUN H NYHK\H[L WYVÄSL
developing a statement of the program’s learning outcomes, and (3) identifying strategies to achieve
the learning outcomes. These three steps are explained as follows:
67(3)RUPXODWLQJWKHJUDGXDWHSURƂOHV
;OPZÄYZ[Z[LWPU[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[WYVJLZZMVJ\ZLZVUULLKZHUHS`ZPZ0[PU]VS]LK[YHJPUN
ÔH[OHWWLUZ[VWHZ[NYHK\H[LZHM[LY[OL`SLH]L[OLWYVNYHT;OLHPTVM[OL[YHJLYZ[\K`^HZ[VÄUK
V\[ ÔH[ ÄLSKZ VM LTWSV`TLU[ NYHK\H[LZ LU[LYLK 0UMVYTH[PVU VU [OL KPZWLYZPVU VM [OL ^VYR ÄLSKZ
LUHISLK NYHK\H[L WYVÄSLZ [V IL THWWLK 5L_[ PUW\[Z MYVT [OL LTWSV`LYZ VM ,UNSPZO KLWHY[TLU[
2 The Act No.14 (2005) asserts that teachers should possess pedagogical, professional, personality, and social
competences. The teacher should have the ability to teach and evaluate (pedagogy), master learning materials
WYVMLZZPVUHSILJVTLYVSLTVKLSZMVYZ[\KLU[ZWLYZVUHSP[`HUKILHISL[VJVTT\UPJH[LLɈLJ[P]LS`[VZ[\KLU[ZMLSSV^
teachers, and the community (social).
L]LS VM [OL 0UKVULZPHU 8\HSPÄJH[PVU -YHTL^VYR KLZJYPILZ [OL X\HSPÄJH[PVUZ HJX\PYLK \WVU JVTWSL[PVU VM
3
undergraduate studies. Graduates should be able to demonstrate their expertise, comprehend general theoretical
concepts, and make a decision based on data and information.
NYHK\H[LZ^LYLJVSSLJ[LK[VKL[LYTPUL[OLYVSLZ[OH[NYHK\H[LZJHYY`V\[PUZJOVVSHUKOV^LќLJ[P]L
they were in their work. Interestingly, many stakeholders emphasized our graduates’ ability to be a
class consultant on non-academic matters that were not normally included in the curriculum. For
example, we learned that graduates need to be able to handle bullying at school. For us this meant that
the curriculum should include information on handling problems of this kind. Finally, the stakeholders’
perceptions of the changing needs and demands for English graduates were determined in order to
IL[[LY\UKLYZ[HUK[OLZWLJPÄJZRPSSZV\YNYHK\H[LZZOV\SKOH]L;OPZPUMVYTH[PVU^HZJVSSLJ[LKMYVT
analyzing job advertisements, from discussions with stakeholders, and from focus-group discussions
with students’ representatives.
Through analyzing the information obtained from the tracer study together with inputs from the
LTWSV`LYZ VM V\Y NYHK\H[LZ HUK KPZJ\ZZPVU ^P[O Z[HRLOVSKLYZ P[ ^HZ WVZZPISL [V KL]LSVW WYVÄSLZ
VM [OL NYHK\H[LZ VM V\Y ,3, WYVNYHT ,HJO NYHK\H[L WYVÄSL ^HZ KLZJYPILK ^P[OPU [OL 0UKVULZPHU
8\HSPÄJH[PVU-YHTL^VYR3L]LSundergraduate level of expected abilities).
67(3'HVFULELQJWKHSURJUDPőVOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHV
;V HKKYLZZ [OL PUMVYTH[PVU PU [OL NYHK\H[L WYVÄSLZ [OL UL_[ Z[LW PU KL]LSVWPUN [OL J\YYPJ\S\T
involved establishing a set of learning outcomes. This process also involved collaboration with
institutions having similar ELE programs in other Indonesian universities. The aim was to determine
the minimum outcomes that all English Language Education graduates in Indonesia are able to
perform. This minimum statement of outcomes serves as the benchmark or standard that the
J\YYPJ\S\TMVYHSSZPTPSHY,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL,K\JH[PVUWYVNYHTZZOV\SKYLÅLJ[)L`VUK[OLZLNLULYHS
outcomes found in all programs, each course of study, such as the one at our university, can include
additional characteristics that are unique to each program. The ELE program in Satya Wacana
Christian University has two unique characteristics, namely UV]PJLYLZLHYJOLYPU[OLÄLSKVM,UNSPZO
education and English language policy maker at the classroom or school level. As a result, additional
learning outcomes related to these characteristics were included in the curriculum.
67(36WUDWHJLHVWRDFKLHYHWKHOHDUQLQJRXWFRPHV
To achieve the ELE program outcomes, we have developed a four-year program that includes
three dimensions: studying, experiencing, and instruction. Through these three ways of learning,
the students are expected to acquire the skills, knowledge, attitudes, and behavior of a future
professional English language teacher.
Studying. The students will study the concepts and principles of English language teaching and
learning and acquire the body of knowledge that is needed by future English language teachers; they
will develop knowledge of the English language and develop skill and competency in its use; and they
will develop the knowledge and skills needed to read and understand research as well as carry out
research related to English language teaching.
Experiencing. ;OL WYVNYHT HSZV VќLYZ L_WLYPLU[PHS SLHYUPUN [V WYV]PKL VWWVY[\UP[PLZ MVY Z[\KLU[Z
to apply the knowledge they have acquired. All courses are conducted in English to help students
develop their skills in English. Teaching practice in schools also gives students opportunities to meet
practitioners in local schools and to apply the knowledge they have acquired.
Instruction. The students also learn through direct instruction in class. This learning is characterized
by lectures, discussions, structured tasks, online discussion, and presentations.
A number of decisions had to be made in the process of developing the course structure:
1. ;OL TVZ[ HWWYVWYPH[L JVU[LU[ RUV^SLKNL [OH[ ILZ[ YLÅLJ[Z [OL SLHYUPUN V\[JVTLZ OHK [V IL
chosen as the core of the program.
2. The design of individual courses in the curriculum had to take account of decisions related
to credit weighting and distribution of courses throughout each semester. For each course,
YLSL]HU[ HYLHZ VM JVU[LU[ RUV^SLKNL ^LYL PKLU[PÄLK -VY L_HTWSL [OL [HISL ILSV^ ZOV^Z [OL
relevant areas of content knowledge from the curriculum for the course Teaching English to Adult
Learners (TEAL).
COURSE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AREAS
Curriculum, Syllabus & Material Design for TEAL
Language Testing & Assessment for TEAL

TEACHING ENGLISH FOR
Teaching Methods & Approaches for TEAL
ADULT LEARNERS (TEAL)
Educational Psychology for adult learners
Psychology of Language Learning for Adult Learners
The weighting of each course was determined based on Anderson and Krathwohl’s (2001)
Taxonomy. For example, courses which require students to analyze and synthesize have a higher
credit weighting than courses which require students to understand concepts but not to analyze
and synthesize.
3. The syllabus for individual courses had to be developed to help learners achieve the targeted
knowledge, skills, and competences stated in the learning outcomes.

Courses in the curriculum are divided into four kinds, namely language skills, applied linguistics,
SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN HUK SHUN\HNL YLZLHYJO JV\YZLZ 3HUN\HNL ZRPSSZ JV\YZLZ HYL VќLYLK PU [OL
ÄYZ[ `LHY VM [OL WYVNYHT [V M\Y[OLY KL]LSVW [OL Z[\KLU[Z» ZRPSSZ PU YLHKPUN ^YP[PUN SPZ[LUPUN HUK
speaking. English grammar is taught within the context of skills. In the second and third years,
applied linguistics and language teaching courses are introduced. Students explore concepts and
theories, analyze contexts and examples, and evaluate materials. Courses include Sociolinguistics,
Teaching English for Adult Learners, Teaching English for Young Learners, Teaching English for
:WLJPÄJ 7\YWVZLZ, and Current Issues in TESOL 0U [OL ÄUHS `LHY Z[\KLU[Z KV [OLPY [LHJOPUN
practicum and prepare a mini thesis. Preparation for the thesis is provided in the second semester
of the third year.

0UNLULYHS[OLJV\YZLZYLÅLJ[(UKLYZVUHUK2YH[O^VOS»Z;H_VUVT`HUK[OLWYPUJPWSLZVMIHJR^HYK
design. Learning outcomes are already agreed and various methods and techniques are chosen to
HJOPL]L[OLT6UJL[OLKLZPYLKYLZ\S[Z^LYLPKLU[PÄLKPU[OLKLZJYPW[PVUVM[OLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZ
learning methods and techniques were chosen to provide students with ways of achieving the
learning outcomes (Wiggins and McTighe 2005).
In general, we seek to achieve student-centered learning in all courses, with a focus on autonomous
learning. For this reason, active teaching and learning techniques are employed in most courses.
Teachers are free to choose teacher-guided instructional tasks or assignments, and students are
given the responsibility of deciding how they will learn and complete tasks. Students are expected
[V HJ[P]LS` ZLLR PUMVYTH[PVU HUK ÄUK ZVS\[PVUZ ;LHJOLYZ HYL L_WLJ[LK [V WYV]PKL HTWSL [PTL MVY
consultations. This approach is particularly relevant to courses that require students to demonstrate
practical skills and abilities, such as when preparing for class presentations, micro-teaching, and
materials development. However, when appropriate, traditional lecture-based teaching is adopted by
teachers, e.g., when basic theories and concepts are introduced. In such cases, lectures are always
followed by classroom discussion to encourage students’ active participation and encourage critical
thinking. Blended learning is also made use of with a mix of classroom-based teaching and out-of-
class internet-based learning, but the course coordination team may decide the teaching methods
most appropriate to each course.

The aim is to provide a stimulating learning environment to support learning with maximum use of
authentic materials, technology and the media. Web-based sources such as YouTube, and print
materials such as newspapers, magazines, and realia play an important part. For content courses,
articles, academic books, and teacher-prepared materials are used as well as specially designed
SLHYUPUNTVK\SLZ[OH[JVU[HPUKPќLYLU[MVYTZVMPUW\[HUKYLSH[LK[HZRZ
'LG\RXH[SHULHQFHDQ\GLτFXOWLHVLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFXUULFXOXP"
;OL TVZ[ KPѝJ\S[ PZZ\L [OH[ LTLYNLK K\YPUN [OL KL]LSVWTLU[ VM [OL ,3, WYVNYHT J\YYPJ\S\T ^HZ
YLZPZ[HUJLMYVTZVTLTLTILYZVM[OL[LHJOPUNZ[Hќ[V[OLULLK[VNYV\WYLSH[LKJVU[LU[RUV^SLKNL
areas in order to form one course with larger credits. For example, in the past the course Curriculum
and Materials Development was not linked to the course Language Assessment. Similarly, grammar
OHKWYL]PV\ZSÌLLU[H\NO[ZLWHYH[LS`MYVT^YP[PUNJV\YZLZ3PURPUNSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`[V[OLZRPSS
IHZLKJV\YZLZ^HZKPѝJ\S[MVYZVTLPUZ[Y\J[VYZ
Another issue arises from the fact that English is needed in Indonesia in order to communicate with
citizens of neighboring countries rather than with native speakers in English-speaking countries. The
notion of English as an international language requires a shift in mind-set for teachers, and this has
not always happened.
What role does assessment play in the curriculum?

Assessment plays an important role in the curriculum and serves to help students attain the learning
outcomes. A philosophy of assessment for learning rather than assessment of learning guides
the approach we use. Rather than using assessment as a way of grading students’ work and
performance, relevant assessment rubrics are designed at the start, together with the course plan.
Students are therefore familiar with the rubrics and the assessment requirements and focus on these
throughout the course.
Various forms of assessment are employed instead of relying on tests or exams. Most courses
base assessment on group-work projects, classroom seminars or presentation, and essay
papers. Speaking courses make use of authentic speaking tasks as a basis for assessment,
such as giving a poster presentation, interviewing people from other faculties and reporting the
results in a presentation, role plays, or discussions. These are an alternative to paper tests,
since tests of that kind do not enable the students to demonstrate their real communicative
abilities in English.
References
Anderson, L. W., and D. R. Krathwohl et al. 2001. A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing:
A revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of educational objectives)VZ[VU4(!(SSÙ )HJVU7LHYZVU
,K\JH[PVU.YV\W
>PNNPUZ . HUK 1 4J;PNOL Understanding by design: ( MYHTL^VYR MVY LќLJ[PUN J\YYPJ\SHY
development and assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Christian Rudianto is a faculty member of Satya Wacana Christian University and is involved in
teaching in the English Language Education program as well as with curriculum development for
the Pre-service English Teacher Education Program. He holds an MA in Applied Linguistics from
Macquarie University, Australia. His research interests include the role of English in Indonesia,
language teaching, and curriculum development.
2 SYLLABUS DESIGN: A BRIEF
HISTORY
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The following aspects of syllabus design will be discussed in this chapter:
• The nature of syllabus design • Vocabulary selection

• Selection and gradation • Grammar selection
Case study 3 A course in English for baristas Kyle Smith
Introduction
The history of curriculum development in language teaching starts with the notion of syllabus
design. Syllabus design is a key aspect of forward design in curriculum development. A syllabus is
HZWLJPÄJH[PVUVM[OLJVU[LU[VMHJV\YZLVMPUZ[Y\J[PVUHUKPUJS\KLZÔH[^PSSIL[H\NO[HUK[LZ[LK
Thus, the syllabus for a speaking course might specify the kinds of oral skills that will be taught and
practiced during the course, the functions, topics, or other aspects of conversation that will be taught,
and the order in which they will appear in the course. Syllabus design is the process of developing
a syllabus. Curriculum development is a more comprehensive process than syllabus design. It
includes the processes that are used to determine the needs of a group of learners, to develop aims
or objectives for a program to address those needs, to determine an appropriate syllabus, course
structure, teaching methods, and materials, and to carry out an evaluation of the language program
that results from these processes.
Curriculum development in language teaching as we know it today really began in the 1960s,
though issues of syllabus design emerged as a major factor in language teaching much earlier. It
continues to be an issue of considerable importance in curriculum design. In this chapter we will
SVVRH[[OLHWWYVHJOLZ[VZ`SSHI\ZKLZPNU[OH[LTLYNLKPU[OLÄYZ[WHY[VM[OL[^LU[PL[OJLU[\Y`HUK
laid the foundations for the more broadly based curriculum approaches that are used in language
teaching today.
Do you teach to a syllabus? What kind of information does the syllabus include?
2.1 The nature of syllabus design

A syllabus is a framework for teaching that divides the content of learning into teachable elements
HUK[OLUZLX\LUJLZ[OLZLPU[VHULќLJ[P]LVYKLYMVY[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNWHY[VM[OLWYVJLZZ^L
referred to in Chapter 1 as forward design.
content SYLLABUS method outcomes assessment
35
Docking (1994, 10) describes the nature of a syllabus:
the traditional approach to developing a syllabus involves using one’s understanding of sub-
ject matter as the basis for syllabus planning. One starts with the field of knowledge that one
is going to teach (e.g. contemporary European history, marketing, listening comprehension,
or French literature) and then selects concepts, knowledge, and skills that constitute that
field of knowledge. A syllabus and the course content are then developed around the subject.
Objectives may also be specified, but these usually have little role in teaching or assessing of
the subject. Assessment of students is usually based on norm referencing, that is, students
will be graded on a single scale with the expectation that they spread across a wide range of
scores or that they conform to a pre-set distribution.
;OLÄYZ[NLULYH[PVUVMZ`SSHI\ZLZMVY[OL[LHJOPUNVM,UNSPZOKL]LSVWLKPU[OLÄYZ[OHSMVM[OL[^LU[PL[O
JLU[\Y`YLÅLJ[LK[OYLLHZZ\TW[PVUZ!
1. Language analysis provides the basis for language teaching. The pioneers in the history
of language teaching were British pedagogues such as Harold Palmer (1877–1949) and
Michael West (1888–1973) and the US linguist Charles Fries (1887–1967), who believed
that by analyzing language into its basic components one would arrive at a set of units
(structures, tenses, grammatical items) that could be used as the framework for language
courses. Their work resulted in the development of grammatical syllabuses and word lists
that were widely used in developing the first generation of global English language courses.
The Canadian curriculum theorist Ted Aoki characterized this as an approach that views
languages as codes that can be analyzed into “atomic units,” which are then recombined into
larger units. Language learning is described as a process of encoding and decoding and the
development of linguistic competence involves mastering the lexical and grammatical rules
of the code. Aoki saw this approach to curriculum as one reflecting “the predominance of
machinery” [i.e., technology – JCR].
2. The basic units of language are vocabulary and grammar. As the comment above suggests, a
second assumption of applied linguists like Palmer and Fries was that grammar and vocabulary
^LYL [OL WYPTHY` I\PSKPUN ISVJRZ VM ZLJVUK SHUN\HNL WYVÄJPLUJ` ;OL ÄYZ[ NLULYH[PVU
VM Z`SSHI\ZLZ MVY SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN YLÅLJ[LK [OPZ ]PL^ HZ ^L ^PSS ZLL ILSV^ 6UJL ZVTL
system and order could be introduced into vocabulary and grammar teaching through careful
syllabus planning, it was believed that language teaching could be put on a more rational and
ZJPLU[PÄJIHZPZ
3. Learners everywhere have the same needs. At the same time, the focus in language teaching
during this period (the 1920s and 1930s) was on “general English,” or as it has been described,
“English for no obvious purpose.” It was assumed that a set of basic vocabulary items together
with a core set of grammatical structures would serve the needs of learners everywhere. It was
UV[YLJVNUPaLK\U[PST\JOSH[LY[OH[SLHYULYZ»ULLKZHYLVM[LU]LY`KPќLYLU[KLWLUKPUNVU[OLPY
circumstances and their purposes for learning a second language and that one size glove will
UV[Ä[L]LY`VUL
Have you tried to learn a new language recently? How much attention did you give to building
up your knowledge of the vocabulary and grammar of the language?
2 Syllabus design: a brief history • 37
;OLHZZ\TW[PVUZHIV]LSLK[VWYVJLK\YLZMVYKL]LSVWPUN[OLÄYZ[M\SS`LSHIVYH[LKZ`SSHI\ZLZMVY[OL
[LHJOPUNVM,UNSPZO;^VWYVJLZZLZ^LYLPKLU[PÄLKHZJLU[YHS[VZ`SSHI\ZKLZPNUPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN!
selection and gradation, or sequencing.
2.2 Selection and gradation

0UHU`SHUN\HNLWYVNYHT[OLYLHYLSPTP[Z[V[OLHTV\U[VM[PTLH]HPSHISLMVY[LHJOPUN6ULVM[OLÄYZ[
problems to be solved is deciding what should be selected from the total corpus of the language and
incorporated in textbooks and teaching materials. This came to be known as the problem of selection.
Mackey (1965, 161) comments: “Selection is an inherent characteristic of all methods. Since it is
impossible to teach the whole of a language, all methods must in some way or other, whether intentionally
VYUV[ZLSLJ[[OLWHY[VMP[[OL`PU[LUK[V[LHJO¹;OLÄLSKVMZLSLJ[PVUPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNKLHSZ^P[O
the choice of appropriate units of the language for teaching purposes – vocabulary, grammar, functions,
texts, skills, competencies, etc. – and with the development of techniques and procedures by which the
language can be reduced to what is most useful to the learner. All teaching, of course, demands a choice
VMÔH[^PSSIL[H\NO[MYVT[OL[V[HSÄLSKVM[OLZ\IQLJ[HUK[OL[LHJOPUNVMHSHUN\HNLH[HU`SL]LSHUK
under any circumstances requires the selection of certain features of the language and the intentional
VY\UPU[LU[PVUHSL_JS\ZPVUVMV[OLYZ;^VHZWLJ[ZVMZLSLJ[PVUYLJLP]LKWYPTHY`H[[LU[PVUPU[OLÄYZ[ML^
decades of the twentieth century: vocabulary selection and grammar selection. Approaches to these two
aspects of selection laid the foundations for syllabus design in language teaching.
What do you think would be the best way to determine the most important items of vocabulary
and grammar in a language?
2. 3 Vocabulary selection
Vocabulary provides the basis for expressing meaning in a language, and a key part of any language
program is how it addresses vocabulary learning. Targets for vocabulary learning depend on the
objectives of the course and the amount of time available for teaching. Educated native speakers are
thought to have a recognition vocabulary of some 17,000 words, but this is a much larger number
of words than can be taught in a language course. Not all the words that native speakers know are
necessarily useful for second language learners, who have only a limited amount of time available for
learning. Should they set out to learn 500, 1,000, or 5,000 words? And if so, which ones? The most
obvious way to address this question is to record samples of spoken or written language and count
which words are used most often, that is, to investigate word frequencies. The frequency with which
words are used is obviously an important factor in choosing vocabulary for language teaching.
Some of the earliest approaches to vocabulary selection involved counting large collections of texts
to determine the frequency with which words occurred, since it would seem obvious that words
VM OPNOLZ[ MYLX\LUJ` ZOV\SK IL [H\NO[ ÄYZ[ /V^L]LY ÔH[ RPUKZ VM TH[LYPHS ZOV\SK IL HUHSàLK&
6I]PV\ZS` H MYLX\LUJ` JV\U[ IHZLK VU JOPSKYLU»Z IVVRZ TPNO[ PKLU[PM` H KPќLYLU[ ZL[ VM ^VYKZ
from what an analysis of words used in The New Yorker TPNO[ ÄUK. The earliest frequency counts
undertaken for language teaching were based on analysis of popular reading materials and resulted
in a word frequency list. (This was in the days before technology made it possible to analyze words
used in the spoken language and in printed sources.) Word frequency research revealed some
interesting facts about vocabulary usage. For example, it was discovered that a small class of words
accounted for up to 95% of the words used in everyday texts. Hirsch (forthcoming) reports that “a
vocabulary size of 4,000–5,000 words is seen as providing 95% lexical coverage of written texts,
while knowledge of 8,000–9,000 words can provide 98% coverage of written texts.” However, even
with a knowledge of 5,000 words, one or two words per line will still not be understood, and these
HYLVM[LU[OLRL`^VYKZPU[OL[L_[ZPUJL[OL`YLÅLJ[[OL[VWPJVM[OL[L_[HUK[OLUL^PUMVYTH[PVUPU
it. As Van Els et al. (1984, 206) point out:
Text comprehension is not just a function of the proportion of familiar words, but depends on a
number of other factors as well, such as the subject matter of the text, the way in which the writ-
er approaches the subject, and the extent to which the reader is already familiar with the subject.
+V`V\ÄUKZVTL[L_[ZKPѝJ\S[[VYLHK&>OH[KV`V\[OPURHJJV\U[ZMVY[OLPYKPѝJ\S[`&
In order to ensure that the frequency of occurrence of words in a corpus corresponds to their relative
importance for language learners, the texts or language samples chosen as the basis for the corpus
must be relevant to the needs of target learners, and words must be frequent in a wide range of
KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM SHUN\HNL ZHTWSLZ Z\JO HZ ÄJ[PVU QV\YUHSPZT VY I\ZPULZZ JVTT\UPJH[PVU ;OPZ
indicates a word’s range or dispersion in a corpus.
The nature of a corpus
A corpus is a collection of spoken or written texts that has been put together in order to be
able to study how words and lexical expressions are used. The collection can be analyzed using
software designed for this purpose. The British National Corpus (www.natcorp.ox.ac.uk/corpus/)
consists of over 100 million words.
See Appendix 1 for a list of the most frequent content words in the British National Corpus.
Words with the highest frequency and the widest range are considered to be the most useful ones for
[OLW\YWVZLZVMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN;OLMVSSV^PUNÄN\YLZPSS\Z[YH[L[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLUMYLX\LUJ`
HUK YHUNL PU H TPSSPVU^VYK JVYW\Z JP[LK PU 4J*HY[O` ¶ -VY L]LY` ^VYK [OL ÄYZ[
column gives the frequency of the word in the corpus, the second column describes the number of
[L_[[`WLZ[OL^VYKVJJ\YYLKPULNZWVY[Z^YP[PUNÄSTYL]PL^ZUL^ZWHWLYLKP[VYPHSZV\[VMH[V[HS
of 15. The third column tells the number of individual text samples a word occurred in: the maximum
number is 500 samples, each of which is 200 words long.
Sections 49 8 36
Farmers 49 8 24
Worship 49 8 22
Earnings 49 7 15
Huge 48 11 39
Address 48 11 36
Conscious 47 14 34
Protest 47 13 33
Dependent 47 07 30
Comfort 46 14 39
Exciting 46 13 37
In developing a vocabulary syllabus, however, it was soon realized that frequency and range were not
Z\ѝJPLU[HZHIHZPZMVYKL]LSVWPUN^VYKSPZ[ZILJH\ZL^VYKZ^P[OOPNOMYLX\LUJ`HUK^PKLYHUNLPU
written texts are not necessarily the most teachable words in an introductory language course. Words
such as book, pen, desk, dictionary, for example, are not frequent words yet might be needed early
VUPUHSHUN\HNLJV\YZL6[OLYJYP[LYPH^LYL[OLYLMVYLHSZV\ZLKPUKL[LYTPUPUN]VJHI\SHY`Z`SSHI\ZLZ
for language teaching. These included the following:
Teachability. In a course taught following the Direct Method (a method where translation is not used)
or a method such as Total Physical Response (a method that teaches meaning through actions),
concrete vocabulary is taught early on because it can easily be illustrated through pictures or by
demonstration (Richards and Rodgers 2014).
Similarity. Some items may be selected because they are similar to words in the native language. For
example, English and French have many cognates such as table, page, and nation, and this may
justify their inclusion in a word list for French-speaking learners.
Availability. Some words may not be frequent but are readily “available” in the sense that they come
quickly to mind when certain topics are thought of. For example, classroom calls to mind desk,
chair, whiteboard, teacher, and pupil, and these words might therefore be worth teaching early in
a course.
List ten words that come to mind when you think of “items of food and drink that I often
consume.” Then compare your list with those of others. How similar were they?
Coverage. Words that cover or include the meaning of other words may also be useful. For example,
seat might be taught because it includes the meanings of stool, bench, and chair.
+LÄUPUNWV^LY:VTL^VYKZJV\SKILZLSLJ[LKILJH\ZL[OL`HYL\ZLM\SPUKLÄUPUNV[OLY^VYKZL]LU
though they are not among the most frequent words in the language. For example, container might
IL\ZLM\SILJH\ZLP[JHUOLSWKLÄULbucket, jar, and carton.
Communicative need. Some words might be needed early on in a course based on the learners’
communicative needs. For example, in a basic travel-survival course, learners will needs words related
to greetings, buying and bargaining, signs, places in a city, accommodation, food, and so on (Nation
and Crabbe 2011).
The procedures of vocabulary selection lead to the compilation of a basic vocabulary or lexical
syllabus, that is, a target vocabulary for a language course usually grouped or graded into levels,
such as the first 500 words, the second 500 words, and so on. Word frequency research has
been an active area of language research since the 1920s and continues to be so because of
the ease with which word frequencies and patterns of word distribution can be identified using
JVTW\[LYZ6ULVM[OLTVZ[PTWVY[HU[SL_PJHSZ`SSHI\ZLZPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN^HZ4PJOHLS>LZ[»Z
A General Service List of English Words (1953), which contained a list of some 2,000 “general
service words considered suitable as the basis for learning English as a foreign language” (p. vii).
The list also presents information on the frequencies of different meanings of each word based on
a semantic frequency count. The aim of the General Service List was in effect to simplify English
in order to make it more teachable. As Jeffrey (1953, v) stated in the preface to West’s book:
“To find the minimum number of words that could operate together in constructions capable of
entering into the greatest variety of contexts has therefore been the chief aim of those trying to
simplify English for the learner.”
The General Service List was for many years a standard reference in making decisions about what
words to use in coursebooks, graded readers, and other teaching materials. Hindmarsh (1980)
developed another important vocabulary syllabus containing 4,500 words grouped into seven levels,
and there have been a number of similar attempts since then, including the word list contained in
Threshold Level (Van Ek and Alexander 1975).
Today a lexical syllabus for language learning at a basic level consists of a core vocabulary that is
JVTTVU [V THU` KPќLYLU[ KVTHPUZ NLUYLZ HUK [L_[ [`WLZ 0U HKKP[PVU SLHYULYZ ULLK [V I\PSK \W
TVYL ZWLJPHSPaLK ]VJHI\SHY` YLSH[LK [V [OLPY VÛ ÄLSKZ VM PU[LYLZ[ HUK ULLKZ ÔL[OLY [OLZL IL
academic, occupational, or social. (See Appendix 2 for the Academic Word List, a list of 570 words
that are not part of a core vocabulary but that are common across a range of academic disciplines.)
6»2LLќL4J*HY[O`HUK*HY[LY¶Z\NNLZ[[OH[IHZLKVU[OLPYYLZLHYJOVU[OLMYLX\LUJ`
of items in spoken English, a basic or core spoken English vocabulary for second language learners
^V\SKJVU[HPUZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[JH[LNVYPLZVM^VYKZ!
• Modal items: words describing degrees of certainty or necessity, including modal verbs such as
can, must, should, etc.; lexical modals such as look, seem, sound; and adverbs such as may,
probably, KLÄUP[LS`, and apparently.
• Delexical verbs: words with little lexical content but high frequency, such as do, make, take, get,
and their collocations with nouns, prepositional phrases, and particles.
• Stance words: words that communicate the speaker’s attitude toward something and include
words such as just, whatever, actually, really, basically, clearly, honestly, and unfortunately.
• Discourse markers: words that are used to organize talk and monitor its progress, such as you
know, I mean, right, well, good, and anyway.
• Basic nouns: nouns referring to common activities, events, situations, places, and people, such
as person, problem, trouble, birthday; days of the week; family members; and colors.
• General deictics: words that relate the speaker to the world in terms of time and space, such as
here, there, now, then, and ago.
• Basic adjectives: words that communicate everyday positive and negative evaluations of
situations, people, events, and things, such as lovely, nice, horrible, brilliant, terrible, and great.
• Basic adverbs: adverbs of high frequency referring to time, frequency, and habituality, such as
today, tomorrow, always, usually, suddenly, and quickly.
• Basic verbs for actions and events: verbs describing everyday activities, such as give, leave, feel,
put, and say.
Can you add other examples of discourse markers to those in the list above?
)L`VUK[OLJVYL]VJHI\SHY`6»2LLќLL[HS¶ Z\NNLZ[¸HYLJLW[P]L]VJHI\SHY`VMZVTL
5,000 to 6,000 words would appear to be a good threshold at which to consider learners at the top
of the intermediate level.” (See Appendixes 1 and 2 for two recent vocabulary lists: a list of the most
frequent words in a large corpus of contemporary English and the Academic Word List.)
2.4 Grammar selection

The need for a systematic approach to selecting grammar for teaching purposes was also a priority
for applied linguists from the 1920s. The number of syntactic structures in a language is large, as is
seen from the contents of any grammar book, and a number of attempts have been made to develop
basic structure lists for language teaching (e.g., Fries 1952; Hornby 1954; Alexander et al. 1975). The
need for grammatical selection is seen in the following examples from Wilkins (1976, 59), which are
some of the structures that can be used for the speech act of “asking permission.”
Can/may I use your telephone, please?

Please let me use your telephone.
Is it all right to use your telephone?
If it’s all right with you, I’ll use your telephone.
Am I allowed to use your telephone?
Do you mind if I use your telephone?
Do you mind me using your telephone?
Would you mind if I used your telephone?
You don’t mind if I use your telephone (do you)?
I wonder if you have any objection to me using your telephone?
Would you permit me to use your telephone?
Would you be so kind as to allow me to use your telephone?
Would it be possible for me to use your telephone?
Do you think you could let me use your telephone?
How do some of the expressions on the list above indicate politeness?
How can one determine which of these structures would be useful to teach? Traditionally, the
grammar items included in a course were determined by the teaching method in use, and there was
consequently a great deal of variation in what items were taught and when.
The majority of courses started with finites of be and statements of identification (“This is a
pen”, etc.). Courses that gave prominence to reading presented the Simple tenses (essential
for narrative) early, but those that claimed to use an oral approach, such as the Direct Method,
presented the Progressive (or Continuous) Tense first and postponed the Simple tenses.
(Hornby 1959, xiv)
From the 1930s applied linguists began applying principles of selection to the design of grammatical
syllabuses. However, whereas those working on vocabulary selection arrived at their word lists
through empirical means, starting with word frequency lists, before the advent of computers and the
establishment of large databases or corpuses for language analysis, grammatical syllabuses were
generally based not on the frequency of occurrence of grammatical items in texts but on intuitive
criteria of simplicity and learnability. The goal has been to develop a list of structures, graded into a
logical progression, which would provide an accessible and gradual introduction to the grammar of
English. The approach used has been analytic. The following principles have been used or suggested
as a basis for developing grammatical syllabuses.
Simplicity and centrality. This recommends choosing structures that are simple and more central to
the basic structure of the language than those that are complex and peripheral. By these criteria the
following would occur in an introductory-level English course:
– The train arrived. (Subject Verb)
– She is a journalist. (Subject Verb Complement)
– The children are in the bedroom. (Subject Verb Adverb)
– We ate the fruit. :\IQLJ[=LYI6IQLJ[

– I put the book in the bag. :\IQLJ[=LYI6IQLJ[(K]LYI
The following would be excluded by the same criteria:
– Having neither money nor time, we decided buying a ticket to the opera was out of the
question.
– For her to speak to us like that was something we had never anticipated.
Frequency. Frequency of occurrence has also been proposed in developing grammatical

syllabuses, but relatively little progress was made in this area for some time because of the
difficulty of deciding on appropriate grammatical units to count and the difficulty of coding
grammatical structures for analysis. However, corpus research has allowed the use and frequency
of grammatical structures in real language to be examined. Not surprisingly, there are often
significant differences between the lists of grammatical structures developed intuitively by applied
linguists and the information revealed in analyses of corpuses of real language. McCarthy and
Carter (1995), for example, report on data taken from a corpus of conversational language and
identify a number of features of spoken grammar not typically included in standard teaching
syllabuses. For example:
– Subject and verb ellipsis, such as “Don’t know” instead of “I don’t know.”
– Topic highlighting, such as “That house on the corner, is that where you live?”
– Tails, such as the following phrases at the end of sentences: “you know,” “don’t they?”
– Reporting verbs, such as “I was saying,” “They were telling me.”
Why do you think the simple present and the simple past tense are the most frequent tense
forms in English?
Learnability. It has sometimes been argued that grammatical syllabuses should take into account
the order in which grammatical items are acquired in second language learning. The idea that
grammatical structures are acquired in a natural order and that this order should inform teaching
has been proposed by a number of applied linguists (e.g., Pienemann 1989). However, little reliable
PUMVYTH[PVUVUHJX\PZP[PVUZLX\LUJLZOHZILLUWYVK\JLK[OH[JV\SKILVMWYHJ[PJHSILULÄ[PUWSHUUPUN
a grammar syllabus.
In addition to decisions about which grammatical items to include in a syllabus, the sequencing or
gradation of grammatical items has to be determined. Gradation is concerned with the grouping
HUK ZLX\LUJPUN VM [LHJOPUN P[LTZ PU H Z`SSHI\Z ( NYHTTH[PJHS Z`SSHI\Z ZWLJPÄLZ IV[O [OL ZL[
of grammatical structures to be taught and the order in which they should be taught. Palmer, a
pioneer in work on vocabulary and grammar selection, explains the principle of gradation in this
way ([1922] 1968, 68):
The grammatical material must be graded. Certain moods and tenses are more useful than
others; let us therefore concentrate on the useful ones first. In a language possessing a num-
ber of cases, we will not learn off the whole set of prepositions, their uses and requirements,
but we will select them in accordance with their degree of importance. As for lists of rules and
exceptions, if we learn them at all we will learn them in strict order of necessity. In most lan-
guages we shall probably find certain fundamental laws of grammar and syntax upon which
the whole structure of the language depends; if our course is to comprise the conscious study
of the mechanism of a given language, then, in accordance with the principle of gradation, let
us first learn these essentials and leave the details to a later stage.
The need to sequence course content in a systematic way is by no means a recent concern. The
seventeenth-century scholar Comenius (summarized by Mackey 1965, 205) argued:
The beginning should be slow and accurate, rightly understood and immediately tested.
Unless the first layer is firm, nothing should be built on it; for the whole structure will be
developed from the foundations. All parts should be bound together so that one flows out of
the other, and later units include earlier ones. Whatever precedes forms a step to what follows
and the last step should be traceable to the first by a clear chain of connection.
Some criteria to be taken into account when considering approaches to gradation are discussed
IYPLÅÌLSV^
0U[YPUZPJKPѝJ\S[`This principle argues that simple structures should be taught before complex ones
and is the commonest criterion used to justify the sequence of grammatical items in a syllabus.
What do you think advanced-level grammar enables a learner to do that cannot be achieved
with simpler grammar?
Communicative need. Some structures will be needed early on and cannot be postponed, despite
[OLPY KPѝJ\S[`" Z\JO PZ [OL JHZL ^P[O [OL ZPTWSL WHZ[ PU ,UNSPZO ZPUJL P[ PZ KPѝJ\S[ [V H]VPK THRPUN
reference to past events for very long in a course.
Frequency. The frequency of occurrence of structures and grammatical items in the target language
TH`HSZVHќLJ[[OLVYKLYPUÔPJO[OL`HWWLHYPUHZ`SSHI\ZHS[OV\NOMYLX\LUJ`TH`HSZVJVTWL[L
with other criteria. The present continuous is not one of the most frequent verb forms in English,
yet it is often introduced early in a language course because it is relatively easy to demonstrate and
practice in a classroom context.
Linguistic distance. Lado (1957) proposed that structures that are similar to those in the
native language should be taught first. “Those elements that are similar to [the learner’s] native
language will be simple for him and those elements that are different will be difficult” (Lado
1957, 2). This assumption underlay the approach to language comparison known as contrastive
analysis.
In addition to these factors, when designing a course one is also faced with a choice between
two approaches to the sequencing of items in the course, namely, a linear or a cyclical or
spiral gradation. With a linear gradation, the items are introduced one at a time and practiced
intensively before the next item appears. With a cyclical gradation, items are reintroduced
throughout the course.
In a course in which the material is ordered cyclically the individual items are not presented
and discussed exhaustively, as in strictly linear gradation, but only essential aspects of the
item in question are presented initially. These items then keep recurring in the course, and
every time new aspects will be introduced which will be related to and integrated with what
has already been learned.
(Van Els et al. 1984, 228)
Although few would doubt the advantages of cyclical over linear gradation, in practice such recycling
is usually left to the teacher because cyclical gradation would often result in textbooks that were
excessively long.
In the 1940s, beginners’ courses in English began to appear in which principles of vocabulary
and grammatical control were evident and in which grammatical structures were organized into
graded sequences. The methods in use at the time placed a major emphasis on the learning
of “structures.” The US linguist Fries outlined the major structures he thought foreign students
needed to learn in his books Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language (1946) and The
Structure of English (1952), and these formed the grammar component for courses and materials
KL]LSVWLKH[[OLPUÅ\LU[PHS,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL0UZ[P[\[LVM[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM4PJOPNHU;OL4PJOPNHU
TH[LYPHSZ ^P[O [OLPY MVJ\Z VU [OL JVYL NYHTTH[PJHS Z[Y\J[\YLZ VM ,UNSPZO ZVVU JHTL [V PUÅ\LUJL
all materials developed in the United States for teaching ESL students and became the dominant
methodology in that country for more than 20 years (Darian 1972). In Britain, Hornby built on the
WYL^HY LќVY[Z VM 7HSTLY VU [OL NYHKPUN VM ZLU[LUJL WH[[LYUZ HUK KL]LSVWLK H JVTWYLOLUZP]L
grammatical syllabus (together with a structural approach to teaching English) in his books Guide to
Patterns and Usage in English (1954) and The Teaching of Structural Words and Sentence Patterns
(1959). These set out the basic grammatical structures needed in English language syllabuses
HUK JV\YZLZ H[ KPќLYLU[SL]LSZ;OLYLZ\S[PUNWLKHNVNPJHS NYHTTHY VM ,UNSPZO VY ]HYPH[PVUZ VU P[
formed the basis for the grammatical syllabus of most teaching materials produced at that time (see
(WWLUKP_ :PUJL [OLU V[OLY SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN ZWLJPHSPZ[Z OH]L YLÄULK HUK M\Y[OLY KL]LSVWLK
NYHTTH[PJHSZ`SSHI\ZZWLJPÄJH[PVUZHZHIHZPZMVYJV\YZLKLZPNUHUKTH[LYPHSZKL]LSVWTLU[LN
Alexander et al. 1975).
Do your students have a grammar reference book? How do you think they use it?
Although both lexical and grammatical syllabuses have provided important guidelines for the
KL]LSVWTLU[VMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN[L_[IVVRZHUKTH[LYPHSZZPUJL[OLÄYZ[Z\JOZ`SSHI\ZLZHWWLHYLK
in the 1920s, it is grammar syllabuses that have been regarded as the core of a language course or
program. As Wilkins notes (1976, 7):
The use of a grammatical syllabus can be regarded as the conventional approach to language
teaching since the majority of syllabuses and published courses have as their core an ordered
list of grammatical structures. The vocabulary content is secondary in importance and certain-
ly rarely provides the basic structure of a course. The view is widely held that until the major
part of the grammatical system has been learned, the vocabulary load should be held down
to what is pedagogically necessary and to what is desirable for the sake of ensuring adequate
variety in the content of learning.
Conclusions
We can now summarize the assumptions behind the approaches to syllabus design that emerged
PU [OL ÄYZ[ WHY[ VM [OL [^LU[PL[O JLU[\Y` HUK PU [OL WYVJLZZ YL]LHS [OL SPTP[H[PVUZ [OH[ Z\IZLX\LU[
directions in syllabus design sought to address.
( SHUN\HNL PZ PKLU[PÄLK ^P[O P[Z ]VJHI\SHY` HUK NYHTTHY As we have seen, those working in the
traditions discussed in this chapter approached the teaching of English largely through its vocabulary
and grammar. Although the roles of speaking and pronunciation were not ignored during the actual
teaching of the language, the priority in planning was vocabulary and grammar, and these were seen
HZ[OLTHPUJVTWVULU[ZVMWYVÄJPLUJ`PUHZLJVUKSHUN\HNL
Learners are the same everywhere. 0[ ^HZ HZZ\TLK [OH[ H [HYNL[ VM NLULYHS WYVÄJPLUJ` ^V\SK IL
suitable for learners everywhere; hence the title of West’s word list – General Service List. This core
]VJHI\SHY` [VNL[OLY ^P[O [OL IHZPJ NYHTTH[PJHS Z[Y\J[\YLZ PKLU[PÄLK I` /VYUI` HUK 7HSTLY JV\SK
serve as the basis for all general English courses.
3LHYULYZ»ULLKZHYLPKLU[PÄLKL_JS\ZP]LS`PU[LYTZVMSHUN\HNLULLKZNo matter who the learners are

or the circumstances of their learning, it is assumed that mastery of English will solve their problems.
The goal of English teaching is to teach them English – not to teach them how to solve their problems
through English.
The process of learning a language is largely determined by the textbook. The primary input learners
received to the language learning process was the textbook; hence the importance of the principles
of selection and gradation as ways of controlling the content of the textbook and facilitating
language learning.
The context of teaching is English as a foreign language. Most of the early work by Palmer, West,
and Hornby on the development of lexical and grammatical syllabuses was done in contexts where
English was a foreign language, that is, where students studied English as a formal subject in
school but had no immediate need for it outside of the classroom. The classroom and the textbook
provided the primary input to the language learning process, and therefore the goal of syllabus
developers was to simplify and rationalize this input as far as possible through the processes of
selection and gradation.
Changes in the status of English around the world and in the purposes for which English was studied
from the 1940s on led to the next phase in approaches to language curriculum. These changes
and the approaches to language curriculum development that resulted from them are the focus of
Chapter 3.
1. /V^KVLZJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[KPќLYMYVTZ`SSHI\ZKLZPNU&
2. What does a syllabus seek to achieve?
3. >OH[HZZ\TW[PVUZN\PKLK[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OLÄYZ[NLULYH[PVUVMZ`SSHI\ZLZMVY[OL[LHJOPUN
of English?
4. >O`PZ^VYKMYLX\LUJ`PUZ\ѝJPLU[HZHIHZPZMVYKL]LSVWPUNHSL_PJHSZ`SSHI\Z&
5. Can you give examples of words that might be included in a course based on these criteria:
teachability, similarity, availability, coverage,KLÄUPUNWV^LY, communicative need?
6. >OH[JYP[LYPHJHUIL\ZLK[VZLSLJ[NYHTTH[PJHSP[LTZMVYHJV\YZL&6UÔH[IHZPZKV`V\[OPUR
the grammar items in your school coursebooks are chosen?
7. Imagine that you are planning a course for beginners and you will include a unit on “the weather.”
What grammar could be used with this topic?
8. Review the word lists in Appendixes 1 and 2. Choose a 200-word text from any general source
(e.g., a newspaper editorial). How many of the content words in the text are also in the list from
the British National Corpus? Choose a 200-word text from an academic text and compare
the content words in it with the words in the Academic Word List. How many words are in the
Academic Word List?
9. 9LHK*HZLZ[\KÌ`2`SL:TP[OH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY
• Which of the criteria for vocabulary selection discussed in this chapter was used to select
vocabulary for the course?
• What kind of information do you think the vocational trainers would have been able to provide?
• >
OH[KV`V\[OPUR^V\SKOH]LILLU[OLTHPUKPѝJ\S[PLZMHJLKI`SLHYULYZPU[OLPYH[[LTW[[V
achieve success on the course?
APPENDIX 1 The most frequent content words in the British National Corpus
(from Kennedy 1998)
COMMON NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBS
time 1,833 be 42,277 other 1,336 so 1,893
year 1,639 have 13,655 good 1,276 up 1,795
people 1,256 do 5,594 new 1,154 then 1,595
way 1,108 will 3,357 old 648 out 1,542
man 1,003 say 3,344 great 635 now 1,382
day 940 would 2,904 high 574 only 1,298
thing 776 can 2,672 small 518 just 1,277
child 710 get 2,210 different 484 more 1,275
Mr 673 make 2,165 large 471 also 1,248
government 670 go 2,078 local 445 very 1,165
word 653 see 1,920 social 422 well 1,119
life 645 know 1,882 important 392 how 1,016
woman 631 take 1,797 long 392 down 845
system 619 could 1,683 young 379 back 793
case 613 think 1,520 national 376 on 756
part 612 come 1,512 British 357 there 746
group 607 give 1,284 right 354 still 718
A number 606 look 1,151 early 353 even 716
world 600 may 1,135 possible 342 too 701
house 598 should 1,112 big 338 here 699
area 585 use 1,071 little 306 where 628
company 579 find 990 political 306 however 605
problem 565 want 945 able 304 over 584
service 549 tell 775 late 302 in 573
place 534 must 723 general 301 as 567
hand 532 put 700 full 289 most 565
party 529 mean 677 far 288 again 561
school 529 become 675 low 286 never 559
country 486 leave 647 public 285 why 509
point 484 work 646 available 272 off 486
COMMON NOUNS VERBS ADJECTIVES ADVERBS

week 476 need 627 bad 264 really 481
member 471 feel 624 main 245 always 462
end 458 seem 624 sure 241 about 447
state 440 might 614 clear 239 when 431
word 438 ask 610 major 238 quite 412
family 428 show 598 economic 236 much 390
fact 426 try 552 only 231 both 378
head 402 call 535 likely 228 often 376
month 398 provide 505 real 227 away 371
side 398 keep 505 black 226 perhaps 350
business 394 hold 481 particular 223 right 346
night 393 turn 465 international 221 already 343
eye 392 follow 460 special 220 yet 337
home 390 begin 440 difficult 220 later 317
question 390 bring 439 certain 220 almost 316
information 387 like 424 open 219 of course 310
power 385 going to 417 whole 216 far 310
change 384 help 416 white 207 together 308
per cent 384 start 414 free 200 probably 273
interest 376 run 406 short 198 today 263
APPENDIX 2 Headwords of the Academic Word List (Coxhead 2011)

This list contains the head words of the families in the Academic Word List. The list contains 570 head
words and a total of about 3,000 words all together. The numbers indicate the sublist of the Academic
Word List. The Academic Word List is divided into 10 sublists of word families. Each of these sublists
contains 60 words, except for sublist 10, which contains 30 words. For example, abandon and its
family members are in Sublist 8 of the Academic Word List.
abandon 8 adult 7 append 8

abstract 6 advocate 7 appreciate 8
academy 5 affect 2 approach 1
access 4 aggregate 6 appropriate 2
accommodate 9 aid 7 approximate 4
accompany 8 albeit 10 arbitrary 8
accumulate 8 allocate 6 area 1
accurate 6 alter 5 aspect 2
achieve 2 alternative 3 assemble 10
acknowledge 6 ambiguous 8 assess 1
acquire 2 amend 5 assign 6
adapt 7 analogy 9 assist 2
adequate 4 analyse 1 assume 1
adjacent 10 annual 4 assure 9
adjust 5 anticipate 9 attach 6
administration 2 apparent 4 attain 9
attitude 4 conclude 2 deny 7

attribute 4 concurrent 9 depress 10
author 6 conduct 2 derive 1
authority 1 confer 4 design 2
automate 8 confine 9 despite 4
available 1 confirm 7 detect 8
aware 5 conflict 5 deviate 8
behalf 9 conform 8 device 9
benefit 1 consent 3 devote 9
bias 8 consequent 2 differentiate 7
bond 6 considerable 3 dimension 4
brief 6 consist 1 diminish 9
bulk 9 constant 3 discrete 5
capable 6 constitute 1 discriminate 6
capacity 5 constrain 3 displace 8
category 2 construct 2 display 6
cease 9 consult 5 dispose 7
challenge 5 consume 2 distinct 2
channel 7 contact 5 distort 9
chapter 2 contemporary 8 distribute 1
chart 8 context 1 diverse 6
chemical 7 contract 1 document 3
circumstance 3 contradict 8 domain 6
cite 6 contrary 7 domestic 4
civil 4 contrast 4 dominate 3
clarify 8 contribute 3 draft 5
classic 7 controversy 9 drama 8
clause 5 convene 3 duration 9
code 4 converse 9 dynamic 7
coherent 9 convert 7 economy 1
coincide 9 convince 10 edit 6
collapse 10 cooperate 6 element 2
colleague 10 coordinate 3 eliminate 7
commence 9 core 3 emerge 4
comment 3 corporate 3 emphasis 3
commission 2 correspond 3 empirical 7
commit 4 couple 7 enable 5
commodity 8 create 1 encounter 10
communicate 4 credit 2 energy 5
community 2 criteria 3 enforce 5
compatible 9 crucial 8 enhance 6
compensate 3 culture 2 enormous 10
compile 10 currency 8 ensure 3
complement 8 cycle 4 entity 5
complex 2 data 1 environment 1
component 3 debate 4 equate 2
compound 5 decade 7 equip 7
comprehensive 7 decline 5 equivalent 5
comprise 7 deduce 3 erode 9
compute 2 define 1 error 4
conceive 10 definite 7 establish 1
concentrate 4 demonstrate 3 estate 6
concept 1 denote 8 estimate 1
ethic 9 identify 1 isolate 7

ethnic 4 ideology 7 issue 1
evaluate 2 ignorance 6 item 2
eventual 8 illustrate 3 job 4
evident 1 image 5 journal 2
evolve 5 immigrate 3 justify 3
exceed 6 impact 2 label 4
exclude 3 implement 4 labour 1
exhibit 8 implicate 4 layer 3
expand 5 implicit 8 lecture 6
expert 6 imply 3 legal 1
explicit 6 impose 4 legislate 1
exploit 8 incentive 6 levy 10
export 1 incidence 6 liberal 5
expose 5 incline 10 licence 5
external 5 income 1 likewise 10
extract 7 incorporate 6 link 3
facilitate 5 index 6 locate 3
factor 1 indicate 1 logic 5
feature 2 individual 1 maintain 2
federal 6 induce 8 major 1
fee 6 inevitable 8 manipulate 8
file 7 infer 7 manual 9
final 2 infrastructure 8 margin 5
finance 1 inherent 9 mature 9
finite 7 inhibit 6 maximise 3
flexible 6 initial 3 mechanism 4
fluctuate 8 initiate 6 media 7
focus 2 injure 2 mediate 9
format 9 innovate 7 medical 5
formula 1 input 6 medium 9
forthcoming 10 insert 7 mental 5
foundation 7 insight 9 method 1
found 9 inspect 8 migrate 6
framework 3 instance 3 military 9
function 1 institute 2 minimal 9
fund 3 instruct 6 minimise 8
fundamental 5 integral 9 minimum 6
furthermore 6 integrate 4 ministry 6
gender 6 integrity 10 minor 3
generate 5 intelligence 6 mode 7
generation 5 intense 8 modify 5
globe 7 interact 3 monitor 5
goal 4 intermediate 9 motive 6
grade 7 internal 4 mutual 9
grant 4 interpret 1 negate 3
guarantee 7 interval 6 network 5
guideline 8 intervene 7 neutral 6
hence 4 intrinsic 10 nevertheless 6
hierarchy 7 invest 2 nonetheless 10
highlight 8 investigate 4 norm 9
hypothesis 4 invoke 10 normal 2
identical 7 involve 1 notion 5
notwithstanding 10 priority 7 role 1

nuclear 8 proceed 1 route 9
objective 5 process 1 scenario 9
obtain 2 professional 4 schedule 8
obvious 4 prohibit 7 scheme 3
occupy 4 project 4 scope 6
occur 1 promote 4 section 1
odd 10 proportion 3 sector 1
offset 8 prospect 8 secure 2
ongoing 10 protocol 9 seek 2
option 4 psychology 5 select 2
orient 5 publication 7 sequence 3
outcome 3 publish 3 series 4
output 4 purchase 2 sex 3
overall 4 pursue 5 shift 3
overlap 9 qualitative 9 significant 1
overseas 6 quote 7 similar 1
panel 10 radical 8 simulate 7
paradigm 7 random 8 site 2
paragraph 8 range 2 socalled 10
parallel 4 ratio 5 sole 7
parameter 4 rational 6 somewhat 7
participate 2 react 3 source 1
partner 3 recover 6 specific 1
passive 9 refine 9 specify 3
perceive 2 regime 4 sphere 9
percent 1 region 2 stable 5
period 1 register 3 statistic 4
persist 10 regulate 2 status 4
perspective 5 reinforce 8 straightforward 10
phase 4 reject 5 strategy 2
phenomenon 7 relax 9 stress 4
philosophy 3 release 7 structure 1
physical 3 relevant 2 style 5
plus 8 reluctance 10 submit 7
policy 1 rely 3 subordinate 9
portion 9 remove 3 subsequent 4
pose 10 require 1 subsidy 6
positive 2 research 1 substitute 5
potential 2 reside 2 successor 7
practitioner 8 resolve 4 sufficient 3
precede 6 resource 2 sum 4
precise 5 respond 1 summary 4
predict 4 restore 8 supplement 9
predominant 8 restrain 9 survey 2
preliminary 9 restrict 2 survive 7
presume 6 retain 4 suspend 9
previous 2 reveal 6 sustain 5
primary 2 revenue 5 symbol 5
prime 5 reverse 7 tape 6
principal 4 revise 8 target 5
principle 1 revolution 9 task 3
prior 4 rigid 9 team 9
technical 3 transform 6 vary 1

technique 3 transit 5 vehicle 8
technology 3 transmit 7 version 5
temporary 9 transport 6 via 8
tense 8 trend 5 violate 9
terminate 8 trigger 9 virtual 8
text 2 ultimate 7 visible 7
theme 8 undergo 10 vision 9
theory 1 underlie 6 visual 8
thereby 8 undertake 4 volume 3
thesis 7 uniform 8 voluntary 7
topic 7 unify 9 welfare 5
trace 6 unique 7 whereas 5
tradition 2 utilise 6 whereby 10
transfer 2 valid 3 widespread 8
APPENDIX 3 Part of an early English grammatical syllabus (from Hornby 1959)
This John (Mary) Brown (Green, White).
Mr. (Mrs., Miss)

is a stone (cow, horse, desk, book).
an apple (egg, inkpot, umbrella).
That my (your) bag (desk, pen, head, mouth).
These are stones (cows, trees, desks, books, eggs,

umbrellas).
Those my (your) books (pens, pencils).
This is my left
hand (eye, ear).
That is your right
What is this?
What’s that?
What are these?

those?
book.
It is a my
pen.
It’s your
pencil.
(–) books.
They are
my pens.
They’re
your pencils.
a pen or a pencil?
this
Is a bag or a box?
that
my book or your book?
pens or pencils?
these
Are bags or boxes?
those
my books or your books?
cow? cow.
this
a bird? Yes, it’s a bird.
Is that horse? horse.
my book? my book.
it No, it isn’t
your box? your box.
cows? cows.
these
birds? Yes, they’re birds.
Are those horses? horses.
my books? my books.
they No, they aren’t
your boxes? your boxes.
CASE STUDY 3 A course in English for baristas

Kyle Smith
This is an ‘English for baristas’ course for Pre-Intermediate-level (CEFR B1) international students
KLSP]LYLKI`HWYP]H[LSHUN\HNL[YHPUPUNVYNHUPZH[PVUPU)YPZIHUL(\Z[YHSPH0[PZHÄ]L^LLRJV\YZL
which combines 100 hours of English language instruction (20 hours per week) with 50 hours of
vocational training (10 hours per week). The English language component supports the students as
[OL` WYVNYLZZ [V^HYKZ JVTWSL[PUN [OYLL \UP[Z VM H OVZWP[HSP[` JLY[PÄJH[L! º<ZL /`NPLUPJ 7YHJ[PJL MVY
-VVK:HML[`»º7YLWHYLHUK:LY]L,ZWYLZZV*VќLL»HUKº7YV]PKL9LZWVUZPISL:LY]PJLVM(SJVOVS»;OL
course is primarily targeted at students on Working Holiday visas who intend to work in the hospitality
industry in Brisbane.

0UVYKLYMVY[OLT[VNHPULTWSV`TLU[HUKM\UJ[PVULќLJ[P]LS`PUHU(\Z[YHSPHU^VYRWSHJL[OLHPTVM
the English language component is to help students develop in the following four key areas:
• *VU[L_[ZWLJPÄJ]VJHI\SHY`
• 6YHSHUK^YP[[LUJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZLUJVTWHZZPUN]VJHI\SHY`M\UJ[PVUHSSHUN\HNL
pronunciation and grammar)
• Interpersonal skills
• Intercultural skills

There were several meetings involving the project manager, those responsible for designing the
vocational component of the course and myself (I was responsible for designing the English language
component). During these meetings, we determined such things as the total length of the course and
how the vocational and English language components would be distributed.
I did not conduct a needs analysis as such, but I worked closely with the three vocational trainers
who designed and later delivered the vocational component. I also had access to all their materials.
This provided the professional insights I needed to identify the language needs of the learners and
prepare a detailed ‘Teacher’s Guide’.
The course was then piloted with 13 students. I taught this and, based on my experience and
discussions with the project team, revised the Teacher’s Guide. A number of teachers have taught on
the course since then and further revisions have been made.

The organization of course content was based on the following principles:
• 7YLZLU[[OLI\SRVM[OLJVU[L_[ZWLJPÄJ]VJHI\SHY`PU[OLÄYZ[[^V^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL
• Review/recycle vocabulary throughout the remaining three weeks to ensure learners have had
multiple exposures to each key lexical item.
• Integrate pronunciation work into initial presentations of vocabulary and functional language.
• Provide opportunities for learners to engage in research and observation tasks in cafés and
roasting houses.
• Make use of authentic materials as much as possible.
Also, given that the students were generally only at B1 level, it was important to ‘prime’ them
lexically in advance of their lessons with the vocational trainers. This meant keeping tightly in sync
with the trainers as they prepared students for assessment of their knowledge and practical skills.
-VYL_HTWSL^L^V\SKNV[OYV\NO[OLUHTLZVMJVќLLTHJOPULWHY[ZPU[OLTVYUPUNYLHK`MVY[OL
Z[\KLU[Z»ÄYZ[ºOHUKZVU»ZLZZPVU^P[O[OLTHJOPULPU[OLHM[LYUVVU
Each week of the course has a particular focus or theme:
• Weeks 1–2: Vocabulary development
• Week 3: Intercultural skills (e.g. Personal critical incidents)
• Week 4: Interpersonal skills (e.g. Teamwork skills)
• Week 5: Employment (e.g. Workplace rights) / Assessment

(Z[OLHPT^HZMVYZ[\KLU[Z[VILHISL[VºILOH]LHUKJVTT\UPJH[LLќLJ[P]LS`HUKHWWYVWYPH[LS`PU
multicultural contexts’, I envisioned an ‘on-going learning process that involves interpretation, self-
YLÅLJ[PVU HUK ULNV[PH[PVU ÔPJO NYHK\HSS` [YHUZMVYTZ VUL»Z H[[P[\KL RUV^SLKNL HUK ZRPSSZ [V^HYKZ
J\S[\YHS KPќLYLUJLZ PU ÔPJO SHUN\HNL M\UJ[PVUZ HZ [OL [VVS VM PU[LYHJ[PVU HUK JVTT\UPJH[PVU [V
facilitate its development’ (Deakin, n.d.: 2–3).
;OLZPUNSLIPNNLZ[PUÅ\LUJLVU[OLTL[OVKVSVN`^HZ1VOU*VYIL[[»Z^VYRHUKIntercultural Language
Activities in particular. Following the ‘intercultural approach’ presented by Corbett, students, for
example, visit cafés, ‘the better to observe and describe local linguistic and cultural practices …
before comparing and discussing their descriptions with classmates and then sharing their insights’
(Corbett 2010, 6). They also carry out a ‘Market Research’ project which requires them to interview
a barista and report back to the class.

Because of the approach described above, the course is fairly minimalist in terms of materials. Where
WVZZPISL H\[OLU[PJ ZWVRLU HUK ^YP[[LU [L_[Z HYL \ZLK Z\JO HZ ]PKLVZ VM SVJHS JVќLL YVHZ[LYZ HUK
articles from industry publications/websites. In addition, students receive a 15-page ‘Student Guide’
which outlines the course objectives, learning outcomes, assessment requirements, etc.
;OL JV\YZL WHJRZ H SV[ PU[V Q\Z[ Ä]L ^LLRZ ZV [OL IPNNLZ[ JOHSSLUNL ^HZ KL[LYTPUPUN OV^ [V
distribute the English language and vocational hours across the week/course without wearing the
Z[\KLU[ZV\[[VVT\JO;OPZ^HZHSZV[OLHZWLJ[VM[OLJV\YZL[OH[JOHUNLKTVZ[ZPNUPÄJHU[S`HM[LY
[OLWPSV[;OL]VJH[PVUHS[YHPULYZULLK[VLUZ\YL[OH[[OLZ[\KLU[ZOH]LLUV\NO[PTLVU[OLJVќLL
machine to adequately develop their practical skills, but this had to be balanced with the regulatory
requirement for a minimum of 20 hours for the English language instruction.

As with the course as a whole, we tried to design assessment activities which replicated the types
of interactions and tasks students would encounter as baristas beyond the course. The emphasis
is on demonstrating a working knowledge of vocabulary, functional language, and interpersonal and
intercultural skills through speaking tasks and role plays.
Sources
Corbett, J. 2010. Intercultural language activities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Deakin University. n.d. Literature review: Intercultural understanding and competencies, retrieved 26
February 2013. www.deakin.edu.au/itl/assets/resources/pd/internationalisation/iuc-lit-review.
doc (no longer available).
Kyle Smith has an MEd. (TESOL), IDLTM, CELTA and BA (History). He has worked in international
education for over 13 years, as a teacher, manager and curriculum developer. He co-founded the
#AusELT online community and, as part of it, has co-presented webinars for English Australia and the
IATEFL Learning Technologies Special Interest Group.
3 NEW DIRECTIONS IN SYLLABUS
AND CURRICULUM DESIGN
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The following new directions in syllabus and curriculum design will be considered in this chapter:
• The quest for new methods • ,UNSPZOMVY:WLJPÄJ7\YWVZLZ

• Changing needs for foreign languages in • 5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPU,:7
Europe • Emergence of a curriculum approach in
• Communicative Language Teaching language teaching
• The search for new syllabus models
Case study 4(U,:7JV\YZLMVYPU[LYUH[PVUHSZ[\KLU[Z Sasha Wajnryb

Case study 5 Language learning and technology Christoph A. Hafner
Introduction
;OLHWWYVHJO[VZ`SSHI\ZKLZPNUKLZJYPILKPU*OHW[LY^HZSHYNLS`Z\ѝJPLU[[VZ\WWVY[SHUN\HNL
teaching up to the 1950s. This consisted of a focus on general English using materials graded for
[OLPY]VJHI\SHY`SL]LSHUKSPUN\PZ[PJKPѝJ\S[`,UNSPZO^HZ[H\NO[[OYV\NOP[ZZ[Y\J[\YLHUK]VJHI\SHY`
+HYPHU JVTTLU[PUN VU [OL PUÅ\LU[PHS 4PJOPNHU TH[LYPHSZ WYVK\JLK H[ [OL <UP]LYZP[` VM
4PJOPNHUH[[OPZ[PTLJVTWSHPUZ!
There is little in the way of “contextual material.” Sentences chosen for exercises are perfectly
normal utterances, but they seldom have any relation to one another … In addition, almost all
responses are complexly controlled, and there is little provision for students to generate any
utterances different from the controlled responses being practiced.
Other approaches to language teaching were also available at this time, such as travel and commercial
English books that were organized around topics, situations, and phrases as well as some that
MVJ\ZLK VU [LJOUPJHS ,UNSPZO VY [OL ,UNSPZO \ZLK PU ZWLJPÄJ VJJ\WH[PVUZ /V^L]LY [OLZL [`WLZ VM
books or language courses were incidental to the main trend in language teaching, which focused on
[OL[LHJOPUNVMNLULYHS,UNSPZOHZZ\TPUN[OH[[OLVUS`KPќLYLUJLZHTVUNSLHYULYZ[OH[ULLKLK[VIL
HJJVTTVKH[LK^LYLKPќLYLUJLZPU[OLPYSL]LSZVMWYVÄJPLUJ`)\[Z\JOUV[PVUZ^LYL[VILJOHSSLUNLK
by the emergence of a more communicative approach to language teaching. In this chapter we will
examine the nature of this “communicative approach” and the impact it had on language curriculum
development, teaching, and materials’ design.
A number of language-teaching approaches and methods have been advocated over the
years. Which ones have been popular in recent years in your country?
56
3 New directions in syllabus and curriculum design • 57
3.1 The quest for new methods

The teaching of English as a second or foreign language became an increasingly important activity
after World War II. Immigrants, refugees, and foreign students generated a huge demand for English
JV\YZLZ PU [OL <UP[LK 2PUNKVT *HUHKH [OL <UP[LK :[H[LZ HUK (\Z[YHSPH ;OL YVSL VM ,UNSPZO HZ
a language of international communication had expanded rapidly by the 1950s. There was much
greater mobility of peoples as a result of the growth in air travel and international tourism. English
was increasingly important in international trade and commerce. The role of English was supported by
[OLNYV^[OVMYHKPVÄSTHUK[LSL]PZPVU(SSVM[OLZLKL]LSVWTLU[ZZ\WWVY[LK[OLULLKMVYHWYHJ[PJHS
command of English for people in many parts of the world rather than an academic mastery of the
language as one might acquire in a typical school course.
The initial response of the English-language teaching profession was to explore new directions in
methodology. It was assumed that in order to meet the changing needs of language learners, more
\W[VKH[L [LHJOPUN TL[OVKZ ^LYL ULLKLK [OH[ YLÅLJ[LK [OL SH[LZ[ \UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ VM [OL UH[\YL
of language and of language learning. Linguistics was a source of theories about the organization
HUKZ[Y\J[\YLVMSHUN\HNLHUK[OLZL^LYLLHNLYS`HWWSPLKPU[OLJH\ZLVMUL^¸ZJPLU[PÄJHSSÌHZLK¹
teaching methods. The 1950s and 1960s in language teaching were therefore times of methodological
L_JP[LTLU[0U)YP[HPUHWWSPLKSPUN\PZ[ZKL]LSVWLKHTL[OVKVSVN`[OH[KYL^VU[OLVYHSHWWYVHJO[OH[
had been developed in the twenties and thirties linked to a carefully graded grammatical and lexical
syllabus which became known as the situational approach or the structural-situational approach
or Situational Language Teaching. ;OPZ ^HZ [OL THPUZ[YLHT [LHJOPUN TL[OVK PU )YP[PZO SHUN\HNL
teaching circles from the 1950s. Later this was replaced by a “TESL/TEFL” approach based on a
structural syllabus and a situational drill-based methodology (Richards and Rodgers 2014).
0U[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN^HZHSZV\UKLY[OLZ^H`VMHWV^LYM\STL[OVKPU[OL Z¶
the Audiolingual Method. Stern (1974, 63) describes the period from 1958 to 1964 as the “Golden Age
of Audiolingualism.” This drew on the work of American structural linguistics, which provided the basis
for a grammatical syllabus and a teaching approach that drew heavily on the theory of behaviorism.
Language learning was thought to depend on habits that could be established by repetition. The
SPUN\PZ[)SVVTÄLSK OHKLHYSPLYZ[H[LKHWYPUJPWSL[OH[ILJHTLHJVYL[LUL[VMH\KPVSPUN\HSPZT!
“Language learning is overlearning: anything less is of no use.” Teaching techniques made use of
repetition of dialogues and pattern practice as a basis for automatization, followed by exercises that
involved transferring learned patterns to new situations. The fascination with methods and the quest
for the best method remained a preoccupation of language teaching for the next 20 years.
( U\TILY VM SHUN\HNL¶[LHJOPUN HWWYVHJOLZ HUK TL[OVKZ OH]L ILLU HK]VJH[LK V]LY [OL
years. Which ones have been popular in recent years in your country?
3.2 Changing needs for foreign languages in Europe

A missing element in the enthusiasm for new methods, however, was a consideration of the extent
[VÔPJO[LHJOPUNTL[OVKZHKKYLZZLKSLHYULYZ»ULLKZ1\WWHUK/VKSPU YHPZLK[OPZPZZ\L!
The upsurge in English language teaching [since the mid-1950s] was accompanied by the
introduction of new methods and materials in the classroom, particularly during the 1960s.
These changes were often radical and can be called a language teaching revolution. But this
revolution has taken little account of the situation or motivation of the learners; on the con-
trary it has been about how people learn and what language is … Consideration of why people
learn a second language or evaluation of results has been more or less missing.
One response to this concern was a reevaluation of language-teaching policy in many European
countries in the 1970s, with a view to determining such things as which foreign languages should
be taught in the school system, when languages should be introduced into the curriculum, and with
what intensity (e.g., two, four, or six class periods a week). The status of the teaching of classical
languages was also being reviewed.
In 1969, the Council of Europe (a regional organization of European countries designed to promote
J\S[\YHS HUK LK\JH[PVUHS JVVWLYH[PVU PU VYKLY [V WYVTV[L [OL TVYL LќLJ[P]L SLHYUPUN VM MVYLPNU
languages within the community, came to the following conclusions:
• That if full understanding is to be achieved among the countries of Europe, the language
barriers between them must be removed;
• That linguistic diversity is part of the European cultural heritage and that it should,
through the study of modern languages, provide a source of intellectual enrichment rather
than an obstacle to unity;
• That only if the study of modern European languages becomes general will full mutual
understanding and cooperation be possible in Europe;
(Council of Europe 1969, 8)
Are other foreign or second languages apart from English taught in schools in your country?
For what purposes are they usually taught?
In order to respond to these concerns, it became apparent that policies could only be based
on information about societies’ needs. Van Els et al. (1984, 159) posed the questions that were
considered at this time:
• Does the community consider it important that all its members know a foreign language,
or is this considered necessary only for certain professional domains?
• How many languages, and which languages, are felt to be necessary?
• How great is the demand for each individual language? Does everyone need the same
skills, or the same level of command per skill?
• Is there a stable needs pattern?
(S[OV\NO PUKP]PK\HS JV\U[YPLZ YLZWVUKLK [V [OLZL PZZ\LZ PU KPќLYLU[ ^H`Z VUL PTWVY[HU[ YLZWVUZL
was initiated by the Council of Europe, which proposed that a “unit-credit system” be used as a
MYHTL^VYRMVYKL]LSVWPUNSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNWYVNYHTZMVYHK\S[Z;OPZ^HZKLÄULKHZMVSSV^Z!
An educational system in which the syllabus, curriculum or body or material (knowledge and
skills) to be studied, learned or acquired is broken down into a number of quantum units
of work, each with its own precise definition of the terminal behavior to be achieved by the
learner, all of the units being accompanied by a carefully constructed system of credit ratings.
(Kingsbury 1971, 11)
(SL]LSVMWYVÄJPLUJ`YLMLYYLK[VHZ[OLThreshold Level was described that was “the lowest level of

general foreign language ability to be recognized in the unit-credit system” (Van Ek and Alexander
1975, 7). It was during this period that Communicative Language Teaching emerged as a new
direction for language teaching, and it attracted widespread interest and enthusiasm as a way
of moving language teaching beyond an obsession with the latest teaching methods and to a
reexamination of basic assumptions about the goals, nature, and processes of language teaching.
At this point it is important to note that rather than viewing the way forward in language teaching as
being dependent on changes in teaching methods, what was now being considered was the whole
context of teaching and learning and the need to make societal and learner needs the starting point in
HYLL]HS\H[PVUVMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN6UJLULLKZ^LYLPKLU[PÄLKSLHYUPUN[HYNL[ZJV\SKILKLZJYPILK
as, for example, with the unit-credit system and threshold level proposed by the Council of Europe.
This shift in thinking marks the emergence of principles of backward design, referred to in Chapter 1.
>OH[KV`V\\UKLYZ[HUKI`¸SLHYULYULLKZ¹&/V^JHUZ\JOULLKZILPKLU[PÄLK&
3.3 Communicative Language Teaching

The language teaching philosophy and approach known as Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
dates from the late 1960s and 1970s and was a response to changed thinking about the nature of
language and of language learning as well as to changed needs for English and other foreign languages
PU,\YVWL0[[O\ZYLÅLJ[Z[OLPTWHJ[VMIV[OPU[LYUHSHUKL_[LYUHSMHJ[VYZVUJ\YYPJ\S\TJOHUNL[OH[^HZ
YLMLYYLK[VPU*OHW[LY0[H[[YHJ[LK^PKLZWYLHKPU[LYLZ[HUKLU[O\ZPHZTHUKYLÅLJ[LKHYLHWWYHPZHS
of basic assumptions about the goals, nature, and processes of language teaching. The centrality of
grammar in language teaching and learning was questioned, and attention shifted to ways of developing
language programs that focused both on the communicative outcomes that learners needed to achieve
and on the teaching methods that could be used to develop the necessary communicative skills. CLT
was a broad approach to teaching that resulted from a focus on communication as the organizing
principle for teaching rather than a focus on mastery of the grammatical system of the language. The
1970s were a period when everyone was “going communicative,” although precisely what was meant
by that varied considerably. CLT was not, then, so much a change in method, as a set of changes in
assumptions about the nature of language, the nature of goals, objectives, and the syllabus in language
teaching, and a search for an appropriate methodology in the light of these changes.
*3;^HZHSZVHYLZWVUZL[VJOHUNLZPU[OLÄLSKVMSPUN\PZ[PJZPU[OL ZHZ^LSSHZ[V[OLULLKMVY
new approaches to language teaching in Europe as a result of initiatives by groups such as the Council
of Europe, as noted above. As linguistics moved away from a focus on grammar as the core component
VMSHUN\HNLHIPSP[PLZNYLH[LYJVUZPKLYH[PVU^HZNP]LU[VOV^SHUN\HNLPZ\ZLKI`ZWLHRLYZPUKPќLYLU[
contexts of communication. The capacity to use language appropriately in communication based on the
setting, the roles of the participants, and the nature of the transaction was referred to as communicative
competence. Applied linguists sought to apply this notion to language teaching. Whereas a grammatical
syllabus is based on the notion of grammatical competence ¶[OLRUV^SLKNLWLVWSLOH]LVMHSHUN\HNL
[OH[\UKLYSPLZ[OLPYJHWHJP[PLZ[VWYVK\JLHUKYLJVNUPaLZLU[LUJLZPU[OLSHUN\HNL¶HKPќLYLU[[`WLVM
syllabus would be needed to teach communicative competence. What would such a syllabus look like?
/V^^V\SK`V\JOHYHJ[LYPaL[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLUSPUN\PZ[PJJVTWL[LUJLHUKJVTT\UPJH[P]L
competence?
3.4 The search for new syllabus models

An important book by David Wilkins (who was one of the members of a committee set up by the Council
of Europe that formulated the Threshold Level) sought to answer the question posed concerning what
new type of syllabus might meet the needs of achieving communicative competence and proposed
a notional syllabus (Wilkins 1976). Wilkins described the traditional type of grammar-based syllabus
as a synthetic approach. A synthetic approach is contrasted with an analytic approach, which is one
where there is no attempt at this careful linguistic control of the learning environment:
Components of language are not seen as building blocks which have to be progressively accu-
mulated. Much greater variety of linguistic structure is permitted from the beginning and the
learner’s task is to approximate his (sic) behavior more and more closely to the global language
… Analytic approaches are behavioral (though not behaviorist). They are organized in terms of
the purposes for which people are learning languages and the kinds of language performance
that are necessary to meet those purposes.
(Wilkins 1976, 2, 13)
As an example of an analytic approach, the notional syllabus proposed by Wilkins would contain three
kinds of categories of meaning: semantico-grammatical meaning, modal meaning, and communicative
function. Semantico-grammatical meaning and modal meaning describe the meaning underlying
grammatical contrasts and concepts; communicative function refers to the meanings communicated
by what linguists refer to as speech acts, such as requests, complaints, apologies, compliments,
and suggestions. The category of communicative function, however, was seized on as a useful and
practical way of thinking about a language syllabus. The Threshold Level included a functional syllabus
that consists of 126 functions grouped into the following categories (see Appendix 1):
• Imparting and seeking factual information.
• ,_WYLZZPUNHUKÄUKPUNV\[H[[P[\KLZ
• Deciding on courses of action.
• Socializing.
• Structuring discourse.
• Communication repair.
Applied linguists reacted eagerly to the idea of expressing a syllabus in terms of communicative units
rather than grammatical ones, and the literature of the late 1970s and 1980s contains a variety of
proposals for communicative or functional syllabuses. In an important work from this period, Yalden
(1987) described the challenge faced by syllabus designers who wished to work within the framework
of a communicative understanding of the nature of language and communication. In order to address
[OLKLÄJPLUJPLZVMLHYSPLYNYHTTHYIHZLKZ`SSHI\ZLZHU\TILYVMUL^JVTWVULU[Z^V\SKULLK[VIL
included in a communicative syllabus. Yalden proposed that a syllabus should focus on the following
aspects:
1. a detailed description of the different purposes for which learners would be using a second
language;
2. an account of the different settings in which the language would be used, including both
physical and social settings;
3. an account of the role or roles of both the learner and the interlocutors in any communica-
tive interaction;
4. the range of communicative events in which the learner would participate, including
social, professional and academic events;
5. the different language functions that would occur in such events, i.e., what the learner
would be able to do with the language that was acquired;
6. the notions or concepts that the learner needed to express or discuss;
7. the discourse skills needed to create coherent discourse;
8. the varieties of spoken and written language that are involved, including both formal and
informal uses of language;
9. the range of grammatical forms that would be needed;
10. the extent of vocabulary knowledge needed to sustain communication.
This framework is essentially that of the Threshold Level (see Van Ek and Alexander 1975, 5).
Can you suggest the kind of functions (see point 5 above) that might be needed in the case
of courses for (a) tourists, (b) nurses?
3.5 English for Specific Purposes

The concern to make language courses more relevant to learners’ needs also led during this period to
[OLLTLYNLUJLVM[OL3HUN\HNLZMVY:WLJPÄJ7\YWVZLZ3:7TV]LTLU[RUVÛPU,UNSPZOSHUN\HNL
[LHJOPUN JPYJSLZ HZ ,:7 ,UNSPZO MVY :WLJPÄJ 7\YWVZLZ ;OL ,:7 HWWYVHJO [V SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN
began as a response to a number of practical concerns:
• ;OLULLK[VWYLWHYLNYV^PUNU\TILYZVMUVU,UNSPZOIHJRNYV\UKZ[\KLU[ZMVYZ[\K`H[<:HUK
)YP[PZO\UP]LYZP[PLZMYVT[OL Z
• The need to prepare materials to teach students who had already mastered general English, but
now required English for use in employment, such as non-English background doctors, nurses,
engineers, and scientists.
• The need for materials for people requiring English for business purposes.
• The need to teach immigrants the language required to deal with job situations.
In contrast to students learning English for general purposes, when mastery of the language is desired
MVYP[ZVÛZHRLVYPUVYKLY[VWHZZHNLULYHSL_HTPUH[PVU[OL,:7Z[\KLU[PZ\Z\HSS`Z[\K`PUN,UNSPZO
in order to carry out a particular role, such as that of foreign student in an English-medium university,
ÅPNO[ H[[LUKHU[ TLJOHUPJ VY KVJ[VY 1\WW HUK /VKSPU KLZJYPIL [OL [YHKP[PVUHS WYL,:7
response to this situation in the 1950s, citing the example of a country that needs to teach foreign
languages to key personnel dealing with trade or foreign business. Trainees are released for four hours
daily for a year. Two language laboratories are equipped with materials and the trainees follow a state-
of-the-art audio-visual course in “spoken colloquial English” “based on selection and gradation by
Z[Y\J[\YHSJYP[LYPH^P[OZVTLHKKP[PVUHSºZP[\H[PVUHS»SHUN\HNL¹/V^L]LY[OLJV\YZL
takes no account of functional communicative needs or the learner’s own immediate situation.
The English setting is largely a matter of an English family and some English surroundings; there
is certainly no attempt to teach the English “rules of use” in terms of situations and relation-
ships. The concept of “spoken colloquial English” is one largely based upon a structural descrip-
tion of written English and without reference to functional uses and to roles.
(Jupp and Hodlin 1975, 11)
+V`V\[OPURHSLHYULYZ[\K`PUN,UNSPZOMVYH:WLJPÄJ7\YWVZL^V\SKULLKKPќLYLU[NYHTTHY
from one studying English for general purposes?
;OLZHTL^HZ[Y\LVM[OLSHUN\HNLJV\YZLZHUKTH[LYPHSZKL]LSVWLKH[[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM4PJOPNHU
PU [OL <UP[LK :[H[LZ PU [OL LHYS` Z ÔPJO ZLY]LK HZ [OL IHZPZ MVY JV\YZLZ MVY MVYLPNU Z[\KLU[Z
LU[LYPUN <: \UP]LYZP[PLZ ;OL TH[LYPHSZ SHYNLS` HKKYLZZ SHUN\HNL WH[[LYUZ HUK ]VJHI\SHY` +HYPHU
1972). Increasingly from this time and throughout the 1960s, it was realized that for learners in
situations such as these, what was needed was not more and more lessons in “advanced English”
or “colloquial English,” whatever that was, but training in the kinds of English learners would use
VY LUJV\U[LY PU [OLPY ZWLJPÄJ VJJ\WH[PVUZ HUK ZP[\H[PVUZ ;OPZ ZLLTLK [V IL SHYNLS` H TH[[LY VM
determining what the linguistic features of such situations were.
The 1960s therefore saw a number of books applying the principles of selection and gradation to
the English of science, business, medicine, engineering, or manufacturing, the same principles that
had been used until then in designing general English courses. It was assumed that there were
ZWLJPHSPaLK]HYPL[PLZVM,UNSPZOZ\JOHZ¸ZJPLU[PÄJ,UNSPZO¹¸I\ZPULZZ,UNSPZO¹VY¸[LJOUPJHS,UNSPZO¹
;OLJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZVM[OLZLZWLJPHSPaLK,UNSPZOLZJV\SKILPKLU[PÄLK[OYV\NO^VYKMYLX\LUJ`JV\U[Z
and discourse analysis:
The generally accepted view around 1970 was essentially a linguistic one: there were different
varieties of English, the distinctive features of which could be described and taught through
the use of appropriately selected texts, and carefully devised practice exercises.
(Howatt 1984, 222)
>O` KV `V\ [OPUR ZJPLU[PÄJ ,UNSPZO TPNO[ OH]L KPќLYLU[ NYHTTH[PJHS MLH[\YLZ MYVT NLULYHS
English?
;OYV\NOV\[ [OL Z [OL ,:7 HWWYVHJO PU SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN KYL^ VU register analysis and
discourse analysis [VKL[LYTPUL[OLSPUN\PZ[PJJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZVMKPќLYLU[KPZJPWSPULZZ\JOHZTLKPJPUL
engineering, or science.
Register analysis ( YLNPZ[LY PZ H ]HYPL[` VM SHUN\HNL KL[LYTPULK HJJVYKPUN [V P[Z \ZL PU KPќLYLU[
ZL[[PUNZ(Z/HSSPKH` L_WSHPUZ!
Types of linguistic situation differ from one another, broadly speaking, in three respects: first,
as regards to what is actually taking place; secondly, as regards what part the language is play-
ing; and thirdly, as regards who is taking part. These three variables, taken together, determine
the range within which meanings are selected and the forms which are used for their expres-
sion. In other words, they determine the “register.”
9LNPZ[LY HUHS`ZPZ Z[\KPLZ [OL SHUN\HNL VM Z\JO ÄLSKZ HZ QV\YUHSPZT TLKPJPUL VY SH^ MVY KPZ[PUJ[P]L
patterns of occurrence of vocabulary, verb forms, noun phrases, and tense usage. For example,
4HY[PU JP[LKPU1VYKHU KLZJYPILZ[OLYLNPZ[LYVMHJHKLTPJ]VJHI\SHY`HUKNYV\WZP[
into three categories:
1. The research process: the vocabulary is primarily verbs and nouns and is “presented in a
JVU[L_[ÔPJOKPZJ\ZZLZ[OLÄ]LZ[LWZVMYLZLHYJO!MVYT\SH[PUNPU]LZ[PNH[PUNHUHSàPUNKYH^PUN
conclusions and reporting results.”
2. The vocabulary of analysis: it includes high-frequency and two-word verbs needed “in order to
present information in an organized sequence,” for example, consist of, group together, result
from, derive, base on, be noted for. Verbs of analysis are grouped in a number of semantic sets,
for example, consist of, be composed of, contain, be made up of.
3. The vocabulary of evaluation: it includes adjectives and adverbs that occur in reviews, critiques, and
some reports, for example, exhaustive, controversial, coherent, indispensable, comprehensive,
distinctive, pervasive, substantive, objective–subjective, implicit–explicit, inductive–deductive,
ZPNUPÄJHU[¶PUZPNUPÄJHU[
Look again at the Academic Word List in Chapter 2. Does it contain examples of words related
to the categories described above?
Discourse analysis. Register analysis focused primarily at the level of the word and the sentence and
ZV\NO[[VPKLU[PM`[OLYLNPZ[LYZ[OH[JOHYHJ[LYPaLKKPќLYLU[\ZLZVMSHUN\HNLZ\JOHZI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZ
HJHKLTPJ [L_[IVVRZ HUK [LJOUPJHS ^YP[PUN /V^L]LY PU VYKLY [V PKLU[PM` [OL SPUN\PZ[PJ Z[Y\J[\YL VM
longer samples of speech or text, an approach called discourse analysis was introduced in the 1970s.
It is based on the analysis of units of organization within texts (e.g., narratives, instructions, reports,
I\ZPULZZSL[[LYZVYZWLLJOL]LU[ZHUKL_HTPULZWH[[LYUZVMYOL[VYPJHSVYNHUPaH[PVUZ\JOHZKLÄUP[PVU
PKLU[PÄJH[PVUHUKJVTWHYPZVU1VYKHU KLZJYPILZ[OLZJVWLVMKPZJV\YZLHUHS`ZPZ!
It examines the communicative contexts that affect language use, for example, in social trans-
actions, the relationship between the discourse and the speakers and listeners. It looks at how,
for example, the choice of verb tenses or other grammatical features affect the structure of the
discourse. The analysis also looks at the relationship between utterances, for example, aspects
of cohesion, and the discourse markers or cohesive devices that are employed.
Identifying patterns of text organization was a focus of this approach.

Other approaches to studying the features of authentic spoken and written texts later emerged within
the disciplines of linguistics, such as conversation analysis, corpus analysis, and text analysis, and
[OLZLHWWYVHJOLZHYLTVYL^PKLS`\ZLK[VKH`/V^L]LY[OLJVUJLW[ZVMIV[OYLNPZ[LYHUKKPZJV\YZL
[`WL^LYL[OLIHZPZMVY[OLÄYZ[NLULYH[PVUVM,:7JV\YZLZPU[OL ZZ\JOHZ[OLEnglish in Focus
ZLYPLZ(SSLUHUK>PKKV^ZVU (S[OV\NOVULVM[OLTHPUKPYLJ[PVUZVM[OL,:7HWWYVHJO[OYV\NO
the 1960s and 1970s was the development of language courses and materials that taught the
YLNPZ[LYZHUKKPZJV\YZLMLH[\YLZVMZJPLUJLI\ZPULZZVYTLKPJPUL[OLMVJ\ZPU,:7VU[OLW\YWVZLZ
for which learners need a language prompted the development of approaches to needs analysis, a
procedure that is an essential part of a backward design approach to curriculum and syllabus design.
3.6 Needs analysis in ESP

(U PTWVY[HU[ WYPUJPWSL VM ,:7 HWWYVHJOLZ [V SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN PZ [OH[ [OL W\YWVZLZ MVY ÔPJO
a learner needs a language should be the starting point in designing a course and syllabus. A
Z`SSHI\Z IHZLK VU [OL MLH[\YLZ VM ¸NLULYHS ,UNSPZO¹ ^V\SK UV[ IL Z\ѝJPLU[ ,:7 ^HZ [O\Z IHZLK
on a backward-design rather than a forward-design approach, with a learner’s needs analysis as a
ULJLZZHY`ÄYZ[Z[LW:JO\[aHUK+LY^PUN WVPU[V\[[OH[,:7YLÅLJ[LKHUL^MVJ\ZPU[OL
teaching-learning process: “most language planners in the past have bypassed a logically necessary
ÄYZ[Z[LW![OLÒH]LWYLZ\TLK[VZL[HIV\[NVPUNZVTLÔLYL^P[OV\[ÄYZ[KL[LYTPUPUNÔL[OLYVYUV[
[OLPY WSHUULK KLZ[PUH[PVU ^HZ YLHZVUHISL VY WYVWLY¹ (K]VJH[LZ VM ,:7 HYN\LK [OH[ Z[\KLU[Z OH]L
diverse learning and language needs and what they are taught should be restricted to what they need.
5LLKZHYLMHPYS`ZWLJPÄJ"[OL`JHUILPKLU[PÄLKHUK[OL`ZOV\SKKL[LYTPUL[OLJVU[LU[VMHU`JV\YZL
What do you think are the main needs of students learning English to study in an English-
medium university?
Strevens (1977) pointed out that several levels of restriction are involved.
The content of [ESP] courses are thereby determined, in some or all of the following ways:
(i) restriction: only those “basic skills” (understanding speech, speaking, reading, writing)
are included which are required by the learner’s purposes; (ii) selection: only those items of
vocabulary, patterns of grammar, functions of language are included which are required by
the learner’s purposes; (iii) themes and topics: only those themes, topics, situations, universes of
discourse, etc. are included which are required by the learner’s purposes; (iv) communicative needs:
only those communicative needs … are included which are required for the learner’s purposes.
0U,:7HSLHYULY»ZULLKZHYLVM[LUKLZJYPILKPU[LYTZVMWLYMVYTHUJL[OH[PZPU[LYTZVMÔH[[OL
learner will be able to do with the language at the end of a course of study. Whereas in a general
English course the goal is usually an overall mastery of the language that can be tested on a global
SHUN\HNL[LZ[[OLNVHSVMHU,:7JV\YZLPZ[VWYLWHYL[OLSLHYULYZ[VJHYY`V\[HZWLJPÄJ[HZRVYZL[
of tasks. As Robinson (1980, 11) comments:
The student of ESP is usually studying to perform a role. The measure of success for students
learning English for hotel waiters, or the English for food technology, is whether they can
perform convincingly as hotel waiters in English or whether they can act appropriately as food
technologists in English (and pass exams in food technology, rather than exams in English).
0UVYKLY[VKL[LYTPUL[OLSLHYULY»ZULLKZHZ[OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[MVYKL]LSVWPUN,:7WYVNYHTZHU\TILY
of approaches were suggested. Richterich and Chanceril (1978), working within the Council of Europe
framework, proposed that learners, teachers, and employers could all be involved in determining
learners’ needs. Information could be collected about the resources of the teaching institution, its
objectives, and the methods of assessment used, and needs analysis should be an ongoing process
[OYV\NOV\[ H JV\YZL 0UMVYTH[PVU ^V\SK HSZV IL ULLKLK HIV\[ [OL KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM HJ[P]P[PLZ [OL
learner would be using the language for (e.g., telephoning, interviewing), the language functions
involved (e.g., explaining, requesting, complaining), the situations in which learners participate (e.g.,
MHJL[VMHJLPUH^VYRNYV\WHUKÔPJOVM[OLMV\YSHUN\HNLZRPSSZ^V\SKILULLKLK7YVJLK\YLZ
suggested for conducting needs analysis included questionnaires, surveys, and interviews.
4\UI` PUHUPUÅ\LU[PHSIVVRVM[OL[PTLKLZJYPILZHZ`Z[LTH[PJHWWYVHJO[VULLKZHUHS`ZPZ
PU,:7JV\YZLKLZPNUHUKMVJ\ZLZVU[^VKPTLUZPVUZVMULLKZHUHS`ZPZ!H[OLWYVJLK\YLZ\ZLK[V
specify the target-level communicative competence of the student, and (b) the procedures for turning
[OLPUMVYTH[PVUZVNH[OLYLKPU[VHU,:7Z`SSHI\Z;OL4\UI`TVKLSKLZJYPILZ[OLRPUKVMPUMVYTH[PVU
ULLKLK[VKL]LSVWHWYVÄSLVM[OLSLHYULY»ZJVTT\UPJH[P]LULLKZ;OLULLKZWYVÄSLPZ[OLU[YHUZSH[LK
PU[V H SPZ[ VM ZWLJPÄJ SHUN\HNL ZRPSSZ [OL Z[\KLU[Z ^PSS ULLK IHZLK VU [OL ZRPSSZ [H_VUVT` 4\UI`
provides. This consists of some 300 subskills grouped into 54 categories. When it was published,
[OL 4\UI` TVKLS ^HZ ^LSJVTLK HZ H Z`Z[LTH[PJ HUK VIQLJ[P]L ZL[ VM WYVJLK\YLZ MVY HYYP]PUN H[
H ZWLJPÄJH[PVU VM Z[\KLU[ ULLKZ HUK ZLSLJ[PUN SHUN\HNL [V TH[JO [OLT ;OVZL ÔV H[[LTW[LK [V
use the model soon discovered that it depended on subjective and often arbitrary judgments and
KLJPZPVUZH[HSTVZ[L]LY`SL]LS"OV^L]LY4\UI`»ZHWWYVHJOPUP[PH[LK[OLTVYLYPNVYV\ZHWWYVHJOLZ
[V ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ PU ,:7 JV\YZL KLZPNU [OH[ HYL \ZLK [VKH` )HZ[\YRTLU Z\TTHYPaLZ
these as follows:
• Target situation analysis: Identification of tasks, activities, and skills learners are/will be
using English for: what the learners should ideally know and be able to do.
• Discourse analysis: Descriptions of the language used in the above.
• Present situation analysis: Identification of what the learners do and do not know and can
or cannot do in relation to the demands of the target situation.
• Learner factor analysis: Identification of learner factors such as their motivation, how they
learn, and their perception of their needs.
• Teaching context analysis: Identification of factors related to the environment in which the
course will run. Consideration of what realistically the ESP course and teacher can offer.
These processes are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5.
3.7 Emergence of a curriculum approach in language teaching

(Z^LZH^PU*OHW[LYJ\YYPJ\S\TJHUIL\UKLYZ[VVKPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZKLWLUKPUNVUÔL[OLY^L
focus on curriculum as product or as process. A curriculum in a school context refers to the whole
body of knowledge that children acquire in schools. Rodgers (1989, 26) comments:
Syllabi, which prescribe the content to be covered by a given course, form only a small part of
the total school program. Curriculum is a far broader concept. Curriculum is all those activities
in which children engage under the auspices of the school. This includes not only what pupils
learn, but how they learn it, how teachers help them learn, using what supporting materials,
styles and methods of assessment, and in what kind of facilities.
One of the most important statements on the nature and process of curriculum development was
made by Tyler in 1949 in a book that brought about a revival in curriculum studies throughout the
1950s and that introduced the backward-design approach to curriculum development which we
YLMLYYLK [V PU *OHW[LY /L WYVWVZLK [OH[ HZ H WSHU VM HJ[PVU H J\YYPJ\S\T ZOV\SK HKKYLZZ MV\Y
fundamental issues:
0[ZOV\SKÄYZ[PKLU[PM`[OLLK\JH[PVUHSW\YWVZLZ[OH[HUPUZ[P[\[PVUHPTZ[VHJOPL]L
2. It should describe the educational experiences that need to be provided in order to achieve
these purposes.
0[ZOV\SKWYV]PKLHWSHUMVY[OLLќLJ[P]LVYNHUPaH[PVUVM[OLZLL_WLYPLUJLZ
4. It should also specify how to determine if the educational purposes have been achieved.
This was sometimes reduced to an even simpler model:
Aims and objectives
Content
Organization
Evaluation
As has since been pointed out, this rather naive view of the curriculum process was not really
intended by Tyler himself, whose book was a response to his observation that many teachers seemed
unable to explain what the goals of their teaching were, except in the most general way. If asked to
describe their objectives, they might say, “We are trying to produce well-educated and well-rounded
Z[\KLU[Z¹/V^L]LYZ\JOHZ[H[LTLU[;`SLYHYN\LKKVLZUV[OLSWPKLU[PM`[OLRPUKVM[LHJOPUN[OH[
might contribute to this goal or the kind of learning that would result from it. Tyler proposed the use
of educational objectives that describe learner behavior (not teacher behavior) and that identify the
changes to be realized as a result of teaching.
Tyler’s model or variations of it soon penetrated wide areas of educational thought and practice, and
curriculum and training manuals were soon full of models such as the following (Inglis 1975):
1. NEED 2. PLAN
Aims Objectives Strategies Tactics
3. IMPLEMENTATION 4. REVIEW
Methods Techniques Evaluation Consolidation
Critics of the Tyler model (of which there were many) raised a number of objections, some arguing
that the notion of objectives represents a limited view of knowledge and some advocating a more
process-oriented approach. Others criticized the technical and rationalist approach of the model,
which seemed better suited to business or industry than education. Some critics also disliked the
SPULHYHWWYVHJOPTWSPLKI`[OLTVKLSÔPJOSLH]LZL]HS\H[PVUHZ[OLÄUHSZ[HNLYH[OLY[OHUI\PSKPUN
it in at every stage. In its place they proposed a cyclical model.
Nicholls and Nicholls (1972, 4), for example, describe curriculum development as involving four
stages:
a) The careful examination, drawing on all available sources of knowledge and informed judg-
ment, of the objectives of teaching, whether in particular subject courses or over the cur-
riculum as a whole.
b) The development and trial use in schools of those methods and materials which are judged
most likely to achieve the objectives which teachers agreed upon.
c) The assessment of the extent to which the development work has in fact achieved its objec-
tives. This part of the process may be expected to provoke new thought about the objectives
themselves.
d) The final element is therefore feedback of all the experience gained, to provide a starting
point for further study.
This view of curriculum development processes has been widely adopted in language teaching since
the 1980s. It is what we have referred to as an example of backward design and has also been
described as an ends–means model because it starts with a determination of the kinds of language
ZRPSSZ[OLSLHYULYULLKZPUVYKLY[VHJJVTWSPZOZWLJPÄJYVSLZHUK[HZRZHUK[OLUZL[ZV\[[V[LHJO[OL
language needed to get there.
/V^PTWVY[HU[[V`V\HYLVIQLJ[P]LZPUWSHUUPUN`V\YSLZZVUZHUKKV`V\[OPURZ\JOVIQLJ[P]LZ
can be applied to other subjects in the curriculum, such as literature or philosophy?
Today the view that curriculum development processes are central elements in language program
design has become widely accepted in language teaching. Language curriculum development
units are found in ministries of education in most countries, and they have a mandate to review
and develop national language-teaching curricula based on processes of needs analysis, situational
analysis, planning learning outcomes, course organization, design of teaching materials, choice of
teaching methods, and evaluation. These are viewed as forming a network of interacting elements,
HUK[OLYLMVYLJOHUNLPUVULWHY[VM[OLZ`Z[LTJHUOH]LLќLJ[ZVUV[OLYWHY[ZVM[OLZ`Z[LT-VY
L_HTWSL[OLKLJPZPVUVUÔL[OLY[VWYV]PKL[LHJOLYZ^P[O[L_[IVVRZ[V[LHJOMYVTP[ZLSMYLÅLJ[PUN
H WVSPJ` Y\SPUN TH` HќLJ[ [OL RPUKZ VM JSHZZYVVT KPZJV\YZL HUK SLHYUPUN PUW\[ [OH[ [LHJOLYZ HYL
HISL[VWYV]PKL:PTPSHYS`[OLHTV\U[VMH[[LU[PVUZ[\KLU[ZNP]L[VSLHYUPUNHJ[P]P[PLZTH`YLÅLJ[[OLPY
judgment on the relevance of the kinds of learning experiences they encounter, which may in turn
depend on the adequacy of a needs analysis. While the products of the decision-making processes
involved in curriculum in particular are easy to identify and analyze, because they exist in the form of
policy documents, syllabuses, tests, teaching materials, teaching programs, textbooks, and teaching
HUKSLHYUPUNHJ[Z1VOUZVU [OLWYVJLZZLZ[OH[SLHK[V[OLTHYLTVYLKPѝJ\S[[VPKLU[PM`HUK
HUHSàL ILJH\ZL [OL` VM[LU YLÅLJ[ [OL JVU[YPI\[PVUZ VM H ]HYPL[` VM WLVWSL ^P[O KPќLYLU[ YVSLZ HUK
NVHSZ0U;HISL1VOUZVU YLWYLZLU[Z[OLZLKPќLYLU[KLJPZPVUTHRPUNYVSLZHUKWYVK\J[Z
Table 3.1 Stages, decision-making roles, and products in curriculum

development (from Johnson 1989, 3)
DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES DECISION-MAKING ROLES PRODUCTS

1. curriculum planning policy makers policy document
2. specification: needs analyst
ends syllabus
methodologists
means
3. programme materials writers teaching materials
implementation teacher trainers teacher-training
programme
4. classroom teacher teaching acts
implementation learner learning acts
Clark (1987) emphasizes that curriculum development is often a process of renewal rather than
development, since generally some sort of curriculum is already in place. Teachers and curriculum
planners are engaged in ongoing processes of review and evaluation in order to bring about
J\YYPJ\S\T YLUL^HS HUK JOHUNL *SHYR _PP¶_PPP PKLU[PÄLZ [OL MVSSV^PUN JVTWVULU[Z VM [OL
process of curriculum renewal:
• the review of principles to guide the language teaching/learning process in the light of
applied linguistic theory and classroom experience
• the reworking of syllabuses embodying aims, objectives, content, and a broad methodology
• the review of classroom teaching/learning strategies
• the choice, adaptation, and creation of resources embodying appropriate learning experiences
• the review of assessment designed to monitor, record, report, and provide feedback on
learner progress
• the review of classroom schemes of work relating all of the above together
• the review and creation of strategies designed to assist teachers to evaluate classroom
practices and to improve them
• the identification of areas for research to determine possible ways forward in any of the
above areas
• the review or devising of in-service education designed to assist teachers to widen their
conceptual and pragmatic base in particular areas, and to find solutions to their own
classroom problems
The aim of the following chapters is to survey concepts, issues, and practices in each of these
areas in order to understand the kind of planning and decision making that is involved in developing
language curriculum and language courses.
Conclusions
This chapter has reviewed issues that led to changes in approaches to curriculum, syllabus design,
and methodology from the 1980s and that have had a continuing impact on language-teaching
policies and practices since then. The following issues emerged in the process of rethinking how
language teaching courses can be designed and developed:
• (SHUN\HNLZ`SSHI\ZYLÅLJ[ZHWHY[PJ\SHY\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OLUH[\YLVMSHUN\HNLHUKÔH[[OL
essential organizing features of language consist of. While at the beginning of the twentieth
century these were mainly thought to be primarily grammar and vocabulary, by the end
of the century a broader range of categories of language organization and use had been
recognized, including notions, functions, and texts, as well as discourse and rhetorical skills.
0[^HZYLJVNUPaLK[OH[HZ`SSHI\ZZOV\SK[OLYLMVYLYLÅLJ[[OLJVUJLW[VMSHUN\HNLIV[OHZH
communicative resource and as a linguistic system.
• The kind of syllabus that could provide the framework for a language course would depend
on the contexts and purposes for which a learner needed to learn a second language. This
generated the need for a research agenda that focused on gathering information on how
SHUN\HNL^HZ\ZLKPUKPќLYLU[SLHYUPUNJVU[L_[ZMVYIV[OZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LUSHUN\HNL;OPZPU
turn, gave rise to needs analysis and to the research activities of discourse analysis, and register
analysis, and more recently to corpus analysis, text analysis, and conversation analysis. It was
believed that the use of these processes would enable language programs to be developed on
a more rigorous basis, resulting in courses that were relevant to the diverse needs of second
language learners.
• Given that the successful teaching of English and other languages was becoming a factor in the
achievement of national educational goals in many countries, national and international planning
organizations, such as the Council of Europe, were required to intervene. This led to increased
recognition of the need for a review of curriculum approaches, syllabuses, methods, materials,
and tests in achieving educational outcomes. It also resulted in more active involvement in
curriculum development by regional, national, and international organizations, such as the
Regional Language Centre, Singapore (established by a consortium of ministries of education
from the Southeast Asian region in 1968) and the Council of Europe, and by professional
organizations such as the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL), the
TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) International Association, and the
International Association for the Teaching of English as a Foreign Language (IATEFL), as well as
I`LK\JH[PVUHSHNLUJPLZMYVTJV\U[YPLZZ\JOHZ[OL<:([OL<2(\Z[YHSPHHUKLSZLÔLYL
In the next two chapters, we will examine approaches to needs analysis that have been developed
as part of the process of curriculum renewal and development; we will also consider the impact of
contextual factors on the design and implementation of curricula.
1. Why were new methods such as audiolingualism and Situational Language Teaching an
PUZ\ѝJPLU[YLZWVUZL[V[OLJOHUNPUNULLKZMVY,UNSPZOPU[OL Z&
2. >O`KPK*VTT\UPJH[P]L3HUN\HNL;LHJOPUNYLÅLJ[HKPќLYLU[^H`VMHKKYLZZPUN[OLULLKMVY
new directions in language teaching?
3. >OH[ PZ [OL KPќLYLUJL IL[^LLU SPUN\PZ[PJ VY NYHTTH[PJHS JVTWL[LUJL HUK JVTT\UPJH[P]L
competence?
4. What aspects of communicative competence are involved in performing speech acts such as
apologies or requests?
5. Examine the list of functions from the Threshold Level in Appendix 1. What do you think are some
of the limitations of lists such as these?
6. @HSKLUWW¶HIV]LZ\NNLZ[LK[OH[HJVTT\UPJH[P]LZ`SSHI\ZZOV\SKMVJ\ZVU[OLHZWLJ[Z
listed below in the context of the situation in which the individual learner will use English. Choose
HZP[\H[PVULNU\YZLÅPNO[H[[LUKHU[HUKZ\NNLZ[L_HTWSLZVMLHJOHZWLJ[VU[OLSPZ[
purposes
setting
role
communicative events
language functions
notions
discourse and rhetorical skills
varieties
grammatical content
lexical content
7. Why were register analysis and discourse analysis considered to be relevant to syllabus design?
8. >OH[PZ[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLU[OLNVHSZVMHNLULYHS,UNSPZOJV\YZLHUKHU,:7JV\YZL&
9. What is meant by an ends–means model of curriculum development? What are the limitations
of this approach?
10. 9LHK*HZLZ[\KÌ`:HZOH>HQUYÌHUK*HZLZ[\KÌ`*OYPZ[VWO(/HMULYH[[OLLUKVM
this chapter.
• /V^^HZULLKZHUHS`ZPZJV\YZLKL]LSVWTLU[HUKL]HS\H[PVU\UKLY[HRLUPULHJOJV\YZL&
• >O`KVLZLHJOJV\YZL[HRLHKPќLYLU[HWWYVHJO[V[OLYVSLVM[L_[IVVRZHUKTH[LYPHSZ&
APPENDIX 1 Threshold level syllabus (from Van Ek and Trim 1998)
Language functions for threshold level
1 Imparting and seeking factual information

1.1 reporting (describing and narrating)
1.2 correcting
1.3 asking
1.4 answering questions
,_WYLZZPUNHUKÄUKPUNV\[H[[P[\KLZ
2.1 expressing agreement with a statement
2.2 expressing disagreement with a statement
2.3 enquiring about agreement and disagreement
2.4 denying statements
2.5 stating whether one knows or does not know a person, thing or fact
2.6 enquiring whether someone knows or does not know a person, thing or fact
2.7 stating whether one remembers or has forgotten a person, thing or fact or action
2.8 enquiring whether someone remembers or has forgotten a person, thing or fact or action
2.9 expressing degrees of probability
2.10 enquiring as to degrees of probability
2.11 expressing or denying necessity (including logical deduction)
2.12 enquiring as to necessity (including logical deduction)
2.13 expressing degrees of certainty
2.14 enquiring about degrees of certainty
2.15 expressing obligation
2.16 enquiring about obligation
2.17 expressing ability/inability to do something
2.18 enquiring about ability or inability to do something
2.19 expressing that something is or is not permitted, or permissible
2.20 enquiring whether something is or is not permitted or permissible
(including seeking permission)
2.21 granting permission
2.22 withholding permission
2.23 expressing wants/desires
2.24 enquiring about wants/desires
2.25 expressing intentions
2.26 enquiring about intentions

2.27 expressing preference
2.28 inquiring about preference
2.29 expressing pleasure, happiness
2.30 expressing displeasure, unhappiness
2.31 enquiring about pleasure/displeasure/happiness/unhappiness
2.32 expressing liking
2.33 expressing dislike
2.34 enquiring about likes and dislikes
2.35 expressing satisfaction
2.36 expressing dissatisfaction
2.37 enquiring about satisfaction/dissatisfaction
2.38 expressing interest
2.39 expressing lack of interest
2.40 enquiring about interest or lack of interest
2.41 expressing surprise
2.42 expressing lack of surprise
2.43 enquiring about surprise
2.44 expressing hope
2.45 expressing disappointment
2.46 expressing fear
2.47 giving reassurance
2.48 enquiring about fear/worries
2.49 expressing gratitude
2.50 reacting to an expression of gratitude
VќLYPUNHUHWVSVN`
2.52 accepting an apology
2.53 expressing moral obligation
2.54 expressing approval
2.55 expressing disapproval
2.56 enquiring about approval/disapproval
2.57 expressing regret, sympathy
3 Deciding on courses of action (suasion)

3.1 suggesting a course of action
3.2 agreeing to a suggestion
3.3 requesting someone to do something

3.4 advising someone to do something
3.5 warning others to do something or to refrain from something
3.6 encouraging someone to do something
3.7 instructing or directing someone to do something
3.8 requesting assistance
VќLYPUNHZZPZ[HUJL
3.10 inviting someone to do something
HJJLW[PUNHUVќLYVYPU]P[H[PVU
KLJSPUPUNHUVќLYVYPU]P[H[PVU
LUX\PYPUNÔL[OLYHUVќLYVYPU]P[H[PVUPZHJJLW[LKVYKLJSPULK
3.14 asking someone for something
4 Socializing
4.1 attracting attention
4.2 greeting people
4.3 when meeting a friend or acquaintance
4.4 replying to a greeting from a friend or acquaintance
4.5 addressing a friend or acquaintance
4.6 addressing a stranger
4.7 addressing a customer or a member of the general public
4.8 introducing someone to someone else
4.9 when being introduced to someone, or when someone is being introduced to you
4.10 congratulating someone
4.11 proposing a toast
4.12 taking leave
5 Structuring discourse
5.1 opening
5.2 hesitating
5.3 correcting oneself
5.4 introducing a theme
5.5 expressing an opinion
5.6 enumerating
5.7 exemplifying
5.8 emphasizing
5.9 summarizing
5.10 changing the theme

5.11 asking someone to change the theme
5.12 asking someone’s opinion
5.13 showing that one is following a person’s discourse
5.14 interrupting
5.15 asking someone to be silent
NP]PUNV]LY[OLÅVVY
5.17 indicating a wish to continue
5.18 encouraging someone to continue
5.19 indicating that one is coming to an end
5.20 closing
5.21 telephone opening
5.22 asking for [someone]
5.23 asking someone to wait
5.24 asking whether you are heard and understood
5.25 giving signals that you are hearing and understanding
5.26 announcing new call
5.27 opening [letter]
5.28 closing [letter]
6 Communication repair
6.1 signalling non-understanding
6.2 asking for repetition of sentence
6.3 asking for repetition of a word or phrase
HZRPUNMVYJVUÄYTH[PVUVM[L_[
HZRPUNMVYJVUÄYTH[PVUVY\UKLYZ[HUKPUN
HZRPUNMVYJSHYPÄJH[PVU
6.7 asking someone to spell something
6.8 asking for something to be written down
6.9 expressing ignorance of a word or expression
6.10 appealing for assistance
6.11 asking someone to speak more slowly
6.12 paraphrasing
6.13 repeating what one has said
6.14 asking if you have been understood
6.15 spelling out a word or expression
6.16 supplying a word or expression
CASE STUDY 4 An ESP course for international students

Sasha Wajnryb
The IELTS (International English Language Testing System) Foundation course is an intensive English for
:WLJPÄJ7\YWVZLZ,:7JV\YZLMVYHK\S[PU[LYUH[PVUHSZ[\KLU[ZH[HWYP]H[L,UNSPZOJVSSLNLPU:`KUL`
(\Z[YHSPH;OLJV\YZLWYLWHYLZZ[\KLU[Z[VZP[[OLVѝJPHS0,3;:L_HTHUKWYV]PKLZHUPU[YVK\J[PVU[V
academic English. Students may enter the course after achieving IELTS Academic 4.5 or equivalent.
;OL JVSSLNL VќLYZ [^V 0,3;: WYLWHYH[PVU JV\YZLZ 0,3;: -V\UKH[PVU HUK 0,3;: (K]HUJLK HZ ^LSS
HZH]HYPL[`VM.LULYHS,UNSPZO,:7HUK,UNSPZOMVY(JHKLTPJ7\YWVZLZ,(7JV\YZLZMVYZ[\KLU[Z

0UP[PHSS` [OL JV\YZL»Z THPU NVHS ^HZ [V WYLWHYL Z[\KLU[Z [V ZP[ HU VѝJPHS 0,3;: L_HT 0UK\Z[Y`
consultation by the college had revealed a demand by students at the IELTS 4.5 level who intended
LP[OLY[VZP[[OLVѝJPHS0,3;:L_HTPU[OLM\[\YLHUK[OLULUYVSPUH\UP]LYZP[`VY]VJH[PVUHSJV\YZLVY
[VJVU[PU\L[OLPYZ[\KPLZPUVULVM[OLJVSSLNL»ZOPNOLYSL]LS,:7VY,(7JV\YZLZ
/V^L]LY HM[LY [OL JVSSLNL ILNHU [V VќLY [OL JV\YZL MLLKIHJR MYVT Z[\KLU[Z YL]LHSLK [OH[ ZVTL
intermediate-level General English students were using the course as a bridging course to prepare
[OLT[VZ[\K`PUOPNOLYSL]LS,:7JV\YZLZLN,UNSPZOMVY)\ZPULZZHUK*HTIYPKNL-PYZ[*LY[PÄJH[L
PU,UNSPZOHUK,(7JV\YZLZ;OLYLMVYL[VTLL[[OLULLKZVM[OPZJVOVY[VMZ[\KLU[ZHUPU[YVK\J[PVU
to academic English studies component was added to the course.
Students who undertake the full 12-week cycle of the course will have:
• gained an understanding of the examination’s structure;
• developed strategies to undertake the exam: timing, organization etc.;
• undertaken 12 practice exams in all four macro-skills;
• increased their knowledge and use of grammar, vocabulary and functions;
• targeted the themes used in the examination;
• addressed issues in academic writing such as register, essay planning and plagiarism;
• practised speaking in interview, tutorial and seminar conditions.

The college had delivered a popular and successful IELTS preparation course for a number of years.
Students were required to demonstrate an English level of IELTS Academic 5.5 or equivalent to enter
[OPZ JV\YZL /V^L]LY MLLKIHJR MYVT H ]HYPL[` VM Z[HRLOVSKLYZ LN Z[\KLU[Z [LHJOLYZ LK\JH[PVU
agents) indicated that there was a demand for a lower-level IELTS preparation course for students at
IELTS Academic 4.5.
Although the existing 16-week IELTS Advanced program used solely materials that had been
designed and written by the college’s teachers, it was decided to use existing commercially available
TH[LYPHSZ MVY [OL UL^ 0,3;: -V\UKH[PVU JV\YZL ZV [OH[ [OL JVSSLNL JV\SK ILNPU VќLYPUN [OL JV\YZL
as soon as possible. As a privately run language college, it was prudent to meet the needs of the
market, where both agents and students were clamouring for a lower-level IELTS preparation course,
rather than embarking on the time-consuming process of creating, trialling and revising new materials.
0UHKKP[PVUHULLK[V[YHPU[LHJOLYZ[VKLSP]LY[OLJV\YZL^HZPKLU[PÄLK:\IZLX\LU[S`[OLJVSSLNL
PUP[PH[LKHTLU[VYPUNWYVNYHTÔLYLL_WLYPLUJLK,:70,3;:WYLWHYH[PVU[LHJOLYZ^LYLWHPYLK^P[O
teachers who had expressed interest in the course. The success of this program led to the college
using a team-teaching approach to delivering the course.

;OLPU[LUZP]L^LLR0,3;:-V\UKH[PVUWYVNYHTPZKLZPNULKMVYHÄ]LKH`^LLR:[\KLU[ZZ[\K`
Ä]LOV\YZHKH`(TVK\SLMYVT[OLJV\YZL[L_[IVVRPZ[H\NO[LHJO^LLR
-YVT4VUKH`[V;O\YZKH`[OLJV\YZLMVJ\ZLZVULHJOVM[OLMV\YTHJYVZRPSSZ0UHKKP[PVUNYHTTHY
functions and lexis appropriate for the week’s theme are taught. Fridays consist of a complete
practice IELTS test that correlates with the theme of the materials taught during the week.

The educational philosophy at the college is of a needs-based, negotiated, student-centred
classroom. While many of the students’ previous educational experiences were often in a teacher-
centred, top-down regime, the college focuses on creating a friendly, collaborative environment where
the teacher guides and supports learning.
The course is delivered in a continuous entry format and utilizes a lot of pair and small group work.
;OL LU[YHUJL VM UL^ Z[\KLU[Z [V [OL JSHZZ L]LY` 4VUKH` WYV]PKLZ HU VWWVY[\UP[` MVY [OL TVYL
experienced students to teach the techniques that are needed throughout the course. It also allows
the teacher to ensure students can correctly apply these skills.

The college’s senior teachers and academic managers reviewed a great variety of commercially
H]HPSHISL0,3;:WYLWHYH[PVUTH[LYPHSZILMVYLHTHPU[L_[IVVR^HZJOVZLU;OPZIVVRPZ\ZLK4VUKH`¶
Thursday. Students receive a copy of this textbook as part of their enrolment.
In addition, supplementary resources that correspond to the unit were sourced from additional
[L_[IVVRZ;OLZLTH[LYPHSZMVYTLK[OLIHZPZVM[OLJV\YZLÔLUP[^HZÄYZ[KLSP]LYLK(M[LY[OLÄYZ[
cycle of the course, teachers engaged in group professional development sessions where additional
YLZV\YJLZ [OH[ TL[ PKLU[PÄLK ULLKZ ^LYL KL]LSVWLK ;LHJOLYZ ^LYL LTWV^LYLK [V JYLH[L UL^
resources as they taught the course. Experienced teachers also developed teacher’s notes to assist
their colleagues.
7\ISPZOLK WYHJ[PJL 0,3;: L_HTZ HYL \ZLK HZ [OL -YPKH` [LZ[ TH[LYPHS ;OLZL TH[LYPHSZ OH]L ILLU
carefully allocated to correspond with the weekly topics and allow students to recycle material taught
during the week.
After the decision was made to base the course on existing textbooks, it was a relatively
Z[YHPNO[MVY^HYK [HZR [V KL]LSVW [OL JV\YZL /V^L]LY P[ ^HZ UV[LK [OH[ [OLZL [`WLZ VM TH[LYPHSZ
which are often designed for use on a global scale, would not be as relevant to the college’s cohort
of students as materials designed by their own teachers. It was decided to evaluate and gradually
amend the prescribed materials during course delivery in order to incorporate teacher-designed
materials into the existing framework.
/PNOS` L_WLYPLUJLK 0,3;: [LHJOLYZ ^LYL HSSVJH[LK [V [LHJO [OL JV\YZL K\YPUN [OL PUP[PHS ^LLR
J`JSL;OL`THKL^LLRSÙV[LZYLNHYKPUN[OL\ZLM\SULZZVM[OLTH[LYPHSZ;OYV\NOV\[[OLÄYZ[J`JSL
[OLZLUV[LZ^LYLYL]PL^LKI`HJHKLTPJTHUHNLYZÔVUV[LKKLÄJPLUJPLZPU[OLTH[LYPHSZ;LHJOLYZ
^LYL[OLU[HZRLK^P[OKLZPNUPUNUL^TH[LYPHSZ[VÄSSNHWZVYYLWSHJLTH[LYPHSZÔPJOOHKILLU[YPHSSLK
and proven unsuccessful.
;OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMUL^TH[LYPHSZ^HZHI\YKLUVUHSYLHKÌ\Z`[LHJOLYZ/V^L]LYTVZ[YLZWVUKLK
positively to the chance to take ownership of the course and personalize their lessons. Each cycle of
the course has resulted in additional teacher-generated materials being added to the syllabus, most
UV[HIS`HZ[OLJV\YZL»ZZJVWL^HZ^PKLULK[VPUJS\KLWYLWHYH[PVUMVYV[OLY,:7JV\YZLZ

Assessment is an integral part of the course. Students sit mock exams every Friday. Results are
discussed with students during weekly individual counselling sessions.
Articulation agreements between the college and other tertiary institutions allow students who satisfy
their English language requirements to directly enter a variety of external tertiary-level programs. The
results of the weekly course assessment are used to determine whether a student can articulate into
these programs.
Sasha Wajnryb is an ESL teacher at TAFE Sydney Institute English language centre in Sydney,
Australia. He has worked in a variety of teaching and academic management roles in English language
colleges. He holds a Master of Applied Linguistics (Language Program Management). He has
co-authored an IELTS preparation textbook as well as articles on English language teaching.
CASE STUDY 5 Language learning and technology

Christoph A. Hafner
The course that I will describe in this case study is a course in English for science at a university in
/VUN2VUN;OLJV\YZLPZHJVTW\SZVY`SHUN\HNLYLX\PYLTLU[MVY\UKLYNYHK\H[LZJPLUJLZ[\KLU[Z
MYVT ZWLJPÄLK KPZJPWSPUHY` IHJRNYV\UKZ PUJS\KPUN HWWSPLK IPVSVN` HWWSPLK JOLTPZ[Y` HWWSPLK
physics, environmental science and management, computing mathematics, architectural studies and
Z\Y]L`PUN;OLYLPZHSZVHSHYNLU\TILYVMZ[\KLU[ZPU[OLPYÄYZ[`LHYVMZ[\K`ÔVOH]L`L[[VKLJSHYL
HTHQVY4VZ[VM[OLZ[\KLU[ZÔV[HRL[OLJV\YZLOH]L*HU[VULZLHZ[OLPY3I\[VJJHZPVUHSS`[OLYL
are also international students taking the course. Students are free to take this course at any time
K\YPUN[OLPY\UKLYNYHK\H[LZ[\KPLZHUKTVZ[JOVVZL[VKVZVK\YPUN[OLPYÄYZ[`LHY4VZ[Z[\KLU[Z
are between 18 and 22 years of age. The course takes place over one semester, with one three-hour
lesson per week for a total of 13 weeks. Classes are limited to 25 students, and while overall numbers
vary a lot, there are usually over 300 students who take the course every year.

;OL IHZPJ HWWYVHJO [HRLU MVSSV^Z WYPUJPWSLZ VM JV\YZL KLZPNU PU ,UNSPZO MVY :WLJPÄJ 7\YWVZLZ
Consistent with this approach, the goals of the course are to introduce students to the genre
RUV^SLKNLHUK,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLZRPSSZ[OH[[OLÙLLKMVYZJPLU[PÄJJVTT\UPJH[PVU0UVYKLY[VHJOPL]L
these goals, students are engaged in an ‘English for Science project’ that simulates a process of
ZJPLU[PÄJPUX\PY`:[\KLU[ZJHYY`V\[HZPTWSLZJPLU[PÄJZ[\KÌHZLKVUH[VWPJ[OH[[OL`HYLWYV]PKLK
^P[O;OL`KVIHJRNYV\UKYLHKPUNJVSSLJ[KH[HHUK[OLUYLWVY[[OLPYÄUKPUNZPU[^VKPќLYLU[^H`Z!
ÄYZ[ HZ H T\S[PTVKHS ZJPLU[PÄJ KVJ\TLU[HY` KLZPNULK MVY H UVUZWLJPHSPZ[ H\KPLUJL H NYV\W^VYR
WYVQLJ[[OH[PZ\WSVHKLK[V@V\;\IL"ZLJVUKHZHZJPLU[PÄJYLWVY[KLZPNULKMVYHZWLJPHSPZ[H\KPLUJL
an individual assignment. Through this project, students are expected to develop their awareness of
ZJPLU[PÄJNLUYLZHZ^LSSHZZRPSSZPUJYP[PJHSYLHKPUNHUKZRPSSZPU^YP[PUN[OYV\NOHYHUNLVMTVKLZHUK
media for both specialist and non-specialist audiences.

An essential part of the planning for this course was for members of the teaching team to meet with
disciplinary specialists from the relevant departments. They provided us with their perspective on
[OLPY Z[\KLU[Z» ,UNSPZO SHUN\HNL ULLKZ )HZLK VU V\Y PUP[PHS KPZJ\ZZPVUZ ^L HNYLLK [OH[ P[ ^V\SK
be a good idea to focus on the lab report genre in this course. The specialists also provided us
with initial material that we could use as the basis of a needs analysis: examples of students’ lab
reports, copies of lab manuals, copies of major textbooks, other disciplinary texts that could serve as
reading material. These examples allowed us to get started on designing the syllabus and the course
TH[LYPHSZ/V^L]LY^LZ[PSSMLS[[OH[TVYLPUMVYTH[PVU^V\SKILOLSWM\S;OLYLMVYLK\YPUN[OLÄYZ[Y\U
of the course, we conducted a more thorough needs analysis. This time, we invited students taking
the course to meet with us regularly to discuss their language learning needs and the academic
literacy practices that they were engaged in. From this, we developed a more nuanced understanding
of students’ needs that we could use to modify materials in future.
6UL VM [OL TVYL PUUV]H[P]L [HZRZ VU [OPZ JV\YZL PZ [OL KPNP[HS ]PKLV ZJPLU[PÄJ KVJ\TLU[HY` [OH[
students create in groups and that showcases their inquiries. This task was actually developed in
[^V Z[HNLZ 0U [OL ÄYZ[ `LHY [OH[ [OL JV\YZL YHU Z[\KLU[Z WYLZLU[LK [OLPY WYVQLJ[Z HZ HU PUJSHZZ
WYLZLU[H[PVU MVSSV^LK I` H ZJPLU[PÄJ YLWVY[ 0U [OL ZLJVUK `LHY [OL WYLZLU[H[PVU ^HZ JOHUNLK [V
a video documentary. We did this partly because we felt that it would be motivational for students
to use digital video technology and share their work with an authentic online audience in YouTube.
)LMVYLPTWSLTLU[PUN[OPZJOHUNL[OV\NO^L^LU[[OYV\NOHUPUP[PHSWPSV[PUNWOHZLZL]LYHSTVU[OZ
ahead of time. Two groups of students who had successfully completed English for Science projects
PU [OL ÄYZ[ JVOVY[ JYLH[LK KPNP[HS ]PKLVZ ;OPZ OLSWLK \Z [V \UKLYZ[HUK ÔH[ [OL WYVJLZZ ^V\SK IL
like and identify the kinds of video-editing tools that students would need. It also gave us some
‘prototype’ videos that we could share with future students and that could serve as examples to be
critiqued in class.

The course has from the outset adopted a project-based approach. Lessons are organized to provide
[OLULJLZZHY`PUW\[MVYJVTWSL[PUNKPќLYLU[Z[HNLZVM[OLWYVQLJ[:VMVYL_HTWSLPUW\[VUJYP[PJHS
SP[LYHJ`ZRPSSZ¶ÄUKPUNHUKL]HS\H[PUNPUMVYTH[PVU¶PZWYV]PKLKLHYS`VUILJH\ZLZ[\KLU[ZULLK[OVZL
skills in the initial stages of the project. This is followed by input on the documentary genre, script
writing, multimodal composition techniques, oral presentation skills and technical video-editing skills.
The aim is to provide ‘just-in-time’ input, which students will see as directly relevant to the projects that
[OL`HYL^VYRPUNVUMVYJV\YZLJYLKP[:[\KLU[ZHYLHSZVNP]LURL`TPSLZ[VULZ[VZJHќVSK[OLWYVQLJ[
process, e.g. groups formed in week two, data collection complete by week four, script complete
I`^LLRÄ]LHUKZVVU0U[OLZLJVUKOHSMVM[OLJV\YZLÔLUZ[\KLU[ZHYLWYLWHYPUN[V^YP[L[OLPY
ZJPLU[PÄJYLWVY[Z[OLJV\YZLPZVYNHUPaLKHJJVYKPUN[VZLJ[PVUZVM[OLYLWVY[6UL^LLRPZKL]V[LK
to introductions, one week to methods and results, one week to discussions and conclusions.

0URLLWPUN^P[O[OLWOPSVZVWO`VM,UNSPZOMVY:WLJPÄJ7\YWVZLZ[OLTH[LYPHSZMVY[OPZJV\YZLHYLHSS
designed with the needs of the particular learners in mind. Rather than relying on an existing textbook,
a course manual has been developed especially for the course. In general, these materials use
task-based awareness-raising activities to sensitize students to the demands of the two key genres,
ZJPLU[PÄJ KVJ\TLU[HY` HUK ZJPLU[PÄJ YLWVY[ 4HU` VM [OLZL [HZRZ PU]VS]L Z[\KLU[Z PU PU[LYWYL[PUN H
[L_[SPRLHUL_HTWSL]PKLVVYHUL_[YHJ[MYVTHYLZLHYJOHY[PJSLVYSHIYLWVY[)HZLKVU[OLPYHUHS`ZPZ
of this text, students ‘notice’ formal elements, for example the use of question forms and the second
person pronoun to engage the reader in a video script.

This is a course that makes heavy use of technology. Like many courses at university, the
administration of the course is handled by an online learning management system that provides for
distribution of materials, announcements, assignment submission. In addition, students access other
technology tools when making their digital video projects. They bring laptops to class so that they can
use them for a reading workshop that takes the form of a webquest, a video-editing workshop and a
script-writing workshop. Initially, we bought a number of digital video cameras for students to use in
ÄSTPUN5V^[OV\NOTHU`Z[\KLU[ZZPTWS`\ZL[OLPYTVIPSLWOVULZ[VJHW[\YLMVV[HNLPUZ[LHK[OLYL
PZUVZOVY[HNLVMZTHY[WOVULZHTVUNZ[[OLZL/VUN2VUNZ[\KLU[Z>OLU[OL]PKLVZHYLLKP[LKHUK
complete, students upload them to YouTube and provide their instructors with the relevant link. The
students’ YouTube videos can then be embedded in a public course blog, and students can provide
each other with online feedback through comments. Our experience has been that many students
also like to share their videos with their own social networks, expanding the audience beyond just
their classmates.
The reliance on technology that I’ve just described can itself be a bit of a challenge for both instructors
and students on the course. In spite of stereotypes about ‘digital natives’, not all students are
[LJOUVSVN` L_WLY[Z >L OH]L [OLYLMVYL ILLU JHYLM\S [V WYV]PKL WSLU[PM\S ZJHќVSKPUN PU [OPZ YLNHYK
The course has a support website which lists the most commonly used video-editing tools and links
to user-generated videos explaining how these can be used. We have bought a site licence to one
of these tools so that all students can have access. We provide a video-editing workshop near the
beginning of the process so that students can familiarize themselves with the basics of at least one
[VVS6\YWOPSVZVWO`PZ[OH[P[PZ\S[PTH[LS`[OLZ[\KLU[Z»YLZWVUZPIPSP[`[VÄN\YLV\[OV^[V\ZL[OLZL
tools. That is to say, the teacher is not expected to be a technical expert. Still, teachers need to be
Z\WWVY[LK[VV;OLÄYZ[[PTL[OH[[OL`[LHJO[OPZJV\YZL0WYV]PKL[LHJOLYZ^P[OTLU[VYPUNPU[OL\ZL
of the technological tools. Also, when we are assigning teachers to teach this course, we actively look
for those who are interested in using technology in their teaching. We have been able to avoid a lot
of potential problems in this way, I think.

There is a mix of assessments on this course. Students work in groups to produce their digital video
ZJPLU[PÄJKVJ\TLU[HYPLZÔPJOHYLHZZLZZLKHZHNYV\W^VYRWYVK\J[0UHKKP[PVUZ[\KLU[Z^YP[LHU
PUKP]PK\HSYLÅLJ[P]LYLWVY[VU[OL]PKLVWYVQLJ[WYVJLZZ0UP[[OL`YLÅLJ[VUVWWVY[\UP[PLZMVYSHUN\HNL
learning that the project provided as well as on what they have learned about visual communication
PU ZJPLUJL (UV[OLY THQVY HZZLZZTLU[ [HZR PZ [OL PUKP]PK\HS ^YP[[LU ZJPLU[PÄJ YLWVY[ 3LHKPUN \W [V
this, students do one in-class quiz which focuses on technical aspects of the report: functional
vocabulary, citation and referencing. All of these assessment tasks directly test some aspect of the
course material, which is in turn designed to promote the overall goals of the course.
Further information
4VYLPUMVYTH[PVUYLSH[LK[V[OPZJV\YZLHUKYLSH[LKWYVQLJ[ZJHUILMV\UKH[^^^LUNSPZOJP[`\LK\ORHJHKSP[
Christoph A. Hafner is Associate Professor in the Department of English, City University of Hong
Kong. His research interests include specialized discourse, digital literacies, and language learning
and technology. He is co-author (with Rodney Jones) of <UKLYZ[HUKPUN+PNP[HS3P[LYHJPLZ!(7YHJ[PJHS
Introduction (Routledge, 2012).
4 NEEDS ANALYSIS
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The following aspects of needs analysis will be considered in this chapter:
• The nature of needs • The target population

• 3LHYULYZ^P[OV\[ZWLJPÄJULLKZ • Procedures for large-scale needs analysis
• Larger-scale needs analysis • Making use of the information obtained
• The goals of needs analysis • (WWS`PUN[OLÄUKPUNZVMULLKHUHS`ZPZ
• The users of needs analysis
Case study 6 Planning a course in technical communication Lindsay Miller

Case study 7 Developing a foundation course for college students Rob Haines
Introduction
It would seem obvious that in planning a language course the goal is to help prepare learners to use
English beyond the classroom. For most, but not all, learners, therefore, language learning is not a goal
in itself but a means to an end. The goal is generally to develop skills in English that will facilitate social
survival, work, travel, education, and so on. Collecting information on the kinds of activities and purposes
the learner will use English for is therefore an essential phase in curriculum development. Determining the
nature of these activities and their linguistic features and demands is known as needs analysis.
As we saw in Chapter 3, needs analysis was introduced into language teaching through the ESP movement
in the 1960s, drawing on procedures that had been developed in other areas of curriculum planning. From
the 1960s, the demand for specialized language programs grew, and applied linguists increasingly began
to employ needs analysis procedures in language teaching. By the 1980s, in many parts of the world, a
“needs-based philosophy” emerged in language teaching, particularly in relation to ESP and vocationally
oriented program design (Munby 1978; Brindley 1984). Needs analysis as a practical classroom procedure
also emerged as part of the philosophy of learner-centeredness and learner autonomy in language
teaching (Nunan 1988). It is a core dimension of backward design in curriculum development.
NEEDS
goals syllabus instruction assessment
ANALYSIS
5LLKZHUHS`ZPZJHUILZTHSSPUZJHSLZ\JOHZÔLUH[LHJOLYZLLRZ[VÄUKV\[HZT\JOHZWVZZPISL
about the needs of learners in his or her class. It can also have a much larger scope, such as when
HUPUZ[P[\[LVYSHUN\HNL[YHPUPUNVYNHUPaH[PVUPZJVU[YHJ[LK[VKL]LSVWHJV\YZLMVYHZWLJPÄJNYV\W
VM SLHYULYZ LN IHURPUN LTWSV`LLZ ÅPNO[ H[[LUKHU[Z PU[LYUH[PVUHS Z[\KLU[Z PU H <: VY )YP[PZO
university) and uses a variety of needs analysis procedures to determine what might be relevant goals
and content for such a course (Gonzalez-Lloret 2014).
+V [OL SLHYULYZ `V\ [LHJO VY H NYV\W [OH[ `V\ HYL MHTPSPHY ^P[O OH]L ZWLJPÄJ ULLKZ MVY
English? How do you assess their needs?
79
4.1 The nature of needs

The term needs is not as straightforward as it might appear, and hence the term is sometimes used
to refer to wants, desires, demands, expectations, motivations, lacks, constraints, and requirements
)YPUKSL` ;OLKLÄUP[PVUVMULLKZKLWLUKZVUÔVZLWVPU[VM]PL^^LHYLHKKYLZZPUN¶[OL
learner, the teacher, or a school director. Needs from the point of view of the learner can refer to
learners’ preferences for certain kinds of classroom activities as well as what they feel they should
focus on in class (i.e., subjective needs). A teacher or administrator, however, may consider needs
PU[LYTZVMNHWZVYKLÄJPLUJPLZPU[OLSLHYULY»ZWLYMVYTHUJL[OH[PZ[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLUÔH[H
learner can presently do in a language and what he or she should be able to do. This latter view of
ULLKZ Z\NNLZ[Z [OH[ ULLKZ OH]L VIQLJ[P]L YLHSP[` HUK HYL ZPTWS` [OLYL ^HP[PUN [V IL PKLU[PÄLK HUK
HUHSàLKVIQLJ[P]LULLKZ7VYJOLY PU)YPUKSL` VќLYZHKPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]L!¸5LLK
is not a thing that exists and might be encountered ready-made on the street. It is a thing that is
constructed, the center of conceptual networks and the product of a number of epistemological
JOVPJLZÔPJOHYLUV[PUUVJLU[[OLTZLS]LZVMJV\YZL¹>OH[PZPKLU[PÄLKHZHULLKPZKLWLUKLU[VU
Q\KNTLU[HUKYLÅLJ[Z[OLPU[LYLZ[ZHUK]HS\LZVM[OVZLTHRPUNZ\JOHQ\KNTLU[;LHJOLYZSLHYULYZ
employers, parents, and other stakeholders TH`[O\ZHSSOH]LKPќLYLU[]PL^ZHZ[VÔH[ULLKZHYL
HUKPKLU[PM`PUN[OLWLYJLW[PVUZHUKILSPLMZVMKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZHSZVYLMLYYLK[VHZZ[HRLOVSKLY
analysis) is an important dimension of needs analysis (see section 4.4).
>OH[ HYL ZVTL ^H`Z PU ÔPJO SLHYULYZ HUK [OLPY [LHJOLY TH` OH]L KPќLYLU[ ]PL^Z VM [OL
learners’ needs?
For example, in considering the needs of immigrants, representatives of the majority population may
see the immigrants’ needs as achieving cultural and linguistic assimilation as quickly as possible
and hence may want a needs analysis to identify the language skills immigrants require in order to
survive, and ultimately, assimilate into the dominant culture. The immigrants themselves, however,
may see their goals as concerned with communication for survival and independence, particularly
economic survival, but may have no wish to assimilate into the dominant culture (Burnett 1998). Their
need relates to housing, health care, access to schooling for their children, access to community
agencies and services, and ways of addressing exploitation and discrimination in the workplace.
How can the curriculum give learners the linguistic and other resources they need to understand and
access resources they have the right to make use of in the community and to articulate and defend
their own rights and interests? Planning an ESL curriculum in this case involves not only identifying
students’ language needs, but also seeking “to enable them to critically examine [the existing order]
and become active in shaping their own roles in it” (Auerbach 1995, 15). Auerbach has pointed out
that English language teaching has often been viewed as a “neutral transfer of skills, knowledge, or
competencies” and that such an approach is based on the needs of social institutions, rather than
language learners, and ignores questions of power:
Pedagogical choices about curriculum development, content, materials, classroom processes,

and language use, although appearing to be informed by apolitical professional considera-
tions, are in fact inherently ideological in nature, with significant implications for learners’
socioeconomic roles.
(Auerbach 1995, 9)
Apart from language needs, do your learners (or a group of learners you are familiar with) have
other kinds of needs that a language program could address?
4 Needs analysis • 81
4.2 Course design for learners who may have no specific needs
5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPZVM[LUHSHYNLZJHSLYLZLHYJOHJ[P]P[`[OH[ZLLRZ[VÄUKPUMVYTH[PVUVU[OLSHUN\HNL
ULLKZVMSLHYULYZÔVHYLZ[\K`PUN,UNSPZOMVYZWLJPÄJVJJ\WH[PVUHSLK\JH[PVUHSVYZVJPHSW\YWVZLZ
3VUN /V^L]LY THU` SLHYULYZ TH` OH]L UV JSLHYS` KLÄULK W\YWVZL MVY Z[\K`PUN ,UNSPZO ¶
indeed, it may simply be a requirement of the school system, as it is for many young people in countries
where English is a required subject at primary and secondary school. As Cameron (2001, 30) observes:
Many children do not use the foreign language much outside the classroom, except perhaps
on holiday, with tourists to their country, and when using computers. Beyond these limited
domains, their outside lives do not readily provide a needs-related syllabus for foreign lan-
guage learning. Furthermore, their adult lives and possible needs for the language are still
too far away to give content to lessons … The best we can do is aim for dynamic congruence:
choosing activities and content that are appropriate for the children’s age and sociocultural
experience, and language that will grow with the children …
Hence, for many young learners, learning English for use in the classroom becomes the primary
goal, and the activities and experiences provided in the classroom serve as both means and ends of
learning. With young learners there is often no formal language-based syllabus at this stage. Songs,
games, and other motivational activities provide the source for learning and for language use (Pinter
2002). Vale and Feunteun (1998, 33) suggest that the goals of teaching English to young learners are:
• to build confidence
• to provide the motivation to learn English
• to encourage ownership of language
• to encourage children to communicate with whatever language they have at their disposal
(mime, gesture, key word, drawings, etc.)
• to encourage children to treat English as a communication tool, not as an end product
• to show children that English is fun
• to establish a trusting relationship with children and encourage them to do the same with
their classmates
• to give children an experience of a wide range of English language in a non-threatening

environment.
Is English taught at primary or grade school in your country? If so, what is the purpose of
including English in the curriculum?
For older learners such as teenagers, the classroom may still be a primary source of contact with
English; however, increasingly, out-of-class experiences through travel, the media, and the Internet
add another source of potential learning opportunities and would therefore fall within the scope of
needs analysis. Legutke (2012, 113), commenting on teenagers as language learners, observes:
Although the classroom has never been the only space for encounters with English, no past gener-
ation has had such wide out-of-school exposure to English. Three main sources have been identified:
media, personal networks (family and friends), and intercultural contacts through travelling.
<USPRLHK\S[ZÔVVM[LUZ[\K`,UNSPZOI`JOVPJLHUKÔVTHÒH]L]LY`ZWLJPÄJULLKZMVYSLHYUPUN
English, teenage learners may have had no choice in the fact that they are studying English. The
ILULÄ[ZVMRUV^PUN,UNSPZOPU[OLM\[\YLTHÙV[ILHWWHYLU[[V[OLTH[[OPZWVPU[PU[OLPYSP]LZ;OL`
may not see the purpose of some learning activities, because unlike older learners, they do not look
ahead to consider what the skills they are practicing will lead to. Teenage learners tend to evaluate
activities according to how intrinsically interesting or motivating they are, rather than in terms of how
well these activities prepare them for something external to the classroom.
*V\YZLZMVY`V\UNSLHYULYZHUK[LLUHNLYZ[OLYLMVYLYLX\PYLHKPќLYLU[HWWYVHJO[VULLKZHUHS`ZPZ
In these cases teachers need to know as much as they can about their learners, including what their
J\YYLU[WYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSPZPU,UNSPZOÔH[[OLPYWYL]PV\ZSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJLZOH]LILLU
how they like to learn, the kinds of topics and activities they prefer, how they see their role and that of
their teacher in the classroom, and the kinds of problems they experience learning English. Gathering
information of this kind can also be considered as a form of needs analysis. For example, a needs
analysis project for teachers in Spain, designed for a group of teenagers aged 13 to 16, sought
information on three issues:
• Learning needs (learning styles, motivations to learn, thinking styles, preferences and types of
intelligences they use when learning).
• Language needs (skills they wanted to improve such as grammar, reading, speaking, listening,
writing, vocabulary, pronunciation).
• Social needs (background features, gender, culture, personality and interests).
0UMVYTH[PVU^HZVI[HPULKMYVTZ\Y]L`ZVIZLY]H[PVUHUKÄLSKUV[LZZ[\KLU[Z»WLYZVUHSQV\YUHSHUK
an attitude scale. (See Joomag 2014.)
0U JV\YZLZ MVY `V\UN SLHYULYZ HUK [LLUHNLYZ ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ TH` OH]L H U\TILY VM KPќLYLU[
purposes. For example:
• ;VKL[LYTPUL[OLSLHYULYZ»J\YYLU[SL]LSVMWYVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZO
• ;VÄUKV\[ÔH[HZWLJ[ZVM,UNSPZOSLHYUPUN[OL`LUQV`TVZ[HUKSLHZ[Z\JOHZYLHKPUN
listening, video viewing.
• ;VÄUKV\[HIV\[[OLPYWYL]PV\ZL_WLYPLUJLZ^P[OSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN
• To determine their preferences for classroom learning activities.
• ;VÄUKV\[HIV\[[OLPYPU[LYLZ[ZHUK[OLRPUKZVM[VWPJZHUKJVU[LU[[OL`^V\SKSPRL[VMVJ\ZVU
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLPYWYLMLYLUJLZMVYSLHYUPUNHYYHUNLTLU[ZZ\JOHZÔVSLJSHZZ[LHJOPUNNYV\W
work, or individual work.
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLPY]PL^ZHUKILSPLMZHIV\[Z\JOPZZ\LZHZ[OLPTWVY[HUJLVMNYHTTHY]VJHI\SHY`
LYYVYJVYYLJ[PVUÅ\LUJ`HJ[P]P[PLZNYV\W^VYR
In this context needs analysis refers to relatively informal procedures that teachers can use to identify
the beliefs, predispositions, learning preferences, and so on that learners bring to the classroom.
-VY L_HTWSL WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK KPHNUVZ[PJ [LZ[Z JHU IL \ZLK [V HZZLZZ SLHYULYZ» SHUN\HNL SL]LS
8\LZ[PVUUHPYLZHZ^LSSHZJVU]LYZH[PVUZ^P[O[OLSLHYULYZ[OLTZLS]LZJHUIL\ZLK[VÄUKHUZ^LYZ[V
many of the questions above (see Appendix 1).
4.3 Larger-scale needs analysis

Larger-scale needs analysis is often necessary in developing programs with wide application, such
HZ PU WSHUUPUN UH[PVUHS VY PUZ[P[\[PVUHS J\YYPJ\SH MVY SLHYULYZ ^P[O ZWLJPÄJ ULLKZ 5LLKZ HUHS`ZPZ HZ
a distinct and necessary phase in planning educational programs emerged in the 1960s as part of
the systems approach to curriculum development and was a feature of the prevalent philosophy of
LK\JH[PVUHSHJJV\U[HIPSP[`:[\ўLILHTL[HS 0MWYV]PKLYZVM[YHPUPUNWYVNYHTZ^HU[LKW\ISPJVY
V[OLYZV\YJLZVMM\UKPUNPUVYKLY[VWYV]PKLKPќLYLU[RPUKZVM[YHPUPUNWYVNYHTZ[OL`^LYLYLX\PYLK[V
demonstrate that a proposed program was a response to a genuine need (Pratt 1980). Subsequently,
as Berwick (1989, 51) suggests, needs analysis developed into something of an industry.
The need for convincing precision in educational needs assessment was also reinforced during
this period by the “behavioral objectives” movement in educational planning, particularly in
North America, which insisted on specifying in measurable form all goals of importance with-
in an educational system. The emphasis on precision and accountability clearly influenced the
appearance of needs assessment as a form of educational technology and its diversification
into a collection of educational research methodologies.
In language program design, procedures for conducting needs analysis have been developed
particularly for use in planning ESP courses (see Chapter 3), EAP courses, and vocational courses,
but are also essential in developing client-based courses (e.g., business English courses) in the
private sector (Huhta et al. 2013).
4.4 The goals of needs analysis

Needs analysis in language teaching is generally thought of as the starting point in many cases of
JV\YZLKLZPNU¶WHY[PJ\SHYS`^P[OPUHIHJR^HYKKLZPNUHWWYVHJO¶HUKHZZ\JOTHÒH]LHU\TILY
of related purposes, such as the following:
• To understand the context in which a learner uses or will use English.
• ;VÄUKV\[ÔH[SHUN\HNLZRPSSZHSLHYULYULLKZPUVYKLY[VWLYMVYTHWHY[PJ\SHYYVSLZ\JOHZ
sales manager, tour guide, or university student.
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLTVZ[MYLX\LU[HUKTVZ[KLTHUKPUNZP[\H[PVUZMVYÔPJO[OLSLHYULYULLKZ,UNSPZO
• ;VÄUKV\[[OLRPUKZVM[HZRZHUKHJ[P]P[PLZ[OLSLHYULYZULLK[V\ZL,UNSPZOMVYV\[ZPKLVM[OL
classroom.
• To identify a gap between what students are able to do and what they need to be able to do,
sometimes called the “training gap.”
• To determine the learners’ preferred teaching and learning style.
• ;VSLHYUHIV\[KPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZ»]PL^ZVMÔH[[OLSLHYULYZULLK
• ;VOLSWH[LHJOLYWSHUSLZZVUZ[OH[YLÅLJ[SLHYULYZ»ULLKZKPѝJ\S[PLZHUKWYLMLYYLKSLHYUPUNZ[`SLZ
• To help determine if an existing course adequately addresses the needs of potential students.
• To determine which students from a group are most in need of training in particular language skills.
• To collect information about a particular problem learners are experiencing.
;OL ÄYZ[ Z[LW PU JVUK\J[PUN H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ PZ [OLYLMVYL [V KLJPKL L_HJ[S` ÔH[ P[Z W\YWVZL VY
purposes are. As Huhta et al. (2013, 10) comment:
first it is essential to establish whose needs we are interested in. This also involves considera-
tion of not just one perspective or one context but multiple perspectives and multiple con-
texts. Needs may be investigated from the perspective of teachers, that of the learners or that
of the employers who are funding the language course. Then within the learner group itself,
perspectives on what can be learned, what should be learned and why will differ from learner
to learner.
If you were to carry out a needs analysis of your learners (or a group of learners you are familiar
with), what would the purposes be for the needs analysis?
For example, when a needs analysis of restaurant employees is conducted, the purposes might be:
• [VKL[LYTPULJ\YYLU[SL]LSZVMSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`VMLTWSV`LLZ"
• to determine how many employees are in need of the language training;
• [VPKLU[PM`[OLYLZ[H\YHU[VÛLY»ZHUKTHUHNLTLU[Z[Hќ»ZWLYJLW[PVUVMSHUN\HNLWYVISLTZ
employees have on the job;
• [VPKLU[PM`LTWSV`LLZ»WLYJLW[PVUZVMSHUN\HNLKPѝJ\S[PLZ[OL`MHJLVU[OLQVI"
• to ascertain the types of transactions employees typically perform in English;
• to determine the language characteristics of those transactions;
• to assess the extent to which employees’ needs are met by currently available programs and
textbooks.
Those who have an interest in the outcomes of the needs analysis are known as stakeholders.
*VUULSS` HUK *SHUKPUPU KLÄUL H Z[HRLOVSKLY HZ ¸H WLYZVU VY NYV\W VM WLYZVUZ ^P[O
H YPNO[ [V JVTTLU[ VU HUK OH]L PUW\[ PU[V [OL J\YYPJ\S\T WYVJLZZ VќLYLK PU ZJOVVSZ¹ (Z UV[LK
HIV]L[LHJOLYZSLHYULYZWHYLU[ZLTWSV`LYZHUKVѝJPHSZPUHTPUPZ[Y`VMLK\JH[PVUHYLHSSL_HTWSLZ
VM Z[HRLOVSKLYZ PU H J\YYPJ\S\T HUK ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ ZLLRZ [V VI[HPU PUMVYTH[PVU MYVT [OL KPќLYLU[
stakeholders involved. In many cases, learners’ language needs may be relatively easy to determine,
WHY[PJ\SHYS`PMSLHYULYZULLK[VSLHYUHSHUN\HNLMVY]LY`ZWLJPÄJW\YWVZLZMVYL_HTWSLLTWSV`TLU[
PUÄLSKZZ\JOHZ[V\YPZTU\YZPUNVY[OLOV[LSPUK\Z[Y`0U[OPZJHZL[OL[HZRZLTWSV`LLZ[`WPJHSS`JHYY`
out in English can be observed and the language needs of those tasks determined. The information
obtained can then serve as a basis for planning a training program.
In other cases, learners’ needs may not be so immediate, as we noted above with young learners,
and similarly for students learning English as a secondary school subject in an EFL context. Here
English may be a compulsory subject that is considered an important part of a child’s general
education. However, even though the students may not have any immediate perceptions of needs,
J\YYPJ\S\T WSHUULYZ ^PSS NLULYHSS` OH]L JVUZ\S[LK LTWSV`LYZ WHYLU[Z [LHJOLYZ HUK V[OLYZ [V ÄUK
out what knowledge of English they expect high school graduates to achieve. In many countries, the
introduction of English or another foreign language in elementary or secondary school is based on
what curriculum planners consider it best for students to study at school in the same way that math,
history, and physical education are included in the school curriculum. Learners are not consulted as
to whether they perceive a “need” for such knowledge. Their needs have been decided for them by
those concerned with their long-term welfare. Needs analysis thus includes the study of perceived
and present needs as well as potential and unrecognized needs.
In considering the needs of secondary school language learners, who would the primary
stakeholders be?
Needs analysis may take place prior to, during, or after a language program. Much of the literature
on needs analysis is based on the assumption that it is part of the planning that takes place during
the development of a course. It assumes that time and resources are available to plan, collect, and
analyze relevant information for a planned program of instruction. This a priori approach to needs
analysis requires long-term planning and assumes adequate time and resources to devote to needs
analysis, such as is proposed in Long (2005, 2015). However, as Hall (2013, 2) points out, this is
not always possible: “it is unfortunately the case that teachers often operate within very restrictive
time and funding constraints, and it is unrealistic for most people called upon to design and deliver a
ZWLJPÄJW\YWVZLJV\YZL[VPUP[PH[LHSLUN[O`HUKPUKLW[OPU]LZ[PNH[PVU¹
At other times, it may not have been possible to collect information prior to a course, and the bulk
of the information that constitutes the needs analysis may be collected during the course or after the
JV\YZLPZÄUPZOLK;OLPUMVYTH[PVUJVSSLJ[LKJHUIL\ZLK[VÄUL[\UL[OLJV\YZLK\YPUNKLSP]LY`VY
as a basis for evaluating and revising the program.
4.5 The users of needs analysis

( ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ TH` IL JVUK\J[LK MVY H ]HYPL[` VM KPќLYLU[ \ZLYZ -VY L_HTWSL PU JVUK\J[PUN H
needs analysis to help revise the secondary school English curriculum in a country, the end users
could include:
• J\YYPJ\S\TVѝJLYZPU[OLTPUPZ[Y`VMLK\JH[PVUÔVTH`^PZO[V\ZL[OLPUMVYTH[PVU[VL]HS\H[L
the adequacy of existing syllabuses, curricula, and materials;
• teachers who will teach from the new curriculum;
• learners, who will be taught from the curriculum;
• writers, who are preparing new textbooks;
• testing personnel, who are involved in developing end-of-school assessments;
• Z[HќVM[LY[PHY`PUZ[P[\[PVUZÔVHYLPU[LYLZ[LKPURUV^PUNÔH[[OLL_WLJ[LKSL]LSVMZ[\KLU[Z
exiting the schools will be and what problems they face.
With small-scale needs analysis, such as that carried out by a single teacher on his or her class, the
audience might consist of the teacher, other teachers, and the program coordinator. In cases of large-
scale needs analysis, there will be multiple audiences for the results of a needs analysis. Determining
[OLSPRLS`H\KPLUJLZPZHUPTWVY[HU[ÄYZ[Z[LWPUWSHUUPUNHULLKZHUHS`ZPZPUVYKLY[VLUZ\YL[OH[[OL
information they need is obtained and that the needs analysis will have the impact it is designed to
OH]L:[\ўLILHTL[HS JVTTLU[!¸0[PZPTWVY[HU[[VYLTLTILY[OH[UV[HSSRL`H\KPLUJLZ
HYLSPRLS`[VILPKLU[PÄLKH[[OLZ[HY[VMHZ[\K`(SZVP[PZLU[PYLS`WVZZPISL[OH[[OLYLSH[P]LPTWVY[HUJL
of various audiences will change during the study.”
0U HU` ZP[\H[PVU ÔLYL ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ PZ ILPUN \UKLY[HRLU [OLYL HYL [O\Z KPќLYLU[ Z[HRLOVSKLYZ
that is, those who have a particular interest or involvement in the issues or programs that are being
L_HTPULK HUK P[ PZ PTWVY[HU[ [V [Y` [V NL[ H ZLUZL VM ÔH[ [OLPY KPќLYLU[ HNLUKHZ HYL +PќLYLU[
Z[HRLOVSKLYZ^PSS^HU[KPќLYLU[[OPUNZMYVT[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T
4.6 The target population

The target population in a needs analysis refers to the people about whom information will be
collected. Typically in language programs, these will be language learners or potential language
learners, but others are also often involved depending on whether they can provide information that is
useful in meeting the purposes of the needs analysis. For example, in conducting a needs analysis to
determine the focus of an English program in public secondary schools, the target population might
PUJS\KL WVSPJ`THRLYZ TPUPZ[Y` VM LK\JH[PVU VѝJPHSZ [LHJOLYZ Z[\KLU[Z HJHKLTPJZ LTWSV`LYZ
]VJH[PVUHS [YHPUPUN ZWLJPHSPZ[Z WHYLU[Z PUÅ\LU[PHS PUKP]PK\HSZ HUK WYLZZ\YL NYV\WZ HJHKLTPJ
specialists, and community agencies. Within each target group, subcategories of respondents might
ILULLKLK[VWYV]PKLKPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]LZVUULLKZ
In assessing the needs of international students studying in an English-medium university,

what would the target population consist of?
In determining the target population, an important issue is that of sampling. In some cases, the
population is small enough for every learner to be included in the sample. In other cases this approach
is not feasible, and so decisions must be made about the size of the sample to be included in a needs
analysis. Sampling involves asking a portion of the potential target population rather than the whole
of it and therefore seeks to create a sample that is representative of the total target population. A
U\TILY VM MHJ[VYZ PUÅ\LUJL [OL HWWYVHJO [V ZHTWSPUN Z\JO HZ [OL OVTVNLULP[` VM [OL WVW\SH[PVU
in terms of the kinds of skills, attitudes, or knowledge being sought or the need to study subgroups
^P[OPU[OLZHTWSL¶MVYL_HTWSLIHZLKVUZL_SHUN\HNLNYV\WVYV[OLYMHJ[VYZ>OLYL[OL[HYNL[
population is large, specialized advice is often needed to determine what approach to sampling best
suits the purpose of the study and the sources of information available.
For example, Lambert (2010) describes an approach that was used as part of the planning of an
English program at a Japanese university. To help provide a focus for the program, information was
obtained on graduates’ future language needs. Five sources of information were used:
1. ,_[HU[QVIWSHJLTLU[YLJVYKZPU[OL6ѝJLVM:[\KLU[(ќHPYZ
2. Interviews with two experienced informants.
3. (UVWLUP[LTKPYLJ[THPSZ\Y]L`VMNYHK\H[LZV]LY[OLÄ]L`LHYWLYPVKWYLJLKPUN[OLZ[\K`
4. (MVSSV^\WLTHPSZ\Y]L`VMHZ\INYV\WVMYLZWVUKLU[Z[V[OLÄYZ[Z\Y]L`
5. A closed-item direct-mail survey of graduates over the 25-year period preceding the study.
;OLZ[\K`YL]LHSLK[OH[,UNSPZOTHQVYZH[[OL\UP]LYZP[ÙLLKLK[VILHISL[VJVTWSL[LH[SLHZ[Ä]L
types of tasks for positions in business and education (locating information, translating Japanese to
English, summarizing information, editing English documents, interpreting Japanese-English).
4.7 Procedures for conducting large-scale needs analysis

A variety of procedures can be used in conducting needs analysis, and the kind of information obtained
is often dependent on the type of procedure selected (Huhta et al. 2013). Since any one source of
information is likely to be incomplete or partial, a triangular approach (i.e., collecting information from
[OYLL VY TVYL ZV\YJLZ PZ HK]PZHISL 4HU` KPќLYLU[ ZV\YJLZ VM PUMVYTH[PVU ZOV\SK IL ZV\NO[ -VY
example, when a needs analysis of the writing problems encountered by foreign students enrolled in
English-medium universities is conducted, information could be obtained from the following sources:
• Samples of student writing.
• Test data on student performance.
• Reports by teachers on typical problems students face.
• Opinions of experts.
• Information from students via interviews and questionnaires.
• Analyses of textbooks teaching academic writing.
• Surveys or related literature.
• Examples of writing programs from other institutions.

• ,_HTWSLZVM^YP[PUNHZZPNUTLU[ZNP]LU[VÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z
>OH[ ^V\SK IL [OYLL ^H`Z VM JVSSLJ[PUN PUMVYTH[PVU VU [OL SHUN\HNL ULLKZ VM ÅPNO[
attendants?
4HU` KPќLYLU[ WYVJLK\YLZ JHU IL \ZLK [V JVSSLJ[ PUMVYTH[PVU HZ WHY[ VM H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ HUK H
U\TILYVM[OLZLHYLKLZJYPILKIYPLÅÌLSV^
Analysis of available information

In any situation where a needs analysis is required, a large amount of relevant information can usually
IL HJX\PYLK MYVT ZV\YJLZ Z\JO HZ IVVRZ QV\YUHS HY[PJSLZ YLWVY[Z HUK Z\Y]L`Z YLJVYKZ HUK ÄSLZ
0UKLLK HU HUHS`ZPZ VM Z\JO PUMVYTH[PVU PZ UVYTHSS` [OL ÄYZ[ Z[LW PU JHYY`PUN V\[ H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ
because there are very few problems in language teaching that have not already been written about
or analyzed somewhere.
Expert advice
Consultation with experts or knowledgeable persons can also provide useful insights and advice.
Although information of this kind is easy to obtain, it may represent the opinions of only one or two
individuals and may not be reliable.
Questionnaires
Questionnaires are one of the most common instruments used in needs analysis. They are relatively easy
to prepare, can be used with large numbers of subjects, and produce information that is relatively easy
[V[HI\SH[LHUKHUHSàL;OL`JHUHSZVIL\ZLK[VLSPJP[PUMVYTH[PVUHIV\[THU`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMPZZ\LZ
Z\JOHZSHUN\HNL\ZLJVTT\UPJH[PVUKPѝJ\S[PLZWYLMLYYLKSLHYUPUNZ[`SLZWYLMLYYLKJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ
and attitudes and beliefs. Many such questionnaires these days are web-based. However, information
VI[HPULKMYVTX\LZ[PVUUHPYLZTHÌLMHPYS`Z\WLYÄJPHSVYPTWYLJPZLHUK^PSSVM[LUULLKMVSSV^\W[VNHPU
HM\SSLY\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVMÔH[YLZWVUKLU[ZPU[LUK:LL(WWLUKP_LZ¶MVYL_HTWSLZVMX\LZ[PVUUHPYLZ
Self-ratings
Self-ratings consist of scales that students or others use to rate their knowledge or abilities. (Self-
ratings might also be included as part of a questionnaire.) For example, a student might rate how
well he or she can handle a job interview in English. The disadvantage of such an instrument is that
it provides only impressionistic information that is not very precise.
Learner diaries and journals

As part of their regular language course, learners might keep a diary or journal in which they record
accounts of successful and unsuccessful attempts to use English, and monitor their language use and
other aspects of their learning experience. Such accounts provide insider accounts of language learning,
but they are not systematic or comprehensive and may be time-consuming to produce and analyze.
Interviews
Interviews allow for a more in-depth exploration of issues than is possible with a questionnaire,
though they take longer to administer and are only feasible for smaller groups. An interview may often
be useful at the preliminary stage of designing a questionnaire, since it will help the designer get a
sense of what topics and issues can be focused on in the questionnaire. A structured interview in
which a set series of questions is used allows more consistency across responses to be obtained.
Interviews can be conducted face to face, over the telephone, or on the Internet.
Meetings
A meeting allows a large amount of information to be collected in a fairly short time. For example, a
meeting of teachers on the topic “students’ problems with listening comprehension” might generate a
wide range of ideas. However, information obtained in this way may be impressionistic and subjective
HUKYLÅLJ[[OLPKLHZVMTVYLV\[ZWVRLUTLTILYZVMHNYV\W
Observation
Observations of learners’ behavior in a target situation is another way of assessing their needs. For
example, observing clerks performing their jobs in a bank will enable the observer to arrive at certain
conclusions about their language needs. However, people often do not perform well when they are
being observed, so this has to be taken into account. In addition, observation is a specialized skill.
Knowing how to observe, what to look for, and how to make use of the information obtained generally
requires specialized training.
Shadowing
Shadowing involves following an individual over a period of time to observe his or her natural
interaction, behavior, and language use. For example, a nurse may be shadowed for one or more
days in order to collect information on his or her daily work activities and tasks and the language
demands involved. However while relatively easy to set up, it is time-consuming and may not provide
information that is reliable or representative.
Participant observation
This is a type of observation in which the observer locates him- or herself within the social setting to
be observed and participates in it actively. For example, in order to learn about the communicative
demands of tour guides, the observer may assist a tour guide during the course of the guide’s
regular work. An example of this approach is Astika (2004), who used observation, interviews with
tour guides, interviews with experts, and interviews with teachers of tour guides in order to identify
tasks and subtasks for use in a course for tour guides. This produced the information presented in
Table 4.1 below:
Table 4.1 Tasks identified in a needs analysis for tour guides

TASKS SUBTASKS
1. Meeting tourists at the airport
Taking tourists to the hotel for check in 2. Giving information on the way to the hotel
3. Helping tourists with registration
1. Meeting tourists at the hotel lobby
2. Beginning the tour
3. Describing the itinerary
4. Describing objects on the way to the
Taking tourists on a day tour destination
5. Describing religious objects
6. Describing processes
7. Taking tourists to restaurants
8. Describing sites
While providing an “insider perspective” on the activity of guiding, information collected from
participant observation may not be representative, as it is limited to only one kind of informant and is
usually time-consuming to analyze. In the example above, the results do little to clarify the language
KLTHUKZVM[OL[HZRZPKLU[PÄLKÔPJO^V\SKILLZZLU[PHSPUKLZPNUPUNHJV\YZL
Collecting learner language samples

*VSSLJ[PUN KH[H VU OV^ ^LSS SLHYULYZ WLYMVYT VU KPќLYLU[ SHUN\HNL [HZRZ LN I\ZPULZZ SL[[LYZ
interviews, telephone calls) and documenting the typical problems they have are a useful and direct
means of acquiring information about learners’ language needs. Language samples may be collected
through the following means:
• Written or oral tasks: Examples of students’ written or oral work are collected.
• Simulations or role plays: Students are given simulations to carry out and their performance is
observed or recorded.
• Achievement tests: :[\KLU[ZHYL[LZ[LKMVY[OLPYHIPSP[PLZPUKPќLYLU[KVTHPUZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL
• Performance tests: Students are tested on job-related or task-related behaviors, such as how
well a job interview can be carried out in English.
Task analysis
Task analysis refers to analysis of the kinds of tasks the learners will have to carry out in English
in a future occupational or educational setting and analysis of the linguistic characteristics and
demands of the tasks. For example, a hotel employee might have to perform the following tasks
in English:
• Greet hotel guests.
• Inquire about their accommodation needs.
• Inform them of accommodation available at the hotel.
• Help them make a suitable choice of accommodation.
• Handle check-in procedures.
:LL [OL [V\Y N\PKL L_HTWSL PU ;HISL VU W ÔLYL [HZRZ ^LYL PKLU[PÄLK [OYV\NO WHY[PJPWHU[
VIZLY]H[PVU6UJL[HYNL[[HZRZOH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLK[OLPYSPUN\PZ[PJJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZHYLZ[\KPLKHZH
basis for designing a language course or training materials (Long 2005).
Case studies
With a case study, a single student or a selected group of students is followed through a relevant work
or educational experience in order to determine the characteristics of that situation. For example, a
newly arrived immigrant might be studied for three months, during which time the student keeps a
log of his or her daily language experiences in English, the situations in which the language is used,
and the problems he or she encounters. Although it is generally not possible to generalize from a
case study, it provides a very rich source of information that may complement information obtained
from other sources.
From the procedures described above, choose three that would be suitable to use in studying
the needs of nurses working on a general ward in a public hospital.
4.8 Making use of the information obtained

;OL YLZ\S[Z VM H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ ^PSS NLULYHSS` JVUZPZ[ VM PUMVYTH[PVU [HRLU MYVT ZL]LYHS KPќLYLU[
ZV\YJLZHUKZ\TTHYPaLKPU[OLMVYTVMYHURLKSPZ[ZVMKPќLYLU[RPUKZZ\JOHZ[OLMVSSV^PUN!
• Situations in which English is frequently used.
• :P[\H[PVUZPUÔPJOKPѝJ\S[PLZHYLLUJV\U[LYLK
• +PќLYLUJLZIL[^LLU[OLSLHYULYZ»J\YYLU[WYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSHUK[OLKLZPYLK[HYNL[SL]LS
• Comments most often made by people on learners’ performance.
• -YLX\LUJPLZ^P[OÔPJOKPќLYLU[[YHUZHJ[PVUZHYLJHYYPLKV\[
• 7LYJLP]LKKPѝJ\S[PLZ^P[OKPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL
• 7YLMLYLUJLZMVYKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMHJ[P]P[PLZPU[LHJOPUN
• -YLX\LUJPLZVMLYYVYZTHKLPUKPќLYLU[[`WLZVMZP[\H[PVUZVYHJ[P]P[PLZ
• *VTTVUJVTT\UPJH[PVUWYVISLTZPUKPќLYLU[ZP[\H[PVUZ
• :\NNLZ[PVUZHUKVWPUPVUZHIV\[KPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVMSLHYULYZ»WYVISLTZ
• -YLX\LUJPLZVMSPUN\PZ[PJP[LTZVY\UP[ZPUKPќLYLU[[L_[ZVYZP[\H[PVUZ
6UL VM [OL ÄUKPUNZ VM H ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ VM WYVISLTZ VM ,:3 Z[\KLU[Z H[[LUKPUN \UP]LYZP[` SLJ[\YLZ
^HZ H SPZ[ VM [OL MYLX\LUJ` ^P[O ÔPJO Z[\KLU[Z L_WLYPLUJLK KPѝJ\S[PLZ ^P[O ZWLHRPUNHUK SPZ[LUPUN
ZRPSSZ.YH]H[[9PJOHYKZHUK3L^PZ ;OLTVZ[JVTTVUKPѝJ\S[PLZYLWVY[LK^LYLI`YHUR!
1. Large-group discussions
2. Class discussions
3. Interactions with native speakers
4. Out-of-class projects
5. Small-group work
6. Demonstrator interactions
7. Class participation
However, such a listing provides little useful information about the precise types of problems the
learners experience in relation to each event. Even if more detailed information had been provided,
the results would still be impressionistic. For example, in relation to event 1 (large-group discussions),
TVYLKL[HPSLKPUMVYTH[PVUJV\SKOH]LILLUZV\NO[MYVTÔPJOHM\Y[OLYSPZ[PUNTPNO[OH]LYLZ\S[LK¶
[OLTVZ[KPѝJ\S[HZWLJ[ZVM[HRPUNWHY[PUNYV\WKPZJ\ZZPVUZ1VOUZHUK1VOUZ WYV]PKLZ\JO
a list based on a needs analysis of problems students have with discussions. The most frequent
KPѝJ\S[PLZUV[LK^LYLHZMVSSV^Z!
1. +PѝJ\S[PLZPU\UKLYZ[HUKPUNZWVRLU,UNSPZOK\L[V[OLZWLHRLY»ZZWLLKVMZWLHRPUNPKPVTH[PJ
vocabulary, and unclear words.
2. Inability to respond quickly to a question.
3. Fear of saying something incorrectly.
4. Inability to express a meaning in English.
5. <UMHTPSPHYP[`^P[O[OLTVZ[HWWYVWYPH[L^H`[VL_WYLZZHM\UJ[PVUPU,UNSPZO
6. <UHISL[VLU[LYPU[VHKPZJ\ZZPVU^P[OV[OLYZ[\KLU[ZILJH\ZLZVTLKVTPUH[L[OLKPZJ\ZZPVU
Yet even with this more detailed breakdown, no direct application to program design is possible.
More analysis and research would be needed to understand what is implied by “comprehension of
spoken English” and before the information obtained could be used in course planning. Although the
information gathered is useful, a number of questions still remain unanswered and therefore it still has
to be subjected to a great deal of interpretation before it can be usefully applied in program planning.
4.9 Applying the findings of needs analysis

0U[OLJV\YZLVMJHYY`PUNV\[HULLKZHUHS`ZPZHSHYNLU\TILYVMWV[LU[PHSULLKZTHÌLPKLU[PÄLK
However, these needs will have to be prioritized because it may not be practical to address all of them
in a language program, especially in light of the time constraints of the program. Moreover, the mere
MHJ[[OH[ULLKZOH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLKKVLZUV[H\[VTH[PJHSS`PTWS`[OH[JOHUNLZ^PSSOH]L[VILTHKL
in the curriculum. First, the existing curriculum (when there is one) has to be examined to see to what
L_[LU[[OLULLKZ[OH[OH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLKHYLILPUNTL[+LJPZPVUZ^PSS[OLYLMVYLOH]L[VILTHKL
concerning which of the needs are critical, which are important, and which are merely desirable. In
addition, some needs will be immediate and others longer term. For some, solutions will be feasible;
for others, they may be impractical.
It is also important to remember that because needs are not objective facts but subjective
interpretations of information, from a large variety of sources, a great deal of consultation is needed
with the various stakeholders to ensure that the conclusions drawn from a needs analysis are
appropriate and relevant. It often happens that some of the information may be contradictory. As
:[\ўLILHTL[HS YLTPUK\Z!
The process of analysis [of the results of a needs analysis] involves efforts that are thoughtful,
investigatory, systematic, and carefully recorded so that they can be replicated and reviewed.
The primary goal of analysis is to bring meaning to the obtained information and to do so in the
context of some philosophy, relevant perspectives, and value positions that may be in conflict.
Thus, for example, in a needs analysis that formed part of curriculum renewal in a state education
Z`Z[LTKPќLYLU[]PL^ZVMWYVISLTZPU[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TLTLYNLK(YHUNLVM]PL^Z^HZHSZVL_WYLZZLK
therefore about what should be changed:
• Learners’ view: more support for learning needed and reduction in the amount of material
required to study.
• Academics’ view: better preparation for tertiary studies needed in terms of reading and writing
skills.
• Employers’ view: better preparation for employment required in terms of basic communication skills.
• Teachers’ view: better grasp of grammar needed by learners.
)YPUKSL` HKPZJ\ZZLZKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLUSLHYULYZ»HUK[LHJOLYZ»]PL^ZVMULLKZHUKZ\NNLZ[Z
the importance of a negotiation process in order to satisfy and clarify each other’s assumptions. The
same is true of other stakeholders in the curriculum.
>OLYL[OLYLHYLZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[H\KPLUJLZMVY[OLULLKZHUHS`ZPZLN[LHJOLYZHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZH
M\UKPUNIVK`[OLPUMVYTH[PVUVI[HPULK^PSSOH]L[VILHUHSàLK¶HUKHUHSàLKPUHMVYT[OH[Z\P[Z
LHJO NYV\W»Z PU[LYLZ[Z 6UL NYV\W TH` YLX\PYL H IYPLM V]LY]PL^ VM [OL ÄUKPUNZ ÔPSL HUV[OLY TH`
ILPU[LYLZ[LKPUKL[HPSLKÄUKPUNZ;OLMVYTH[MVYYLWVY[PUN[OLÄUKPUNZTH`HSZV]HY`-VYL_HTWSL
it might include a full written document, a short summary document, a meeting, a group discussion,
or a newsletter.
5LLKZHUHS`ZPZ[O\ZWYVK\JLZPUMVYTH[PVU[OH[JHUIL\ZLKPUKPќLYLU[^H`Z-VYL_HTWSL!
• It may provide the basis for the evaluation of an existing program or a component of a program.
• It may provide the basis for planning goals and objectives for a future program.
• It may assist with developing tests and other assessment procedures.
• It can help with the selection of appropriate teaching methods in a program.
• It may provide the basis for developing a syllabus and teaching materials for a course.
• It may provide information that can be used as part of a course or program report to an external
body or organization.
In none of these cases, however, is there a direct route from needs analysis to application.
If you were to conduct a needs analysis of your students (or a group of learners you are familiar
^P[OOV^^V\SK`V\WSHU[VTHRL\ZLVM[OLÄUKPUNZ&
Conclusions
5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPZ\Z\HSS`JVUZPKLYLK[OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[PUKLZPNUPUNHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHT¶WHY[PJ\SHYS`
VULMVYVSKLYSLHYULYZ¶HUKJHUZLY]LH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[W\YWVZLZ6U[OLVULOHUKP[THÌLH^H`
of exploring what the learners’ “subjective needs” are, that is, how the learners perceive their learning
KPѝJ\S[PLZ[OLPYWYLMLYLUJLMVYWHY[PJ\SHY[`WLZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ[OLPYILSPLMZHIV\[[OLUH[\YLVM
language learning, and the ways they prefer to interact with the teacher and with other learners. Needs
analysis may also focus on the learners’ “objective needs,” that is, on the kinds of situations learners
will encounter outside of the classroom and the linguistic and other demands of those situations.
For classroom teachers, needs analysis will typically refer to relatively informal procedures that can
be used to assess the suitability of their course objectives and materials or to help them plan new
courses for future intakes of students. The possibilities of carrying out larger-scale needs analysis
using some of the procedures reviewed in this chapter will depend on the scope of a language
program and the amount of time and other necessary resources available. Although the design of
language programs is a major application of needs analysis, before a program can be designed it is
necessary to have additional information on factors that can have an impact on the program. The
PKLU[PÄJH[PVUVMZ\JOMHJ[VYZHUK[OLHZZLZZTLU[VM[OLPYSPRLS`PTWHJ[MVYT[OLMVJ\ZVM*OHW[LY
1. 5LLKZHUHS`ZPZPZVMNYLH[LZ[\ZLPUZP[\H[PVUZÔLYLZ[\KLU[ZOH]L]LY`ZWLJPÄJSHUN\HNLULLKZ
/V^L]LYP[JHUHSZVIL\ZLKPUZP[\H[PVUZÔLYLSLHYULYZ»ULLKZHYLUV[ZVZWLJPÄJHZPU[OL
case of students learning English as a foreign language in a school setting. What might the focus
of a needs analysis be in this situation?
2. If you were planning a needs analysis as part of the review of a secondary school English
curriculum, what information would you seek to obtain?
3. Discuss the concept of stakeholders in planning a needs analysis in relation to a context you are
MHTPSPHY^P[O/V^JHU[OLJVUJLYUZVMKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZILHKKYLZZLK&
4. 0M`V\^LYLKLZPNUPUNHULLKZHUHS`ZPZMVYZLJYL[HYPLZ^VYRPUNPUI\ZPULZZVѝJLZÔH[[HYNL[
population would you include in the needs analysis? What kind of information would you need
from each member of the target population?
5. :\NNLZ[MV\YKPќLYLU[ULLKZHUHS`ZPZWYVJLK\YLZ[OH[JV\SKIL\ZLK[VJVSSLJ[PUMVYTH[PVUHIV\[
the language needs of hotel telephone operators. What are the advantages and limitations of
each procedure?
6. Suggest situations in which a case study would provide useful information during a needs
analysis.
7. Design a short questionnaire designed to investigate the language needs of tour guides. What
issues will the questionnaire address? What types of items will you include in the questionnaire?
8. Prepare a set of questions to be used in a structured interview for use in a needs analysis of the
SHUN\HNLULLKZVMPTTPNYH[PVUVѝJLYZH[HUHPYWVY[
9. Choose an occupation that you are familiar with or that you would be able to observe and
prepare an analysis of the tasks typically carried out by people in that occupation. Suggest the
language requirements of each task.
10. Read Case study 5 by Lindsay Miller and Case study 6 by Rob Haines at the end of this chapter.
In each case consider the following:
• What kind of information did the planners need to plan the course?
• How did they obtain it?
• How did they make use of the information they obtained?
APPENDIX 1 Questionnaire to determine learners’ subjective needs

0U KL]LSVWPUN JV\YZLZ MVY HK\S[ TPNYHU[Z PU (\Z[YHSPH >PSSPUN ¶ KL]LSVWLK H
questionnaire to determine their learning style preferences. While some of the questions are now a
little dated, it provides a useful instrument for determining learners’ “subjective” needs. A rating scale
is used for each item. The items on the questionnaire are:
1. In English class, I like to learn by reading.
2. In class, I like to listen and use cassettes.
3. In class, I like to learn by games.
4. In class, I like to learn by conversations.
5. 0UJSHZZ0SPRL[VSLHYUI`WPJ[\YLZÄSTZ]PKLV
6. I want to write everything in my notebook.
7. I like to have my own textbook.
8. I like the teacher to explain everything to us.
9. I like the teacher to give us problems to work on.
10. I like the teacher to help me talk about my interests.
11. I like the teacher to tell me all my mistakes.
12. 0SPRL[OL[LHJOLY[VSL[TLÄUKT`TPZ[HRLZ
13. I like to study English by myself (alone).
14. I like to learn English by talking in pairs.
15. I like to learn English in a small group.
16. I like to learn English with the whole class.
17. I like to go out with the class and practice English.
18. I like to study grammar.

19. I like to learn many new words.
20. I like to practice the sounds and pronunciation.
21. I like to learn English words by seeing them.
22. I like to learn English words by hearing them.
23. I like to learn English words by doing something.
24. At home, I like to learn by reading newspapers etc.
25. At home, I like to learn by watching TV in English.
26. At home, I like to learn by using cassettes.
27. At home, I like to learn by studying English books.
28. I like to learn by talking to friends in English.
29. I like to learn by watching/listening to Australians.
30. I like to learn by using English in shops/trains.
APPENDIX 2 Needs analysis questionnaire for non-English-background

students (from Gravatt, Richards, and Lewis 1997)
:[\KLU[X\LZ[PVUUHPYL\ZLKH[[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM(\JRSHUK5LÂLHSHUK
Institute of Language Teaching and Learning

5,,+:(5(3@:0:6-,5.30:/(:(:,*65+3(5.<(.,:;<+,5;¶:;<+,5;=,9:065
This questionnaire is part of a project being carried out by the Institute of Language Teaching and
3LHYUPUN[VKL[LYTPULÔH[[OLSHUN\HNLULLKZVMZ[\KLU[ZÔVZLÄYZ[VYKVTPUHU[SHUN\HNLPZUV[
,UNSPZO,:3Z[\KLU[ZH[[LUKPUN[OL<UP]LYZP[`HYLÔL[OLY[OLZLHYLILPUNHKLX\H[LS`TL[HUKPM
UV[ÔH[JHUILKVULIL[[LY-VY[OPZW\YWVZL[OLVWPUPVUZVMIV[OZ[HќHUKZ[\KLU[ZPUH]HYPL[`VM
departments are being surveyed. It would be appreciated if you could complete this questionnaire,
which should take approximately 20 minutes.
The term ‘N/A’ is used in this questionnaire. It means ‘Not applicable’ and is the appropriate
response if a question does not apply to you.
With which of the following groups do you identify? (please tick the appropriate box):
7HJPÄJ0ZSHUK¶ÔPJO&
(ZPHU¶ÔPJOJV\U[Y`&
Other (please specify):
/V^THU``LHYZOH]L`V\ILLUZ[\K`PUNH[(\JRSHUK<UP]LYZP[`
(including 1997)?
What is your current course of study?

7SLHZLJVTWSL[L[OPZX\LZ[PVUUHPYL^P[OYLNHYK[V[OLJV\YZL`V\OH]LZWLJPÄLKOLYL
(6]LY]PL^VM:RPSSZ5LLKLKHUK+PѝJ\S[PLZ,UJV\U[LYLK
In your course of study, how often are you expected to use the following skills? (please circle):
Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never

Reading 1 2 3 4 5
Writing 1 2 3 4 5
Speaking 1 2 3 4 5
Listening 1 2 3 4 5
/V^VM[LUKV`V\OH]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[OLHJOVM[OLZLZRPSSZ&WSLHZLJPYJSL!
Very often Often Sometimes Rarely Never

Reading 1 2 3 4 5
Writing 1 2 3 4 5
Speaking 1 2 3 4 5
Listening 1 2 3 4 5
B. General Statements
Please circle the appropriate response:
How important to success in your course of study are the following abilities?
High Moderate Low

1. Listening to English 1 2 3 4 5
2. Speaking English 1 2 3 4 5
3. Writing English 1 2 3 4 5
4. Reading English 1 2 3 4 5
/V^PTWVY[HU[[VZ\JJLZZPU`V\YÄLSKHM[LYNYHK\H[PVUHYL[OLMVSSV^PUNHIPSP[PLZ&
High Moderate Low

1. Listening to English 1 2 3 4 5
2. Speaking English 1 2 3 4 5
3. Writing English 1 2 3 4 5
4. Reading English 1 2 3 4 5
C. Speaking and Listening Skills

How often do the following happen to you?
Always Often Sometimes Never N/A

1. Receive low grades in tasks involving 1 2 3 4 5
class participation.
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`^VYRPUNPUZTHSSNYV\WZ 1 2 3 4 5
during class.
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`^VYRPUN^P[OV[OLY 1 2 3 4 5
students on out-of-class projects.
4. Have trouble leading class 1 2 3 4 5
discussions.
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`WHY[PJPWH[PUNPUSHYNL 1 2 3 4 5
groups.
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`PU[LYHJ[PUN^P[OZ[\KLU[ 1 2 3 4 5
demonstrators in labs, tutorials, etc.
7. Struggle with out-of-class 1 2 3 4 5
assignments which require interaction
with native speakers of English.
D. Speaking Skills
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`NP]PUNVYHS 1 2 3 4 5
presentations.
2. Have trouble wording what you want 1 2 3 4 5
to say quickly enough.
3. Worry about saying something in case 1 2 3 4 5
you make a mistake in your English.
4. Not know how to say something in 1 2 3 4 5
English.
5. Not know the best way to say 1 2 3 4 5
something in English.
/H]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[O`V\YWYVU\UJPH[PVU 1 2 3 4 5
of words.
-PUKP[KPѝJ\S[[VLU[LYKPZJ\ZZPVU 1 2 3 4 5
8. Other (please specify): 1 2 3 4 5
E. Listening Skills

1. Have trouble understanding 1 2 3 4 5
lectures.
/H]L[YV\ISL[HRPUNLќLJ[P]LUV[LZ 1 2 3 4 5
/H]L[VHZRZ[HќX\LZ[PVUZ[VJSHYPM` 1 2 3 4 5
material you have been taught.
4. Have trouble understanding lengthy 1 2 3 4 5
descriptions in English.
5. Have trouble understanding spoken 1 2 3 4 5
instructions.
6. Have trouble understanding informal 1 2 3 4 5
language.
7. Have trouble understanding the 1 2 3 4 5
subject matter of a talk, i.e., what is
being talked about.
0HSZVOH]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[OWSLHZL 1 2 3 4 5
specify):
I have problems understanding lecturers or other students because:

Often Sometimes Never
9. They talk very fast. 1 2 3
10. They talk very quietly. 1 2 3
11. Their accents or pronunciation are 1 2 3
KPќLYLU[MYVTÔH[0HT\ZLK[V
12. More than one person is speaking, 1 2 3
e.g., in group discussions.
13. Other (please specify): 1 2 3
F. Writing Skills
With regard to written assignments, please indicate for each of the following:
1. How important the skill is, and
2. How often you have problems with the skill:
Importance Frequency of
problems
Very important
Not important
Sometimes
Important
Not sure
Never
Often
N/A
1 2 3 4 <ZPUNJVYYLJ[W\UJ[\H[PVUHUKZWLSSPUN 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Structuring sentences. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 <ZPUNHWWYVWYPH[L]VJHI\SHY` 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Organising paragraphs. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Organising the overall assignment. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Expressing ideas appropriately. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Developing ideas. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Expressing what you want to say clearly. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Addressing topic. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Adopting appropriate tone and style. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Following instructions and directions. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Evaluating and revising your writing. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Overall writing ability. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Completing written tasks (e.g., exams, tests) 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 within the time available. 1 2 3 4
1 2 3 4 Other (please specify): 1 2 3 4
G. Reading Skills
The following questions concern the reading tasks required of you during the course. Please indicate:
a) which of the following types of material you are expected to read, and b) how often you have
KPѝJ\S[`KVPUNZVWSLHZLJPYJSL!
Expected -YLX\LUJ`VMKPѝJ\S[PLZ
to read? Often Sometimes Never
1. Journal articles Yes / No 1 2 3
2. Newspaper articles Yes / No 1 2 3
>VYRZVMÄJ[PVU Yes / No 1 2 3
4. Entire reference or text books Yes / No 1 2 3
5. Selected chapters of books Yes / No 1 2 3
6. Photocopied notes Yes / No 1 2 3
7. Workbook or laboratory Yes / No 1 2 3
instructions
8. Computer-presented reading Yes / No 1 2 3
materials
9. Other (please specify): Yes / No 1 2 3
0UKPJH[LOV^VM[LU`V\OH]LKPѝJ\S[`^P[OLHJOVM[OLMVSSV^PUN!
Very often Sometimes Never

<UKLYZ[HUKPUN[OLTHPUWVPU[Z 1 2 3 4 5
of text.
11. Reading a text quickly in order 1 2 3 4 5
to establish a general idea of the
content (skimming).
12. Reading a text slowly and 1 2 3 4 5
carefully in order to understand
the details of the text.
13. Looking through a text quickly 1 2 3 4 5
PUVYKLY[VSVJH[LZWLJPÄJ
information (scanning).
14. Guessing unknown words in a 1 2 3 4 5
text.
Very often Sometimes Never

<UKLYZ[HUKPUN[L_[VYNHUPZH[PVU 1 2 3 4 5
<UKLYZ[HUKPUNZWLJPHSPZ[ 1 2 3 4 5
vocabulary in a text.
17. Reading speed. 1 2 3 4 5
18. Reading in order to respond 1 2 3 4 5
critically.
<UKLYZ[HUKPUNH^YP[LY»ZH[[P[\KL 1 2 3 4 5
and purpose.
20. General comprehension. 1 2 3 4 5
21. Other (please specify): 1 2 3 4 5
APPENDIX 3 Needs assessment questionnaire for use in designing a course for

adults at beginner level (from TAS 2011, Appendix K, pp. 81–82)
Sample Student Needs Assessments
SAMPLE NEEDS ASSESSMENT FOR BEGINNING HIGH (LAUSD)
Student’s name ____________________________________ Date ____________________
Teacher’s name ____________________________________ Class time ________________
PLEASE CHECK (9) ALL ANSWERS YES OR NO.

1 Do you use English to fill out Do you need to use English to
forms? Yes__ No__ fill out forms? Yes__ No__
2 Do you use English … Do you need to use English…
to talk with friends? Yes__ No__ to talk with friends? Yes__ No__
to talk with neighbors? Yes__ No__ to talk with neighbors? Yes__ No__
3 Do you use English… Do you need to use English…
at your children’s school? Yes__ No__ at your children’s school? Yes__ No__
at your school? Yes__ No__ at your school? Yes__ No__
on the telephone? Yes__ No__ on the telephone? Yes__ No__
to ask for directions? Yes__ No__ to ask for directions? Yes__ No__
H[[OLWVZ[VѝJL& Yes__ No__ H[[OLWVZ[VѝJL& Yes__ No__
at the park or community center? Yes__ No__ at the park or community center? Yes__ No__

at the bank? Yes__ No__ at the bank? Yes__ No__
in stores? Yes__ No__ in stores? Yes__ No__

at restaurants? Yes__ No__ at restaurants? Yes__ No__
[VÄUKHUHWHY[TLU[VYOV\ZL& Yes__ No__ [VÄUKHUHWHY[TLU[VYOV\ZL& Yes__ No__
to talk about housing problems Yes__ No__ to talk about housing problems Yes__ No__
5 Do you need to use English…
[VILJVTLH<:JP[PaLU& Yes__ No__
to understand driving laws? Yes__ No__

[V\UKLYZ[HUKWVSPJLVѝJLYZ& Yes__ No__
to talk to doctors, nurses, and Yes__ No__ to talk to doctors, nurses, and Yes__ No__
dentists? dentists?
[VÄSSV\[TLKPJHSMVYTZ& Yes__ No__ [VÄSSV\[TLKPJHSMVYTZ& Yes__ No__
at the drugstore? Yes__ No__ at the drugstore? Yes__ No__
to keep your home safe? Yes__ No__ to keep your home safe? Yes__ No__
at your job? Yes__ No__ at your job? Yes__ No__
to look for a job? Yes__ No__
to get a better job? Yes__ No__
APPENDIX 48\LZ[PVUUHPYL[VWYLWHYLHWYVMLZZPVUHSWYVÄSLMVYHUVJJ\WH[PVUHS
course for adults (from Huhta et al. 2013)
;LTWSH[LVMH*,-7YVMLZZPVUHS7YVÄSL
CEF PROFESSIONAL PROFILE
A. BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Field
Education/Programme
Specialisation(s)
+LNYLL8\HSPÄJH[PVU
Language
Drawn up by
Date / City and country / Organisation
Methods used for collecting the
information (methods, persons, dates)
B. OCCUPATIONAL INFORMATION
Typical examples of professions/
occupations/jobs
Typical organisations, companies,
communities to be employed in
Typical job descriptions
To what extent foreign languages are needed
C. CONTEXT INFORMATION
LOCATION PERSONS, COMMUNITIES, COMMUNICATION TEXT- AND
COMPANIES, INSTITUTIONS SITUATIONS DISCOURSE-TYPES
Work
context
Study Texts:
context
D. THE MOST FREQUENT ROUTINE SITUATIONS
Situation 1.
Situation:
Place:
Persons present/involved:
What is essential to make the communication successful:
Details:
Situation 2.
Situation:
Place:
Details:
Situation 3.
Situation:
Place:
Details:
E. THE MOST DEMANDING SITUATIONS

Demanding situations mentioned by the interviewees:
Situation 1.
Situation:
Place:
Why the situation was demanding:
Details:
Situation 2.
Situation:
Place:
Why the situation was demanding:
Details:
F. SNAPSHOT
Narrative of a day in the working life of a professional, based on the data available.
CASE STUDY 6 Planning a course in technical communication

Lindsay Miller
Technical Communication is an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course for students from the
Building and Construction Department at a university in Hong Kong. Students have to take two
JYLKP[ILHYPUN,(7JV\YZLZHZWHY[VM[OLPYKLNYLLWYVNYHTTLH[[OL\UP]LYZP[`;OLÄYZ[JV\YZLPZ
HNLULYHS,(7JV\YZLVќLYLKI`[OL\UP]LYZP[`»ZSHUN\HNLPUZ[P[\[L0U[OPZJV\YZLZ[\KLU[ZSLHYU[OL
basic conventions of academic reading and writing. The second course (Technical Communication)
PZ H TVYL ZWLJPHSPaLK JV\YZL VќLYLK I` [OL ,UNSPZO +LWHY[TLU[ ;LJOUPJHS *VTT\UPJH[PVU [HRLZ
the students a stage further to develop their language skills for academic and quasi-professional
contexts.

One of the main aims of this course is to enhance students’ research skills and allow them to become
independent learners. Students are given a simulation that helps train them to think in a more
analytical way and gives them some hands-on practice in dealing with technical information relevant
[V[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`
The goals of the course are to:
a. develop research skills;
b. write on technical topics in a clearly structured way;
c. produce a wide range of professional documents including reports, memos and letters;
d. SLHYUOV^[VNP]LHULќLJ[P]LWYVMLZZPVUHSWYLZLU[H[PVU
0U VYKLY [V HJOPL]L [OLZL NVHSZ Z[\KLU[Z SLHYU HIV\[ [OL KPќLYLU[ [`WLZ VM [LJOUPJHS YLWVY[Z HUK
how to write short email memos, reports and business letters, and a long formal technical report.
They also develop their listening skills by watching a variety of videos containing information about
shopping malls, which are useful for a group project they have to complete. This project has to be
presented by each group in class and so the course sensitizes students to the principles of giving a
good presentation.

Technical Communication has run for a number of years now and the course has developed from its
VYPNPUHSMVYTH[;VILNPU^P[OZ[HќMYVT[OL)\PSKPUNHUK*VUZ[Y\J[PVU+LWHY[TLU[H[[OL\UP]LYZP[`
were consulted as to the relevant academic and technical linguistic skills they required their students
to have. Then, the general EAP course was examined to see what language skills students were
practising with this course and to ensure that there was not too much overlap between the courses.
(M[LY [OPZ H Z[Hќ TLTILY MYVT [OL ,UNSPZO +LWHY[TLU[ ^P[O H IHJRNYV\UK PU [LHJOPUN ZJPLUJL
and technology courses designed the course. The course design was reviewed several times
I` JVSSLHN\LZ MYVT [OL )\PSKPUN HUK *VUZ[Y\J[PVU +LWHY[TLU[ PU Z[HќZ[\KLU[ TLL[PUNZ ,UNSPZO
Department tutors who taught the course and from student feedback at the end of each semester. As
a result of these measures, small changes have been made over the years to ensure that the students
receive enough support, both linguistic and contextual, and that the course now runs smoothly and
its learning objectives are achieved.

;OL JV\YZL PZ VќLYLK V]LY VUL ^LLR ZLTLZ[LY 0[ PZ KP]PKLK PU[V [^V THPU WHY[Z ^P[O H TPK
ZLTLZ[LYX\PaPU>LLR0U[OLÄYZ[ZP_^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL[OLMVJ\ZPZVUOLSWPUNZ[\KLU[ZKL]LSVW
their reading and writing skills for technical communication. The topic of each lesson is as follows:
Week 1 What is technical writing?

The writing process
Types of technical writing
Week 2 Summary writing

Emails & memos
Week 3 Business communication

Letter writing
Week 4 Writing definitions
Week 5 Writing descriptions
Week 6 Writing process and procedures
Week 7 In-class quiz
The second part of the course focuses on preparing students to complete a ‘site visit’ for their project.
Each group is given a shopping mall in the city to visit and review (there are many shopping malls in
/VUN2VUNZVLHJONYV\WJHUYL]PL^HKPќLYLU[THSS0U[OLPYYL]PL^[OLÙLLK[VJSLHYS`KLZJYPIL
the main features of the mall and anything that is unique about it. Then they make a list of ‘sensible’
JOHUNLZ[OH[TPNO[ILULÄ[[OLTHSS-VYPUZ[HUJL[OL`TH`SVVRH[WLKLZ[YPHUÅV^HUKZ\NNLZ[[OH[
PM [OL KPYLJ[PVU VM [OL LZJHSH[VYZ ^LYL JOHUNLK [OLU [OL ÅV^ VM WLVWSL [OYV\NO [OL THSS JV\SK IL
increased. The topic for each lesson in the second part of the course is as follows:
Week 8 Group meetings (simulation)

Planning a site visit
Week 9 Field trip (shopping mall visit)
Week 10 Discussions about information collected from field trip
Week 11 Preparing for oral presentation
Week 12 Group oral presentations in-class
Week 13 Group oral presentations in-class

The course does not use one main teaching method. Instead, an eclectic approach is used. For
PUZ[HUJLPU[OLÄYZ[ML^SLZZVUZVM[OLJV\YZL[OL[LHJOPUNTL[OVKPZ]LY`T\JO[LHJOLYJLU[YLK
The tutor takes students through the prepared student manual and discusses with them the
KPќLYLU[[`WLZVM[LJOUPJHSYLWVY[Z[OL`THÌLYLX\PYLK[VYLHKVY^YP[L;OLYLHYLSV[ZVMX\LZ[PVUZ
and answers in this part of the course. In addition, students are asked to complete group-work
tasks, based on the information presented in the manual, to get them used to working together
to solve problems. Then, in the second part of the course the emphasis changes to a lot more
group work and collaborative learning. The teacher in this part of the course becomes more of a
facilitator and guide.

Students are given an 80-page manual to accompany the course which can be downloaded from
the teaching management site of the university. All the material has been produced in-house with
some references to other sources as illustrative examples of reports. Throughout the manual, there
is a series of tasks. These tasks can be used as a way to create a lesson plan for each lesson. The
following are some examples of the types of tasks for writing emails in the student manual:
Task 4
In groups, brainstorm what you think a good email memo should look like.
Task 9
1. Have you made any mistakes sending emails? Have you ever received an email by mistake or one
you think you should not be reading?
2. V^VSK^LYL`V\ÔLU`V\^YV[L`V\YÄYZ[LTHPS&+PKHU`VUL[LHJO`V\OV^[V^YP[LHULTHPS&
/
What advice did they give you?
3. >OH[HK]PJL^V\SK`V\NP]LZVTLVULHIV\[[V^YP[LHULTHPSMVY[OLÄYZ[[PTL&
In addition to the student manual, the tutor uses a variety of DVD materials on the topic of building a
shopping mall and the problems of shopping mall design. When students are working on their group
project, they are advised to use the Internet for researching their project. They also naturally use
social media to chat with each other about their project. This mediated source of communication
between the students for their group work has increased dramatically over the life of the course.
Two main issues with the course have emerged. Some tutors and students feel that they have to
TV]L[OYV\NO[OLTH[LYPHSX\P[LX\PJRS`/V^L]LYHZV\YZ[\KLU[ZOH]LHU0,3;:SL]LSVM¶HUK
they have already taken the general EAP course, we feel that they should be able to handle authentic
^YP[[LU[L_[ZPU[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`>L[Y`[VW\ZO[OLTHSP[[SLV\[VM[OLPYJVTMVY[aVULPU[OLPYYLHKPUN
as that is what is expected of them in studying their main disciplines, or if they were working in an
HYJOP[LJ[»ZVѝJLMVYPUZ[HUJL;OLZLJVUKPZZ\L[OH[OHZJVTL\WPZ[OLMVYTPUNVMNYV\WZ<Z\HSS`
Z[\KLU[ZRUV^LHJOV[OLYÔLU[OLJSHZZTLL[ZMVY[OLÄYZ[[PTLI\[[OPZPZUV[HS^H`Z[OLJHZL0U
ZVTLPUZ[HUJLZ[OL[\[VYZOH]L[VMVYT[OLNYV\WZHUKVJJHZPVUHSS`[OLYLPZZVTLJVUÅPJ[IL[^LLU
the students. Given that the main task on the course is a collaborative project, this can lead to some
unhappy students. Fortunately, this problem does not happen often, but it is something the tutors are
made aware of and asked to monitor as the course progresses.

The students are assessed both individually and for their group work. The individual assessment
PZ MYVT [OL PUJSHZZ X\Pa PU >LLR HUK MVYTZ VM [OLPY ÄUHS THYR IHZLK VU [OLPY HIPSP[`
[V KPZ[PUN\PZO IL[^LLU KPќLYLU[ [`WLZ VM YLWVY[Z ^YP[L H ZOVY[ LTHPS HUK ^YP[L H ZOVY[ [LJOUPJHS
description; 10% on class participation and attendance). The group assessment is based on the
written site report (30%) and the group’s oral presentation (30%).
Lindsay Miller is an associate professor in the Department of English at City University of Hong
Kong. He has been responsible for designing, developing and teaching a wide variety of ESP
courses. Lindsay’s main areas of research have focused on self-access language learning, and
academic listening, and he has co-authored two books in these areas for Cambridge University
Press, Establishing Self-Access: From Theory To Practice (1999) and Second Language Listening:
Theory and Practice (2005). His most recent publication is Managing Self-Access Language
Learning (CityU Press, 2015).
CASE STUDY 7 Developing a foundation course for college students

Rob Haines
The English Language Learning (ELL) course for the Scholarships for Education and Economic
Development (SEED) program at Mt. Hood Community College is part of a grant-funded program that
WYV]PKLZ[^V`LHYZJOVSHYZOPWZ[VHJVOVY[VM`V\UNHK\S[ZHNLK¶MYVTSV^PUJVTLMHTPSPLZ
in Mexico, Central America, Haiti, and the Dominic Republic.

The ELL course for the SEED program is designed to establish a foundation of English language skills
and content for students to build on as they begin their studies at the college. At the same time, the
ELL course aims to complement the students’ studies by focusing on relevant functions/skills, such
as giving presentations and taking notes, as well as on important vocabulary (e.g., technical terms)
YLSL]HU[[V[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`PLLU]PYVUTLU[HS[LJOUVSVN`)LJH\ZL[OLZ[\KLU[ZZ[H`^P[OOVZ[
families during the ELL course, another goal is to facilitate the relationships between students and
host families, encouraging communication with host families by exposing students to vocabulary
WLY[PULU[[VSP]PUNPUHOV\ZLOVSK[HRPUN[OLI\ZL[JHUKHKKYLZZPUNZ[\KLU[Z»HќLJ[P]LULLKZHZ
[OL`HKHW[[V<:J\S[\YL(M[LY[OLÄYZ[`LHYVM[OLWYVNYHTZ[\KLU[ZTV]LPU[VHWHY[TLU[ZÔPJO
TLHUZ [OH[ THUHNPUN TVUL` HUK SP]PUN ^P[O YVVTTH[LZ ILJVTL PTWVY[HU[ [VWPJZ <S[PTH[LS` [OL
V]LYHSSNVHSVM[OL,33JV\YZLYLÅLJ[Z[OH[VM[OL:,,+WYVNYHTÔPJOPZ[VZ\WWVY[[OLWLYZVUHS
and professional development of the SEED scholars.

Before I was responsible for the course design, SEED students attended regular ESL courses at
[OL JVSSLNL ;OL WYVNYHT JVVYKPUH[VYZ OPYLK TL [V [HPSVY [OL JV\YZL [V [OL ZWLJPÄJ ULLKZ VM [OL
student population that the SEED program serves. So on a practical level, initial planning was
necessary to determine the total number of contact hours and the schedule for the ELL course.
;OLWYVNYHTJVVYKPUH[VYZ^HU[LKHUPU[LUZP]LZP_^LLRZVM¶JVU[HJ[OV\YZWLYKH`ZPUJL[OPZ
was a period when the students would not be enrolled in any other classes, followed by a gradual
KLJYLHZL PU [OL U\TILY VM JVU[HJ[ OV\YZ HZ [OL HJHKLTPJ `LHY \UMVSKLK (M[LY [OL ÄYZ[ `LHY VM
teaching the course, I presented a plan to split the group of 20 into two smaller groups according
[V,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLJVTWL[LUJ`HM[LY[OLÄYZ[ZP_^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL;OLYL^HZZVTLYLZPZ[HUJL
to this change, as it was felt that dividing the group would be culturally inappropriate and lead
to unhealthy competition and rivalry between the groups. Although there were individual cases of
YP]HSY` [OL V]LYÔLSTPUN THQVYP[` VM Z[\KLU[Z MLS[ [OL` ^LYL HќVYKLK TVYL SLHYUPUN VWWVY[\UP[PLZ
in the smaller groups.

:,,+ Z[\KLU[Z ILNPU [OL ,33 JV\YZL PU SH[L Z\TTLY (\N\Z[ ^P[O ¶ JVU[HJ[ OV\YZ L]LY` KH`
MVYZP_^LLRZ5L_[MVY[OLÄYZ[[LYTVM[OLHJHKLTPJ`LHY(\[\TU[OLZ[\KLU[ZHYLLUYVSSLKPU
H/\THU+L]LSVWTLU[JSHZZÔPSL[OL`JVU[PU\L¶OV\YZWLYKH`PU,33(Z[OLHJHKLTPJ`LHY
progresses, the number of hours the students spend in ELL gradually decreases as they matriculate
PU[VJYLKP[ILHYPUNJSHZZLZ^P[OPU[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`,U]PYVUTLU[HS;LJOUVSVN`HUKV[OLYJV\YZLZ
KLZPNULK [V LUOHUJL [OLPY WLYZVUHS HUK WYVMLZZPVUHS KL]LSVWTLU[ ;OL Z[\KLU[Z [HRL [OLPY ÄUHS
,33 JSHZZLZ PU LHYS` Z\TTLY 1\UL¶1\S` HUK [OLU JVTWSL[L [OLPY ZLJVUK HJHKLTPJ `LHY ÔPSL H
new cohort of SEED students begin the ELL course anew in August, following the same schedule
as the previous cohort.

In general, my approach is to follow my interpretation of Teaching Unplugged (aka Dogme) along with
TBL (Task-Based Learning), PBL (Project-Based Learning), and a mix of more traditional methods
Z\JOHZ;79;V[HS7O`ZPJHS9LZWVUZL;OLSHZ[VM[OLZLTL[OVKZ^HZLZWLJPHSS`LќLJ[P]LK\YPUN[OL
ÄYZ[JV\WSLVM^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZL^P[OMHSZLILNPUULYZ

Because teaching “unplugged,” a materials-light approach to English language teaching, has so
NYLH[S` PUÅ\LUJLK[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OL,33JV\YZL [OL YVSL VM [YHKP[PVUHS TH[LYPHSZ PZ TPUPTHS
Students do, however, have access to a library of textbooks, graded readers, and reference
materials such as dictionaries throughout the course. Resources for the course include texts
(spoken and written) that students bring to class or produce themselves as homework or for
WYVQLJ[Z0U[LYTZVM[LJOUVSVN`Z[\KLU[Z\ZLWLYZVUHSJVTW\[LYZSHW[VWZHUKKL]PJLZZWLJPÄJ
[V[OLPYÄLSKVMZ[\K`Z\JOHZ.SVIHS7VZP[PVUPUN:`Z[LTZ.7:-VY[OL,33JV\YZL[OLYLHYLUV
requisite uses of technology beyond word processing for written assignments. Students have made
use of more sophisticated software to create short videos and presentations, however, and often
students take a snapshot of the whiteboard after a lesson, in order to capture the vocabulary and
notes there.
;OLÄYZ[ZP_^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZLWYLZLU[LK[OLJOHSSLUNLVMHќVYKPUNSLHYUPUNVWWVY[\UP[PLZ[VHNYV\W
of 20 with very disparate English language competencies. Some students come with enough English
to carry on basic conversations and write comprehensible short paragraphs, while others have only
basic vocabulary and thus struggle to produce sentences in writing or speech. All other students fall
somewhere in between these two groups. Once the groups are divided according to their ability to
use English, this challenge is diminished but not gone.

The primary means of assessment for the course is a series of one-to-one meetings with students.
I ask students to prepare for the meetings by bringing any questions or feedback they have for me
as their teacher as well as a self-assessment of their work in the class. The self-assessment typically
includes a combination of quantitative scores such as the grade average of a student’s quizzes and
exams as well as qualitative evaluations such as feedback on assignments and the student’s general
impression of his or her performance on the course. Together we negotiate a grade according to a
traditional point scheme as well as a qualitative assessment with an action plan to keep doing what
works well and improve as necessary. The same goes for me as a teacher, although I do not receive
a grade as such.
Rob Haines is a freelance English teacher and teacher trainer responsible for the design and
development of the English Language Learning (ELL) course for the Scholarships for Education and
Economic Development (SEED) program at Mt. Hood Community College in Gresham, Oregon, USA,
for over a decade. He has contributed to ;LHJOPUN<UWS\NNLK!+VNTLPU,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL;LHJOPUN
(Delta Teacher Development Series, 2009) and Beyond the Sentence: Introducing Discourse Analysis
(Macmillan Books for Teachers, 2005). Rob is currently providing teacher training and designing
curricula for public and alternative schools in Mexico.
5 CONTEXT AND THE CURRICULUM
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The following aspects of the interaction between the teaching-learning context and the
curriculum will be considered in this chapter:
• The sociocultural environment • Means of delivery

• The learners • Adoption factors
• The teachers • 7YVÄSPUN[OLMHJ[VYZPKLU[PÄLKPU[OL
• The institution situation analysis
Case study 8,ќLJ[P]L*SHZZYVVT4HUHNLTLU[MVY0UZLY]PJL;LHJOLYZHusai Ching

Case study 9 A blended undergraduate course in Ecuador José Lema
Introduction
3HUN\HNL JV\YZLZ HYL KL]LSVWLK MVY THU` KPќLYLU[ JPYJ\TZ[HUJLZ HUK HYL PUÅ\LUJLK I` MHJ[VYZ
relating to the context of teaching and learning, such as where they will be used, when, how, and
by whom, that is by factors relating to the context of teaching and learning. When changes in the
curriculum are introduced, such as a new syllabus, a new teaching approach, or new teaching
materials, the extent to which they are adopted, that is, whether an innovation is adopted or resisted,
will depend on such factors in the teaching context. Hence, a key aspect in understanding any
teaching situation is the social and environmental context. As Hutchinson and Waters observed:
“Learning can, and should, be seen in the context in which it takes place. Learning is not just a
mental process, it is process of negotiation between individuals and society” (1987, 72). Similarly,
Bax warned of the dangers of importing teaching proposals to contexts they were not designed for
HUKHYN\LK[OH[VULZOV\SKUV[¸HZZ\TLHUKPUZPZ[[OH[*3;PZ[OLÔVSLHUKJVTWSL[LZVS\[PVU[V
language learning; assume that no other method could be any good; ignore people’s own views
of who they are and what they want; neglect and ignore all aspects of the local context as being
irrelevant” (2003, 280).
The contexts for language programs are diverse, and the particular variables that come into play in
H ZWLJPÄJ ZP[\H[PVU HYL VM[LU [OL RL` KL[LYTPUHU[Z VM [OL Z\JJLZZ VM H WYVNYHT :[\K` VM [OL YVSL
of context issues and their potential impact on curriculum design and implementation is known as
situation analysis or environment analysis and is an important aspect of curriculum development and
curriculum implementation. For example, some language curricula are planned for centrally organized
state school systems where a great deal of direction and support for teaching is provided and where
HSS[LHJOLYZHUKZ[\KLU[ZOH]LHJJLZZ[V[LJOUVSVN`HUK[OL0U[LYUL[6[OLYZ[HRLWSHJLPUZL[[PUNZ
where there are limited human and technological resources. Some proposals for curriculum change
HYL ^LSS YLJLP]LK I` [LHJOLYZ I\[ V[OLYZ TH` IL YLZPZ[LK 0U ZVTL ZP[\H[PVUZ [LHJOLYZ HYL ^LSS
[YHPULKHUKOH]L[PTLH]HPSHISL[VWSHU[OLPYVÛSLZZVUTH[LYPHSZ0UV[OLYZP[\H[PVUZ[LHJOLYZTH`
have little time for lesson planning and materials production and simply teach from their textbooks.
Each context for a curriculum change or innovation thus contains factors that can potentially facilitate
[OLJOHUNLVYOPUKLYP[ZZ\JJLZZM\SPTWSLTLU[H[PVU4HYRLL ";OVTHZHUK9LPUKLYZ0[PZ
110
5 Context and the curriculum • 111
PTWVY[HU[[OLYLMVYL[VPKLU[PM`ÔH[[OLZLMHJ[VYZHYLHUKÔH[[OLPYWV[LU[PHSLќLJ[ZTPNO[ILÔLU
planning changes to the curriculum or introducing new language-teaching policies and practices.
0U [OPZ JOHW[LY ^L ^PSS JVUZPKLY ZP_ MHJ[VYZ PU [OL [LHJOPUNSLHYUPUN JVU[L_[! the sociocultural
environment; the learners; the teachers; the institution; means of delivery: adoption factors.
*HU`V\Z\NNLZ[ZVTLMHJ[VYZPUH[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[[OH[JV\SKPUÅ\LUJL[OL^H`HUL^JV\YZL
is received or implemented?
5.1 The sociocultural environment

*\YYPJ\SH HYL [`WPJHSS` KLZPNULK MVY H WHY[PJ\SHY ZL[[PUN VY LU]PYVUTLU[ ¶ H ZWLJPÄJ WSHJL ÔVZL
characteristics are shaped by the people who inhabit it and the activities they are engaged in.
*VSLTHU KLÄULZZVJPL[`HZ!
all of those wider (and overlapping) contexts in which are situated the institutions in which
language teaching takes place. These include – but are not limited to – the international,
national, community, ethnic, bureaucratic, professional, religious, linguistic, economic and
family contexts in which schools and other educational institutions are located and with
which they interact.
0UL_HTPUPUN[OLPTWHJ[VMZVJPL[HSMHJ[VYZVUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN[OLYLMVYL[OLHPTPZ[VKL[LYTPUL[OL
PTWHJ[VMKPќLYLU[NYV\WZVYZ[HRLOVSKLYZPU[OLJVTT\UP[`VYZVJPL[`H[SHYNLVU[OLWYVNYHT;OLZL
NYV\WZPUJS\KLWVSPJ`THRLYZPUNV]LYUTLU[LK\JH[PVUHSHUKV[OLYNV]LYUTLU[VѝJPHSZLTWSV`LYZ
the business community, politicians, tertiary education specialists, educational organizations, parents,
citizens, and students.
What other stakeholders do you think could have a role to play in the success or otherwise
of a new curriculum?
( UH[PVUHS VY Z[H[L J\YYPJ\S\T OHZ H ]LY` ZWLJPÄJ MYHTL VM YLMLYLUJL `L[ ^P[OPU H JV\U[Y` [OLYL
HYL VM[LU ZPNUPÄJHU[ YLNPVUHS KPќLYLUJLZ PU [LYTZ VM LJVUVTPJ KL]LSVWTLU[ HJJLZZ [V HUK \ZL VM
technology, educational achievement, as well as the linguistic and social characteristics of the people
ÔV SP]L [OLYL ;OLYL TH` IL ZPNUPÄJHU[ KPќLYLUJLZ IL[^LLU Y\YHS HUK \YIHU ZJOVVSZ HUK L]LU
^P[OPU H JP[` ZJOVVSZ PU KPќLYLU[ SVJH[PVUZ TH` OH]L ]LY` KPќLYLU[ JOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZ -VY L_HTWSL PU
Hong Kong, secondary schools are divided into three “bands” which are ranked in terms of academic
performance, band 1 schools being the most prestigious. Hong Kong schools are both English-
TLKP\THUK*OPULZLTLKP\THUK[OLNV]LYUTLU[OHZ[YPLK[VLUJV\YHNLHNYLH[LY\ZLVM*OPULZL
in schools. However, parents have generally expressed a preference for English-medium education for
their children, since this gives children a better preparation for English-medium university education.
0U 5L^ ALHSHUK ZJOVVSZ HYL YHURLK IHZLK VU ZVJPVLJVUVTPJ MHJ[VYZ RUVÛ HZ H KLJPSL Z`Z[LT
ÔPJOPUÅ\LUJLZ[OLL_[LU[VMYLZV\YJPUN[OL`YLJLP]LZLL¸:JOVVSKLJPSLZ¹ILSV^
School deciles in New Zealand
A school’s decile indicates the extent to which the school draws its students from low socio-
economic communities. Decile 1 schools are the 10 percent of schools with the highest
proportion of students from low socio-economic communities, whereas decile 10 schools are
the 10 percent of schools with the lowest proportion of these students. A school’s decile does
not indicate the overall socio-economic mix of the school … Schools are ranked in relation to
L]LY` V[OLY ZJOVVS MVY LHJO VM [OL Ä]L MHJ[VYZ HUK YLJLP]L H ZJVYL HJJVYKPUN [V [OL WLYJLU[PSL
[OH[[OL`MHSSPU[V;OLÄ]LZJVYLZMVYLHJOZJOVVSHYLHKKLK[VNL[OLY^P[OV\[HU`^LPNO[PUNZ[V
give a total. This total gives the overall standing of a school in relation to all other schools in the
country, enabling the ministry to place schools into ten groups called deciles, each having the
same number of schools.
(New Zealand Ministry of Education 2014)
;O\Z ZJOVVSZ KV UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` VќLY LX\HS VWWVY[\UP[PLZ [V HSS ZPUJL ZVTL Z[\KLU[Z MYVT ZVTL
OVTL IHJRNYV\UKZ TH` OH]L IL[[LY OVTL Z\WWVY[ MVY SLHYUPUN [OHU V[OLYZ +PќLYLU[ Z[HRLOVSKLYZ
TPNO[HSZVOH]L]LY`KPќLYLU[L_WLJ[H[PVUZMVYZLJVUKHY`VY[LY[PHY`LK\JH[PVU(Z*VSLTHU
VIZLY]LK!
The different parties concerned may have very different expectations of the same higher
education system. In Indonesia, for example, the government apparently sees the universities
as instruments for modernization and social change, while some lecturers consider that
universities provide a mechanism for the advancement of their own families. Yet others see
universities as places to foster cooperation among members of society.
The status of English teachers also depends on the context, since in some cultures teachers have
[YHKP[PVUHSSÌLLUOLSKPUOPNOYLNHYKHUK[OL[LHJOPUNWYVMLZZPVUOHZOPNOZ[H[\Z0UV[OLYJVU[L_[Z
[LHJOPUN THU` UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` HJJY\L [OL ZHTL ]HS\L 5H[P]LZWLHRLY [LHJOLYZ HYL ZVTL[PTLZ
considered to bring extra value to a school, no matter their level of training and experience and despite
the fact that local teachers may sometimes have a better knowledge base and better teaching skills.
>OH[PZ[OLZ[H[\ZVM,UNSPZO[LHJOLYZPU`V\YJV\U[Y`VY[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[&0Z,UNSPZO[LHJOPUN
JVUZPKLYLKHWYVMLZZPVU[OH[YLX\PYLZOPNOS`[YHPULKZWLJPHSPZ[Z&
*VU[L_[ HSZV PUÅ\LUJLZ SLHYULYZ» \UKLYZ[HUKPUN VM [OL TLHUPUN HUK ]HS\L VM ,UNSPZO HUK [OLPY
attitudes toward learning English or other languages. Second or foreign language teaching is a fact
VMSPMLPUHSTVZ[L]LY`JV\U[Y`PU[OL^VYSK`L[JV\U[YPLZKPќLYNYLH[S`PU[LYTZVM[OLYVSLVMMVYLPNU
languages in the community, their status in the curriculum, educational traditions and experience in
language teaching, and the expectations that members of the community have for language teaching
HUKSLHYUPUN;OLYVSLVMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLZPZJVTWSL[LS`KPќLYLU[PU,UNSPZOZWLHRPUNJV\U[YPLZZ\JO
HZ[OL<:(HUK(\Z[YHSPHHZJVTWHYLK[V[OLPYZ[H[\ZPUTHU`,\YVWLHUJV\U[YPLZ0UJV\U[YPLZSPRL
/VSSHUK5VY^H`HUK+LUTHYRMVYL_HTWSLHJVTTHUKVMVULVYTVYLMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLZOHZSVUN
ILLUHJJLW[LKHZHULJLZZP[`:JOVVSZHYLL_WLJ[LK[VVќLYHYHUNLVMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLZHUK[OLYL
PZIV[OHZ[YVUN[YHKP[PVUHUKJVUZPKLYHISLL_WLY[PZLPUMVYLPNUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN5L^WYVWVZHSZHYL
therefore met with informed skepticism.
;OLMVSSV^PUNJVTTLU[ZKLZJYPIL[OLYVSLVM,UNSPZOHUK[OL]HS\LZP[YLWYLZLU[ZPU0YHU!
As the world’s international language, English now features prominently in Iran’s official education cur-
riculum and even more so in the private education sector. Knowing English is now considered a marker of
educational as well as social achievement. Officially English serves primarily as a tool for providing access
to information needed for technical, scientific and economic development, i.e., as a form of economic capital.
In the public sector, including [in] schools and universities, English is regarded as a tool providing access to
new knowledge and technology, and hence there is an emphasis on reading comprehension. Those studying
English in private institutes do so for a variety of reasons but often to develop functional communication
skills and to pass international tests. English also serves to signal prestige and status and membership
of a higher socio-economic class. When linked to products, it may signal quality. It can also signal that its
user is well educated and has an international perspective. And it can serve to distinguish someone from
those with a religious orientation. For some, it also means being young and can carry messages of love
and romance, e.g. on greeting cards.
(Karim Sadeghi, university professor, Iran)
0U [OL :JHUKPUH]PHU JV\U[YPLZ ,UNSPZO PZ H WYHJ[PJHS YLHSP[` MVY TVZ[ SLHYULYZ 0[ PZ L]LY`ÔLYL ¶ VU
[OL[LSL]PZPVU[OLYHKPV[OL0U[LYUL[HUKPUUL^ZWHWLYZ0[OHZHWYVTPULU[YVSLPUWLVWSL»ZOVTLZ
[OYV\NO [LJOUVSVN` HUK [OL TLKPH -PSTZ HUK [LSL]PZPVU WYVNYHTZ HYL UV[ K\IILK *OPSKYLU HYL
familiar with the need to navigate manuals, instructions, and tutorials in English for software and digital
NHTLZ 2\\YL 0U 4L_PJV ,UNSPZO OHZ H KPќLYLU[ M\UJ[PVU :H`LY L_HTPULK [OL ZVJPHS
TLHUPUNZVM,UNSPZOPU[OL4L_PJHUJP[`VM6H_HJHHZYLÅLJ[LKPU[OL\ZLVM,UNSPZOPUZ[YLL[ZPNUZ
ZOVWUHTLZHUKWYVK\J[IYHUKZ/LPKLU[PÄLKZP_[OLTLZVY¸PKLHZ¹[OH[,UNSPZOYLWYLZLU[ZPU[OH[
context: English is advanced and sophisticated; English is fashion; English is being cool; English is
sex(y); English is for expressions of love; English is for expressing subversive identities.
;OL ZP[\H[PVU PU 1HWHU HZ KLZJYPILK I` :LHYNLHU[ PZ KPќLYLU[ HNHPU HUK WLYOHWZ \UPX\L
Seargeant suggests that many people in Japan have an intense fascination with English, as is seen
in acts of cultural display like advertising and popular culture. Thousands of people devote huge
HTV\U[Z VM [PTL [V Z[\K`PUN ,UNSPZO PU ZJOVVSZ HUK PUZ[P[\[LZ HUK `L[ [OL SHUN\HNL OHZ UV VѝJPHS
Z[H[\ZHUKTVZ[JP[PaLUZOH]LUVYLHSULLKMVYP[PU[OLPYL]LY`KH`SP]LZ0UKLLKHZPU:V\[O2VYLH
THU` WLVWSL SP]L WYVK\J[P]L HUK Z\JJLZZM\S SP]LZ ^P[OV\[ HU` ULLK [V RUV^ ,UNSPZO 0UZ[Y\TLU[HS
ambition for learning English in Japan is much less important than the “idea” of English, that is, its
symbolic meaning.
What are the attitudes of young people toward English in your country? What values do they
associate with English?
Sociocultural factors such as those discussed above remind us that English is not a neutral or values-
MYLLMLH[\YLVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T0[TLHUZKPќLYLU[[OPUNZ[VKPќLYLU[TLTILYZVM[OLJVTT\UP[`HUK
PTWHJ[Z[OLPYSP]LZPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZLTWV^LYPUNZVTLHUKZVTL[PTLZKPZHK]HU[HNPUNV[OLYZ:VTL
of the key factors can be summarized as follows:
• Socio-economic factors in the learners’ environment.
• Attitudes toward English in the community.
• Views of current policies, curriculum, materials, and tests.
• Societal expectations about language teaching and learning.
• Language-teaching traditions.
• Status of teachers.
• Views of policymakers, academics, and language-teaching professionals.
• Role of English in the students’ daily experiences.
The following example illustrates a lack of understanding between the expectations of curriculum
planners and parents.
Example: A new English curriculum has been prepared for English at secondary level in an EFL
context. The new curriculum is described as communicative and task-based and downplays the
importance of grammar, which traditionally received a strong focus in the English curriculum. When
textbooks to support the new curriculum are published, concerns are expressed by parents and
parents’ groups because they feel that their children “are not being taught the basics” and the
[L_[IVVRZ^PSSUV[WYV]PKLZ\ѝJPLU[WYLWHYH[PVUMVYZJOVVSL_HTZ
Comment:0U[OPZZP[\H[PVUTLJOHUPZTZZOV\SKOH]LILLULZ[HISPZOLKMVYJVTT\UPJH[PUN[OLPU[LU[PVUZ
of the new curriculum to parents and other interested parties and for identifying and addressing their
concerns. Perhaps parents misunderstand the way grammar is being addressed in the new curriculum
HUK^V\SKILZH[PZÄLKVUJL[OL`\UKLYZ[HUKIL[[LYOV^[OLWYVNYHT^VYRZ0UHKKP[PVU[OL[L_[IVVRZ
should have been reviewed to ensure that they addressed the skills covered in the exams.
5.2 The learners

Learners bring to learning certain assumptions and beliefs about language teaching and learning
based on their cultural and educational background and their previous language learning experiences.
(Z5\UHU JVTTLU[Z!
The effectiveness of a language program will be dictated as much by the attitudes and expec-
tations of the learners as by the specifications of the official curriculum … Learners have their
own agendas in the language lessons they attend. These agendas, as much as the teacher’s
objectives, determine what learners take from any given teaching/learning encounter.
0[ JHUUV[ IL ZPTWS` HZZ\TLK [OLU [OH[ SLHYULYZ ^PSS IL WVZP[P]LS` KPZWVZLK [V^HYK [OL SLHYUPUN VM
English or other languages, have the appropriate skills the course demands, or share the teacher’s
understanding of what the goals of the course are. Learners enter a course with their own views of
teaching and learning, with established ideas about the roles of teachers and learners, and the norms
VMJSHZZYVVTWHY[PJPWH[PVUHUKILOH]PVY;Z\P 0U^LZ[LYUIHZLKHWWYVHJOLZZ\JOHZ*3;VY
Task-Based Teaching, the teacher may be viewed as a facilitator, and there is a strong emphasis
on individual learner creativity and on peer-supported as well as independent learning. These are
culturally marked representations of the roles of teachers, learners, and materials that may not align
^P[O SVJHS WYHJ[PJLZ /VSSPKH` -VY L_HTWSL AOHUN HUK /LHK KPZJ\ZZ [OL MHJ[ [OH[
*OPULZL SLHYULYZ [LUK [V ]PL^ [LHJOLYZ HZ WLYZVUZ ^P[O H\[OVYP[` ÔPJO KPќLYZ MYVT [OL ^H` [OL`
HYL WLYJLP]LK PU ^LZ[LYU J\S[\YL 0U *OPUH [OL [LHJOLY PZ ZLLU HZ OH]PUN ¸H JHYPUN U\Y[\YPUN HUK
ILUL]VSLU[YVSL¹ I\[HSZVHZHZV\YJLVMRUV^SLKNL[OH[OLVYZOL^PSSKLSP]LY;OL*OPULZL
JVUJLYUMVY¸MHJL¹HSZVTHRLZP[KPѝJ\S[MVY*OPULZLSLHYULYZ[VVќLYVWPUPVUZ[OH[KPќLYMYVT[OVZL
of the teacher or classmates, often leading to reticence and reluctance to participate in group-based
speaking activities.
3LHYULYZHSZVKPќLYPU[OLPYHJJLZZ[VHUK\ZLVM[LJOUVSVN`HS[OV\NOPUJYLHZPUNS`[VKH`»ZSLHYULYZ
have access to more English outside of the classroom than they are likely to have in their formal
,UNSPZOWYVNYHTH[ZJOVVS-VYTHU`[OL0U[LYUL[[LJOUVSVN`HUK[OLTLKPHHZ^LSSHZ[OL\ZLVM
English in face-to-face and virtual social networks provide greater opportunities for meaningful and
authentic language use than are available in the classroom. Learners can download apps that support
many aspects of language learning and use these while waiting for the bus or train or traveling to
school. Moreover, when they get home they may enter a chat room to interact with other language
SLHYULYZVY^P[OUH[P]LZWLHRLYZ[OL`TH`LU[LYNHTLZP[LZHUKWSH`]PKLVNHTLZ[OH[YLX\PYL[OLT
to understand and use English, or they may watch a TV program or movie in English, following with
Z\I[P[SLZPMULJLZZHY`/V^L]LYSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHќVYKHUJLZZ\JOHZ[OLZLTHÌLTVYLHJJLZZPISL
[VSLHYULYZPUZVTLJVU[L_[Z[OHUPUV[OLYZ^P[OZVTLSLHYULYZMVYÄUHUJPHSVYV[OLYYLHZVUZILPUN
largely dependent on their textbooks and in-class learning opportunities.
To what extent do your learners have access to and make use of technology to support their
learning of English?
;OL PTWHJ[ VM H SHUN\HNL WYVNYHT TH` HSZV IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` SLHYULYZ» ILSPLMZ HIV\[ [LHJOPUN
and learning. Lai and Xialin (2015) point out that many Asian learners are familiar with a mode
VM [LHJOPUN PUÅ\LUJLK I` *VUM\JPHU LK\JH[PVUHS ]HS\LZ HUK TH` PUP[PHSS` IL YLZPZ[HU[ [V [OL [HZR
oriented methodology being recommended in some countries. Alcorso and Kalantzis (1985) found
that teachers rated the usefulness of communicative activities highly, whereas their learners tended
to favor more traditional activities such as grammar exercises, copying written materials, memorizing,
HUKKYPSS^VYR3LHYULYZTH`HSZVOH]LKPќLYLU[SLHYUPUNZ[`SLWYLMLYLUJLZ8PU;OL`TH`MH]VY
some approaches to or modes of learning over others, as seen in their preferences for particular
RPUKZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZZ[`SLZVM[LHJOPUNHUKJSHZZYVVTHYYHUNLTLU[ZÔLUZ[\K`PUNZWLJPÄJ
HZWLJ[ZVMSHUN\HNL)YPJR YLWVY[ZJVU[YHZ[P]L]PL^ZVM[LHJOLYZPU(\Z[YHSPHHUK*OPUH!
The trouble with Chinese teachers is that they’ve never done any real teacher-training courses
so they don’t know how to teach. All they do is follow the book. They never give us any oppor-
tunity to talk. How in the world do they expect us to learn?
Australian student in China
Australian teachers are very friendly but they can’t teach very well. I never know where
they’re going – there’s no system and I just get lost. Also, they’re often very badly trained and
don’t have a thorough grasp of their subject.
Chinese student in Australia
So while some students enjoy games and role plays, others may prefer more structured activities
[OH[ MVJ\Z VU [OL THZ[LY` VM ZWLJPÄJ NYHTTH[PJHS WVPU[Z :VTL Z[\KLU[Z TH` SPRL [OL [LHJOLY [V
correct any mistakes in their pronunciation, while others may feel pronunciation is less important
[OHUÅ\LUJ`:VTLZ[\KLU[ZTH`MLLSTVYLJVTMVY[HISLÔLU[OL[LHJOLYPZLUNHNPUNPUÔVSLJSHZZ
teaching, while others may prefer group-based learning. Further, some students may prefer learning
from technology and media-based resources to learning from books and other print-based materials.
>OH[RPUKZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZKVSLHYULYZPU`V\Y[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[LUQV`VYÄUK\ZLM\S&
(YL[OLYLZVTLRPUKZVMHJ[P]P[PLZ[OH[[OL`KVUV[ÄUK\ZLM\S&
• Curriculum Development in Language Teaching
0UWSHUUPUNHJV\YZLP[PZHSZVPTWVY[HU[[VÄUKV\[ÔH[[OLSLHYULYZ»TV[P]H[PVUZHYLMVY[HRPUN[OL
JV\YZL>O`HYL[OL`VU[OLJV\YZLHUKOV^^PSSP[HќLJ[[OLPYSP]LZ&>OH[KV[OL`^HU[MYVTP[&>OPJO
HZWLJ[ZVMP[HYL[OL`TVZ[PU[LYLZ[LKPU&0[THÌL[OH[SLHYULYZOH]L]LY`KPќLYLU[WYPVYP[PLZÔPJO
PZWHY[PJ\SHYS`[OLJHZLMVYHK\S[SLHYULYZ0U[OLZHTLJSHZZZVTLSLHYULYZTHÒH]L\YNLU[ULLKZ
MVYQVIZWLJPÄJSHUN\HNLZRPSSZZVTLTHÙLLK,UNSPZOMVYSHYNLS`ZVJPHSW\YWVZLZÔPSLV[OLYZTH`
need preparation for a high-stakes test.
*\S[\YHSMHJ[VYZTH`HSZVPUÅ\LUJLSLHYULYZ»^PSSPUNULZZ[VH[[LTW[[V\ZL,UNSPZOPU[OLJSHZZYVVT
PL ^PSSPUNULZZ [V JVTT\UPJH[L HSZV YLMLYYLK [V HZ >;* 4HJ0U[`YL " 7LUN HUK >VVKYV^
2010). For example, in some cultures, students may be more willing to communicate in front of their
WLLYZPU[OLJSHZZYVVT[OHUPUV[OLYJ\S[\YLZ>LUHUK*SLTLU[Z\NNLZ[[OH[PU*OPUHNYV\W
JVOLZP]LULZZHUKH[[HJOTLU[[VNYV\WTLTILYZPUÅ\LUJL*OPULZLZ[\KLU[Z»>;*PU[OLJSHZZYVVT
A student may believe that if he or she speaks up in class, as is favored in communicative learner-
centered teaching methods, this may not be valued by other students, since it is judged as “showing
Vќ¹HUKHUH[[LTW[[VTHRLV[OLYZ[\KLU[ZSVVR^LHR4VYLV]LYPMZ[\KLU[ZHYL]LY`L_HTVYPLU[LK
and do not see that communicative activities will help them pass an exam, they may have little
TV[P]H[PVU [V JVTT\UPJH[L PU H JVTT\UPJH[PVUVYPLU[LK JSHZZ 0U V[OLY JV\U[YPLZ Z\JO HZ 1HWHU
^PSSPUNULZZ [V JVTT\UPJH[L TH` IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` [YHKP[PVUHS Z[\KLU[¶[LHJOLY YLSH[PVUZOPWZ WLLY
pressure, and a desire for error-free responses.
0ZH[`WPJHSSLHYULYPU`V\YJSHZZLZ^PSSPUN[V\ZLOPZVYOLY,UNSPZOPUJSHZZ&
*VY[HaaPHUK1PUYLMLY[VZVTLVM[OLZLMHJ[VYZ\ZPUN[OLJVUJLW[VMcultures of learning:
Members of different cultural communities may have different preferences, experiences,

interpretations, values and beliefs about how to learn or how to teach ... Cultural ideas of
learning, often subconscious and taken for granted, are absorbed in early learning in the
absence of contrasting ideas and are not normally articulated; they are built up in interaction
in families and through early and later schooling as cultures transmit ways of learning and
as children are socialized into education and then, through education, into so much else in
the wider world.
0U [OL MVSSV^PUN L_HTWSL ^L ZLL OV^ SLHYULYZ» L_WLJ[H[PVUZ TH` IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` [OL ^H`Z [OL`
have been taught in the past.
Example:(WYP]H[LPUZ[P[\[LPUHU,-3JV\U[Y`VќLYZHUPU[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSJVU]LYZH[PVUJV\YZL
;LHJOLYZPU[OLJV\YZLTHRLL_[LUZP]L\ZLVMÅ\LUJ`HJ[P]P[PLZPUJS\KPUNWHPYHUKNYV\WHJ[P]P[PLZYVSL
WSH`ZZVUNZHUKNHTLZHUKKPZJ\ZZPVUHJ[P]P[PLZ;OLZLHJ[P]P[PLZHYL[OV\NO[[VYLÅLJ[J\YYLU[]PL^Z
VUZLJVUKSHUN\HNLHJX\PZP[PVU/V^L]LY[OLÄYZ[JVOVY[VMSLHYULYZ[OYV\NO[OLWYVNYHTHYL]LY`
critical of it because they cannot see the point of many of the classroom activities they were asked to
[HRLWHY[PU;OL`YLX\LZ[TVYL[LHJOLYKPYLJ[LKHJ[P]P[PLZHUKTVYLLYYVYJVYYLJ[PVU¸>LKVU»[^HU[
to come to class to clap and sing” is a typical student comment.
Comment: This example illustrates that learners have their own views on how conversation skills can
ILKL]LSVWLKHUK[OLPYVÛWYLMLYLUJLZMVYJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ0M[OLNVHSZVMÅ\LUJ`HJ[P]P[PLZHYL
not clearly explained and if students are not convinced of their value, they may not understand what
[OLPYPU[LU[PZHUKQ\KNL[OLT[VILPULќLJ[P]L(X\LZ[PVUUHPYLJV\SKOH]LILLUHKTPUPZ[LYLKWYPVY[V
[OLJV\YZL[VKL[LYTPULZ[\KLU[Z»]PL^ZVMKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ0UHKKP[PVUHIL[[LY
orientation to the goals and methodology of the program should have been provided.
;OL UL_[ L_HTWSL YL]LHSZ H ZPTPSHY TPZ\UKLYZ[HUKPUN ÔPJO TH` IL ZLLU HZ [OL JVUZLX\LUJL VM
WSHUULYZHUKSLHYULYZOH]PUNKPќLYLU[ILSPLMZHIV\[[OLUH[\YLVMNVVK[LHJOPUN
Example: A group of foreign experts in an EFL context devise a program in oral communication skills
MVYHK\S[Z;OLWYVNYHTYLÅLJ[ZJ\YYLU[^LZ[LYU]PL^ZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNHUKPZI\PS[HYV\UK
such concepts as autonomous learning, the learner-centered curriculum, Task-Based Teaching, and
the negotiated curriculum. The teachers decide that rather than develop the detailed content of the
program in advance, they will involve the students in the development of the program’s goals and
JVU[LU[6UJL[OLWYVNYHTJVTTLUJLZOV^L]LY[OLZ[\KLU[ZQ\KNL[OH[[OL[LHJOLYZKVUV[RUV^
what they are doing and complain that the program is unstructured and unfocused.
Comment:;OPZPZHUL_HTWSLVMHZP[\H[PVUÔLYL[OL[LHJOLYZHUK[OLZ[\KLU[ZOH]LKPќLYLU[
L_WLJ[H[PVUZHIV\[[OLYLX\PYLTLU[ZVMHZV\UKWYVNYHTHZHYLZ\S[VMJ\S[\YHSKPќLYLUJLZPU[OLPY
approach to teaching and learning. The students expect a program with clear goals and with
an organization laid out in advance. This clashes with the beliefs of the teachers. Some sort of
compromise should have been decided on early on in the project to prevent the students from
misunderstanding the nature of the program. More time should have been spent explaining the
W\YWVZLVMKPќLYLU[HJ[P]P[PLZ^P[OPU[OLWYVNYHTHUK[OLWOPSVZVWO`P[^HZIHZLKVU
)LSV^ HYL ZVTL VM [OL THU` MHJ[VYZ [OH[ JHU PUÅ\LUJL SLHYULYZ» LUNHNLTLU[ ^P[O H SHUN\HNL
program:
• Age of learners (e.g., children, teenagers, adults).
• ;`WPJHSSLHYULYWYVÄSL
• Learning-style preferences.
• Motivation and interest to learn.
• Beliefs about teaching and learning.
• Language learning history.
• 7YLMLYLUJLZMVYZWLJPÄJRPUKZVMJVU[LU[
• Attitudes toward English and speakers of English.
• Practical need for English.
• *HWHJP[`MVYPUKLWLUKLU[SLHYUPUN
• Access to resources and technology.
5.3 The teachers

;LHJOLYZHYLHRL`MHJ[VYPU[OLZ\JJLZZM\SPTWSLTLU[H[PVUVMJ\YYPJ\S\TJOHUNLZ0UYLJLU[`LHYZHZ
[OLÄLSKVM;,:63OHZILJVTLTVYLWYVMLZZPVUHSS`KLTHUKPUNVMP[ZLSMHUKOHZZV\NO[[VKL]LSVW
standards for language teachers, there has been a much greater recognition of the expert language
teacher as a highly skilled professional. As a discipline, language teaching has done much in recent
`LHYZ [V JVUJLW[\HSPaL HUK KLÄUL P[Z RUV^SLKNL IHZL [V YLN\SH[L LU[Y` [V [OL WYVMLZZPVU HUK [V
TVUP[VY [OL WYHJ[PJLZ VM [LHJOPUN PUZ[P[\[PVUZ 0UJYLHZPUNS` SHUN\HNL ZJOVVSZ HYL YLJY\P[PUN IL[[LY
[YHPULKHUKIL[[LYX\HSPÄLKSHUN\HNL[LHJOLYZHUKHYLVWLYH[PUN^P[OPUKLÄULKZ[HUKHYKZVMX\HSP[`
0UWSHUUPUNHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTP[PZ[OLYLMVYLPTWVY[HU[[VRUV^ÔH[RPUKZVM[LHJOLYZ[OLWYVNYHT
will depend on and the kinds of teachers that are needed to ensure that the program achieves its
NVHSZ,_JLW[PVUHS[LHJOLYZJHUVM[LUJVTWLUZH[LMVY[OLWVVYX\HSP[`YLZV\YJLZHUKTH[LYPHSZ[OL`
THÒH]L[V^VYRMYVT/V^L]LYPUHKLX\H[LS`[YHPULK[LHJOLYZTHÙV[ILHISL[VTHRLLќLJ[P]L
use of teaching materials no matter how well they are designed.
0M `V\ ^LYL OPYPUN H [LHJOLY MVY `V\Y ZJOVVS ÔH[ ^V\SK IL [OL [OYLL TVZ[ PTWVY[HU[
characteristics you would look for?
>P[OPU ZJOVVSZ [LHJOLYZ HSZV OH]L THU` KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM YLZWVUZPIPSP[PLZ :VTL [LHJOLYZ OH]L
mentoring or leadership roles within their schools and assist in orienting new teachers to the school
VYSLHKPUNNYV\WZVM[LHJOLYZPUTH[LYPHSZKL]LSVWTLU[HUKV[OLYHJ[P]P[PLZ6[OLY[LHJOLYZOH]L[PTL
MVYSP[[SLTVYL[OHU[LHJOPUN;OL`THÒH]L]LYÒLH]`[LHJOPUNSVHKZVY[LHJOPUZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[
institutions in order to make ends meet. Some teachers may welcome the chance to try out a new
Z`SSHI\Z VY TH[LYPHSZ 6[OLYZ TH` YLZLU[ P[ ILJH\ZL [OL` ZLL P[ HZ KPZY\W[PUN [OLPY YV\[PUL HUK UV[
VќLYPUN[OLTHU`ÄUHUJPHSVYV[OLYRPUKVMHK]HU[HNL
Teachers also bring particular assumptions, beliefs, and values to teaching and are likely to assess
new approaches to teaching based on their own understanding of what constitutes good teaching
¶ HU \UKLYZ[HUKPUN [OH[ TH` VM[LU YLÅLJ[ [OLPY VÛ L_WLYPLUJLZ HZ SHUN\HNL SLHYULYZ *\YYPJ\S\T
PUUV]H[PVUTHRLZKLTHUKZVU[LHJOLYZYLX\PYPUN[OLT[VTHRLJOHUNLZPU[OL^H`[OL`[LHJO[V
take on new and perhaps unfamiliar roles, and many such innovations have failed to be adopted
either because of teacher resistance or because a new curriculum does not align with teachers’
current beliefs and teaching context.
Have you changed any aspect of your approach to teaching recently? What prompted the
change?
The following example shows how teachers may resist curriculum change if it clashes with their
current beliefs and practices.
Example: As part of an overall reform of the school curriculum, the curriculum department in an EFL
country decides to implement a new task-based approach to teaching across the whole curriculum
in all subject areas. The new curriculum involves a greater use of teacher-made criterion-referenced
[LZ[Z[OH[HYLSPURLK[VNYHKLK[HZRZPUKPќLYLU[Z\IQLJ[HYLHZ/V^L]LYÔLU[OLWSHUPZPU[YVK\JLK
to teachers, it meets with great resistance. Teachers are happy with the current curriculum; they have
NYLH[KPѝJ\S[`\UKLYZ[HUKPUN[OLWOPSVZVWO`VM[OLUL^HWWYVHJOHUKZLLP[HZJYLH[PUNHT\JO
heavier workload. The teachers’ union organizes a number of teachers’ meetings to discuss and
JYP[PJPaL[OLUL^J\YYPJ\S\T0U[OLMHJLVMW\ISPJVWWVZP[PVU[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TKLWHY[TLU[KLJPKLZ[V
delay the introduction of the new curriculum and to modify it, despite having spent a large sum of
money in developing the curriculum and supporting materials.
Comment: This situation could have been avoided if much wider consultation had been undertaken
before deciding to change the existing curriculum. Teachers should have been consulted to see if
they saw the need for change. Teachers should have been involved in preparing the new curriculum
YH[OLY[OHUPTWVZPUNP[VU[OLTHZHMHP[HJJVTWSP(KLX\H[LWYV]PZPVUZOV\SKOH]LILLUTHKL[V[YHPU
[LHJOLYZ[V\ZL[OLUL^J\YYPJ\S\THUK[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TWPSV[LKÄYZ[[VPKLU[PM`[OLKLTHUKZP[JYLH[LK
for teachers and students.
;OLJOHYHJ[LYPZ[PJZVM¸NVVK[LHJOLYZ¹YLÅLJ[[OLJ\S[\YLZVMSLHYUPUNPUÔPJO[OL`[LHJO;Z\P
0U ZVTL J\S[\YLZ H NVVK [LHJOLY PZ VUL ÔV JVU[YVSZ HUK KPYLJ[Z SLHYULYZ HUK ÔV THPU[HPUZ H
respectful distance between the teacher and the learners. Learners are more or less the passive
recipients of the teacher’s expertise. Teaching is viewed as a teacher-controlled and directed process.
0UV[OLYJ\S[\YLZ[OL[LHJOLYTHÌL]PL^LKTVYLHZHMHJPSP[H[VY:[\KLU[ZTH`L]LUILLUJV\YHNLK
[VX\LZ[PVUHUKJOHSSLUNLÔH[[OL[LHJOLYZH`Z;OL^H`HWLYZVU[LHJOLZHUKOPZVYOLY]PL^VM
ÔH[NVVK[LHJOPUNPZ^PSS[OLYLMVYLYLÅLJ[[OL[LHJOLY»ZJ\S[\YHSIHJRNYV\UKHUKWLYZVUHSOPZ[VY`
the context in which he or she is working, and the kinds of students in his or her class. For this reason,
teaching sometimes is said to be “situated” and can only be understood within a particular context.
0U HU` PUZ[P[\[PVU ^L JHU Z\TTHYPaL ZVTL VM [OL WYPUJPWHS MHJ[VYZ [LHJOLYZ IYPUN [V [LHJOPUN HZ
follows:
• Levels of training and experience.
• 7YVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZO
• Motivation and commitment.
• Personal principles and beliefs.
• Teaching responsibilities and teaching loads.
• Preferred teaching methods and styles.
• Receptivity to change.
5.4 The institution

A language-teaching program is typically delivered in an institution such as a university, school,
VY SHUN\HNL PUZ[P[\[L 0UZ[P[\[PVUZ HSZV OH]L [OLPY VÛ ^H`Z VM KVPUN [OPUNZ 0U ZVTL PUZ[P[\[PVUZ
[L_[IVVRZHYL[OLJVYLVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THUKHSS[LHJOLYZT\Z[\ZL[OLWYLZJYPILK[L_[Z0UV[OLYZ
[LHJOLYZ ^VYR MYVT JV\YZL N\PKLSPULZ HUK Z\WWSLTLU[ [OLT HZ [OL` ZLL Ä[ 0UZ[P[\[PVUZ HSZV KPќLY
NYLH[S`PU[OLPYSL]LSZVMWYVMLZZPVUHSPZT0UZVTLPUZ[P[\[PVUZ[OLYLPZHZ[YVUNZLUZLVMWYVMLZZPVUHS
JVTTP[TLU[ HUK H J\S[\YL VM X\HSP[` [OH[ PUÅ\LUJLZ L]LY` HZWLJ[ VM [OL PUZ[P[\[PVU»Z VWLYH[PVUZ 0U
others, the driving force of the school may be monetary. As a cost-saving measure, heavy reliance
is made on part-time teachers or teachers with little training and experience. They are not paid for
SLZZVUWYLWHYH[PVU[PTLHUKJVUZLX\LU[S`[LHJO[OLPYJSHZZLZHUK[OLUKLWHY[MVY[OLPYUL_[[LHJOPUN
assignment, perhaps in another school.
/LUJLKPќLYLU[[`WLZVMPUZ[P[\[PVUZJYLH[L[OLPYVÛ¸J\S[\YL¹[OH[PZZL[[PUNZÔLYLWLVWSLPU[LYHJ[
and where patterns emerge for communication, decision making, role relations, and conduct. As
Morris (1994, 109) observed:
Schools are organizations and they develop a culture, ethos or environment which might be
favorable or unfavorable to encouraging change and the implementation of innovations. A
school with a relatively open climate, where the teachers collaborate with each other and
where the principal and [senior teachers] are supportive of teachers, is more likely to try to
implement a change. In contrast, a school where the principle focuses on administrative mat-
ters, the teachers work in isolation or in narrow subject-based groups and where there is no
mechanism to discuss and try to solve problems is less likely to change.
;OLZL MHJ[VYZ JVU[YPI\[L [V [OL VYNHUPaH[PVUHS J\S[\YL VM H ZJOVVS HUK PUÅ\LUJL [OL [LHJOLY»Z
role, responsibilities, and levels of decision making. Basic to this organizational culture is an
institution’s management structure. Davidson and Tesh (1997, 177) point out that a school’s
organizational design “is built by managerial decisions that delineate the number and type of jobs
in the organization and the processes that subordinate, control, and link them, such as authority
YLSH[PVUZOPWZ JVTT\UPJH[PVU UL[^VYRZ HUK ZWLJPÄJ WSHUUPUN HUK VYNHUPaH[PVUHS [LJOUPX\LZ¹
They describe two types of organizational structure that are commonly found in schools and other
kinds of organizations, the mechanistic model and the organic model. The mechanistic model is
a bureaucratic approach to organizing collective activities that stresses “the need for authority,
hierarchies of control, and an explicit chain of command” (Davidson and Tesh 1997, 178). This
model is seen in many contexts such as within national or institutionally developed curriculum,
where processes are set in place to manage and control teaching and learning in order to achieve
targets set by standards and tests. Teachers are expected to teach to guidelines, course outlines,
and syllabuses developed by curriculum specialists. Administrative processes are in place to
THPU[HPU\UPMVYTP[`HJYVZZKPќLYLU[[LHJOPUNZP[LZHUK[VTVUP[VYHUKYL]PL^[LHJOLYWLYMVYTHUJL
[VLUZ\YL[OH[P[YLÅLJ[ZWYLZJYPILKTVKLSZ0UZVTLJV\U[YPLZ[OL¸WVSPJPUN¹VM[LHJOPUNPZJHYYPLK
V\[I`[OL¸PUZWLJ[VYH[L¹HUK[LHTZVM¸PUZWLJ[VYZ¹;OPZYLÅLJ[ZH[VWKVÛJOHPUVMJVTTHUK
with the teachers at the end of the chain.
This mechanistic model can be compared with an organic model of organizational design which,
according to Davidson and Tesh (1997, 179):
maximizes flexibility and adaptability, encourages complete confidence and trust between
superior and subordinates, and taps a wide range of human motivations to achieve organi-
zational goals. Communication flows in all directions, both vertically and laterally. Teamwork
is substantial, and decision-making and control functions are shared widely throughout the
organization.
;OL WYVJLZZ VY LJVSVNPJHS HWWYVHJO [V J\YYPJ\S\T YLMLYYLK [V PU *OHW[LY YLÅLJ[Z [OPZ VYNHUPJ
model. Teachers are central to decision making and planning, and there is a culture of sharing
and collaboration within a community of practice. Davidson and Tesh suggest that most language
programs have features of both the organic and the mechanistic models, depending on the values
HUKJ\S[\YLVM[OLPUZ[P[\[PVU[OLZPaLVM[OLWYVNYHTHUK[OL[`WLVMZ[Hќ^VYRPUNPUP[>P[OHSHYNL
WYVNYHT Z[HќLK I` L_WLYPLUJLK HUK TH[\YL WYVMLZZPVUHSZ H TVYL VYNHUPJ HWWYVHJO PZ SPRLS` >P[O
ZTHSSLYWYVNYHTZVYWYVNYHTZKLWLUKLU[VUSLZZL_WLYPLUJLKZ[HќHTVYLTLJOHUPZ[PJHWWYVHJO
is typical.
What is the management structure like in your school? Does it facilitate change and innovation?
1PUHUK*VY[HaaPKLZJYPILHKPќLYLU[KPTLUZPVUVMHZJOVVS»ZVYNHUPaH[PVUHSJ\S[\YLÔPJO
they call the “culture of learning” in an institution, as we noted above. This refers to how teaching
YLÅLJ[Z[OLMLH[\YLZVM[OLSVJHSJVU[L_[ZVM\ZLPUJS\KPUNJSHZZZPaLJSHZZYVVTYLZV\YJLZSLHYULYZ»
WYVÄJPLUJ` SL]LS HNL IHJRNYV\UKZ ULLKZ SLHYUPUN Z[`SLZ NVHSZ HUK ZV VU 0U SLHYUPUN [V [LHJO
[OL[LHJOLY»ZYVSLPZ[VHSPNUOPZVYOLY[LHJOPUN[V[OLJSHZZYVVTHUKZJOVVSJVU[L_[1PUHUK*VY[HaaP
L_WSHPU[OPZPUYLSH[PVU[V[OLSLHYUPUNJ\S[\YLVY¸J\S[\YLVMSLHYUPUN¹VM*OPULZLJSHZZYVVTZ
;OL` KLZJYPIL [OPZ HZ YLÅLJ[PUN H JVTWSL_ ISLUK VM ]HS\LZ ILSPLMZ H[[P[\KLZ HZZ\TW[PVUZ HUK
expectations about the nature of teaching and learning and the respective roles of teachers and
SLHYULYZ PU [OL JSHZZYVVT 0[ PUÅ\LUJLZ H[[P[\KLZ [V [LHJOPUN HUK SLHYUPUN HUK OV^ P[ ZOV\SK IL
accomplished. Teachers are respected as authorities, as holders of knowledge, as models of learning,
as providers of care, guidance, and concern. The role of students is to work hard, to prepare for
exams, to complete homework assignments, to repeat, practice and memorize on the understanding
[OH[JVU[PU\V\ZLќVY[HUKUV[ZPTWS`[HSLU[^PSSSLHK[VYLZ\S[ZHUK[OH[WLYZPZ[LUJL^PSSL]LU[\HSS`
V]LYJVTLKPѝJ\S[PLZHUKOHYKZOPWZ
0UHKKP[PVU[V[OLO\THUZPKLVM[OLPUZ[P[\[PVU[OLWO`ZPJHSHZWLJ[ZULLK[VILJVUZPKLYLKPUJS\KPUN
the kinds of resources and facilities available to teachers such as print and non-print materials,
technology, and internet access.
0UZ[P[\[PVUZ[OLYLMVYLVќLYKPќLYLU[HќVYKHUJLZHUKVWWVY[\UP[PLZMVYJ\YYPJ\S\TPUUV]H[PVUHUKJOHUNL¶
in some situations providing positive support and direction for change, but in others creating resistance
[V PUUV]H[PVU :\JJLZZM\S J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU OV^L]LY YLX\PYLZ H JOHUNL PU TPUKZL[ (Z -PZOLY
(2004, 17) comments: “Success in any grand project needs help from others, which means making
HSSPHUJLZTLHUZILULÄ[PUNMYVT[OLKPZ[YPI\[LKPU[LSSPNLUJLVMV[OLYZ¶KL]LSVWPUN[OLºPUMVZ[Y\J[\YL»¶
PU[LYJVUULJ[P]P[`[OYV\NOSLHYUPUNJVU]LYZH[PVUZ^P[OV[OLYZ¹;OLJVUZLX\LUJLVMSHJRVMJVTT\UPJH[PVU
IL[^LLUKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZPUH[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[PZPSS\Z[YH[LKPU[OLMVSSV^PUNL_HTWSL!
Example: A new director is appointed to a private language institute. The owners of the institute are
concerned at falling student enrollments and feel that the institute’s programs need to be reviewed
to make them more competitive and attractive to potential clients. The director prepares an excellent
rationale for revamping existing courses and for replacing the textbooks currently in use with more
up-to-date texts, and then develops a plan for marketing new courses. However, she meets a wall of
resistance from teachers who feel that they are undervalued and underpaid, and that the proposed
JOHUNLZ^PSSUV[IYPUNHUÌLULÄ[Z[V[OLT
Comment: 0U[OPZJHZLWLYOHWZ[OL[LHJOLYZJV\SKOH]LILLUPU]VS]LKPUYL[OPURPUN[OLPUZ[P[\[L»Z
programs from the start and ways found to build in some incentives for the teachers themselves. This
could have involved negotiating with the school’s owners for better service conditions for teachers as
WHY[VM[OLV]LYHSSJ\YYPJ\S\TYLUL^HSWSHU0UHKKP[PVUZVTLVM[OL[LHJOLYZJV\SKOH]LILLUYLWSHJLK
with teachers who were more open to the kinds of changes the director was proposing.
There are a number of ways in which educational institutions can discourage innovation and
creativity in teaching, such as when the curriculum, tests, and constant monitoring drive teaching,
and teachers cannot depart from established or approved practices because there is too much of
an emphasis on book learning, rote learning, and test scores; where teachers are not given time to
be creative and are not encouraged to innovate or to develop an individual and personal teaching
Z[`SL"ÔLU[LHJOLYZHYLZ[\JR^P[OÄ_LKYV\[PULZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ>H[LYZHUK=PSJOLZHYN\L
that curriculum innovations in language teaching are often unsuccessful due to a lack of alignment
between educational policies and the realities of the local context, including teachers’ established
ILSPLMZHUKWYHJ[PJLZPUHKLX\H[L[LHJOLYWYLWHYH[PVUHUKWYVMLZZPVUHSZ\WWVY[HZ^LSSHZPUHKLX\H[L
teaching materials. This has been demonstrated many times. For example, Humphries and Burns
KLZJYPIL [OL KPѝJ\S[PLZ 1HWHULZL [LHJOLYZ LUJV\U[LYLK ÔLU ZLLRPUN [V PTWSLTLU[
curriculum change in a college in Japan. The lack of success the teachers experienced in adopting
the communicative methodology embodied in a new set of textbooks was attributed to the lack of
relevant training and experience, lack of institutional support for change, and low motivation on the
WHY[VMZ[\KLU[Z¶MHJ[VYZ[OH[¸SLK[OLT[VYLZVY[[VYV\[PUL[LHJOLYJLU[YLKHWWYVHJOLZÔLYL[OL`
THPU[HPULKWYHJ[PJLZ[OH[^LYLMHTPSPHYHUKJVTMVY[HISL¹W
(U\TILYVMPUZ[P[\[PVUHSMHJ[VYZJHU[O\ZPUÅ\LUJL[OLYLJLW[PVUVMHU`WSHUULKJ\YYPJ\S\TPUUV]H[PVU
HUKZOV\SKILPKLU[PÄLKHZWHY[VM[OLWYVJLZZVMJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUHUKKL]LSVWTLU[;OLZLJHUIL
summarized as follows:
• Type of school or institution (e.g., state, private, secondary, tertiary).
• 6YNHUPaH[PVUHSZ[Y\J[\YLHUKJ\S[\YL
• Management style.
• Role and duties of teachers.

• ,_WLYPLUJLVMZ[Hќ
• Morale of teachers.
• *SHZZZPaLLN¶Z[\KLU[Z"¶"
• Assessment practices.
• Level of professionalism.
• 8\HSP[`MLH[\YLZ
• Resources and facilities.
5.5 Means of delivery

The nature of language teaching has changed substantially in recent years. Traditionally, the primary
resources involved were teachers and textbooks. The teacher stood at the front of the class, with the
students in rows of sometimes as many as 50 or more students as the teacher led them through exercises
HUKKYPSSZ0M[LJOUVSVN`^HZH]HPSHISLP[JVUZPZ[LKVMHUH\KPVYLJVYKLY[OH[[OL[LHJOLY\ZLK[VWYLZLU[
KPHSVNZ HUK KYPSSZ 0U ZVTL JVU[L_[Z H SHUN\HNL SHIVYH[VY` ^HZ H]HPSHISL MVY Z\WWSLTLU[HY` WYHJ[PJL
Doubtless the styles of teaching that occur around the world vary considerably; however, for many students
L]LU[VKH`[OLMVSSV^PUNHWWYVHJOVIZLY]LKPU,UNSPZOJSHZZLZPU0UKVULZPH^V\SKZ[PSSILMHTPSPHY!
My observation notes report teacher-dominated lessons based on a standard textbook with

a grammatico-lexical syllabus and offering a set of traditional activities, including teacher
explanations of language, reading-comprehension tasks, reading texts aloud, grammar and
vocabulary exercises, and feedback sessions involving pupils writing their answers up on the
blackboard. Oral work consisted mainly of teacher questions, plus some choral chanting.
(Lamb 2009, 240)
How typical is the lesson above of language lessons in your country?
0UHJVU[L_[Z\JOHZ[OPZHSHUN\HNLJV\YZLWYLKPJH[LKVU[OLHZZ\TW[PVU[OH[T\JOVMJSHZZ[PTL
will not be textbook-based and will consist of students working on activities in small groups would be
unlikely to succeed. Today, however, the ways in which language courses are delivered are likely to
KPќLYZPNUPÄJHU[S`MYVT[OLHJJV\U[KLZJYPILKHIV]L-VYL_HTWSLJVUZPKLY[OLZLJVTTLU[ZMYVTH
teacher in a Japanese university who describes his approach to teaching his English classes:
I don’t do any “teaching” per se. I assign students to do things using their laptops, tablets or mobile
phones. For example, for today’s speaking lesson, students were asked to choose a Ted Talk to watch at
home and to prepare 3 power point slides summarizing the talk. In class they first had to present their
slides in pairs. Later they recorded their summaries using an app that corrected their pronunciation.
(Hiroyuki, Japanese teacher, in conversation with author)
The mode of instruction provided for a course therefore plays a crucial role in course design, as do
[OLSLHYUPUNZP[LZÔLYL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN^PSSVJJ\YHUK[OLYLZV\YJLZ\ZLK*V\YZLZKPќLYPU[OL
extent to which they make use of teacher-directed as compared to learner-managed or autonomous
learning and, similarly, in the extent to which they make use of technology. Some curricula are
heavily teacher-dependent, while others depend much more on self-managed learning on the part of
SLHYULYZ0UZVTLJVU[L_[Z[OLJSHZZYVVTPZ[OLWYPTHY`SLHYUPUNZP[LPUV[OLYZSLHYUPUNPZ¸ÅPWWLK¹
and out-of-class learning is primary, with the classroom serving as a preparation or for the review of
V\[VMJSHZZSLHYUPUN+PќLYLUJLZVM[OPZRPUKHYLZLLUPU;HISL
Table 5.1 Modes and contexts for learning in language teaching

Modes of instruction Teacher directed: whole-class activities, small-group activities: indi-
vidual activities (e.g., lectures, tutorials, workshops, project-based,
task-based, problem-based)
Learner directed: internet-based, movies, television, technology (e.g.,

chat rooms, blogs, apps, video games)
Learning sites classroom, media lab, library, campus, home
Learning resources books, worksheets, mobile devices, computer, dvds, whiteboards,

internet, television, movies
What would a typical mode of delivery look like for courses in your institution?
0UTHU`PUZ[P[\[PVUZ[LHJOPUNPZKLSP]LYLK[OYV\NOISLUKLKSLHYUPUN¶HTP_VMMHJL[VMHJLJSHZZYVVT
based teaching and technology-mediated learning that may take place at school but increasingly
VJJ\YZ LSZLÔLYL 0UKLLK ^VYSK^PKL ISLUKLK SLHYUPUN OHZ ILJVTL [OL KLMH\S[ HWWYVHJO [V [OL
[LHJOPUNVMTVZ[Z\IQLJ[ZPUJS\KPUNSHUN\HNLZHZOLYHSKLKI`9VZZHUK.HNL!
In the long run, almost all courses offered in higher education will be blended ... It is almost
certain that blended learning will become the new traditional model of course delivery in ten
years ... What will differentiate institutions from one another will not be whether they have
blended learning but rather how they do the blending and where they fall on the blended
learning spectrum.
An example of how technology is replacing traditional modes of teaching is provided by Japanese

[LHJOLYYLZLHYJOLY/PYV`\RP6IHYP/LOHZJHYYPLKV\[L_[LUZP]LYLZLHYJO[V[Y`[VKL[LYTPUL
ÔL[OLY H ISLUKLKSLHYUPUN LU]PYVUTLU[ JHU PTWYV]L [OL ;6,0* ;LZ[ VM ,UNSPZO MVY 0U[LYUH[PVUHS
*VTT\UPJH[PVUHUKWYLZLU[H[PVUZRPSSZVM1HWHULZL\UKLYNYHK\H[LZ[\KLU[Z;OLNVHSVMVULZ[\K`
^HZ[VL_HTPUL[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMISLUKLKHUKTVIPSLSLHYUPUNHJ[P]P[PLZVU[OLZ[\KLU[Z»,UNSPZO
SHUN\HNL WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK VYHS JVTT\UPJH[PVU ZRPSSZ ;OL ISLUKLKSLHYUPUN HJ[P]P[PLZ PUJS\KLK!
Z[\KLU[Z ^H[JOPUN VUSPUL *V\YZLYH SLJ[\YLZ ^P[O [OL \ZL VM 7* HUK TVIPSL KL]PJLZ" Z[\KLU[Z
presenting oral summaries of the lectures to their classmates both face to face and in front of the
class; and (3) students spending extensive periods of time watching several online lectures during
their commuting hours and writing a 400-word summary of each lecture each week. An assessment
VM WYL HUK WVZ[[YHPUPUN ;6,0* ZJVYLZ YL]LHSLK [OH[ [OL *V\YZLYH SLJ[\YL HJ[P]P[PLZ OHK H WVZP[P]L
LќLJ[ VU [OL Z[\KLU[Z» V]LYHSS ,UNSPZO ZRPSSZ ;OL ;6,0* YLZ\S[Z YL]LHSLK [OH[ [OL TLHU ZJVYL
ZPNUPÄJHU[S`PUJYLHZLKMYVTZ[HUKHYKKL]PH[PVUB:+D$PU[OLWYL[LZ[Z[V:+$PU
[OLWVZ[[LZ[Z0UHKKP[PVU[OLZ[\KLU[Z»SPZ[LUPUNHUKVYHSJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZPTWYV]LKHZHYLZ\S[
of the online English lecture activities with English subtitles.
(UV[OLY Z[\K` MVJ\ZLK VU [OL \ZL VM HU VUSPUL ;6,0* [YHPUPUN RP[ PU VYKLY [V OLSW KL[LYTPUL [OL
LќLJ[P]LULZZ VM [OL LSLHYUPUN HUK TSLHYUPUN HJ[P]P[PLZ :[\KLU[Z ^LYL YLX\PYLK [V ZWLUK YV\NOS`
OV\YZJVTWSL[PUN[OLVUSPUL;6,0*JV\YZL^P[O7*ZHUKTVIPSLWOVULZ;OL`JVTWSL[LKULHYS`
80% of the online course content to improve their reading and listening comprehension skills. The
Z[\KLU[Z^LYLHKTPUPZ[LYLK[OL;6,0*[LZ[HZHWYL[LZ[HUKHNHPUHZHWVZ[[LZ[0U[OLJHZLVM[OL
ZLJVUKZ[\K`[OL;6,0*YLZ\S[ZPUKPJH[LK[OH[Z[\KLU[Z»TLHUZJVYLZZPNUPÄJHU[S`PTWYV]LKMYVT
:+$[V:+$V]LY[OL[OYLLTVU[OWLYPVK
0U IV[O Z[\KPLZ [OL PTWYV]LTLU[ PU ZJVYLZ ^V\SK ZLLT [V PUKPJH[L [OH[ [OL \[PSPaH[PVU VM H SLHYUPUN
environment integrating m-learning and e-learning helped the students to improve their overall
,UNSPZOWYVÄJPLUJ`;HRLUHZHÔVSL[OLZLYLZ\S[ZZ\NNLZ[[OLU[OH[ISLUKLKSLHYUPUN\ZPUNTVIPSL
[LJOUVSVNPLZ JHU IL LќLJ[P]LS` PU[LNYH[LK PU[V [OL SHUN\HNL SLHYUPUN J\YYPJ\S\T HUK JHU WSH` H
WVZP[P]LYVSLPUPTWYV]PUNZ[\KLU[Z»SHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`:LL6IHYP
As we have seen above, a variety of modes and means are involved in the delivery or implementation
of a language course, and the resources available to support learning in one context may be very
KPќLYLU[MYVT[OVZLH]HPSHISLPUHKPќLYLU[JVU[L_[(JV\YZLKLZPNULKMVYSLHYULYZÔVHYLHZZ\TLK
[VOH]LHJJLZZ[V[L_[IVVRZ[LJOUVSVN`HUK[OL0U[LYUL[^PSSOH]LSP[[SLZ\JJLZZPUZP[\H[PVUZÔLYL
[OLYLPZYLZ[YPJ[LKHJJLZZ[VZ\JOYLZV\YJLZ;OLMVSSV^PUNHYLMLH[\YLZ[OH[HќLJ[[OLKLSP]LY`VMH
language course:
• Availability of textbooks.
• Availability of technology.
• *SHZZYVVTYLZV\YJLZ
• School resources such as access to graded readers, DVDs, whiteboards, photocopy machines,
realia, and a library or self-access center.
• (JJLZZ[VHUK\ZLVM[OL0U[LYUL[
• Modes of teaching and learning.
5.6 Adoption factors

Any attempt to introduce a new curriculum, syllabus, or set of materials must take into account
[OL YLSH[P]L LHZL VY KPѝJ\S[` VM PU[YVK\JPUN JOHUNL PU[V [OL Z`Z[LT *\YYPJ\S\T JOHUNLZ HYL VM
THU` KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ ;OL` TH` HќLJ[ [LHJOLYZ» HUK SLHYULYZ» WLKHNVNPJHS ]HS\LZ HUK ILSPLMZ [OLPY
understanding of the nature of language or second language learning, or their classroom practices
and use of teaching materials. Some changes may be readily accepted, while others may be resisted.
With any proposed curriculum innovation, however, the following issues need to be considered
(Morris 1994):
• 0[ZWLYJLP]LKHK]HU[HNLZ
• 0[ZHSPNUTLU[^P[OJ\YYLU[WYHJ[PJLZ
• 0[ZSPURZ[VL_PZ[PUNILSPLMZH[[P[\KLZVYNHUPaH[PVUHUKWYHJ[PJLZ^P[OPUHJSHZZYVVTVYZJOVVS
• 0[ZSL]LSVMJVTWSL_P[`
• 0[Z[YHJRYLJVYKPUV[OLYJVU[L_[Z
• The level of interest it attracts from teachers and learners.
• 0[ZJOHTWPVUZHUKHK]VJH[LZ
• The levels of teacher support accompanying it.
The kinds of factors noted above emphasize the importance of pilot-testing or small-scale
PTWSLTLU[H[PVUVMHWSHUULKJOHUNLILMVYLHKVW[PUNP[VUH^PKLYZJHSL0U[OPZ^H`P[PZWVZZPISL
to assess teachers’ and learners’ reactions and to identify possible problems and solutions. For
example, although curriculum planners might provide many compelling reasons for adopting a
task-based or content-based curriculum, teachers might feel that it makes testing more difficult
compared with a more traditional grammar-based approach. Hence, it is perceived as offering
ML^ YLSH[P]L HK]HU[HNLZ MVY [LHJOLYZ -\Y[OLYTVYL H SHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN HWWYVHJO [OH[ YLX\PYLZ
teachers to adopt new roles in the classroom, such as needs analyst, resource person, materials
developer, and language tutor, might not be compatible with learners’ expectations of the role
of teachers.
The complexity and clarity of a curriculum change might also be crucial in respect of its successful
HKVW[PVU*VTWHYL[OLMVSSV^PUNWHPYZVMP[LTZMVYL_HTWSLHUKJVUZPKLYÔPJO^V\SKILLHZPLY[V
explain to a group of teachers:
• *VTW\[LYIHZLKSLHYUPUN]LYZ\ZJVVWLYH[P]LSLHYUPUN
• *VTT\UPJH[P]LWHPY^VYR]LYZ\ZJVUZJPV\ZULZZYHPZPUNHJ[P]P[PLZ
• A functional syllabus versus a task-based syllabus.
• A product syllabus versus a process syllabus.
7YHJ[PJHSP[`PZHSZVHZPNUPÄJHU[PZZ\L(TL[OVKVSVN`[OH[JHUYLHKPSÌL[\YULKPU[V[LHJOPUNTH[LYPHSZ
and textbooks will generally be easier to adopt than one that exists only as a set of guidelines. For
this reason content-based teaching is much more widely adopted as a teaching approach than
[HZRIHZLK[LHJOPUNZPUJL[OLSH[[LYYLX\PYLZOLH]`[LHJOLYPU]VS]LTLU[PUTH[LYPHSZ»KL]LSVWTLU[
The support networks available in promoting or explaining an innovation may also be crucial. Are the
ministry of education, key educational administrators, professional bodies, and recognized educational
authorities committed to the project, and what level of support will they provide? Rodgers (1984, 41),
discussing implementation of a communicative syllabus in Malaysia in the 1980s, describes some of
the societal agencies that were involved:
Implementation of a new syllabus needs to involve the cooperation of many agencies. In

Malaysia these include the Ministry of Education Directorship, the Curriculum Development
Center, the Inspectorate, the Examinations Syndicate, Teacher Training Centres, The Textbook
Bureau, textbook publishers, State Education officers, School Headmasters, the National Union
of Teachers, and the formal and informal groups of teachers, themselves. As well, external
agencies need to be informed about and, perhaps, directly involved in discussion of syllabus
changes. These include the National Parliament, the press, the universities and language
advisory agencies (e.g. the British Council). Feelings of being left out or uninformed create the
adversary stance that representatives of such agencies often take with regard to new programs.
The following examples illustrate some of the issues that can arise in the implementation of a
curriculum innovation, and possible responses.
Example: A new state textbook series is prepared by the ministry of education in an EFL country. The
ZLYPLZHZZ\TLZH]LY`KPќLYLU[[`WLVMTL[OVKVSVN`MYVT[OH[J\YYLU[S`\ZLKPUZJOVVSZILJH\ZLP[PZ
less transmission-oriented and more experientially based. When the program is introduced, however, a
U\TILYVMWYVISLTZX\PJRS`LTLYNL![LHJOLYZÄUK[OLTH[LYPHSZKPѝJ\S[[V\ZLHUK\UZ\P[HISLMVYSHYNL
classes; some of the content in the materials is thought to be unsuitable for the target population.
Comment: 0U[OPZZP[\H[PVU[OLTH[LYPHSZJV\SKOH]LILLUPU[YVK\JLKPUZLSLJ[LKZJOVVSZÄYZ[WLYOHWZ
in a pilot version) in order to identify what problems teachers encountered using the materials. These
problems could then have been addressed before full-scale implementation was carried out.
Example: ,UNSPZOPZILPUNPU[YVK\JLKH[[OLLSLTLU[HY`SL]LSMVY[OLÄYZ[[PTLPUHU,-3JV\U[Y`
A teacher-training program is set in place to prepare teachers for teaching at this level. To provide
the training, local teacher trainers are hired and given a “training-of-trainers course” by a foreign
expert. However, a number of the local trainers are found to have very traditional views about teacher
LK\JH[PVUHUKHYLVWWVZLK[V[OL[YHPUPUNTVKLSILPUN\ZLKPU[OL[YHPUPUNJV\YZL6UJL[OL`YL[\YU
to their own training centers, they try to use their own training principles that are not consistent with
the philosophy of the new course.
Comment: This problem could have been avoided if more time had been spent on selecting trainers to
[HRLWHY[PU[OL[YHPUPUNVM[YHPULYZWYVNYHT0U[OLWYVJLZZ[OVZLÔVKPKUV[Z\WWVY[[OLWOPSVZVWO`
VM[OL[YHPUPUNWYVNYHTJV\SKOH]LILLUYLQLJ[LK6UNVPUNMLLKIHJRVU[OL[YHPULYZ»WLYMVYTHUJL
through workshops and visits might also have helped to make sure the trainers were using an
appropriate training model.
5.7 Profiling the factors identified in the situation analysis

>L OH]L PKLU[PÄLK H U\TILY VM ^H`Z PU ÔPJO [OL JVU[L_[ VM H J\YYPJ\SHY PUUV]H[PVU PZ JY\JPHS PU
LќLJ[PUN P[Z V\[JVTL ;LHJOPUN JVU[L_[Z JHU IL KLZJYPILK PU [LYTZ VM [OLPY MH]VYPUN VY KPZMH]VYPUN
JVUKP[PVUZ7LUUPUN[VUHUK9PJOHYKZ!
• Favoring conditions:;OLZLJVUZ[P[\[L[OLWVZP[P]LWV[LU[PHSZVYHќVYKHUJLZ[OH[Z\WWVY[[LHJOPUN
HUKSLHYUPUNLNZTHSSJSHZZZPaL"L_JLSSLU[MHJPSP[PLZYLZV\YJLZHUKLX\PWTLU["ZRPSSLKHUK
Z\WWVY[P]LHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ"NVVKJVTWLUZH[PVUILULÄ[ZHUKYL^HYKZ`Z[LTMVY[LHJOPUN
• Disfavoring conditions!;OLZLJVUZ[P[\[L[OLULNH[P]LPUÅ\LUJLZVYPUOPIP[PUNMHJ[VYZ[OH[
constrain teaching and learning (e.g., large class size; substandard and/or limited facilities,
YLZV\YJLZHUKLX\PWTLU["\UZRPSSLKHUK\UZ\WWVY[P]LHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ"WVVYJVTWLUZH[PVU
ILULÄ[ZHUKYL^HYKZ`Z[LTMVY[LHJOPUN
0UJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[[OLWYVJLZZVM situation analysis seeks to identify key favoring or disfavoring

MHJ[VYZ [OH[ TPNO[ WVZP[P]LS` VY ULNH[P]LS` HќLJ[ PTWSLTLU[H[PVU VM J\YYPJ\S\T JOHUNL I` WV[LU[PHS
HKVW[LYZ ¶ PU [OPZ JHZL [LHJOLYZ HUK SLHYULYZ ;OPZ PZ HSZV RUVÛ HZ H :>6; HUHS`ZPZ ILJH\ZL P[
involves an examination of “a language program’s internal strengths and weaknesses in addition to
external opportunities and threats to the existence or successful operation of the language program”
2SPUNOHTTLY 9VNLYZHYN\LK[OH[Ä]LH[[YPI\[LZVMHUPUUV]H[PVUJHUOLSWVYOPUKLY
P[ZKPќ\ZPVU!YLSH[P]LHK]HU[HNLÔL[OLY\ZLYZZLL[OLJOHUNLHZHK]HU[HNLV\ZJVTWH[PIPSP[`
OV^ JVTWH[PISL P[ PZ ^P[O \ZLYZ» ]HS\LZ HUK L_WLYPLUJL JVTWSL_P[` OV^ KPѝJ\S[ P[ PZ [V
implement), (4) trialability (the extent to which users can try it out), and (5) observability (the extent to
which the innovation can be observed before it is tried out).
0U [OL JHZL VM H SHYNLZJHSL SHUN\HNL J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU PU (\Z[YHSPH )YPUKSL` P[ ^HZ
concluded that a number of principles needed to be considered in planning curriculum innovation:
1. For a change to get under way there has to be an educational need and a political agenda.
2. Rational argument alone will not bring about change.
3. Individuals need to experience change personally.
4. The intentions of curriculum change will frequently be misunderstood.
5. Innovations need local advocates.

(UV[OLY PUÅ\LU[PHS TVKLS VM J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU ^HZ 2LUULK`»Z TVKLS V\[SPULK OLYL I`
Markee (2013, 28):
Within the innovation literature in TESOL, the idea that context is a multi-layered phenomenon
is particularly widespread. For example Kennedy (1988) has proposed a model of context in
which he asserts that (in descending order of importance) cultural, political, administrative,
educational and institutional factors all affect the possibility of classroom innovation. More
specifically, Kennedy argues that cultural factors are the most important drivers of change,
and thus strongly influence the hierarchically lower levels of political and administrative fac-
tors. In turn, these shape educational and institutional factors, which finally determine what
may or may not happen in individual classrooms.
-HJ[VYZ [OH[ TH` PUÅ\LUJL [OL YLJLW[PVU HUK PTWHJ[ VM H J\YYPJ\S\T PUUV]H[PVU JHU VM[LU IL
Z\TTHYPaLKPU[OLMVYTVMHSPZ[HUK[OLWYVÄSL[OLUKL]LSVWLKMVYKPZJ\ZZPVU^P[OPU[OLWYVQLJ[[LHT
ministry, funding body, or institute (see Appendix 1). Rodgers (1984) describes a more elaborate
TH[YP_[OH[JHUHSZVIL\ZLKMVYLZ[PTH[PUN[OLKPѝJ\S[`VMPTWSLTLU[PUNUL^WYVNYHTZZLL(WWLUKP_
>H`ZVMHKKYLZZPUN[OLULNH[P]LMHJ[VYZ[OH[^LYLPKLU[PÄLKJHU[OLUILJVUZPKLYLK(S[LYUH[P]LS`
[OLNVHSZVMHWYVQLJ[TPNO[ULLK[VILTVKPÄLK[VYLÅLJ[[OLYLHSP[PLZVM[OLZP[\H[PVUPUÔPJO[OL
curriculum will be implemented.
Conclusions
3HUN\HNLJV\YZLZHYLKLZPNULK[VIL\ZLKPUTHU`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJVU[L_[Z.SVIHS[L_[IVVRZ
that provide the basis for many language courses worldwide are generally developed with reference
[V HU PKLHSPaLK JVU[L_[ [OH[ PZ VM[LU KPќLYLU[ MYVT [OL YLHSP[` [OH[ [LHJOLYZ MHJL /LUJL NSVIHS
courses assume well-trained and highly motivated teachers, students who will respond positively
to the course’s methodology, and schools where classroom resources and learning facilities provide
VW[PT\T Z\WWVY[ ;OL YLHSP[` VM SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN PZ VM[LU ]LY` KPќLYLU[ ;LHJOPUN PZ H ZP[\H[LK
HJ[P]P[`[OH[PZZOHWLKI`MHJ[VYZZWLJPÄJ[V[OH[JVU[L_[HUK[OLZLV]LYSHWWPUNHUKPU[LYKLWLUKLU[
factors can be seen to link the society, the community, the school, the classroom, the teachers,
HUK[OLSLHYULYZ;OLZLPUÅ\LUJL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZKLWLUKPUNVU[OLSVJH[PVU
and the participants involved and the events and processes that unfold in each context. Situation
analysis thus serves to help identify potential obstacles to implementing a curriculum project and
factors that need to be considered when planning the parameters of a project. Together with needs
HUHS`ZPZ*OHW[LYZP[\H[PVUHUHS`ZPZJHUIL\ZLKHZHYLZV\YJLMVYIV[OJ\YYPJ\S\TWSHUUPUNHUK
curriculum evaluation.
These processes are not ends in themselves but means to an end. They provide information that is a
reference point in planning the goals and learning outcomes for a language course. These stages in
the process of curriculum development and course design are the focus of the next chapter.
1. 0M HU V]LYZLHZ [LHJOLY ÔV OHK UL]LYILLU[V`V\YJV\U[YÌLMVYL^HZOPYLK[V[LHJOPU`V\Y
school, what are some of the things he or she should know about schools and learners of English
in your country?
2. How are decisions related to English teaching policies and practices arrived at in your school?
3. Do local teachers’ organizations have an impact on approaches to teaching? What is their role
HUKPUÅ\LUJL&
4. What support for the learning of English in your country is provided by media such as
newspapers, radio, and television?
5. Do you think watching TV and movies in English plays a role in the development of your learners’
English language skills?
How do you think teachers see their principal role in the classroom in your country?
7. >OH[X\HSPÄJH[PVUZKV,UNSPZO[LHJOLYZUVYTHSSÒH]LPU`V\YJV\U[Y`&0Z[OLYLT\JOWYV]PZPVU
for ongoing professional development?
8. How would you characterize the typical “culture of learning” in schools in your country?
9. 0ZISLUKLKSLHYUPUNNYV^PUNPU`V\YJV\U[Y`&>OH[PZ`V\YVWPUPVUVMP[Z]HS\L&
10. Have you ever seen a new curriculum innovation (e.g., a new textbook, course, or teacher-
training initiative) meet with resistance from teachers? What prompted the resistance?
11. 9LHK[OLJHZLZ[\KPLZI`/\ZHP*OPUNHUK1VZt3LTHH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY>OH[HZWLJ[Z
of the context had the greatest impact on the design and delivery of these two courses?
APPENDIX 1:P[\H[PVUHUHS`ZPZWYVÄSL
Societal factors: Positives:
5LNH[P]LZ!
Learner factors: Positives:
5LNH[P]LZ!
Teacher factors: Positives:
5LNH[P]LZ!
0UZ[P[\[PVUMHJ[VYZ! Positives:
5LNH[P]LZ!
Delivery factors: Positives:
5LNH[P]LZ!
Adoption factors: Positives:
5LNH[P]LZ!
APPENDIX 24H[YP_MVYPKLU[PM`PUNMHJ[VYZPUJ\YYPJ\S\TYLUL^HSWYVJLZZMYVT
9VKNLYZ
;OPZTH[YP_PUJS\KLZHULZ[PTH[LVM[OLKPѝJ\S[`PUM\SÄSSPUN[OLYLX\PYLTLU[ZVM[OLMHJ[VY
Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
A. The educational requirement sought:
1. The subject matter is familiar or unfamiliar.
2. The knowledge domain (skill, or other) is
simple or complex.
3. The learning group is relatively easy to
[LHJOVYKPѝJ\S[[V[LHJO
4. The instructional design is simple or
complex.
5. The instructional design is familiar or
unfamiliar.
;OLJ\YYPJ\SHYHUKPUZ[Y\J[PVUHSKLZPNUZ
HYL^LSSVYPUHKLX\H[LS`YLZLHYJOLK
0UZ[Y\J[PVUHSTH[LYPHSZHYL¸Vќ[OLZOLSM¹
or nonexistent.
8. The instructional materials are to be
technically simple or sophisticated.
9. The renewal is to be made in an
individual or local arena or in a nationwide
(worldwide?) arena.
Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
10. The proportion of concern with the “full
renewal process” (from theory, through
design and development, publications,
training, and support) is partial or
complete.
Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
B. Renewal activities and resources required:
1. Time available is extensive or limited.
2. Funds available are extensive or limited.
3. Professional resources are extensive or
limited.
4. Professional resources are experienced
and accomplished or inexperienced.
5. The “standing” of the renewal agency/
persons (status, reputation, track record)
is excellent or poor.
;OLYVSLVYWVZP[PVUPU[OL¸Z`Z[LT¹VM[OL
YLUL^HSHNLUJ`PLZ¶PUKP]PK\HSZJOVVS
system, university, publisher, etc.).
7. The theory and practice of curriculum
YLUL^HSPZHKLX\H[L[VUVUL_PZ[LU[
Low High
KPѝJ\S[` KPѝJ\S[`
C. The content of the renewal program:
1. The target school system(s) is (are) well
organized or unorganized.
2. The competing renewal programs are few
or many.
3. The target school system(s) has (have)
simple or profound educational problems.
4. The idea of curriculum renewal is well or
poorly accepted.
;OLPKLHVM[OLYLUL^HSLќVY[PZ
consistent with or inconsistent with the
current view.
CASE STUDY 8,ɈLJ[P]L*SHZZYVVT4HUHNLTLU[MVY0UZLY]PJL;LHJOLYZ

/\ZHP*OPUN
,ќLJ[P]L*SHZZYVVT4HUHNLTLU[MVY0UZLY]PJL;LHJOLYZPZHJV\YZL0VќLYHZHMYLLSHUJLJVUZ\S[HU[PU
Mexico. What usually happens is that school owners, academic coordinators, or school administrators
YLX\LZ[T`ZLY]PJLZ[VOLSW[OL[LHJOPUNZ[HќPTWYV]L[OLPYJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[ZRPSSZ
0KP]PKL[OLWYVJLZZPU[V[OYLL\ULX\HSWOHZLZ!0Z[HY[I`^VYRPUN^P[O[OLVÛLYZHUK[OLWYPUJPWHSVM
[OLZJOVVS"[OLU0^VYR^P[O[OLHJHKLTPJJVVYKPUH[VYVYOLHKVM[OL,UNSPZOKLWHY[TLU["HUKÄUHSS`
0^VYR^P[O[OL[LHJOPUNZ[HќHUK^YHWP[\W^P[O[OLHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[Hќ
)LJH\ZL0^VYRHZHJVUZ\S[HU[T`JVU[L_[MVYKLZPNUPUNHUKKLSP]LYPUNHJV\YZLPZX\P[LKPќLYLU[
from that of an in-house academic coordinator or head of the English department. The sessions of the
WYVJLZZ[OH[HYLMVY[OLVÛLYZWYPUJPWHSZHUKHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[HќHYL\Z\HSSÒLSKPU:WHUPZO;OL
HJ[\HSPUZ[Y\J[PVUPU]VS]PUN[OL[LHJOPUNZ[HќPZOLSKPU,UNSPZO\UKLYHZ[YPJ[no Spanish in class policy.

The general goal is, of course, to improve classroom management; however, the actual outcomes are
HS^H`ZKPќLYLU[ILJH\ZL0VќLY[HPSVYTHKLJV\YZLZ(ZHJVUZ\S[HU[0[Y`[VNL[L]LY`VULPU]VS]LK
L]LUPMH[ÄYZ[NSHUJLHJV\YZLVUJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[HWWLHYZ[VILYLSL]HU[[V[LHJOLYZVUS`
and, given that the actual instruction for teachers is carried out in English, it doesn’t usually make any
ZLUZL[VZJOVVSVÛLYZHUKHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[Hќ[V[HRLWHY[PUP[5L]LY[OLSLZZHM[LYZL]LYHS`LHYZ
VM L_WLYPLUJL 0 OH]L JVTL [V \UKLYZ[HUK [OH[ \USLZZ [OL VÛLYZ HUK HKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ HYL HJ[P]LS`
involved in the process of setting and understanding the goals, my course is likely to fall below my
client’s (unexpressed) expectations.
The usual goals for this course include but are not limited to understanding and using the following:
• 3LZZVUWSHUUPUNHZH[VVSMVYLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[
• =VPJLPUÅLJ[PVUZHUKIVK`SHUN\HNLHZ[VVSZMVYLќLJ[P]LHUKHќLJ[P]LJVTT\UPJH[PVU
• Self, peer, and academic coordinator monitoring of teachers’ command of the language as a
means to avoid distraction and disruptive behaviour from students.
• *SHZZYVVTY\SLZHUKZJOVVSY\SLZHZH^H`[VWYL]LU[\U^HU[LKILOH]PV\Y
• ([[LU[P]LSPZ[LUPUNHZHNH[L^H`[VLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[
• ;OLZJOVVS»ZJHSLUKHYHUKHNLUKHHZHZ[HY[PUNWVPU[MVYNLULYHSPaLKLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVT
management.

This course was originally designed as a one-time, on demand job; however, after several invitations to
KLSP]LY¸[OLZHTL¹JV\YZLH[V[OLYZJOVVSZ0KLJPKLK[VH[[LTW[HÄ_LK]LYZPVUVMP[5LLKSLZZ[VZH`PU
my capacity as a freelance consultant it didn’t work to step in and try to succeed with something that
OHKUV[ILLUHKHW[LKVUHJHZLI`JHZLIHZPZ0J\YYLU[S`^VYR^P[OHNLULYHSV\[SPULVM[OLJV\YZL
and an ever-growing bank of resources to tackle almost any particular goal that might spring from the
initial generic and vague goal of improving teachers’ classroom management.
0Z[HY[I`^VYRPUNHSVUNZPKL[OLVÛLYZVM[OLZJOVVSÔLUL]LYWVZZPISLVY[OLZJOVVS»ZWYPUJPWHS
>L \Z\HSS` [HRL [^V ^LLRZ [V YLHJO H JSLHY JVUJYL[L HUK Ä_LK ZL[ VM VIQLJ[P]LZ HSVUN ^P[O [OL
HZZLZZTLU[ [VVSZ T` JSPLU[ ^PSS \ZL [V TLHZ\YL V\Y Z\JJLZZ ;OPZ PZ \Z\HSS` [OL TVZ[ KPѝJ\S[ WHY[
of the process, not only because school owners and school administrators in Mexico seldom speak
,UNSPZO I\[ HSZV ILJH\ZL [OLPY WYPVYP[PLZ HYL SHYNLS` ÄUHUJPHS 6UJL ^L»]L YLHJOLK HNYLLTLU[ VU
the expected academic outcome and the assessment tools, we move forward to establishing what
would be deemed acceptable evidence of success; this is the time for the academic coordinator(s)
to step in.
0\Z\HSS`[HRLHUV[OLY^LLRVY[^VKLWLUKPUNVU[OLZPaLVM[OLZJOVVS[VNL[HZT\JOPUMVYTH[PVU
as possible from the academic coordinator. We work together towards reaching a satisfactory
HJHKLTPJ¸[YHUZSH[PVU¹MVY[OLNVHSZZL[I`[OLZJOVVSVÛLYZ>LZL[ZWLJPÄJNVHSZKL[LYTPULÔH[
will be regarded as acceptable evidence of success, and agree on the rubrics that will be used for
HZZLZZTLU[+\YPUN[OPZ[PTL0JVUK\J[HZLYPLZVMJSHZZVIZLY]H[PVUZHUK[LHJOLYZPU[LY]PL^Z"HM[LY
[OH[ 0 [HRL ZVTL [PTL [V HUHS`ZL [OL PUMVYTH[PVU [OVYV\NOS` ([ [OPZ WVPU[ 0 ^HU[ [V THRL Z\YL [OH[
everyone involved so far is “on the same page”; should there be any discrepancy and/or situations
[OH[^LYLUV[TLU[PVULKILMVYLVY[OH[^LYLTLU[PVULKI\[VUSÌ`VULKLWHY[TLU[0NVIHJRHUK
JSHYPM` [OL PZZ\L 0M L]LY`[OPUN PZ ^VYRPUN V\[ ZTVV[OS` 0 KL]LSVW [OL NLULYHS V\[SPUL VM [OL JV\YZL
0[OLUKLJPKLÔPJOTVK\SLZHYL[VILPUJS\KLKÔH[[OLNLULYHSTL[OVKVSVN`^PSSILHUKÔPJO
ZWLJPÄJ[LJOUPX\LZ0^PSSULLK[VHWWS`
5V^P[»Z[OL[LHJOLYZ»[\YU>LZWLUK[OLMVSSV^PUN^LLRZ^VYRPUN[VNL[OLY\U[PSLHJOVULVM[OLT
achieves the learning outcomes.
-PUHSS` 0 ^YHW [OL JV\YZL \W I` SLHKPUN H ZLZZPVU ÔLYL [OL VÛLYZ [OL WYPUJPWHS [OL HJHKLTPJ
JVVYKPUH[VY [OL [LHJOPUN Z[Hќ HUK [OL HKTPUPZ[YH[P]L Z[Hќ HYL WYLZLU[ ;OPZ ZLZZPVU PZ OLSK PU
:WHUPZO HUK [OL NVHS PZ [V JYLH[L WYVWLY JOHUULSZ VM JVTT\UPJH[PVU PU VYKLY [V Z\WWVY[ LќLJ[P]L
classroom management.
As a result of these processes, every member of the team gains understanding about how every
administrative decision, if not handled properly, carries the potential for a negative impact on our
classroom management. At the top of the list of teacher complaints about school practices that
commonly promote unwanted behaviour from students are the following: sudden changes to school
ZJOLK\SLZ" [VV THU` L_[YHJ\YYPJ\SHY HJ[P]P[PLZ" ÄLSK [YPWZ H[ ZOVY[ UV[PJL" JLSLIYH[PVUZ PU]VS]PUN
PUZJOVVSYLOLHYZHSZ"JVTWL[P[PVUZ[OH[YLX\PYLHML^Z[\KLU[Z[VTPZZJSHZZHYYP]LSH[LVYSLH]LLHYS`"
marketing activities involving students and/or teachers; along with interruptions from administrative
WLYZVUULS[VKLSP]LYHTLZZHNL[VTHRLHUHUUV\UJLTLU[VY[VYLX\LZ[[OH[HNP]LUZ[\KLU[NVLZ
[V[OLVѝJL

The actual course that is delivered to teachers lasts for ten weeks; teachers attend a 90-minute
ZLZZPVUL]LY`KH`4VUKH`[OYV\NO;O\YZKH`0[PZKP]PKLKPU[V[OYLL\ULX\HSZLJ[PVUZ
;OLÄYZ[ZLJ[PVUPZVUL^LLRSVUN"^LJHYY`V\[HKPHNUVZPZVM[OLZP[\H[PVU0ZOHYL[OLYLZ\S[ZVMT`
observations, the information provided by the school’s principal and the academic coordinator, and
ÔH[L]LYJVTTVUMLH[\YLZ0MV\UKPU[LHJOLYZ»PU[LY]PL^Z;OLL]PKLUJLVMZ\JJLZZMVY[OH[^LLRPZH
^YP[[LUJVTTP[TLU[[VPTWYV]L[OVZLZWLJPÄJHYLHZPKLU[PÄLKI`[LHJOLYZHZULLKPUN[VILPTWYV]LK
HZHYLZ\S[VM[OLSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJL[OYV\NOV\[[OH[^LLR0ÄUPZOVќ[OL^LLRI`PU[YVK\JPUN[OL
formats we’ll be using during the following four weeks.
;OL ZLJVUK ZLJ[PVU PZ KP]PKLK PU[V [^V MV\Y^LLR ISVJRZ +\YPUN [OL ÄYZ[ ISVJR ^L MVJ\Z VU
PKLU[PM`PUN HUK \UKLYZ[HUKPUN [OL WYPUJPWSLZ ^L ^HU[ [V HWWS` PM ^L HYL [V HJOPL]L LќLJ[P]L HUK
HќLJ[P]L JSHZZYVVT THUHNLTLU[ ([ [OPZ WVPU[ [OLYL PZ H SV[ VM YLHKPUN MVY OVTL^VYR H[ SLHZ[ [^V
WLLYJSHZZVIZLY]H[PVUZWLY[LHJOLYHÄ]LWHYHNYHWOWHWLY[VIL[\YULKPUL]LY`;O\YZKH`HUK]LY`
KÙHTPJJSHZZKPZJ\ZZPVUZL]LY`ZLZZPVU;OLSHZ[VM[OLZLÄYZ[MV\Y^LLRZPZKL]V[LKHSTVZ[LU[PYLS`
to teacher presentations. The evidence of success per teacher for that block is a video recording
VM [OLPY WYLZLU[H[PVU PU HKKP[PVU [V MV\Y Ä]LWHYHNYHWO WHWLYZ 6UJL HNHPU 0 ^YHW \W [OL ^LLR I`
introducing the formats we’ll be using during the following four weeks.
;OLZLJVUKISVJRPZKL]V[LK[V[OLHWWSPJH[PVUVM[OLWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[^LYLPKLU[PÄLKHUK\UKLYZ[VVK
during the previous four-week block. At this point there is less reading and a lot more collaborative
WSHUUPUNMVYOVTL^VYR"[LHJOLYZHYLL_WLJ[LK[VÄSSV\[HUKIYPUN[VJSHZZL]LY`KH`[OLPY[LHJOLY»Z
journal and classroom management lesson plan formats; teachers still have to turn in their Thursday
WHWLYHUKJSHZZKPZJ\ZZPVUZILJVTLHSV[TVYLPU[LYHJ[P]LHUKWHZZPVUH[L6UJLTVYL[OLSHZ[VM
these four weeks is devoted almost entirely to teacher presentations. The evidence of teacher success
MVY[OPZSHZ[ISVJRPZH]PKLVYLJVYKPUNVM[OLPYWYLZLU[H[PVUPUHKKP[PVU[VMV\YÄ]LWHYHNYHWOWHWLYZ
and a collection of personal and team best practices that have helped them develop strategies for
TVYLLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[
;OL [OPYK HUK ÄUHS ZLJ[PVU SHZ[Z VUL TVYL ^LLR 6U 4VUKH` HUK ;\LZKH` ^L ^VYR [V^HYKZ [OL
PU[LNYH[PVU VM H KVJ\TLU[ [OH[ ^PSS JVU[HPU YLMLYLUJL [V [OVZL WYPUJPWSLZ JVUJLW[Z HUK X\V[LZ [OH[
we borrowed from the professional literature during the course and, just as importantly, a collection
of those best practices that actually worked for them in their individual contexts, thus enabling the
WVZZPIPSP[` VM M\[\YL JVUZ\S[H[PVU >LKULZKH` PZ PUZ[Y\J[VY L]HS\H[PVU KH` ¶ [OL KH` [OH[ 0 YLJLP]L
MLLKIHJRHUK^LKVJ\TLU[P[;LHJOLYZL_WYLZZ[OLTZLS]LZMYLLS`HUKHYL[OLUHZRLK[VÄSSV\[[OL
PUZ[Y\J[VYHZZLZZTLU[MVYTH[Z[OH[HYL[VILPUJS\KLKPU[OLÄUHSKVJ\TLU[H[PVUT`JSPLU[^PSSYLJLP]L
;O\YZKH`PZÔLU^LPU]P[L[OLZJOVVSVÛLYZHUKVYZJOVVSWYPUJPWHSHUK[OLHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ[Hќ[VH
ÄUHSWYLZLU[H[PVUSLKI`[OLHJHKLTPJJVVYKPUH[VY;OPZZLZZPVUPZHUVWWVY[\UP[`[VHKKYLZZKPZJ\ZZ
HUKKVJ\TLU[HUÙVUHJHKLTPJPZZ\LZYLSH[LK[VRLLWPUN\WV\YLќLJ[P]LJSHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[

The course is heavily anchored to Bloom’s Taxonomy, Shulman’s Model of Pedagogical Reasoning, and
Wiggins & McTighe’s Backwards Design; hence the need for a comprehensive selection of methods
HUK[LJOUPX\LZ(^H`[VL_WSHPUT`JOVPJLVMWHY[PJ\SHYTL[OVKZHUK[LJOUPX\LZPZI`ZH`PUN[OH[
Z[\KLU[Z»HJOPL]LTLU[ZHUKZ[\KLU[Z»ZLUZLVMHJOPL]LTLU[JVTLÄYZ[HUK^P[O[OH[PUTPUK0^PSS
\ZLHU`TL[OVKHUK[LJOUPX\L[OH[WYV]LZLќLJ[P]L([[PTLZ0»]LOHK[VJOHUNL[OLÔVSLZLZZPVU
dynamics on the spot in order to guarantee that every student succeeds in every single session.

:[\KLU[ZYLJLP]LHJV\YZLIVVRSL[[OH[JVU[HPUZ[OLIPISPVNYHWO`0^PSSYLMLY[VJVUZ[HU[S`K\YPUN[OL
course as well as a recommended reading list, the course outline and calendar of events, a glossary,
HX\PJRYLMLYLUJLZLJ[PVUL_LYJPZLZHUKL_JLYW[ZMYVTYLSL]HU[^VYRZPU[OLÄLSK0UHKKP[PVU[V[OH[
0SPRL[VTHPU[HPUHZ[PT\SH[PUNLU]PYVUTLU[ZV0\ZLWSLU[`VM]PKLVZKVÛSVHKLKMYVT[OL0U[LYUL[;=
HUK+=+WSH`LYZT\ZPJT`SHW[VWYLHSPHWYVWZ^HSSKLJVYH[PVUZTHNHaPULJ\[V\[ZL[J0U[LYTZ
of materials and resources, my philosophy is that pretty much any object can be used as a teaching
aid, and pretty much any teaching aid can be substituted by any other object should the need arise.
0U [OL ILNPUUPUN 0 Z[Y\NNSLK ^P[O [Y`PUN [V JVW` HUK WHZ[L [OL [L_[ VM H Ä_LK JV\YZL [V SL[[LYOLHK
WHWLY^P[OHKPќLYLU[UHTLVUP[;OLVI]PV\ZYLZ\S[ILPUN[OH[0OHKH]LYÒHYK[PTL[OYV\NOV\[[OL
[LHJOPUNSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJL6UJL0OHKSLHYULK[VHKHW[MYVTHÄ_LKNLULYHSV\[SPULL]LY`[OPUNNV[
ZTVV[OLY0UT`JVU[L_[0»KIL[[LYHUZ^LY[OPZX\LZ[PVUPU[OLWYLZLU[[LUZL!0KVL_WLYPLUJLZL]LYHS
SL]LSZHUKRPUKZVMKPѝJ\S[PLZL]LY`[PTLHSHUN\HNLJLU[YLYLX\LZ[ZT`ZLY]PJLZ/V^L]LY[OLTVZ[
rewarding part of it is the fact that my course-designing skills are constantly improving to the point
[OH[0J\YYLU[S`LUQV`KL]LSVWPUN[OLZLJV\YZLZHZT\JOHZ0LUQV`[LHJOPUN[OLT
0KPKMHJLZVTLKPѝJ\S[PLZÔLU0ÄYZ[Z[HY[LK[VNL[ZJOVVSVÛLYZHUKZJOVVSHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZPU]VS]LK
in the process. Fifteen years ago, the notion of meeting an academic consultant who would ask
ZJOVVSVÛLYZ[VZ\WWVY[HJHKLTPJVYPLU[LKHJ[P]P[PLZ^HZ\UOLHYKVM5L]LY[OLSLZZP[»ZWYV]LU[V
IL^PZLIV[OHJHKLTPJHSS`HUKÄUHUJPHSS`
7LYOHWZ [OL VUS` YLHS VIZ[HJSL 0 JHTL HJYVZZ HUK Z[PSS JVTL HJYVZZ PZ ÄUKPUN [OL ILZ[ ^H` [V
THRLL]LY`VULPU]VS]LKMLLSZH[PZÄLK^P[O[OLV\[JVTL(ZH[LHJOLY0Q\Z[MVJ\ZVUT`Z[\KLU[Z"
HZHUPUZ[Y\J[PVUHSKLZPNULY0[Y`[V[HRLL]LY`VULMYVT[OLZJOVVSVÛLY[V[OLZJOVVSZLJYL[HY`
into account.
0»]LMV\UK[OH[VUL^H`[VH]VPK[OPUNZNL[[PUN[VVJVTWSPJH[LKPZ[VILYLHSS`ZJLW[PJHS!PM[OLJV\YZL
design looks gorgeous on paper, the course will more than likely be very hard for me to deliver and
]LYÒHYKMVYT`Z[\KLU[Z[VZ\JJLLKH[;OLTVZ[Z\JJLZZM\SJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUZ0»]LJVTLHJYVZZ
look too light-packed on paper to be regarded as serious; unfortunately, school owners and principals
seem to prefer curriculum designs that look heavy-packed, with lots of class activities, plenty of
assignments, loads of books to carry around during the course, and several objectives per session,
even if that means modifying the expected outcomes, sometimes more than once, throughout the
duration of the course.

Assessment is critical to this course. Bloom, Shulman, and Wiggins & McTighe revolve around
the concept of evaluation as a means to acknowledge students’ success and a tool to measure
improvements in teachers’ performance; therefore, what constitutes acceptable evidence of success
is set weeks before any of the actual instruction takes place, along with the evaluation tools, class
HJ[P]P[PLZHUKY\IYPJZ0U[LYTZVM[OLHJ[\HSHZZLZZTLU[VM[LHJOLYZ»WLYMVYTHUJLP[[HRLZWSHJLVU[OYLL
KPќLYLU[SL]LSZ!\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OLWYPUJPWSLZVULVM[OLW\YWVZLZVM[OL;O\YZKH`WHWLYZHUK[OL
presentations); application of the principles (the purpose of the class observations, the teacher’s journal,
and the classroom management lesson plans); and command of the language (the other purpose of
the weekly papers, the presentations, and my initial set of class observations and teacher interviews).
.P]LU[OH[[OPZPZJVUZPKLYLKL_[YHJ\YYPJ\SHYPUOV\ZLVUNVPUN[YHPUPUN0[YÙV[[VNYHKLZ[\KLU[Z»
^VYR HUK WLYMVYTHUJL I\[ PUZ[LHK [Y` [V N\PKL HUK MHJPSP[H[L [OLPY Z\JJLZZ 0 HSZV [Y` [V THPU[HPU
the balance between direct and indirect assessment. Weekly papers, two presentations, and peer
observation formats are among the products that will be evaluated using the rubrics that were agreed
\WVU^P[O[OLHJHKLTPJJVVYKPUH[VY"[OH[PUHKKP[PVU[VHU`WVWX\PaaLZ0TPNO[OH]LH]HPSHISL^PSS
be used to determine the teachers’ ÄUHS NYHKL. The teacher’s journal and classroom management
lesson plans along with peer feedback and class discussions provide the basis for self-evaluation and
HSZVWYVTV[LZLSMYLÅLJ[PVU
Husai Ching is a freelance TESOL and Language Acquisition academic consultant. He has been
responsible for the design and implementation of several courses at prestigious private language
centres in Mexico. He specializes in collaborating with language centres that wish to redesign their
administrative processes in order to enhance the teaching-learning experience.
CASE STUDY 9(ISLUKLK\UKLYNYHK\H[LJV\YZLPU,J\HKVY

1VZt3LTH
;OPZ JV\YZL PZ H ISLUKLK WYVNYHT MVY \UKLYNYHK\H[L Z[\KLU[Z VM [OL *H[OVSPJ <UP]LYZP[` PU
8\P[V ,J\HKVY :[\KLU[Z [HRL ZP_ SL]LSZ VM NLULYHS ,UNSPZO H[ [OL (( HUK ) SL]LSZ VM [OL
*VTTVU ,\YVWLHU -YHTL^VYR HZ WHY[ VM [OLPY \UKLYNYHK\H[L KLNYLL WYVNYHT PU [OL :JOVVS
of Education. The course involves two modes of delivering content: face-to-face and via
[LJOUVSVN` -VY IV[O TVKLZ [OL PUZ[P[\[PVU ^VYRZ ^P[O [OL -V\Y *VYULYZ -* ZLYPLZ ([ LHJO
SL]LS [OL Z[\KLU[Z JV]LY ZP_ \UP[Z VM [OL -* JV\YZLIVVR ;OL ISLUKLK WHY[ VM [OL JV\YZL PZ
carried out using the university Virtual Learning Environment (VLE) Moodle. The use of Moodle
is intended to support students’ learning through delivering, expanding and providing additional
English practice.

;OL THPU NVHS VM [OL ,-3 ISLUKLK JV\YZL PZ [V HSSV^ Z[\KLU[Z [V THZ[LY HSS MV\Y SHUN\HNL ZRPSSZ ¶
SPZ[LUPUN ZWLHRPUN YLHKPUN HUK ^YP[PUN ¶ \ZPUN H ]HYPL[` VM JVTT\UPJH[P]L SHUN\HNL Z[YH[LNPLZ 0U
order to accomplish this goal, the institution uses language learning standards similar to the ones
KLZPNULKI`[OL*VTTVU,\YVWLHU-YHTL^VYRVM9LMLYLUJLMVY3HUN\HNLZ*,-93
Thus, the expected outcomes after concluding each of the six levels are as follows:
• ;OLÄYZ[HUKZLJVUKSL]LSZ^PSSLX\H[L[V[OL*,-93(VYLSLTLU[HY`!Z[\KLU[ZJHUKLHS^P[O
very limited day-to-day activities.
• ;OL[OPYKHUKMV\Y[OSL]LSZ^PSSLX\H[L[V[OL*,-93(VYSV^LYPU[LYTLKPH[L!Z[\KLU[ZJHUKLHS
with predictable day-to-day activities.
• ;OLMV\Y[OHUKZP_[OSL]LSZ^PSSLX\H[L[V[OL*,-93)VYPU[LYTLKPH[L!Z[\KLU[ZJHUKLHS^P[O
varied familiar everyday activities.

;VJVTWS`^P[ONYHK\H[PVUYLX\PYLTLU[Z[OL\UP]LYZP[`VќLYZH]HYPL[`VMMVYLPNUSHUN\HNLJV\YZLZ[VP[Z
KPќLYLU[ZJOVVSZHUKKLWHY[TLU[Z,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLJSHZZLZHYL[H\NO[VUJHTW\ZVUHKHPSÌHZPZHUK
mainly in the traditional face-to-face form. Likewise, some programs and many subjects are now being
delivered in a blended form: face-to-face sessions are supported, expanded and complemented through
the use of technological platforms such as Moodle. The blended English-language teaching program
has been designed to meet the needs of part-time students who are taking their major in education. The
JV\YZL^HZQVPU[S`KL]LSVWLKI`HZ[HќTLTILYMYVT[OL\UP]LYZP[`»Z,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL+LWHY[TLU[HUK
+LWHY[TLU[VM5L^;LJOUVSVNPLZ)V[OKLWHY[TLU[ZOH]L^VYRLK[VNL[OLY[VKL]LSVWHZV\UK[LHJOPUN
model that addresses the delivery of face-to-face instruction in conjunction with the university VLE Moodle.

The ELT blended course is organized over one 15-week semester. The course has six units and each
unit is planned to be delivered in two weeks. During those two weeks, students attend two sessions and
work on the VLE platform. Since the VLE allows plenty of reading and writing activities to be included,
in the face-to-face sessions there is an emphasis on practicing and developing verbal communicative
ZRPSSZ;OLVUSPUL^VYRJVTWYPZLZPU[LYHJ[P]LHJ[P]P[PLZVUSPUL^VYRIVVRZLSMZ[\K`*+964HJ[P]P[PLZ
and tests, portfolio); written and oral tasks. The organization of the course is as follows:
Blended Language Course Organization

Level 1
Face-to- 6USPUL^VYR
face
Weeks Units Topics sessions 0U[LYHJ[P]LHJ[P]P[PLZ Written production 6YHSWYVK\J[PVU *SHZZ^VYR
# of 6USPUL :LSMZ[\K`*+ *+[LZ[Z Portfolio 6USPUL^YP[PUN[HZRZ 6USPULZWLHRPUN[HZRZ X\PaaLZ
hours workbook
Week 1 Unit 1 5L^ 4 hours 0[»ZUPJL[V Famous
and 2 friends meet you names X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 Unit 1
Week 3 Unit 2 People and 4 hours People and Surprise
and 4 places places X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 2
Week 5 Unit 3 What’s 4 hours What’s My favorite
HUK that? that? things X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 3
Week 7 Unit 4 Daily life 4 hours Daily life My busy
and 8 Monday X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 4
Week 9 Unit 5 Free time 4 hours Free time What do you
and 10 do for fun? X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks Unit 5
Week 11 <UP[ Work and 4 hours Work and Hidden talent
and 12 play play X\LZ[PVUZ *OLJRSPZ[Z D Six writing tasks D Six speaking tasks <UP[
Week 13 [V *V\YZL 4 hours
and 14 review
Week 15 Exam 4 hours
Each unit has a topic, four subtopics and four learning outcomes. Moreover, each unit includes
grammar points, vocabulary development, functional language descriptions, listening and pronunciation
exercises, reading, writing and speaking tasks.
LEVEL 1
FACE TO FACE SESSIONS AND ONLINE WORK
Weeks 1 and 2
UNIT 1
Vocabulary Functional Listening and Reading
Topic: My interest Learning outcomes Grammar Speaking
language pronunciation and writing
• *SHZZPU[YVK\J[PVUHUK
Students can … greetings
The verb be
¶HZRMVYHUKZHÙHTLZ Possessive Reading: • 2LLW[HSRPUN!5HTLJPYJSL
A What’s your name? ¶ZWLSSUHTLZ Listening • *SHZZUHTLSPZ[
adjectives 5HTLZ “Famous
B How do you spell it? ¶[HSRHIV\[ÔLYL 0U[LYHJ[PVUZ! Spelling
Subject and titles names” • Guessing game about
Asking for names
*(YL`V\HZ[\KLU[& people are from and pronouns 0U[LYLZ[PUN spelling An Article famous people
Pronunciation:
+5HTLZHUKQVIZ what they do Yes / no jobs Writing My • Keep talking: “Find the
*VU[YHJ[PVUZ
¶KPZJ\ZZWLVWSL»Z X\LZ[PVUZ name KPќLYLUJL¹HJ[P]P[`HIV\[
names and jobs with be jobs and cities
• 8\PaHIV\[JLSLIYP[PLZ
The blending of the course relies on a number of self-study guides to be studied and completed
using the university VLE Moodle. The self-study guides have been designed to explain, expand and
practice content. Together they serve to manage assignments and grades; start discussion forums;
embed videos and podcasts; manage email; organize online chats; and hand over feedback. The
VYNHUPaH[PVU VM [OL WSH[MVYT H[[LTW[Z [V ^VYR PU HU PU[LNYH[LK ^H` ZV [OH[ [OL KPќLYLU[ HJHKLTPJ
components of the course, such as the topics, vocabulary, listening, speaking, reading, writing, etc.,
are relevant, related and intertwined. The organization of the online self-study guides is as follows:
Unit 1. New Friends

At the end of this unit, students will be able to:
1. ask for and say names
2. spell names
3. talk about where people are from what they do
4. discuss people’s names and jobs
:LSM:[\K`.\PKL0U[YVK\J[PVUZUHTLZHUK[P[SLZ
Self-Study Guide 1.2. The English Alphabet
:LSM:[\K`.\PKL)L!(ѝYTH[P]L
:LSM:[\K`.\PKL)L!5LNH[P]L
:LSM:[\K`.\PKL@LZ5V8\LZ[PVUZ^P[O]LYI;V)L
:LSM:[\K`.\PKL:\IQLJ[7YVUV\UZHUK7VZZLZZP]L(KQLJ[P]LZ
:LSM:[\K`.\PKL=LKPV!-HTV\Z5HTLZ
Self-Study Guide 1.8. Wrap up
Each self-study guide shares the following format:

3L]LS¶<UP[
Self-Study Guide 1.1
Topic:
0U[YVK\J[PVU 2 Before you start 3 Review 4 Learning activities 5 Writing and Speaking
*VU[LU[
1 ………… (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU Activity 1. Writing
Resources: Strategy explanation Strategy Strategy Strategy
• Student’s Book • Step 1… • Step 1… • Step 1… *SPJRVU[OLSPURILSV^[VKV[OL[HZR
• :LSM:[\K`*+9VT • Step 2… • Step 2… • Step 2… Writing 1.1 Topic
• 6USPUL>VYRIVVR Activity 2. Speaking
• Microphone (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU (J[P]P[`0UZ[Y\J[PVU Strategy
Estimated time: 1 hour Strategy Strategy *SPJRVU[OLSPURILSV^[VKV[OL[HZR
Deadline: (Date) (Time) • Step 1… • Step 1… Speaking 1.1 Topic
• Step 2… • Step 2…

The blended program combines classroom sessions and online lessons and activities through the
\UP]LYZP[`=3,4VVKSL;OLJV\YZLPZKLZPNULK[VLUHISLSLHYULYZ[VPU[LYHJ[LќLJ[P]LS`^P[OV[OLYZPU
English in a variety of communicative situations. Students are given as many opportunities as possible
to share ideas and experiences individually, in pair and group work, in both classroom sessions and
online lessons. The progression of tasks in each unit allows students to relate what they have learned
[V [OLPY VÛ L_WLYPLUJLZ (U PUK\J[P]L HWWYVHJO PZ HWWSPLK PU ÔPJO [OL JVU[LU[ PZ ÄYZ[ WYLZLU[LK
in context. Learners are encouraged to observe, compare and analyze in order to identify the use
of vocabulary and structures. Students are also presented with targeted exercises that ensure
JVTWYLOLUZPVUVM[OLJVU[LU[0ULHJO\UP[[OLMV\YZRPSSZHYLJV]LYLKMVYYLHKPUNSPZ[LUPUNZWLHRPUN
and writing plus vocabulary, grammar structures and pronunciation.

;OL ISLUKLK ,UNSPZO SHUN\HNL JV\YZL \ZLZ [OL TH[LYPHSZ Z\WWSLTLU[LK I` [OL JV\YZLIVVR 0[
PUJS\KLZKPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[Z[OH[HYL\ZLK[OYV\NOV\[[OLJV\YZLZLL[OLJOHY[ILSV^+LWLUKPUN
VU[OLVIQLJ[P]LZVM[OLSLZZVU[OLKPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[ZTHÌL\ZLKPU[OLJSHZZYVVTVYL_JS\ZP]LS`
online; they can be used for autonomous learning and with a VLE platform. The chart below shows
[OLTH[LYPHSZHUK[OLPYKPќLYLU[\ZLZ!
Textbook components To be used in To be used To be used for To be used with
and teaching resources the classroom online (only) self-study a VLE platform
Student’s book yes - yes yes
Teacher’s guide yes - - yes
:LSMZ[\K`*+9VT - - yes yes
JSHZZH\KPV*+Z yes yes yes yes
(free online-available)
Assessment audio yes - - -
*+9VT
<UP[X\PaaLZ yes - - -
6USPUL^VYRIVVR - yes yes -
*SHZZ^HYL yes - - -
Videos yes - yes -
Video worksheets yes - yes yes
Grammar and vocabulary yes - - yes
worksheets
Speaking sheets yes - - -
Website yes yes yes yes
Teacher’s support - yes yes -
Technical support - yes - -
;LHJOLYZ HUK Z[\KLU[Z TH` ILULÄ[ MYVT [OL 0U[LYUL[ HUK [OL THZZP]L HTV\U[ VM PUMVYTH[PVU [OH[
JHUIL\ZLKHUKHKHW[LKMVY[OL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNVMZWLJPÄJJVU[LU[VYH\[VUVTV\ZL_[LUKLK
practice. Teachers may even create their own materials to be used in class and online. A list of
examples for online resources and teacher-developed resources are described in the chart below:
Resources 6USPUL[LHJOPUN Teacher created Resources 6USPUL[LHJOPUN Teacher created
resources resource resources resource
Text types 3 *YVZZ^VYKZ
Sound Dictionaries &
Video clips theasaurus
Animations Translators
0THNLZ Text chat
Hypermedia Forums
Blogs Feedback
Rss feeds Presentations
Lesson plans
*VYWVYH
Language games
Pronunciation
Speaking practice
Exercises
Wikis
*OHY[Z
Websites
Forums
4\S[PWSLJOVPJLX\PaaLZ
Video conferencing
.HWÄSS[L_[Z
Scorms
6YKLYPUNHUK
matching activities Tests
Jumbled sentences Screen captures
and words Screencastings
Social networking Podcasts
+L]LSVWPUN H ISLUKLK JV\YZL Z\JO HZ [OPZ OHZ YHPZLK H U\TILY VM PZZ\LZ YLSH[LK [V MV\Y KPќLYLU[
factors.
1. ;OL PUZ[P[\[PVUHS MHJ[VYZ PU]VS]L KLHSPUN ^P[O PU[LYUHS HKTPUPZ[YH[P]L WYVJLK\YLZ [OH[ HќLJ[ [OL
KLJPZPVU THRPUN VM ZWLJPÄJ HUK ]P[HS JOVPJLZ *VUZPKLY [OL MVSSV^PUN L_HTWSL! ÔLU UL^
teachers join the blended program, they may know how to teach using technology; however, due
to the demands of using more advanced techno-pedagogical procedures, more teacher training
PZYLX\PYLK;OLPUZ[P[\[PVUTHÙV[OH]LHZ\P[HISLZ\WWVY[HUKVYNHUPaH[PVUHSZ`Z[LTH]HPSHISL
to respond to this, so teachers have to deal with the new challenges by themselves.
2. ;OL[LHJOLYMHJ[VYZHYPZLÔLU[LHJOLYZHYLYLX\PYLK[VTLL[[OLKLTHUKZVMHISLUKLK[LHJOPUN
environment. Since the majority of teachers have been used to teaching in the traditional mode
HUK HYL UV[ ]LY` MHTPSPHY ^P[O \ZPUN 0*; [VVSZ ZVTL [LHJOLYZ MLS[ IV[O MY\Z[YH[LK HUK L]LU
V]LYÔLSTLKHM[LY\ZPUNISLUKLK[LHJOPUNWYHJ[PJLZ0U[OLISLUKLKWYVNYHTKLZJYPILKHIV]L
many teachers found themselves bewildered not only by the need to be technological literates
but also by the need to deal with the state-of-the-art techno-pedagogical content knowledge
YLX\PYLKMVY[OPZ[`WLVMJV\YZL
3. The teaching-factor issues relate to the need to develop a sound teaching model as well as a set
of principles to support blended language instruction. Philip Hubbard (2009) alleges that much of
the technology available to support language teaching has been “H[OLVYL[PJHS^P[OV\[HU`ZWLJPÄJ
theory or framework,” and when an attempt has been made to develop a theoretical basis for
the use of technology, there has been either a “simple theory borrowing ... without any changes”
from general education theory and teaching practices, or, “theory adaptation” where “Theory
PZ TVKPÄLK VY LUOHUJLK [V HJJVTTVKH[L [OL KPќLYLUJLZ PUOLYLU[ PU [OL JVTW\[LY ]LYZ\Z [OL
face-to-face environment¹0UV\YISLUKLKWYVNYHT[OL[LHJOPUNPZZ\LZHUKJOHSSLUNLZSPLTVYL
in the technological teaching side than the face-to-face one. Using technology and not having
crystal-clear boundaries for the roles of teachers, the instructional materials, teaching activities
and procedures certainly may have a negative impact on the program. Furthermore, as in any
other language teaching program, a comprehensive pedagogical theory and model will allow us
[VHJOPL]LNVVKISLUKLK[LHJOPUNWYHJ[PJLZ"[O\ZP[YLX\PYLZHUVUNVPUNL]HS\H[PVUVMISLUKLK
practices and procedures.
4. Finally, student issues hinge on learners becoming familiar with using technology as a
WV^LYM\SZV\YJLVMPUMVYTH[PVUHUKSLHYUPUN:VTLSLHYULYZMVYPUZ[HUJLTH`ÄUK[OLTZLS]LZ
JOHSSLUNLK I` UV[ VUS` [OL PUOLYLU[ KPѝJ\S[PLZ VM SLHYUPUN ,UNSPZO I\[ HSZV [OL ULLK [V ^VYR
out how to use technological gadgets and novel teaching procedures such as asynchronous
or synchronous learning.

As in any language program, assessment and evaluation procedures are a fundamental element
PU [OL ISLUKLK SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN J\YYPJ\S\T 0U [OPZ JV\YZL KPќLYLU[ MVYTH[P]L HUK Z\TTH[P]L
assessment procedures were implemented. Formative assessment procedures are used to monitor
students’ performance and to check or collect information on their linguistic or communicative
performance. For example, during the face-to-face sessions, informal assessment strategies are used,
LN PU[LY]PL^Z YVSL WSH`Z VIZLY]H[PVUZ JVTWYLOLUZPVU X\LZ[PVUZ L[J (UK VU [OL =3, WSH[MVYT
screenshots and screencasting procedures are used to provide feedback through images and video.
Summative assessment procedures are also used for evaluating the students’ learning at the end of
LHJOPUZ[Y\J[PVUHS\UP[!LNMVY[OLMHJL[VMHJLZLZZPVUZ¶^YP[[LUHUKVYHSX\PaaLZ¶HUKVUSPUL[LZ[Z
VYWYVQLJ[ZMVY[OL[LJOUVSVNPJHSJVTWVULU[:JYLLUJHZ[64H[PJ
Recording #80
Tuesday, 23 June 2013, 4:30 PM
>OLU0^HZVY`LHYZP[OHWWLULKILJH\ZL0»]L^HU[LKHZWLJPHS[VÌ\[T`WHYLU[ZZHPK56:V
ÔLU^L^LU[[V1\N\L[VU0[VVR[OL[V`HUKW\[P[PU[VT`WVJRL[HM[LY[OH[ÔLUWHYLU[ZOH]L
ÄUPZOLK[OL`[VSKTLJHTLVUZVÔLU0^HZWHZZPUNMVY[OLKVVY[OLHSHYTILNHU[VYPUNHUK[OL
N\HYKZJHTL[V\ZHUK[OL`ZHPKWLSHZL`V\YIHNZHUK`V\YWVJRL[Z[OLU0OHK[VSLH]LT`ZWLJPHS
[V`0[^HZ[OL^VYZ[[OPUN:PUJL[OPZKH`0OH]LUL]LY[HRLUHUV[OLY[OPUNVMV[OLYWLVWSL4`WHYLU[Z
thaught me about the honesty.
02:32 02:45
References
Hubbard, P. (ed.). 2009. Computer assisted language learning=VS0!Foundations of CALL*YP[PJHS
*VUJLW[Z PU 3PUN\PZ[PJZ :LYPLZ 5L^ @VYR! 9V\[SLKNL 9L[YPL]LK MYVT O[[W!^LIZ[HUMVYK
LK\eLMZJHSSJV\YZL*(33O[T
Jost Lema is a TESOL teacher and consultant in the School of Languages at the Catholic University
and the Army University ESPE in Quito, Ecuador. He has been interested in developing teaching
language procedures using technology and teaching a wide variety of ELT courses. Jost is currently
interested in researching about blended teaching and the use of technological apps and software
in the ELT classroom, and he has contributed a number of examples to 2L` 0ZZ\LZ PU 3HUN\HNL
Teaching by Jack C. Richards (Cambridge University Press, 2015).
6 CURRICULUM AIMS AND
OUTCOMES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter reviews the following approaches to planning aims and outcomes:
• Goal setting in backward design • Competencies

• Aims and objectives • Standards
• Learning outcomes • Process outcomes
Case study 10 Developing a course on discussion skills 4PJOHLS.YPѝU
Introduction
It was suggested in Chapter 2 that early planners of English language courses saw the purpose of
SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN HZ ZLSML]PKLU[ 0[ ^HZ Z\ѝJPLU[ [V Z[H[L [OH[ [OL NVHS VM H JV\YZL ^HZ [V [LHJO
English. However, Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the English for Special Purposes
(ESP) movement argued that this approach was inadequate and that in order to teach English it was
ULJLZZHY`[VÄUKHUZ^LYZ[VT\JOTVYLZWLJPÄJX\LZ[PVUZ!>OH[RPUKVM,UNSPZO&([ÔH[SL]LSVM
WYVÄJPLUJ`&(UKMVYÔH[W\YWVZLZ&5LLKZHUHS`ZPZZLLRZ[VWYV]PKLHUZ^LYZ[V[OLZLX\LZ[PVUZ
and situation analysis seeks to identify the role of contextual factors in implementing curriculum
change. In this chapter we will consider another crucial dimension of decision making in curriculum
planning: determining the goals and outcomes of a program.
Several key assumptions about learning outcomes underlie approaches to goal setting in language
teaching:
• 7LVWSLHYLNLULYHSS`TV[P]H[LK[VW\YZ\LZWLJPÄJNVHSZ
• ;OL\ZLVMNVHSZPU[LHJOPUNPTWYV]LZ[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN
• (WYVNYHT^PSSILLќLJ[P]L[V[OLL_[LU[[OH[P[ZNVHSZHYLZV\UKHUKJSLHYS`KLZJYPILK
These principles appear to be self-evident and uncontroversial, and most language programs have
clearly described statements of the learning outcomes the program seeks to achieve. However, it
is not always the case that goal setting is seen as unproblematic in teaching, as we will see later in
this chapter. In deciding on goals, planners choose from among alternatives based on assumptions
about the nature of language and the nature of teaching and learning, as we saw in Chapters 2
HUK-VYT\SH[PUNNVHSZPZUV[[OLYLMVYLHUVIQLJ[P]LZJPLU[PÄJLU[LYWYPZLI\[HQ\KNTLU[JHSS-VY
this reason, the nature of goals in the design of educational programs has aroused considerable
controversy and debate in the curriculum literature, and continues to do so. In this chapter we will
L_HTPULKPќLYLU[HWWYVHJOLZ[VNVHSZL[[PUNPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN
0U ÔH[ MVYTHYLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZKLZJYPILKPU`V\YZJOVVSVYPUZ[P[\[PVU&+V`V\YLMLY[V

[OLTPUWSHUUPUN`V\Y[LHJOPUN&
140
6 Curriculum aims and outcomes • 141
6.1 Goal setting in backward design

Describing learning outcomes is an essential aspect of backward design. There are a number of ways
in which these can be described, and in this chapter we will distinguish between aims, objectives,
SLHYUPUN V\[JVTLZ, and JVTWL[LUJPLZ. Descriptions of outcomes for use as planning tools in
curriculum development are developed from the information obtained from needs analysis and are
part of what we referred to earlier as a product approach to the curriculum.
The process of starting with a description of aims and outcomes is a well-established tradition in
curriculum design in general education; however, in recent years it has reemerged as a prominent
curriculum development approach in language teaching. As we saw in earlier chapters, it is sometimes
described as an as an LUKZ¶TLHUZ approach, as seen in the work of Tyler (1949) and Taba (1962),
ÔV]PL^LKPUZ[Y\J[PVUHZ[OLZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMLUKZHZHWYLYLX\PZP[L[VKL]PZPUN[OLTLHUZ[VYLHJO
them, a process which consists of a sequence of activities beginning with needs analysis, describing
objectives, selecting and organizing content (i.e., syllabus design), methodology, and assessment. As
Leung (2012, 161–162) comments:
In a large number of places such as Australia, the United States, and many parts of Europe, the
prominence of outcomes-based teaching in the past thirty years or so can be associated with
the wider public policy environments in which the twin doctrines of corporatist management
(whereby the activities in different segments of society are subordinated to the goals of the
state) and public accountability (which requires professionals to justify their activities in rela-
tion to declared public policy goals) have predominated.
The standards-based approach is part of the process of accountability and results-driven educational
change that is popular in many countries today. Hence in many countries, schools are increasingly
required to use criterion-referenced tests based on state or national standards, which are used as
benchmarks for achievement across the curriculum.
/HZ`V\YJV\U[Y`HKVW[LKHZ[HUKHYKZIHZLKHWWYVHJO[VJ\YYPJ\S\TWSHUUPUN&
In order to understand the ways in which aims and outcomes have been understood in language
J\YYPJ\S\T KL]LSVWTLU[ P[ ^PSS ÄYZ[ IL \ZLM\S [V JSHYPM` [OL KPќLYLUJL IL[^LLU aims (or NVHSZ),
objectives, SLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZ, and JVTWL[LUJPLZ.
6.2 Aims, objectives, learning outcomes, competencies

Aims
In curriculum discussions the terms NVHSZand aims are used interchangeably to refer to a description
of the general purposes of a curriculum, and objectives [V YLMLY [V H TVYL ZWLJPÄJ HUK JVUJYL[L
KLZJYPW[PVUVMW\YWVZLZ>L^PSS\ZL[OL[LYTZaims and objectives here. An aim refers to a statement
of a general change that a program seeks to bring about in learners. The most general statement
of the aims of a course is often part of a JV\YZLYH[PVUHSL – a brief description of the reasons for the
course and the nature of it. It seeks to answer the following questions:
• >OVPZ[OPZJV\YZLMVY&
• >OH[PZ[OLJV\YZLHIV\[&
• >OH[RPUKZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN^PSS[HRLWSHJLPU[OLJV\YZL&
The course rationale answers these questions by describing the beliefs, values, and goals that
underlie the course and which provide a succinct statement of the course philosophy for anyone who
may need such information, including students, teachers, and potential clients. Developing a rationale
also helps provide focus and direction to some of the deliberations involved in course planning. The
rationale is intended for any stakeholder who has an interest in the course. It serves the purposes of
(i) guiding the planning of the various components of the course, (ii) emphasizing the kinds of teaching
and learning the course should exemplify, and (iii) providing a check on the consistency of the various
course components in terms of the course values and goals (Posner and Rudnitsky 1986).
Below is an example of a course rationale:
&RXUVHWLWOH(σHFWLYH&RPPXQLFDWLRQ6NLOOV
This course is designed for working adults who wish to improve their communication skills in English
in order to improve their employment prospects. It teaches the basic communication skills needed
[VJVTT\UPJH[LPUH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[^VYRZL[[PUNZ;OLJV\YZLZLLRZ[VLUHISLWHY[PJPWHU[Z[V
YLJVNUPaL[OLPYZ[YLUN[OZHUKULLKZPUSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHUK[VNP]L[OLT[OLJVUÄKLUJL[V\ZL
,UNSPZOTVYLLќLJ[P]LS`[VHJOPL]L[OLPYVÛNVHSZ0[HSZVZLLRZ[VKL]LSVW[OLWHY[PJPWHU[Z»ZRPSSZPU
independent learning outside of the classroom.
Aim statements, then, provide a general description of the intended outcomes of the course. Their
functions are as follows:
• ;VWYV]PKLHJSLHYKLÄUP[PVUVM[OLW\YWVZLZVMHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHT
• To provide guidelines for teachers, learners, and materials writers.
• To help provide a focus for instruction.
• To describe important and realizable changes in learning.
-\Y[OLYL_HTWSLZVMHPTZ[H[LTLU[ZMVYH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[JV\YZLZHYLNP]LUILSV^
A primary school English course:
;VLUHISLJOPSKYLU[VJVTT\UPJH[LLќLJ[P]LS`PUIV[OZWLLJOHUK^YP[PUNPUL]LY`KH`ZP[\H[PVUZ[V
TLL[[OLKLTHUKZVMZVJPL[`
;VOLSWJOPSKYLUHJX\PYLNVVKYLHKPUNOHIP[Z[V\UKLYZ[HUKLUQV`HUKHWWYLJPH[LH^PKLYHUNLVM
[L_[ZPUJS\KPUN[OLSP[LYH[\YLVMV[OLYJ\S[\YLZ
;VKL]LSVWJOPSKYLU»ZHIPSP[`[VL_WYLZZ[OLTZLS]LZPTHNPUH[P]LS`HUKJYLH[P]LS`
A business English course:
;VKL]LSVWIHZPJJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZMVY\ZLPUI\ZPULZZJVU[L_[Z
(JV\YZLMVYOV[LSMYVU[KLZRZ[Hќ!
;VKL]LSVW[OLJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZULLKLK[VHUZ^LYHUKYLZWVUKHWWYVWYPH[LS`[VN\LZ[LUX\PYPLZ
A course in study-skills for university students:
;VKL]LSVWSPZ[LUPUNYLHKPUNHUKUV[L[HRPUNZRPSSZULLKLKMVYHJHKLTPJW\YWVZLZ
A course in English for tourism:
;VWYLWHYLZ[\KLU[Z[VJVTT\UPJH[LPU,UNSPZOH[HIHZPJSL]LSMVYW\YWVZLZVM[YH]LSHUK[V\YPZT
(JV\YZLPUYLHKPUNZRPSSZMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z!
;VYLHKH\[OLU[PJUVUZWLJPHSPZ[UVUÄJ[PVU[L_[ZPU,UNSPZO^P[OJVTWYLOLUZPVUHUKH[HYLHZVUHISL
ZWLLK
>OH[^V\SKHUHPTZ[H[LTLU[SVVRSPRLMVYHJV\YZLPUJVTWVZP[PVUMVYJVSSLNLZ[\KLU[Z&
Aim statements such as these are generally derived from information gathered during a needs
analysis. Aim statements, however, should not be confused with descriptions of the activities learners
will take part in. The following, for example, are not aims:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUHIV\[I\ZPULZZSL[[LY^YP[PUNPU,UNSPZO
:[\KLU[Z^PSSZ[\K`SPZ[LUPUNZRPSSZ
:[\KLU[Z^PSSWYHJ[PJLJVTWVZP[PVUZRPSSZPU,UNSPZO
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYU,UNSPZOMVY[V\YPZT
For these to become aims, they need to focus on the changes in the learners that will result. Consider
the following, for example:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V^YP[LLќLJ[P]LI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZMVY\ZLPU[OLOV[LSHUK[V\YPZT
PUK\Z[YPLZ
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VSPZ[LULќLJ[P]LS`PUJVU]LYZH[PVUHSPU[LYHJ[PVUZHUKOV^[VKL]LSVWIL[[LY
SPZ[LUPUNZ[YH[LNPLZ
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VJVTT\UPJH[LPUMVYTH[PVUHUKPKLHZJYLH[P]LS`HUKLќLJ[P]LS`[OYV\NO^YP[PUN
:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VJVTT\UPJH[LPU,UNSPZOH[HIHZPJSL]LSMVYW\YWVZLZVM[V\YPZT
>OH[PZ[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLU[OL[^VZL[ZVMHPTZ[H[LTLU[ZHIV]L&
Objectives
Aims are very general statements of the purpose or purposes of a program. They can be interpreted
PUTHU`KPќLYLU[^H`Z-VYL_HTWSLJVUZPKLY[OLMVSSV^PUNHPTZ[H[LTLU[!
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V^YP[LLќLJ[P]LI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZMVY\ZLPU[OLOV[LSHUK[V\YPZTPUK\Z[YPLZ
Although this statement provides a clear description of the focus of a program, it does not describe
[OL RPUKZ VM I\ZPULZZ SL[[LYZ Z[\KLU[Z ^PSS SLHYU OV^ [V ^YP[L VY JSHYPM` ÔH[ PZ TLHU[ I` LќLJ[P]L
business letters. In order to give a more precise focus to program goals, aims are often accompanied
I`Z[H[LTLU[ZVMTVYLZWLJPÄJW\YWVZLZ;OLZLHYLRUVÛHZVIQLJ[P]LZ(They are also sometimes

referred to as PUZ[Y\J[PVUHS VIQLJ[P]LZ or [LHJOPUN VIQLJ[P]LZ) An objective refers to a statement of
ZWLJPÄJJOHUNLZHWYVNYHTZLLRZ[VIYPUNHIV\[HUKPZKL]LSVWLKIÌYLHRPUNHPTZKVÛPU[V[OLPY
KPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[Z6IQLJ[P]LZNLULYHSS`KLZJYPILÔH[[OLHPTZLLRZ[VHJOPL]LPU[LYTZVMZTHSSLY
units of learning and provide a basis for the organization of teaching activities. They also describe
learning in terms of observable behavior or performance.
;OLHK]HU[HNLZVMKLZJYPIPUN[OLHPTZVMHJV\YZLPU[LYTZVMVIQLJ[P]LZHYLÄYZ[[OH[[OL`MHJPSP[H[L
planning: once objectives have been agreed on, course planning, materials preparation, textbook
selection, and related processes can begin. Secondly, they provide measurable outcomes and
thus provide accountability: given a set of objectives, the success or failure of a program to teach
the objectives can be measured. Thirdly, they are prescriptive: they describe how planning should
proceed and do away with subjective interpretations and personal opinions.
In relation to an aim such as :[\KLU[Z ^PSS SLHYU OV^ [V \UKLYZ[HUK SLJ[\YLZ NP]LU PU ,UNSPZO,
objectives such as the following could be described:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VMVSSV^HUHYN\TLU[[OLTLVY[OLZPZVMHSLJ[\YL
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VYLJVNUPaL[OLMVSSV^PUNHZWLJ[ZVMHSLJ[\YL!
JH\ZLHUKLќLJ[YLSH[PVUZOPWZ
JVTWHYPZVUZHUKJVU[YHZ[Z
WYLTPZLZ\ZLKPUWLYZ\HZP]LHYN\TLU[Z
Z\WWVY[PUNKL[HPSZ\ZLKPUWLYZ\HZP]LHYN\TLU[Z
From the example above, we can see that in order to prepare statements of learning outcomes
we need to have a clear understanding of the aspects of language use a course seeks to address;
in other words, we need to understand the nature of the content domain the course covers. For
example, what is understood by “communicative competence,” “listening comprehension,” “language
WYVÄJPLUJ`¹ ¸YLHKPUN ZRPSSZ¹ ¸HJHKLTPJ ^YP[PUN¹ VY ¸I\ZPULZZ ,UNSPZO¹& ;OPZ PU]VS]LZ HUZ^LYPUN H
U\TILYVMM\Y[OLYX\LZ[PVUZZ\JOHZÔH[RUV^SLKNLHUKZRPSSZKVLZLHJOKVTHPUPUJS\KL&>OH[
HYLP[ZJVTWVULU[Z&>OH[KVLZWYVÄJPLUJ`PU[OPZKVTHPUJVUZPZ[VM&
Statements of objectives usually have the following characteristics:
6IQLJ[P]LZKLZJYPILHUPU[LUKLKSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLIn writing objectives, expressions like ^PSSZ[\K`,
^PSS SLHYU HIV\[, ^PSS WYLWHYL Z[\KLU[Z MVY are avoided because they do not describe the result of
SLHYUPUNI\[YH[OLYÔH[Z[\KLU[Z^PSSKVK\YPUNHJV\YZL6IQLJ[P]LZJHUILKLZJYPILK^P[OWOYHZLZ
like ^PSSOH]L,^PSSSLHYUOV^[V,^PSSILHISL[V
6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SKILJVUZPZ[LU[^P[O[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THPT6US`VIQLJ[P]LZ[OH[JSLHYS`ZLY]L[VYLHSPaLHU
aim should be included. For example, the objective below is unrelated to the curriculum aim which states:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V^YP[LLќLJ[P]LI\ZPULZZSL[[LYZMVY\ZLPU[OLOV[LSHUK[V\YPZTPUK\Z[YPLZ
Faulty objective: ;OLZ[\KLU[^PSSKL]LSVW[OLHIPSP[`[V[HRLWHY[PUKPZJ\ZZPVUZ
Because the aim relates to writing business letters, an objective in the domain of discussion skills
does not correspond with this aim. Either an aim statement should be added to allow for this objective
or the objective should not be included.
6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SKKLZJYPILÔH[SLHYULYZ^PSSSLHYU[VKVHZHYLZ\S[VMPUZ[Y\J[PVU6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SK
focus on the learner rather than what the teacher will do. The following objective describes the
[LHJOLY»ZILOH]PVYYH[OLY[OHUHSLHYUPUNNVHS!
;VKL]LSVW[OLSLHYULY»ZJVUÄKLUJLPUZWLHRPUNHUKSPZ[LUPUN
And the following describes course content rather than learning outcomes:
;VWYV]PKLPUW\[PUYLHSYLSL]HU[HUKYLHSPZ[PJ,UNSPZO
6IQLJ[P]LZZOV\SKILWYLJPZL6IQLJ[P]LZ[OH[HYL]HN\LHUKHTIPN\V\ZHYLUV[\ZLM\S;OPZPZZLLU
in the following objective for a conversation course:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSRUVÔV^[V\ZL\ZLM\SJVU]LYZH[PVUL_WYLZZPVUZ
A more precise objective would be:
:[\KLU[Z^PSS\ZLJVU]LYZH[PVUL_WYLZZPVUZMVYNYLL[PUNWLVWSLHUKVWLUPUNHUKJSVZPUNJVU]LYZH[PVUZ
6IQLJ[P]LZ ZOV\SK IL MLHZPISL 6IQLJ[P]LZ ZOV\SK KLZJYPIL V\[JVTLZ [OH[ HYL H[[HPUHISL PU [OL [PTL
available during a course. The following objective is probably not attainable in a 60-hour English course:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VMVSSV^JVU]LYZH[PVUZZWVRLUIÙH[P]LZWLHRLYZ
The following is a more feasible objective:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSILHISL[VNL[[OLNPZ[VMZOVY[JVU]LYZH[PVUZPUZPTWSL,UNSPZOVU[VWPJZYLSH[LK[VKHPS`
SPMLHUKSLPZ\YL
The following objectives (adapted from Pratt 1980) from a short course on English for travel and
tourism designed to prepare students for travel in English-speaking countries illustrate the relationship
between aims and objectives:
&RXUVHWLWOH(QJOLVKIRU7UDYHODQG7RXULVP
(PT! To prepare students to communicate in English at a basic level for purposes of travel and tourism.
6IQLJ[P]LZ!
1. The student will have a reading vocabulary of 300 common words and abbreviations.
2. The student will have a listening vocabulary of 300 common words plus numbers up to 100.
3. The student can understand simple written notices, signs, and menus.
4. The student can understand simple questions, statements, greetings, and directions.
5. The student can get the gist of simple conversations in spoken English.
6. ;OLZ[\KLU[JHUWPJRV\[\UMHTPSPHYWOYHZLZMYVTJVU]LYZH[PVUZHUKYLWLH[[OLTMVYJSHYPÄJH[PVU
7. The student can use in speech 200 common words plus numbers up to 100 for time, quantity,
and price.
8. The student can use about 50 useful survival phrases, questions, requests, greetings,
statements, and responses.
9. The student can hold a bilingual conversation, speaking English slowly and clearly in simple
words.
10. The student can use and understand appropriate gestures.
;
OLZ[\KLU[^PSSOH]L[OLJVUÄKLUJL[VPUP[PH[LJVU]LYZH[PVUZPU,UNSPZOIL\UHMYHPKVMTHRPUN
mistakes, and attempt utterances outside his or her competence.
;
OLZ[\KLU[^PSSIL^PSSPUN[VSLHYUMYVTHUH[P]LZWLHRLY»ZJVYYLJ[PVUVMOPZVYOLYLYYVYZ
13. The student will have a “success experience” of making himself or herself understood in, and
understand, a foreign language.
The following example illustrates the goals of a spoken English course:
&RXUVHWLWOH(QJOLVKIRU6RFLDO&RPPXQLFDWLRQ
(PTZ!
• ;
V\ZL,UNSPZOMVYZVJPHSPU[LYHJ[PVU^P[OHWWYVWYPH[LHJJ\YHJ`Å\LUJ`PU[LSSPNPIPSP[`\ZPUN
appropriate norms of interaction.
• To initiate and maintain conversations on topics commonly used in social interaction
6IQLJ[P]LZ!
To develop skills in the following areas of conversation:
Using greetings, introductions, openings and closings in short conversation.
Making small talk as a part of social interaction.
Introducing topics in small talk.
Asking and answering simple questions about everyday matters.
Using back channeling and turn taking to maintain interaction.
<ZPUNJSHYPÄJH[PVUYLX\LZ[Z[VTHPU[HPU\UKLYZ[HUKPUN
Using narratives and personal recounts to relate past incidents and events.
(YL[OLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZPU`V\YJV\YZLZKLZJYPILKPU[LYTZVMIV[OHPTZHUKVIQLJ[P]LZ&
>LSSKL]LSVWLKZ[H[LTLU[ZVMVIQLJ[P]LZPUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUNHYLIHZLKVUHU\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OL
nature of the subject matter being taught (e.g., listening, speaking, reading, writing, business English,
academic essays), an awareness of attainable levels of learning for basic, intermediate, or advanced-
level learners, and the ability to be able to describe course aims in terms of logical and well-structured
\UP[ZVMVYNHUPaH[PVU6IQLJ[P]LZHYL[OLYLMVYLUVYTHSS`WYVK\JLKI`HNYV\WVM[LHJOLYZVYWSHUULYZ
ÔV^YP[LZHTWSLVIQLJ[P]LZIHZLKVU[OLPYRUV^SLKNLHUKL_WLYPLUJLHUKYL]PZLHUKYLÄUL[OLT
over time. In developing objectives, it is necessary to make use of a variety of sources, such as
KPHNUVZ[PJPUMVYTH[PVUJVUJLYUPUNZ[\KLU[Z»SLHYUPUNKPѝJ\S[PLZKLZJYPW[PVUZVMZRPSSLKWLYMVYTHUJL
PUKPќLYLU[SHUN\HNLKVTHPUZPUMVYTH[PVUHIV\[KPќLYLU[SHUN\HNLSL]LSZHZPZMV\UKPU[OL*,-9HZ
^LSSHZJOHYHJ[LYPaH[PVUZVM[OLZRPSSZPU]VS]LKPUKPќLYLU[KVTHPUZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL6IQLJ[P]LZJHUUV[
[OLYLMVYLILYLNHYKLKHZÄ_LK(ZPUZ[Y\J[PVUWYVJLLKZZVTLTHÒH]L[VILYL]PZLKZVTLKYVWWLK
because they are unrealistic, and others added to address gaps.
Learning outcomes
>OPSL IV[O HPTZ HUK VIQLJ[P]LZ KLZJYPIL SLHYUPUN W\YWVZLZ, it is sometimes useful to identify the
observable YLZ\S[Z of learning, that is the kinds of performance or language practices that the learner
JHUKLTVUZ[YH[LH[[OLLUKVMH\UP[VMSLHYUPUN>OH[JHU[OLSLHYULYHJ[\HSS`KV as a demonstration
VMÔH[OLVYZOLOHZSLHYULK&:[H[LTLU[ZVMSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZHYLOLUJLL_HTWSLZVM[OLYLHSPaH[PVU
of objectives expressed in the form of “can do” statements. Consider the following statements:
(PT!Students will learn how to understand lectures given in English.
6IQLJ[P]L! Students will be able to follow an argument, theme, or thesis of a lecture and write key
points in note form.
3LHYUPUNV\[JVTL! Students can watch a 10-minute TED talk and write accurately in note form, the
main points of the talk.
4PJRHU¶JSHYPÄLZ[OLYLSH[PVUIL[^LLUV\[JVTLZHUKVIQLJ[P]LZ!
The outcomes are based on objectives. They describe learners’ participation and progression
in a structured programme – what language practices learners will be able to take part in by
the end of a programme. Outcomes provide teachers and students with measures of progress
towards goals. For teachers they provide a standard for assessment or testing. For students
they provide a map, detailing interim progression, or milestones towards a goal, as well as a
sense of making progress as they experience achievement through participation in practices.
Below are some further examples of objectives and the learning outcomes that relate to them:
6IQLJ[P]L! Students will learn how to present information, ideas and feelings clearly and coherently in
spoken English.
:HTWSLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTL! Students can present a two-minute talk to the class, describing an

interesting thing that they did over the weekend and how they felt about it.
6IQLJ[P]L! Students will learn how to participate in social communication with people and manage the
opening and closing of short exchanges.
:HTWSLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTL! Students can take part in class role-play activities in which they greet
foreign visitors, ask and answer polite questions, and wish them well.
6IQLJ[P]L! Students will learn how to describe a process involving a sequence of events.
:HTWSLSLHYUPUNV\[JVTL!:[\KLU[ZJHUKLZJYPILPUÄ]LTPU\[LZOV^[VWYLWHYLVULVM[OLPYMH]VYP[L
dishes, including the ingredients and equipment used and the steps involved in making the dish.
>OH[TPNO[HSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLILMVY[OPZVIQLJ[P]L&
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[VL_WYLZZUHYYH[P]LZPUIV[OZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LU,UNSPZO
Competencies
The term JVTWL[LUJPLZ is also frequently used in describing aims and outcomes and is sometimes
used in a similar way to VIQLJ[P]LZ 0Z [OLYL H KPќLYLUJL& 6UL ^H` [OL` JHU IL KPZ[PUN\PZOLK PZ [V
use objective to refer to a purpose or learning outcome, and to use JVTWL[LUJPLZ to refer to the
TVYL KL[HPSLK RUV^SLKNL HUK ZWLJPÄJ ZRPSSZ ULLKLK [V HJOPL]L [OPZ V\[JVTL ;OH[ IV[O ZRPSSZ HUK
knowledge are included in competencies is seen in the following example:
(PT!;V[LHJO[OLJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZULLKLKMVYMYVU[KLZRZ[HќPUHOV[LS
:HTWSLVIQLJ[P]L! To learn how to conduct arrival and check-in procedures with arriving hotel guests.
:HTWSLJVTWL[LUJPLZ!
• Use appropriate greetings and welcoming remarks.
• (ZRHUKHUZ^LYX\LZ[PVUZHIV\[[OLJSPLU[»ZYLZLY]H[PVUHUKULLKZ
• Provide information on the rooms and their facilities.
If we now add a statement of a learning outcome it would be as follows:
;OLZ[\KLU[JHU[HRLWHY[PUHMV\YTPU\[LYVSLWSHÌL[^LLU[OLJSLYRHUKHN\LZ[^LSJVTPUN[OL
N\LZ[ÄUKPUNV\[HIV\[OPZVYOLYYLX\PYLTLU[ZHUKTHRPUNHYYHUNLTLU[ZMVY[OLN\LZ[»ZZ[H`PU[OL
OV[LS
Thus we can distinguish aims, objectives, learning outcomes, and competencies as follows:
Aim = a general purpose
Objective$HTVYLZWLJPÄJZ[H[LTLU[VMW\YWVZLZ
3LHYUPUNV\[JVTL$an example of what the learner can do as a result of mastering the objective
and the competencies
*VTWL[LUJPLZ = the knowledge and skills needed to achieve the purpose
>OH[ HYL ZVTL VM [OL JVTWL[LUJPLZ ULLKLK I` HU ,UNSPZO [LHJOLY ÔV \ZLZ VUS` ,UNSPZO
ÔPSLOLVYZOLPZ[LHJOPUN&
The following is an example of part of a curriculum described in terms of objectives, learning outcomes,
and competencies (adapted from 3VUL:[HY*VSSLNL,:63J\YYPJ\S\TN\PKL 2013–2014, 27–28).
(62/5HDGLQJ/HYHO
(PT! Students will learn to develop basic reading skills using materials based on concrete topics.
OBJECTIVES COMPETENCIES LEARNING OUTCOMES

Students learn how to apply Interpret ideas from articles, sim- Can demonstrate literal com-
literal comprehension read- ple short stories, and articles to prehension of short texts
ing skills. enhance meaning and understand- based on concrete topics.
ing.
Students learn how to read Read information texts, focusing Can identify the stated main
a variety of informational on key vocabulary, purpose, format, idea of a short passage on a
texts. main idea, and detail. familiar topic.
Can extract basic information

from simple illustrations such
as graphs and charts.
Students learn how to con- Relate ideas from experience, other Can write a response to a
nect reading across con- classes, personal knowledge, and reading by conveying an idea,
tents and experiences. media to texts read in class. opinion, feeling or experience.
The use of competencies as the basis for organizing a course are further discussed in Chapter 7.
6.3 Standards
A related approach to backward design is through the use of standards (also known as benchmarks,
JVYL ZRPSSZ WLYMVYTHUJL WYVÄSLZ HUK [HYNL[ JVTWL[LUJPLZ 3PRL JVTWL[LUJPLZ Z[HUKHYKZ HYL
KLZJYPW[PVUZVM[OLV\[JVTLZVY[HYNL[Z[OH[Z[\KLU[ZZOV\SKILHISL[VYLHJOPUKPќLYLU[KVTHPUZ
of curriculum content, including language learning. They describe the knowledge and skills of a
KPZJPWSPULZ\JOHZ,UNSPZOTH[OHUKYLHKPUNHUKYLÅLJ[ÔH[[OLWSHUULYZHUKZ[HRLOVSKLYZVMHU
educational system believe are the essential components of teaching and learning. The standards
describe in a general way the core content and skills students should master, and these form the
basis for program development, teaching, and assessment. Like competencies and objectives, they
do not prescribe any particular teaching approach or mode of course organization and delivery.
Their purpose is described as follows: “Education standards describe for all stakeholders (program
HKTPUPZ[YH[VYZ [LHJOLYZ HUK V[OLY ZJOVVS HUK KPZ[YPJ[ Z[Hќ WHYLU[Z Z[\KLU[Z LTWSV`LYZ HUK
policymakers) the goals, teaching and learning conditions, and expected outcomes of education
programs” (Young and Smith 2006).
Katz and Snow (2009, 67) describe the advantages that standards bring to curriculum planning:
Standards may be described as tools that can be used to improve outcomes. The kind of out-
comes desired depends on the goals for improvement – whether they target teachers, teacher
trainers, educational leaders, students, programs – and so on. The major benefit of standards
is that they set out clear expectations for all involved in the educational enterprise, including
the public. They provide a “common language” for talking about the process of teaching and
learning. For teachers and administrators, they provide guidelines for designing instruction,
curricula, and assessment.
(K]VJH[LZVMZ[HUKHYKZZ\JOHZ;VNUVSPUPHUK:[HUSL`HYN\L[OH[Z[HUKHYKZZOV\SKYLÅLJ[H
ZVSPK\UKLYZ[HUKPUNVM[OLJVU[LU[KVTHPU[OL`KLZJYPILLNYLHKPUNVYSPZ[LUPUN[OL`ZOV\SKYLÅLJ[
a sound account of how students learn, they should be clearly described as well and should aim to
HSPNU[LHJOPUNHUK[LZ[PUN;OLMVSSV^PUNL_HTWSLYLSH[PUN[V[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMYLHKPUNHIPSP[`VќLYZ
an idea of what standards may look like.
In reading, students will develop knowledge and understanding of:
• the relationship between texts and contexts;
• cultural reference in text;
• the relationship between purposes and structures of texts;
• language forms and features of texts.
:[HUKHYKZ HYL NLULYHSS` HJJVTWHUPLK I` TVYL ZWLJPÄJ ¸PUKPJH[VYZ¹ VY ILUJOTHYRZ [OH[ ¸KLZJYPIL
assessable, observable activities or behaviors that may be performed to show the standard is being
met” (Katz and Snow 2009, 67). These are often described in terms of competencies. The following
(adapted from Goh and Burns 2012, 180) is an example of a standard with related indicators in the
domain of oral language use:
:[HUKHYK! the learner can participate in casual conversation
0UKPJH[VYZ!
• Can use strategies to open and close conversations.
• Can initiate a topic in casual conversation.
• Can select vocabulary appropriate to the topic.
• Can give appropriate feedback responses.
• Can provide relevant evaluative comments through back channeling.
• Can take turns at appropriate points in the conversation.
• *HUHZRMVYJSHYPÄJH[PVUHUKYLWL[P[PVU
• Can use strategies for repairing misunderstanding.
• Can use appropriate intonation and stress patterns to express meaning intelligibly.
In the 4HZZHJO\ZL[[Z (K\S[ )HZPJ ,K\JH[PVU *\YYPJ\S\T -YHTL^VYR MVY ,UNSPZO MVY :WLHRLYZ VM
6[OLY3HUN\HNLZ(Massachusetts Department of Education 2005), standards for speaking skills are
accompanied by benchmarks that demonstrate expected progress over time in speaking:
Massachusetts (MA) Adult Basic Education Curriculum Framework for English for Speakers of Other
Languages and the National Reporting System
MA Speaking Standard 1: “Express themselves orally in English for a variety of purposes.”

Benchmarks
• S1.3a (NRS high beginning level): “Produce simple statements, providing more detail
without necessarily more complexity (e.g. a daily routine, a simple instruction, preferences,
and opinions).”
• S1.6a (NRS advanced level): “Express themselves on unfamiliar topics and/or in problematic
situations (e.g. giving information at the scene of an accident, talking to your child’s teacher).”
MA Speaking Standard 2: “Acquire vocabulary and apply knowledge of English language

structure and mechanics to produce comprehensible speech in English.”
Benchmarks
• S2.3c (NRS high beginning level): “Use basic grammatical structures with less reliance on
learned phrases (e.g. some irregular past verb forms and future tenses, prepositional phrases,
some conjunctions and contractions).”
• S2.6c (NRS advanced level): “Use most verb tenses and forms, including present perfect and
past progressive tenses.”
MA Speaking Standard 3: “Use a variety of strategies to acquire and convey meaning through
spoken English.”
Benchmarks
• S3.3c (NRS high beginning level): “Use conversation strategies to participate actively (e.g. turn-
taking, interrupting appropriately, attracting attention).”
• S3.6b (NRS advanced level) “Sequence and organize information for the listener (e.g. use of
more sophisticated transitional words and phrases such as, here’s another example; my point is;
in that case).”
(Massachusetts Department of Education 2005)
The use of standards in curriculum planning thus involves the following sequence of activities:
1. Identifying the domains of language use the learners need to acquire (e.g., reading, writing,
listening, speaking).
2. Describing standards and performance indicators for each domain.
3. Identifying the language skills and knowledge needed to achieve the standard.
4. Selecting teaching activities and materials.
Perhaps the most widespread example of backward design using standards in current use is the
*VTTVU,\YVWLHU-YHTL^VYRVM9LMLYLUJLMVY3HUN\HNLZ (CEFR), which is designed to provide a
“common basis for explicit description of objectives, content and methods of the study of modern
languages, within a wider purpose of elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines,
L_HTPUH[PVUZ[L_[IVVRZ»L[JHJYVZZ,\YVWL¹*V\UJPSVM,\YVWL0[KLZJYPILZZP_SL]LSZVM
achievement divided into three broad divisions, from lowest (A1) to highest (C2), that describe what a
learner should be able to do in reading, listening, speaking, and writing at each level.
Basic user – A1, A2
Independent user – B1, B2
7YVÄJPLU[\ZLY¶**
For example, the standards described for “conversation” in CEFR at levels B1 to C1 are described as
follows (Council of Europe 2001, 76):
Characteristics of conversation in the Common European Framework

C2 Can converse comfortably and appropriately, unhampered by any linguistic limitations in
conducting a full social and personal life.
C1 Can use language flexibly and effectively for social purposes, including emotional, allusive
and joking usage.
B2 Can engage in extended conversation on most general topics in a clearly participatory fash-
ion, even in a noisy environment.
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating
them or requiring them to behave other than they would with a native speaker.
Can convey degrees of emotion and highlight the personal significance of events and experiences.
B1 Can enter unprepared into conversation on familiar topics.
Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday conversations, though
will sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.
Can maintain a conversation or discussion but may sometimes be difficult to follow when
trying to say exactly what he/she would like to.
Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness, interest and indif-
ference.
(YN\TLU[ZTHKLPUZ\WWVY[VM[OLWYVÄJPLUJ`ZJHSLZVM[OL*,-9LN2HU[HYJPVNS\HUK7HWHNLVYNPV\
2012) account for their popularity by highlighting how they comprehensively describe the learning
V\[JVTLZ [OH[ SLHYULYZ JHU HJOPL]L H[ KPќLYLU[ SL]LSZ VM WYVÄJPLUJ` HUK Z[H[L [OLZL V\[JVTLZ PU
terms of what the learner JHU rather than JHUUV[ do, which can be motivating for learners. However,
^P[O *,-9 UV ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ HYL NP]LU MVY PUW\[ VY WYVJLZZ 0UKLLK P[ PZ [OL [LHJOLY»Z VY JV\YZL
KLZPNULY»Z YLZWVUZPIPSP[` [V ^VYR V\[ OV^ [OL V\[JVTLZ JHU IL HJOPL]LK HUK [V KL]LSVW [LHJOPUN
strategies and materials and content relevant to the context in which they are teaching. However, in
VYKLY[VOLSW[LHJOLYZHUKJV\YZLKLZPNULYZKV[OPZ[OL,UNSPZO7YVÄSLWYVQLJ[5VY[O"/HYYPZVU
and Barker 2015) is developing descriptions of the words, phrases, grammatical items, and functions
learners need to know and use at each level of the CEFR.
-\SJOLYWVPU[ZV\[[OH[HS[OV\NO[OLSL]LSZPKLU[PÄLKPUZ[HUKHYKZMYHTL^VYRZZ\JOHZ*,-9JHUUV[
ULJLZZHYPS` IL Q\Z[PÄLK LTWPYPJHSS` [OL` VM[LU OH]L WYHJ[PJHS ]HS\L PU [OH[ [OL` LUHISL SLHYULYZ [V
have a sense of progression from course to course or from year to year. Consequently, teachers and
TH[LYPHSZKL]LSVWLYZHYLMYLX\LU[S`YLX\PYLK[VTH[JO[OLPY[LHJOPUN[VZWLJPÄJSL]LSZVU[OL*,-9VY
V[OLYZJHSLZHUK[LZ[PUNPZZPTPSHYS`VM[LUSPURLK[V[OLZ[HUKHYKZ5\TLYV\ZZ[HUKHYKZKVJ\TLU[Z
and standards-based tests are available on the Internet. However, preparing statements of standards
can also be a valuable activity for teachers when they work together to develop standards for their
VÛJVU[L_[Z(Z-\SJOLYYLTHYRZ¸:[HUKHYKZL[[PUNPUHSVJHSJVU[L_[MVYJSLHYS`KLÄULK
purposes can be a focus of real professional development and curriculum renewal.”
6.4 Process outcomes

The discussion above has so far focused on the nature of learning outcomes from a backward-
design perspective, but outcomes objectives can also be considered from the process perspective
discussed in Chapter 1, an approach that makes use of what have been called “process objectives.”
In general education, these are associated with the ideas of Bruner (1966) and Stenhouse (1975) and
HYLHSZVYLÅLJ[LKPU[OL^VYRVM[OL*HUHKPHUJ\YYPJ\S\TZWLJPHSPZ[(VRPZLL7PUHYHUK0Y^PU
Bruner argued that the curriculum should focus less on the outcomes of learning and more on the
knowledge and skills learners need to develop. These include the concepts and procedures that
children should acquire through the processes of inquiry and deliberation. And Aoki, criticizing the
dominant ends–means and competency-based approaches to curriculum, saw it as a technical and
reductionist view of language:
To understand a second language – or for that matter, any language – as an objectified tool of
communication, as a language code, or as a linguistic structure may be technically correct. But
in my view, such an approach commits an unwarranted reductionism by transforming human
beings into things. What seems urgent is the recovery of the fullness of language.
(Aoki 2005a, 238)
Stenhouse argued that the curriculum should focus on activities that engage learners in such
WYVJLZZLZ HZ PU]LZ[PNH[PVU KLJPZPVU THRPUN YLÅLJ[PVU KPZJ\ZZPVU PU[LYWYL[H[PVU THRPUN JOVPJLZ
HUKJVVWLYH[PVU;O\Z/HUSL`L[HS PKLU[PÄLK[OLHPTZVMHJV\YZL[P[SLK¸4HU!(*V\YZL
of Study” as being:
• To initiate and develop in youngsters a process of question posing
• To teach a research methodology where children can look for information
• To help youngsters develop the ability to use a variety of firsthand sources as evidence
from which to develop hypotheses and draw conclusions
• To conduct classroom discussions in which youngsters learn to listen to others as well as

to express their own view
• To legitimize the search, that is, to give sanction and support to open-ended discussions
where definitive answers to many questions are not found
• To encourage children to reflect on their own experiences
• To create a new role for the teacher, who becomes a resource rather than an authority
>P[O[OPZHWWYVHJOP[PZZ\NNLZ[LK[OH[KL[HPSLKZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZPZUV[ULLKLK;OL
J\YYPJ\S\TZWLJPÄLZPUZ[LHK[OLJVU[LU[Z[\KLU[Z^PSSZ[\K`HUK[OLHJ[P]P[PLZHUKWYVJLZZLZ[OL`HYL
expected to engage in while studying the content.
>LYLMLYYLK[V[OPZLHYSPLYHZHULJVSVNPJHSHWWYVHJO. Tsui (2005, cited in Graves 2011, 168) contrasts
the ecological approaches with traditional product-based approaches by comparing the kinds of
questions a teacher might ask when considering these two approaches:
Product-based issues:
What linguistic forms do we want to teach?
How do we represent these items in the form of tasks or activities?
How do we get learners to use the target items to complete the tasks or activities, either
individually or in pairs/groups?
Are there any gaps between the target language structures/functions and those produced
by the students?
Process-based issues:
What opportunities are afforded for learners to participate in meaning making?
What kind of shared understanding needs to be established among the learners?
What kind of participation framework is being set up and what are the role configurations
for the group and for the individual learner over time?
What opportunities have been created by learners in the process of participation?
Both are legitimate and complementary questions. As Graves (2011, 169) observes: “The former type
VMX\LZ[PVUZHYLTVYLJVUJLYULK^P[OOV^ZWLJPÄJºPUW\[Z»ILJVTLVIZLY]HISLºV\[W\[»YH[OLY[OHU
with ways in which learners are themselves creators of meaning and collaborators in understanding
and extending it.”
As we noted in Chapter 1, a focus on process rather than product is also seen in Anderson
(2015), where it is recommended that teachers refer to “learning opportunities” in place of “learning
outcomes” in lesson plans to better capture a focus on potential learning processes rather than
[LHJOLY HPTZ >L[[L ZPTPSHYS` KLZJYPILZ H WYVJLZZVYPLU[LK HWWYVHJO [V J\YYPJ\S\T HZ
one that sees it as “an organic progression involving the weaving of disparate but interconnected
threads.” Both product-oriented and process-oriented objectives are sometimes found in national
curricula. For example, a description of objectives for a national secondary school curriculum in an
EFL country includes the following statements that can be regarded as process objectives:
;OLJV\YZLZOV\SKKL]LSVWZ[\KLU[Z»H^HYLULZZVM[OLSLHYUPUNWYVJLZZHUK[OLPYYVSLHZSLHYULYZI`
developing the following knowledge and skills:
• ways of organizing learning and dividing learning tasks into smaller sub-tasks
• familiarity with how to use reference works designed to assist them in independent learning (e.g.,
dictionaries, reference grammars, study guides)
• awareness of their own learning styles, and strengths and weaknesses
• MHTPSPHYP[`^P[O]HYPV\Z[LJOUPX\LZVM]VJHI\SHY`SLHYUPUNHUKPKLU[PÄJH[PVUVM[LJOUPX\LZ[OH[HYL
particularly useful to themselves
• H
^HYLULZZVM[OLUH[\YLVMSLHYUPUNZ[YH[LNPLZHUK[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLULќLJ[P]LHUKPULќLJ[P]L
strategies
• ability to monitor their own learning progress and ways of setting personal goals for language
improvement
/V^L]LY>PNNPUZHUK4J;PNOLWYVTPULU[HK]VJH[LZVMIHJR^HYKKLZPNUYLQLJ[[OLWYVJLZZ]PL^VM
learning outcomes, arguing that it fails to meet the criterion of good instructional design.
The error of activity-oriented design might be called “hands-on without being minds-on” –
engaging experiences that lead only accidentally, if at all, to insight or achievement … activity-
oriented curricula lack an explicit focus on important ideas and evidence of learning … [learners]
are led to think the learning is the activity instead of seeing that the learning comes from being
asked to consider the meaning of the activity … The shift, therefore, is away from starting with
such questions as “What book will we read?” or “What activities will we do?” or “What will we
discuss” to “What should [the learners] walk out the door able to understand [or do] regardless
of what activities or tests we use?” And “What is evidence of such ability?” and, therefore, “What
texts, activities, and methods will best enable such a result?”
(Wiggins and McTighe 2005, 16–17)
Conclusions
0U [OPZ JOHW[LY ^L OH]L L_HTPULK ZL]LYHS KPќLYLU[ ^H`Z VM KLZJYPIPUN [OL SLHYUPUN V\[JVTLZ VM H
JV\YZL;OLZLKPќLYPUIV[O[OLKLNYLLHUK[OLUH[\YLVMZWLJPÄJH[PVU[OH[[OL`THRL\ZLVMLN
whether described in aims, objectives, learning outcomes, competencies) and in the extent to which
they focus on product or process dimensions of the curriculum. Decisions about the kind of learning
V\[JVTLZ[OH[^PSSIL\ZLKPUHJV\YZLYLÅLJ[[OLUH[\YLHUKJVU[L_[VM[OLJV\YZL0U[OLJHZLVMHU
PUZ[P[\[PVUHSJ\YYPJ\S\TÔLYLHU\TILYVMKPќLYLU[[LHJOLYZTHÌL[LHJOPUNVU[OLZHTLJV\YZL
KL[HPSLK ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ VM V\[JVTLZ HYL \Z\HSS` YLX\PYLK [V LUZ\YL \UPMVYTP[` HJYVZZ [OL [LHJOPUN
program, to meet institutional requirements, to provide accountability to stakeholders, and to provide
H IHZPZ MVY JV\YZL KLZPNU TH[LYPHSZ KL]LSVWTLU[ HUK HZZLZZTLU[ >OLYL UV Z\JO YLX\PYLTLU[Z
are present (e.g., in a private institute with a constantly changing student population, which seeks to
ILJOHYHJ[LYPaLKI`P[ZÅL_PISLHUKJYLH[P]LHWWYVHJOLZ[V[LHJOPUNWYVNYHTNVHSZTHÌLZ[H[LK
very generally and more attention given to individual teacher choice and teaching approach, thereby
supporting a process-oriented approach to curriculum.
>P[OHIHJR^HYKKLZPNUHWWYVHJO[OLNVHSZVMHJV\YZL¶KLZJYPILKPU[LYTZVMHPTZVIQLJ[P]LZ
learning outcomes, or competencies – lay out a destination, but not the means to arrive at the
destination. It does not yet include a description of the language resources or items (e.g., grammar,
vocabulary, functions, text, skills) that need to be acquired in order to attain a particular outcome, the
sequence in which such items are best presented in a learning program, or the teaching methods that
will be made use of. Arriving at decisions of this kind is the focus of Chapters 7 and 8.
1. Give examples of aim statements that are appropriate for the following kinds of courses:
• A course for English in primary school.
• A course in listening skills for intermediate-level learners.
2. Rewrite the following aim statements so that they describe changes in learners:
:[\KLU[Z^PSSZ[\K`,UNSPZONYHTTHY
:[\KLU[Z^PSSPTWYV]L[OLPYWYVU\UJPH[PVU
3. 7YLWHYLÄ]LZHTWSLVIQLJ[P]LZYLSH[LK[V[OPZHPT!
:[\KLU[Z^PSSSLHYUOV^[V\ZLLќLJ[P]LVѝJLJVTT\UPJH[PVUZRPSSZPU,UNSPZO
4. /V^^V\SK`V\L_WSHPU[VHUV]PJL[LHJOLY[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLUHPTZVIQLJ[P]LZHUKSLHYUPUN
V\[JVTLZ&
5. Prepare some learning outcomes based on the objectives given for the English for Travel and
Tourism course, on pages 145–146.
6. Prepare descriptions of competencies required to perform the following activities that are part of
the target competencies of a program for English for hotel employees:
• Handling guest check-in at the hotel reception desk.
• ;HRPUNN\LZ[Z»TLHSVYKLYZPUHYLZ[H\YHU[͒
• Dealing with guest inquiries at a tour desk.
7. +V`V\HNYLL^P[O>PNNPUZHUK4J;PNOL»ZJYP[PJPZTVMWYVJLZZVIQLJ[P]LZVUWHNL&
8. 9LHK*HZLZ[\KÌ`4PJOHLS.YPѝUH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY>OH[^V\SKILZVTLZ\P[HISL
HPTZVIQLJ[P]LZHUKSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZMVY[OPZJV\YZL&
CASE STUDY 10 Developing a course on discussion skills

4PJOHLS.YPɉU
:KDWLVWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHFRXUVH"
0U[LYUH[PVUHS +PZJ\ZZPVU PZ H JV\YZL VќLYLK HZ WHY[ VM H NYHK\H[L ZJOVVS WYVNYHT PU 0U[LYUH[PVUHS
Studies at a South Korean university in Seoul. All courses in the program are conducted in English,
HUKZ[\KLU[ZJHUJOVVZL[VJVUJLU[YH[LVULP[OLY.SVIHS)\ZPULZZHUK-PUHUJLVY.SVIHS(ќHPYZHUK
Trade. There is a mix of nationalities in the program and around 50% of the students are South Korean.
:[\KLU[ZMYVTUVU,UNSPZOZWLHRPUNJV\U[YPLZPU[LYLZ[LKPUPTWYV]PUN[OLPY,UNSPZOÅ\LUJ`JHULUYVSS
PU [OL JV\YZL HZ VUL VM [OLPY [^V YLX\PYLK SHUN\HNL LSLJ[P]LZ >OPSL [OL 0U[LYUH[PVUHS +PZJ\ZZPVU
course encourages students to use knowledge gained in their other graduate school courses and
aims to make handling discussions in these other classes easier, there are no direct or explicit links to
V[OLYJV\YZLZPU[OL0U[LYUH[PVUHS:[\KPLZWYVNYHT;OL0U[LYUH[PVUHS+PZJ\ZZPVUJV\YZLPZHÅ\LUJ`
focused course organized around topics of interest and importance to the students. The class meets
once a week for three hours throughout a 16-week semester, and the class sizes are usually quite
small, ranging from three to eight students. There are usually two–three L1s in the class with Mandarin
and Korean being the most common. Students would typically be described as being somewhere
between intermediate and advanced.
:KDWDUHWKHJRDOVRIWKHFRXUVH"
The main goals of the course are to help students feel and be comfortable discussing big and small
[VWPJZPU[OL^VYSK;OLJV\YZLMVJ\ZLZVUÅ\LUJ`PU[LYTZVM[OPUNZSPRLWHJLHUKWH\ZPUNI\[HSZV
in the general sense of students conveying their ideas. There is also a focus on accurate usage and
“getting things right.” Additionally, there is an emphasis on conversation strategies and how to handle
TV]LZSPRLPU[LYY\W[PUNRLLWPUN[OLÅVVYI\`PUN[OPURPUN[PTLÔPSL[HSRPUNHUK[HRPUN[\YUZ-PUHSS`
[OL[LYTZHUKL_WYLZZPVUZYLSH[LK[V[OLZWLJPÄJ[VWPJZVMKPZJ\ZZPVUHYLHSZVHMVJ\Z
:KDWSODQQLQJZDVLQYROYHGLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
Since the course is organized around topics, a key question in planning is and was which topics to
include. A related question was how many topics to choose beforehand (and thus how many to have
the class choose as a group) and how then to sequence the topics.
Another key consideration in the planning of the course was how to introduce and include the
KPZJ\ZZPVUZ[YH[LN`LSLTLU[ZPU[OLJV\YZLHUKOV^[VTH[JO[OLT^P[O[OLZWLJPÄJ[VWPJZ;OPZPZZ[PSS
a work in progress. I usually have a menu of discussion strategies at the start of the course and then
KLJPKLÔPJOVULZ[VMVJ\ZVUIHZLKVUT`VIZLY]H[PVUVMZ[\KLU[Z»KPѝJ\S[PLZK\YPUN[OLJV\YZL
;OPZPZ[VZH`[OH[[OLKPZJ\ZZPVUZ[YH[LN`Z[YHUKVM[OLJV\YZLPZMHPYS`ÅL_PISLHUK[OLZ[YH[LNPLZHYL
UV[THYYPLK[VHU`VM[OLZWLJPÄJ[VWPJZ;OLZ[YH[LNPLZZ[YHUK[LUKZ[V[HRLVUHSPMLVMP[ZVÛPU
LHJOKPќLYLU[PUJHYUH[PVUVM[OLJV\YZLIHZLKVUZ[\KLU[Z»ULLKZHUKYLX\LZ[Z
+RZLVWKHFRXUVHRUJDQL]HG"
(ZHIV]L[OLJV\YZLPZVYNHUPaLKHYV\UK[VWPJZ6UL[VWPJPZMVJ\ZLKVULHJO^LLR(UH[[LTW[PZ
made to highlight and practice a discussion strategy each week as well.
The organization of the topics from week to week tends to go from smaller to bigger and from more
local to more global. After needs assessments and getting to know classmates, the topics at the
ILNPUUPUNVM[OLJV\YZLHYLYLSH[LK[VZ\Y]P]PUNHUK[OYP]PUNPU2VYLHHZHUVU2VYLHUKVZHUKKVU»[Z
for foreign visitors to Korea, and aspects of Korean culture that might be surprising or interesting to
non-Koreans. The focus gets more global and international and perhaps more serious with issues like
climate change, terrorism, and gender equality toward the end of the course.
I usually choose some topics before the course begins and set them in advance. This decision
PZ IHZLK VU [OL [VWPJZ» YLSH[P]L WLYJLP]LK YLSL]HUJL [V Z[\KLU[Z» SP]LZ ^P[O HU H[[LTW[ [V JOVVZL
topics that students might need to talk about in the near future but have not had much experience
discussing and would likely choose on their own if given the choice.
The weekly schedule is formed prior to the course with around 30% of the weekly topics listed as
“TBD” (to be decided). The negotiations on what topics should be selected as the main discussion
[VWPJZMVY[OLJV\YZLPZH[OLTL[OH[Z[HY[ZLHYS`PU[OLJV\YZLHUKJVU[PU\LZ\U[PS[OLLUK>L\Z\HSS`
end up choosing a few Korea-related topics as well as a few more international ones as a group. The
discussions on which topics to choose can provide opportunities to practice discussion strategies.
;OLÄUHSML^^LLRZVM[OLJV\YZLPUJS\KLPUKP]PK\HSS`Z[\KLU[SLKHUKJOVZLU[VWPJZÔLYLZ[\KLU[Z
are responsible for organizing and hosting the discussions. Students need not take the role of English
teacher or expert lecturing on a topic but instead simply host a discussion on a topic of interest.
:KDWWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJPHWKRGVGR\RXXVH"
0»KOH]L[VZH`[OL[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNTL[OVKZHYLZVTLZVY[VMHTHSNHTH[PVUIL[^LLU¸^LHR
form” Task-Based Teaching and Learning and strong form Communicative Language Teaching. The
teaching itself is generally materials-light. Students are asked to rank, rate, and construct arguments
and to ask and answer questions around the weekly topics. Students also participate in mini-debates
and role plays around the topic of the week.
In terms of a framework, I frequently employ something of a Task-Teach-Test framework where
students are asked to discuss certain aspects of the weekly topic before corrections and input on
language are made, and then students are asked to discuss things with a new partner and a slightly
KPќLYLU[[HZRVYHUL^MVJ\ZVMKPZJ\ZZPVU
>OLUZ[\KLU[ZHYL^VYRPUNPUZTHSSWHPYZHUKNYV\WZTVZ[VMT`[HSRPUNPZPUYLZWVUZL[V[OLPYPKLHZ
YH[OLY[OHUSHUN\HNL\ZL\USLZZHZWLJPÄJLYYVYVYTPZ[HRLPZWHY[PJ\SHYS`JVUM\ZPUNMVY[OLSPZ[LULYVY
PZZVTL[OPUN^LOH]LMVJ\ZLKVUK\YPUN[OLJV\YZL6ULVMT`NVHSZHZH[LHJOLYPZMVYZ[\KLU[Z[V
be speaking for the vast majority of the time spent in class. After the speaking-intensive blocks, we
have a language-focused block where errors, mistakes, questions, and confusions as well as useful
language are highlighted and examined.
:KDWLVWKHUROHRIPDWHULDOVDQGRWKHUUHVRXUFHV"
>L OH]L H JSHZZ ^PRP WHNL ÔLYL [OL VM[LUJOHUNPUN JSHZZ ZJOLK\SL HSVUN ^P[O YLMLYLUJL TH[LYPHS
and relevant links are shared. This page is also used for notes on English corrections and usage and
can act as a reference for students who might have missed class on a particular day. It is also a place
where articles or videos related to the discussions can be posted. Students have the ability to post
links, questions, responses, and anything else.
The classroom is equipped with a computer and projector, and the students or the teacher
VJJHZPVUHSS`THRL\ZLVM[OPZI`ZOV^PUNZOVY[]PKLVZPUJSHZZ;OLJSHZZYVVTPZLUHISLK^P[O^PÄ
and students almost always have smartphones, tablets, notebook computers, or some combination
of these. The most frequent uses of these tools is to look up a word (and maybe collocations) in
English, to share a picture of something related to the conversation at hand, or to fact check what
has been said in class.
There is no coursebook for the class. The main materials (aside from student-created material) tend
to be news articles or opinion papers about the topics of discussion. Sometimes there are readings
about the topic shared before the class. This is more common for topics that students express a lack
VMMHTPSPHYP[`^P[OSPRL5VY[OHUK:V\[O2VYLHUPZZ\LZMVYUVU2VYLHUZ[\KLU[ZVY;OL2VYLHU>H]L
for all students. These articles are all authentic in the sense that they were not created for students
of English. Most of the reading is simply for background information so that students can feel more
JVTMVY[HISLKPZJ\ZZPUN[OLZWLJPÄJ[VWPJZ:[\KLU[ZHYLHSZVLUJV\YHNLK[VKV[OLPYVÛYLHKPUNHUK
research in both English and L1 in preparation for the weekly topics.
;OL IPNNLZ[ KPѝJ\S[` MVY TL PU KL]LSVWPUN [OPZ JV\YZL WYVIHIS` JHTL [OL ÄYZ[ HUK ZLJVUK [PTLZ 0
[H\NO[[OLJV\YZLHZ0KPZJV]LYLKZ[\KLU[Z^LYLUV[HZPU[LYLZ[LKHZ0»KHU[PJPWH[LKHUKOVWLK[OL`
TPNO[ILPUKPZJ\ZZPUNWV[LU[PHSSÌPNJVU[LU[PV\ZHUKKHYRPZZ\LZ>OPSLZ[\KLU[ZHYLLUYVSSLKPUHU
English-medium graduate school and major in International Studies, not all students are interested in
delving into major and complicated issues each week in their English language classes as well. This
JOHSSLUNL^HZWHY[PHSS`TL[I`VќLYPUNHIP[TVYLJOVPJLPU[OL[VWPJZ[VILKPZJ\ZZLKHUKNP]PUNLHJO
Z[\KLU[[OL[HZRVMJOVVZPUNH[VWPJ[OL`»KSPRL[VILPUJOHYNLVMSLHKPUNHKPZJ\ZZPVUVU
Another interesting challenge has been the role of accuracy as well as the consideration of native-
speaker norms for the course. Students often express a desire to sound just like a “native speaker,”
though the broader educational context is very much an ELF one. This means that decisions need to
ILTHKLVUOV^Z[YPJ[[VILVUZSPWZ[OH[KVU»[PTWHJ[PU[LSSPNPIPSP[Ì\[HSZVVUOV^THU`PKPVTH[PJ
expressions to introduce in class. This also means that “native-speaker norms” relating to features
Z\JO HZ PU[LYY\W[PVUZ HUK [OL ÅV^ VM JVU]LYZH[PVU ULLK [V IL ZLYPV\ZS` JVUZPKLYLK ILMVYL ILPUN
introduced and emphasized as the best or proper way to organize and participate in discussions.
(ÄUHSJOHSSLUNLVYJVUJLYUPZ[OLJV\YZL»ZSHJRVMKPYLJ[JVUULJ[PVU[VZ[\KLU[Z»V[OLYJV\YZL^VYR
and English-speaking lives. These students speak, read, listen to, and write English a great deal
in their lives as graduate students in the International Studies program. However, the students do
not have much opportunity to receive feedback on how well they communicate their ideas (beyond
perhaps seeing the confused face of their interlocutors). This means that a balance must be struck
PU [OL JV\YZL IL[^LLU WYV]PKPUN VWWVY[\UP[PLZ MVY Å\LUJ` ^VYR HUK MVY HJJ\YHJ` ^VYR L]LU PM [OL
JV\YZLPZSPZ[LKHUKKLZJYPILKHZHÅ\LUJ`MVJ\ZLKJV\YZL
:KDWUROHGRHVDVVHVVPHQWSOD\LQWKHFRXUVH"
Continual and formative assessment plays a large role in the course, especially in terms of the day-
[VKH`KLJPZPVUZVM[OLPUZ[Y\J[VY(ZHIV]L[OLYLPZHSV[VMÅL_PIPSP[Ì\PS[PU[V[OLJV\YZLLZWLJPHSS`
for the discussion strategies, so students are continually assessed on these and attempts are made
to tailor the course to these needs.
Because of the very small class sizes, it is easy to hear students speaking for long periods of time
LHJO SLZZVU HUK [V ZLL [OL WYVNYLZZ [OL` HYL THRPUN ;OL IYLHRKVÛ VM Z[\KLU[Z» NYHKLZ MVY [OL
course is as follows: 20% for Class Participation; 25% Midterm Speaking Exams; 20% on Student-led
KPZJ\ZZPVUZ"MVY-PUHS:WLHRPUN,_HTZ"HUKMVY>LLRS`8\PaaLZ
;OL TPK[LYT HUK ÄUHS L_HTZ MVSSV^ [OL ZHTL MVYTH[ PU [OH[ Z[\KLU[Z HYL L_WLJ[LK [V [HSR ^P[O H
partner about a previously discussed topic selected at random for 10 minutes and to show they can
share their thoughts and opinions on the topic while involving their partner in the discussion. The
partners are switched after each 10-minute block.
I have experimented with various ways of measuring and scoring the classroom participation
aspect, including having students give themselves a weekly score, but at the moment it is a mix of
attendance and a subjective view of how active students were in class. Because of the small classes
and generally motivated students, most students get full marks in this category and those who are in
danger of not doing so are warned in advance.
The weekly quizzes are a chance to see what students think or have learned about the topic at
hand. The quizzes take the form of casual written responses, typically given at the end of class (but
sometimes at the start or middle), where students are often asked to explain something related to
a topic or to give their opinion on the topic. The weekly quizzes give me, as a teacher, a chance
[V ZLL IV[O ,UNSPZO JVUM\ZPVUZ HZ ^LSS HZ [OL Z[\KLU[Z» [OV\NO[Z VU H [VWPJ ;`WPJHS X\Pa MVYTH[Z
include, “A letter to a non-Korean friend about _____” “My thoughts on _____,” “Three things I learned
[VKH`¹¸;OLKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLUFFFFFHUKFFFFF¹HUK¸;OLILULÄ[ZHUKKYHÎHJRZVMFFFFF¹;OL
quiz can also act as a one-way channel of communication from the students to the teacher where
students give feedback on the course or ask English or course-related questions.
Finally, the student-led discussions are when students prepare the material and host a discussion on
H[VWPJVM[OLPYJOVPJL;OLZ[\KLU[Z»YVSLOLYLPZ[VJOVVZLH[VWPJ[OL`[OPUR^PSSILPU[LYLZ[PUNHUK
useful for their classmates and to be in charge of hosting a discussion for around 45 minutes. This is
scored on a rubric collaboratively decided on by students and the teacher.
4PJOHLS.YPѝUOHZILLU[LHJOPUNMVYHYV\UK`LHYZTVZ[S`PU5VY[OLHZ[(ZPHHUKVU[OL0U[LYUL[
/LPZJ\YYLU[SÌHZLKPU:LV\SÔLYLOL[LHJOLZTVZ[S`,UNSPZOH[*O\UN(UN<UP]LYZP[`;LHJOLY
[YHPUPUNHUKKL]LSVWTLU[PZIV[OHOVII`HUKHWHZZPVU/LPZHSZVPU]VS]LK^P[O
2,3;JOH[P;+PHUK
[OL5L^:JOVVS4(;,:63WYVNYHT4PRLISVNZH[O[[W!LS[YHU[ZYL]PL^ZYLÅLJ[PVUZ^VYKWYLZZJVT
7 COURSE PLANNING (1):
CONTENT-BASED, COMPETENCY-
BASED, TASK-BASED, AND TEXT-
BASED APPROACHES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter survey the following aspects of course planning:
• Determining the level of the course • Competency-based syllabus

• Choosing a syllabus framework • Task-based syllabus
• Content-based syllabus and CLIL • Text-based syllabus
Case study 11 Developing a content-based course Linsday Miller

Case study 12 A CLIL course: The Thinking Lab Science Rosa Bergadà
Case study 13 A pre-university course for international students in Australia Phil Chappell
Introduction
We suggested in Chapter 3 that the advent of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and the
English for Special Purposes (ESP) movement marked a paradigm shift in how teaching, learning,
HUKJ\YYPJ\S\T^LYL\UKLYZ[VVK;OPZJOHUNL^HZHSZVPUÅ\LUJLKI`[OLLTLYNLUJLVM[OLÄLSKVM
second language acquisition from the 1970s, from which cognitive, interactional, and sociocultural
theories of learning were proposed as alternatives to the behaviorist learning theory on which earlier
teaching methods such as audiolingualism were based. One of the outcomes of this shift was the
LTLYNLUJLVMHU\TILYVMPZZ\LZ[OH[PUÅ\LUJLKUL^KPYLJ[PVUZPUJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNU1HJVIZHUK
Farrell 2001, 2003; Richards and Rodgers 2014). Among these were the following:
• A view of language as a communicative resource that learners needed for social, occupational,
and educational purposes.
• An emphasis on learning as a social process that depends on interaction with others.
• A focus on authentic and meaningful communication as a basis for learning.
• A view of language as a resource for processing content and information.
• ([LUKLUJ`[VPU[LNYH[LKPќLYLU[ZRPSSZYH[OLY[OHU[LHJOPUN[OLZRPSSZZLWHYH[LS`
• A view of errors as a normal aspect of the language learning process.
• A move to teaching that seeks to activate and facilitate the use of learning processes and
strategies.
• .YHTTHY\UKLYZ[VVKHZHJVTWVULU[VMLќLJ[P]LJVTT\UPJH[PVUYH[OLY[OHUHZHUHIZ[YHJ[
system.
• A move from teacher-centered to learner-centered instruction.
160
7 Course planning (1) • 161
• (ULTWOHZPZVUKL]LSVWTLU[VMIV[OÅ\LUJ`HUKHJJ\YHJ`PUSHUN\HNL
• (YLJVNUP[PVU[OH[SLHYULYZKL]LSVW[OLPYVÛYV\[LZ[VSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNWYVNYLZZH[KPќLYLU[
YH[LZHUKOH]LKPќLYLU[ULLKZHUKTV[P]H[PVUZMVYSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN
• An idea of the role of classroom learning tasks and exercises as providing opportunities for
students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used,
and take part in meaningful intrapersonal exchange.
• A view of meaningful communication as the result of students processing content that is
relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging.
Choose one or two statements from the list above. What are the implications for classroom
practice?
-YVT [OL Z VU^HYKZ WYPUJPWSLZ Z\JO HZ [OLZL ^LYL \ZLK [V Z\WWVY[ H U\TILY VM KPќLYLU[
approaches to the design of language courses, syllabuses, instructional methods, and resources. In
this chapter we will review two kinds of decisions that are required in planning a course: determining
the level of the course, and choosing a syllabus framework.
7.1 Determining the level of the course

In order to plan a language course, it is necessary to know the level at which the program will start
and the level that learners may be expected to reach at the end of the course. This can be referred
to as the learners’ developmental continuum (Tognolini and Stanley 2011). In the past, language
programs and commercial materials typically distinguished between elementary, intermediate, and
advanced levels, but these categories are too broad for the kind of detailed planning that program
and materials development involve.
>OH[HWWYVHJOPZ\ZLKPU`V\Y[LHJOPUNJVU[L_[[VKLZJYPIL[OLKPќLYLU[SL]LSZVMHJV\YZL&
(UHWWYVHJO[OH[OHZILLU^PKLS`\ZLKPUSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTWSHUUPUNPZ[VPKLU[PM`KPќLYLU[SL]LSZVM
WLYMVYTHUJLVYWYVÄJPLUJ`PU[OLMVYTVMIHUKSL]LSZVYWVPU[ZVUHWYVÄJPLUJ`ZJHSL;OLZLKLZJYPIL
ÔH[ H Z[\KLU[ PZ HISL [V KV H[ KPќLYLU[ Z[HNLZ VM ZLJVUK SHUN\HNL KL]LSVWTLU[ ;VNUVSPUP HUK
Stanley (2011, 28–29) comment:
Many countries have now defined continua for the various subjects in terms of learning out-
comes. These outcomes typically describe what students can know and do at different stages
along the continuum. These outcomes are usually contained in syllabus documents or frame-
works and provide the basis for the development of the teaching and learning sequence and
activity (including assessment) within the subject … Generally the developmental continua
are partitioned into levels, stages, bands or grade. The grades have descriptors … that try to
capture the skills, understanding and knowledge that students have at different stages along
the developmental continuum for the subject.
(UL_HTWSLVM[OL\ZLVMWYVÄJPLUJ`KLZJYPW[PVUZPUSHYNLZJHSLWYVNYHTWSHUUPUN^HZ[OLHWWYVHJO
used in the Australian Migrant Education On-Arrival Program.
In order to ensure that a language program is coherent and systematically moves learners
along the path towards that level of proficiency they require, some overall perspective of
the development path is required. This resulted … in the development of the Australian
Second Language Proficiency Ratings (ASLPR). The ASLPR defines levels of second language
proficiency as nine (potentially 12) points along the path from zero to native-like proficiency.
The definitions provide detailed descriptions of language behavior in all four macro-skills and
allow the syllabus developer to perceive how a course at any level fits into the total pattern of
proficiency development.
(Ingram 1982, 66)
Similarly, in the United States the American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages (ACTFL) has
W\ISPZOLKWYVÄJPLUJ`N\PKLSPULZPU[OLMVYTVM¸BHDZLYPLZVMKLZJYPW[PVUZVMWYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSZMVYZWLHRPUN
listening, reading, writing, and culture in a foreign language. These guidelines represent a graduated
sequence of steps that can be used to structure a foreign language program” (Liskin-Gasparro 1984,
11). The (*;-3 7YVÄJPLUJ` .\PKLSPULZ have been widely promoted as a framework for organizing
curricula and as a basis for the assessment of foreign language ability. (See the information from the
¸.LULYHS WYLMHJL¹ ILSV^ HUK (WWLUKP_ MVY [OL (*;-3 7YVÄJPLUJ` .\PKLSPULZ – Speaking.)
)HUK KLZJYPW[VYZ Z\JO HZ [OVZL \ZLK PU [OL 0,3;: L_HTPUH[PVUZ VY [OL <*3,:9:( *LY[PÄJH[L PU
Communicative Skills in English (Weir 1990, 149–179) can also be used as a basis for planning learner
entry and exit levels in a program. (See Appendix 2 for an example of performance levels in Writing.)
General preface to the ACTFL Proficiency Guidelines 2012
;OL(*;-37YVÄJPLUJ`.\PKLSPULZHYLHKLZJYPW[PVUVMÔH[PUKP]PK\HSZJHUKV^P[OSHUN\HNLPU
terms of speaking, writing, listening, and reading in real-world situations in a spontaneous and
UVUYLOLHYZLK JVU[L_[ -VY LHJO ZRPSS [OLZL N\PKLSPULZ PKLU[PM` Ä]L THQVY SL]LSZ VM WYVÄJPLUJ`!
+PZ[PUN\PZOLK :\WLYPVY (K]HUJLK 0U[LYTLKPH[L HUK 5V]PJL ;OL THQVY SL]LSZ (K]HUJLK
Intermediate, and Novice are subdivided into High, Mid, and Low sublevels. The levels of the
(*;-3.\PKLSPULZKLZJYPIL[OLJVU[PU\\TVMWYVÄJPLUJ`MYVT[OH[VM[OLOPNOS`HY[PJ\SH[L^LSS
educated language user to a level of little or no functional ability.
;OLZL.\PKLSPULZWYLZLU[[OLSL]LSZVMWYVÄJPLUJ`HZYHUNLZHUKKLZJYPILÔH[HUPUKP]PK\HSJHU
and cannot do with language at each level, regardless of where, when, or how the language was
acquired. Together these levels form a hierarchy in which each level subsumes all lower levels.
The Guidelines are not based on any particular theory, pedagogical method, or educational
curriculum. They neither describe how an individual learns a language nor prescribe how an
individual should learn a language, and they should not be used for such purposes. They are an
instrument for the evaluation of functional language ability.
(ACTFL 2012)
Since the widespread adoption of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR), courses and tests are often referenced to the CEFR band levels in many countries. These
describe six levels of achievement divided into three broad divisions from lowest (A1) to highest (C2)
and, as we have explained elsewhere, outline what a learner should be able to do in reading, listening,
speaking, and writing at each level.
Basic user – A1, A2
Independent user – B1, B2
7YVÄJPLU[\ZLY¶**
Planning a course at an appropriate level may involve the use of students’ results on international
WYVÄJPLUJ`[LZ[ZZ\JOHZ[OL;LZ[VM,UNSPZOHZH-VYLPNU3HUN\HNL;6,-3VY0U[LYUH[PVUHS,UNSPZO
Language Testing System (IELTS). Self-assessment by the learners themselves can also play a role
(see below), as can specially designed tests, which can be used to determine the level of students’
SHUN\HNL ZRPSSZ 0UMVYTH[PVU MYVT WYVÄJPLUJ` [LZ[Z ^PSS LUHISL [OL [HYNL[ SL]LS VM [OL WYVNYHT [V IL
HZZLZZLKHUKHKQ\Z[TLU[VM[OLWYVNYHT»ZVIQLJ[P]LZTHÌLYLX\PYLKPMYLZ\S[ZHWWLHY[VZ\NNLZ[
that the program is aimed at too high or too low a level.
The role of learner self-assessment
3LHYULYZJHUHSZVILPU]VS]LKPUHZZLZZPUN[OLPYVÛWYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSZPUKPќLYLU[ZRPSSHYLHZ
The NCSSFL-ACTFL Can-Do Statements are self-assessment checklists used by language
SLHYULYZ [V HZZLZZ ÔH[ [OL` ¸JHU KV¹ ^P[O SHUN\HNL PU [OL 0U[LYWLYZVUHS 0U[LYWYL[P]L HUK
7YLZLU[H[PVUHS TVKLZ VM JVTT\UPJH[PVU ;OLZL TVKLZ VM JVTT\UPJH[PVU HYL KLÄULK PU [OL
5H[PVUHS:[HUKHYKZMVYZ[*LU[\Y`3HUN\HNL3LHYUPUN and organized in the checklist into the
following categories:
• Interpersonal (Person-to-Person) Communication
• Presentational Speaking (Spoken Production)
• Presentational Writing (Written Production)
• Interpretive Listening
• Interpretive Reading
Ultimately, the goal for all language learners is to develop a functional use of another language for
one’s personal contexts and purposes. The Can-Do Statements serve two purposes to advance
this goal: for programs, the statements provide learning targets for curriculum and unit design,
serving as performance indicators; for language learners, the statements provide a way to chart
their progress through incremental steps. The checklists are best used by learners and learning
MHJPSP[H[VYZHZWHY[VMHUV]LYHSSYLÅLJ[P]LSLHYUPUNWYVJLZZ[OH[PUJS\KLZ!
• setting goals
• selecting strategies
• self-assessing
• providing evidence
• YLÅLJ[PUNILMVYLZL[[PUNUL^NVHSZ
The more learners are engaged in their own learning process, the more intrinsically motivated
they become. Research shows that the ability of language learners to set goals is linked to
PUJYLHZLKZ[\KLU[TV[P]H[PVUSHUN\HNLHJOPL]LTLU[HUKNYV^[OPUWYVÄJPLUJ`
(NCSSFL-ACTFL 2012)
Do you think learners can give a reliable description of their own second language abilities?
7.2 Choosing a syllabus framework

The question of a syllabus framework for a course is probably the most basic issue in course design.
.P]LU [OH[ H JV\YZL OHZ [V IL KL]LSVWLK [V HKKYLZZ H ZWLJPÄJ ZL[ VM ULLKZ HUK [V JV]LY H NP]LU
ZL[VMVIQLJ[P]LZHUKSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZÔH[^PSS[OLZ`SSHI\ZHUKJVU[LU[VM[OLJV\YZLSVVRSPRL&
+LJPZPVUZHIV\[Z`SSHI\ZHUKJV\YZLJVU[LU[YLÅLJ[[OLWSHUULYZ»HZZ\TW[PVUZHIV\[[OLUH[\YLVM
language, language use, and language learning, about what the most essential elements or units of
SHUN\HNLHYLHUKOV^[OLZLJHUILVYNHUPaLKHZHULѝJPLU[IHZPZMVYZLJVUKSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN
Macro- and micro-level strands in a syllabus

There will always be several layers or strands of organization in a course, and some will be more central
than others, depending on the nature of the course. For example, a writing course could potentially
be planned around any of the following units of organization: grammar (e.g., using the present tense
in descriptions), functions (e.g., describing likes and dislikes), topics (e.g., writing about world issues),
skills (e.g., developing topic sentences), processes (e.g., using prewriting strategies), tasks (e.g.,
summarizing a spoken lecture), or texts (e.g., writing a business letter). Similarly, a speaking course
could be organized around text types (small talk, conversation, interviews, discussions), functions
(expressing opinions), interaction skills (opening and closing conversations, turn taking), topics
J\YYLU[HќHPYZI\ZPULZZ[VWPJZ+LJPZPVUZHIV\[HZ\P[HISLZ`SSHI\ZMYHTL^VYRMVYHJV\YZLYLÅLJ[
KPќLYLU[WYPVYP[PLZPU[LHJOPUNYH[OLY[OHUHIZVS\[LJOVPJLZ;OLPZZ\LPZÔPJOMVJP^PSSILJLU[YHSPU
planning the syllabus and which will be secondary? In most courses there will generally be a number
VMKPќLYLU[Z`SSHI\ZZ[YHUKZZ\JOHZgrammar linked to skills and texts, tasks linked to topics and
functions, or skills linked to topics and texts.
>OH[HYLZVTLKPќLYLU[^H`ZPUÔPJO[OLZ`SSHI\ZMVYHYLHKPUNJV\YZLJV\SKILVYNHUPaLK&
In making decisions about syllabus strands, it is therefore useful to distinguish between main or
macro and supportiveVYTPJYVZ[YHUKZPUHZ`SSHI\Z+PќLYLU[Z`SSHI\ZZ[YHUKZZ\JOHZ[L_[Z[HZRZ
NYHTTHYJVU[LU[M\UJ[PVUZHUKZRPSSZJHUILYLNHYKLKHZ[OLI\PSKPUNISVJRZVMHJV\YZLHUKQ\Z[
HZPUJYLH[PUNHI\PSKPUN[OLISVJRZJHUILW\[[VNL[OLYPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZHUK\Z\HSS`HSSVM[OLTHYL
necessary at some stage in the construction process. A course which is built around multiple syllabus
strands is said to be based on an integrated syllabus, which is the approach used in most general
English adult and young-adult courses today. However, sometimes one syllabus strand will be used
as the overall planning framework for the course, that is, at the macro level of organization, and others
will be used as a minor or supportive strand of the course, that is, at the micro level.
-VY L_HTWSL H YLHKPUN JV\YZL TPNO[ ÄYZ[ IL WSHUULK PU [LYTZ VM reading skills (the macro-level
planning category) and then further planned in terms of text types, vocabulary, and grammar (the
TPJYV SL]LS ( SPZ[LUPUN JV\YZL TPNO[ IL VYNHUPaLK ÄYZ[ PU [LYTZ VM skills, such as listening for key
words, listening for details, listening for topics at the macro level; once this level of planning has been
completed, decisions may be made about text types, topics, and vocabulary. In practical terms,
[OLYLMVYLHSSZ`SSHI\ZLZYLÅLJ[ZVTLKLNYLLVMPU[LNYH[PVUVMTHJYVHUKTPJYVSL]LSZVMVYNHUPaH[PVU
;HISLZOV^ZKPќLYLU[VW[PVUZMVYH^YP[PUNJV\YZL^P[OKPќLYLU[Z`SSHI\Z\UP[ZHZ[OLTHJYVHUK
micro-level syllabus strands.
Table 7.1 Macro and micro levels of course organization

MACRO LEVEL MICRO LEVEL
Option 1 Skills Text types
Grammar
Composing processes
Option 2 Text types Skills
Topics
Grammar
Option 3 Composing processes Text types
Grammar
Vocabulary
As language teaching has moved from grammar-based approaches to teaching to communicative

and performance-based approaches, the commonest macro-level units of organization are content,
texts, tasks, and competencies, while other organizational units such as strategies, micro-skills,
grammar, functions, and vocabulary are more typically regarded as micro-level units in a course or
Z`SSHI\Z0U[OPZJOHW[LY^L^PSSYL]PL^[OLMV\YTHQVYZ`SSHI\ZMYHTL^VYRZJ\YYLU[S`\ZLKPUSHUN\HNL
course design – content-based, competency-based, task-based, and text-based approaches. Other
syllabus types are discussed in Chapter 8.
7.3 Content-based syllabus and CLIL

A prominent current approach to course and syllabus design worldwide is known as Content-
Based Instruction or CBI and Content and Language Integrated Learning or CLIL. Content refers to
[OL PUMVYTH[PVU VY Z\IQLJ[ TH[[LY [OH[ ^L SLHYU VY JVTT\UPJH[L [OYV\NO SHUN\HNL YH[OLY [OHU [OL
language used to convey it. Of course, any language lesson involves content, whether it is a grammar
lesson, a reading lesson, or any other kind of lesson. Content of some sort has to be the vehicle that
holds the lesson or the exercise together, but in traditional approaches to language teaching, content
is selected after other decisions have been made. In other words grammar, texts, skills, functions,
etc. are the starting point in planning the lesson or the coursebook at the macro level, and after
these decisions have been made, content is selected. So, for example, a grammatical item such as
¸WYLZLU[WLYMLJ[¹THÒH]LÄYZ[ILLUJOVZLUHZ[OLMVJ\ZVMHSLZZVUHUKMVSSV^PUN[OPZKLJPZPVU[OL
teacher makes decisions about the kinds of topics or content to use to practice the present perfect.
>P[OHJVU[LU[IHZLKHWWYVHJOKLJPZPVUZHIV\[JVU[LU[HYLTHKLÄYZ[HUKV[OLYRPUKZVMKLJPZPVUZ
concerning grammar, skills, functions, etc. are made later. CBI and CLIL both use content as the
starting point in syllabus planning. As Stryker and Leaver comment (2004, 6):
The fundamental organization of the curriculum is derived from the subject matter, rather
than from forms, functions, situations, or skills. Communicative competence is acquired
during the process of learning about specific topics such as math, science, art, social studies,
culture, business, history, political systems, international affairs, or economics.
However, CBI and CLIL do not assume a particular teaching methodology, since a content-based
HWWYVHJOPZJVTWH[PISL^P[OH]HYPL[`VMKPќLYLU[[LHJOPUNTL[OVKZ*YHUKHSSZ\NNLZ[Z
the following kinds of materials, a description that also applies to the role of materials in CLIL:
Materials for developing the curriculum and planning CBI lessons include the use of both
authentic and adapted oral and written subject matter materials (textbooks, audio and visual
materials, and other learning materials) that are motivating and appropriate to the cognitive
and language proficiency level of the learners or that can be made accessible through bridging
activities … These activities include the use of demonstrations, visuals, charts, graphic
organizers and outlines, breaking down information into smaller chunks, pre-teaching
vocabulary, and establishing background information.
Content-based approaches are based on the following assumptions about language learning:
• People learn a language more successfully when they use the language as a means of acquiring
information, rather than as an end in itself.
• ;LHJOPUNSHUN\HNL[OYV\NOJVU[LU[IL[[LYYLÅLJ[ZSLHYULYZ»ULLKZMVYSLHYUPUNHZLJVUK
language because it provides a link to the real world.
• Content provides a coherent framework that can be used to link and develop all of the language
skills.
• Content can be used as the framework for a unit of work, as the guiding principle for an entire
course, as a course that prepares students for mainstreaming, as the rationale for the use of
,UNSPZOHZHTLKP\TMVY[LHJOPUNZVTLZJOVVSZ\IQLJ[ZPUHU,-3ZL[[PUNHUKHZ[OLMYHTL^VYR
for commercial EFL/ESL materials.
What kinds of content are your learners most interested in?
While the term Content-Based Instruction has been commonly used to describe programs based on
the assumptions about language learning described above, particularly in North America, in Europe
[OLHWWYVHJOPZRUVÛHZ*303;OL[^VHWWYVHJOLZKPќLYZSPNO[S`PUMVJ\Z)V[O*)0HUK*303HYL
part of a growing trend in many parts of the world to use English as a medium of instruction (Graddol
2006). They have features in common, but they are not identical. CBI often involves a language
teacher teaching content through English, a language teacher working with a content teacher to
co-teach a course, or a content teacher designing and teaching a course for ESL learners. CLIL
often involves a content teacher teaching content through a second or foreign language, as does
*)0I\[TH`HSZVPU]VS]LJVU[LU[MYVTZ\IQLJ[ZILPUN\ZLKPUSHUN\HNLJSHZZLZ;OH[PZ[OL*303
curriculum may originate in the content class, whereas CBI tends to have as its starting point the
language requirements of a content lesson. So a CLIL lesson may start with the science teacher
HZRPUN[OLX\LZ[PVU¸/V^JHU0[LHJOHTVK\SLVUL]HWVYH[PVU[OYV\NO,UNSPZO&¹ÔPSLH*)0SLZZVU
TH`Z[HY[^P[O[OLX\LZ[PVU¸>OH[SHUN\HNL^PSSILULLKLK[V^YP[LHIV\[[OLWYVJLZZVML]HWVYH[PVU
in a science lesson?”
CBI emerged somewhat organically, advocated by a number of academics and educators supported
by an extensive literature produced over a considerable period of time in the United States and other
WHY[Z VM [OL ^VYSK I\[ ^P[OV\[ HU` MVYT VM VѝJPHS ZHUJ[PVU *303 VU [OL V[OLY OHUK ^HZ VѝJPHSS`
proposed in a European Commission policy paper in which member states were encouraged to
develop teaching in schools through the medium of more than one language (Richards and Rodgers
2014). CLIL has been widely circulated within member states of the European community since 1994
HUK OHZ ILJVTL I` KLJYLL ¸[OL JVYL PUZ[Y\TLU[ MVY HJOPL]PUN WVSPJ` HPTZ KPYLJ[LK H[ JYLH[PUN H
T\S[PSPUN\HS WVW\SH[PVU PU ,\YVWL¹ +HS[VU7\ќLY ;OPZ PZ ILJH\ZL *303 ^HZ KL]LSVWLK [V
help promote English language skills for those who will use English as a lingua franca.
Examples of content-based courses

CBI can be used as the framework for a unit of work, as the guiding principle for an entire course,
as a course that prepares students for mainstreaming, as the rationale for the use of English as a
TLKP\TMVY[LHJOPUNZVTLZJOVVSZ\IQLJ[ZPUHU,-3ZL[[PUNHUKHZ[OLMYHTL^VYRMVYJVTTLYJPHS
,-3,:3TH[LYPHSZ;OLZLHYLKPZJ\ZZLKIYPLÅ`PU[\YUILSV^
As the framework for a unit of work. CBI need not be the framework for an entire curriculum but
JHUIL\ZLKPUJVUQ\UJ[PVU^P[OHU`[`WLVMJ\YYPJ\S\T-VYL_HTWSLPUHI\ZPULZZJVTT\UPJH[PVU
course a teacher may prepare a unit of work on the theme of sales and marketing. The teacher, in
JVUQ\UJ[PVU^P[OHZHSLZHUKTHYRL[PUNZWLJPHSPZ[ÄYZ[PKLU[PÄLZRL`[VWPJZHUKPZZ\LZPU[OLHYLHVM
sales and marketing to provide the framework for the course. A variety of lessons are then developed
focusing on reading, oral presentation skills, group discussion, grammar, and report writing, all of
which are developed out of the themes and topics which form the basis of the course.
As the guiding principle for an entire course. Evans (2006) developed a content-based Animal
0ZZ\LZJV\YZLMVYHU,UNSPZOWYVNYHTH[H1HWHULZL\UP]LYZP[`;OLJV\YZL¸HPTLK[VYHPZLZ[\KLU[Z»
awareness of serious animal issues, deepen their knowledge about such issues, and promote the
development of critical thinking skills transferable to other courses and their nonacademic lives.” The
topics and activities used are presented in Table 7.2.
7.2 Topics and activities for a course on Animal Issues

CONTENT ACTIVITIES
1. Endangered animals • Identify causes of endangered and extinct animals
• Exchange information about two endangered species through jigsaw

listening and note-taking
2. Wildlife tracking • Rank and justify opinions with concrete reasoning
• Reach group consensus

3. Pets in society • Identify pro and con arguments
• Solve a problem as a group

4. Zoos • Compare past and current attitudes towards zoos
• Critically evaluate a zoo’s space and purpose

5. Whaling • Review the historical background and cultural underpinnings of
whaling in Japan
• Exchange information about whales and whaling through a jigsaw

reading
6. Animal research • Raise consumer awareness
• Analyze animal rights groups’ literature
The topics are chosen so that they provide a framework around which language skills, vocabulary,
and grammar can be developed in parallel.
As a course that prepares students for mainstreaming. Many courses for immigrant children in English-
speaking countries are organized around a CBI framework. For example, non-English-background
JOPSKYLU PU ZJOVVSZ PU (\Z[YHSPH HUK 5L^ ALHSHUK HYL \Z\HSS` VќLYLK HU PU[LUZP]L SHUN\HNL JV\YZL
to prepare them to follow the regular school curriculum with other children. Such a course might
be organized around a CBI approach. An example of this approach is described by Wu (1996) in a

program prepared for ESL students in an Australian high school. Topics from a range of mainstream
Z\IQLJ[Z^LYLJOVZLUHZ[OLIHZPZMVY[OLJV\YZLHUK[VWYV]PKLH[YHUZP[PVU[VTHPUZ[YLHTJSHZZLZ
Topics were chosen primarily to cater to the widest variety of students’ needs and interests. Linguistic
HWWYVWYPH[LULZZ ^HZ HUV[OLY MHJ[VY [HRLU PU[V HJJV\U[ ;VWPJZ [OH[ M\SÄSSLK [OLZL JYP[LYPH PUJS\KL
multiculturalism, the nuclear age, sports, the Green movement, street kids, and teenage smoking.
As the rationale for the use of English as a medium for teaching some school subjects. A logical
L_[LUZPVUVM[OL*)0WOPSVZVWO`PZ[V[LHJOZVTLZJOVVSZ\IQLJ[ZLU[PYLS`PU,UNSPZO-VYL_HTWSLPU
some countries English is used as the medium of instruction for math and science in primary school
and also for some courses at university level. When the entire school curriculum is taught through a
foreign language, this is sometimes known as immersion education, an approach that has been used
for many years in part of English-speaking Canada.
As the framework for commercial EFL/ESL materials. The series Cambridge English for Schools
3P[[SLQVOU HUK /PJRZ ^HZ [OL ÄYZ[ ,-3 ZLYPLZ PU ÔPJO JVU[LU[ MYVT HJYVZZ [OL J\YYPJ\S\T
provided the framework for the course.
Examples of CLIL-based courses

Coyle, Hood, and Marsh (2010, 18–22) give the following examples of how a CLIL approach can be
used at primary school (ages 5–12):
*VUÄKLUJLI\PSKPUN! HU PU[YVK\J[PVU [V RL` JVUJLW[Z An example is a theme-based module on
climate change, which requires 15 hours of learning time involving class-based communication with
learners in another country. The class teacher approaches the module using CLIL-designed materials
and a networking system.
Development of key concepts and learner autonomy;OLL_HTWSLNP]LUPZZ\IQLJ[IHZLKSLHYUPUNVU
home economics and requires 40 hours of learning time involving trans-languaging, where activities
HYL KL]LSVWLK [OYV\NO [OL *303 TVKLSZ \ZPUN IPSPUN\HS TH[LYPHSZ :\IQLJ[ HUK SHUN\HNL [LHJOLYZ
work together.
Preparation for a long-term CLIL program. An example is an interdisciplinary approach involving a set
VMZ\IQLJ[ZMYVT[OLUH[\YHSZJPLUJLZÔLYL[OLSLHYULYZHYLWYLWHYLKMVYPUKLW[OLK\JH[PVU[OYV\NO
[OL*303TVKLS:\IQLJ[HUKSHUN\HNL[LHJOLYZ^VYR[VNL[OLYMVSSV^PUNHUPU[LNYH[LKJ\YYPJ\S\T
Examples of CLIL courses at secondary level include (Coyle et al. 2010, 18–22):
Dual-school education. :JOVVSZ PU KPќLYLU[ JV\U[YPLZ ZOHYL [OL [LHJOPUN VM H ZWLJPÄJ JV\YZL VY
module using VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol, e.g., Skype) technologies where the CLIL language
is an additional language in both countries.
Bilingual education. 3LHYULYZ Z[\K` H ZPNUPÄJHU[ WHY[ VM [OL J\YYPJ\S\T [OYV\NO [OL *303 SHUN\HNL
for a number of years with the intention of developing required content-learning goals and advanced
language skills.
Interdisciplinary module approach. ( ZWLJPÄJ TVK\SL MVY L_HTWSL LU]PYVUTLU[HS ZJPLUJL VY
JP[PaLUZOPW PZ [H\NO[ [OYV\NO *303 PU]VS]PUN [LHJOLYZ VM KPќLYLU[ KPZJPWSPULZ LN TH[OLTH[PJZ
biology, physics, chemistry, and language).
Issues with CBI and CLIL

While both CBI and CLIL have been widely adopted in many parts of the world, implementation of
these approaches raises a number of issues.
Integration of language learning and content learning. A central issue with CBI and CLIL is the extent
[VÔPJOMVJ\ZPUNVUJVU[LU[WYV]PKLZHZ\ѝJPLU[IHZPZMVY[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OLSHUN\HNLZRPSSZHUK
whether teaching content through a second language in the case of CLIL involves a dumbing down
of the content. In relation to language development, research on the use of a second language as a
medium of instruction has often revealed that when content is the primary focus, learners may bypass
grammatical accuracy and rely heavily on vocabulary and communication strategies. In planning a
course around content, decisions must still be made concerning the selection of other strands in the
Z`SSHI\ZZ\JOHZNYHTTHYM\UJ[PVUZVYZRPSSZ+PќLYLU[[VWPJZTH`YLX\PYLSHUN\HNLVMKPќLYPUNSL]LSZ
of complexity, and as a consequence, gradation (see Chapter 2) can become a problem.
Demands on teachers. Another issue concerns whether language teachers have the necessary
Z\IQLJ[TH[[LY L_WLY[PZL [V [LHJO ZWLJPHSPaLK JVU[LU[ HYLHZ Z\JO HZ THYRL[PUN TLKPJPUL LJVSVN`
as most language teachers have been trained to teach language as a skill rather than to teach a
JVU[LU[Z\IQLJ[;LHT[LHJOPUNWYVWVZHSZPU]VS]PUNSHUN\HNL[LHJOLYZHUKZ\IQLJ[TH[[LY[LHJOLYZ
HYLVM[LUJVUZPKLYLK\U^PLSK`HUKSPRLS`[VYLK\JL[OLLѝJPLUJ`VMIV[O:PTPSHYS`*303[LHJOLYZÔV
HYL\UMHTPSPHY^P[O[LHJOPUN[OLPYZ\IQLJ[PUH*303SHUN\HNLTHÙLLKJVUZPKLYHISLWYLWHYH[PVUHUK
ongoing support. Both approaches involve assembling appropriate teaching materials and resources.
Although a recommended approach in many parts of Europe, some teachers see it as a top-down
NV]LYUTLU[PTWVZP[PVUÔPJOPZKPѝJ\S[[VPTWSLTLU[*VU[LU[[LHJOLYZMLLS[OL`KVUV[OH]L[OLSL]LS
VM,UNSPZOYLX\PYLK[V[LHJO[OLPYZ\IQLJ[HUKTHU`,UNSPZO[LHJOLYZHYLJVUJLYULK[OH[[OL`KVUV[
have the knowledge base to teach content drawn from the sciences.
Evaluation learning outcomes. Lastly, a key issue is that of assessment. Will learners be assessed
according to content knowledge, language use, or both?
7.4 Competency-based syllabuses

CBI is an approach to the planning and delivery of courses that has been in widespread use since the
1970s. The application of its principles to language teaching is called Competency-Based Language
Teaching (CBLT) – an approach that has been used as the basis for the design of many work-related
and survival-oriented language-teaching programs for adults – programs that seek to teach learners the
basic skills they need in order to prepare them for situations they commonly encounter in everyday life.
Competencies refer to observable behaviors that are necessary for the successful completion of real-
world activities. These activities may be related to any domain of life, though they have typically been
SPURLK[V[OLÄLSKVM^VYRHUK[VZVJPHSZ\Y]P]HSPUHUL^LU]PYVUTLU[+VJRPUN L_WSHPUZ
[OLYLSH[PVUZOPWIL[^LLUJVTWL[LUJPLZHUKQVIWLYMVYTHUJL!
A qualification or a job can be described as a collection of units of competency, each of which

is composed of a number of elements of competency. A unit of competency might be a task, a
role, a function, or a learning module. These will change over time, and will vary from context
to context. An element of competency can be defined as any attribute of an individual that
contributes to the successful performance of a task, job, function, or activity in an academic
setting and/or a work setting. This includes specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes,
and perceptual and physical skills. Nothing is excluded that can be shown to contribute to
performance. An element of competency has meaning independent of context and time.
It is the building block for competency specifications for education, training, assessment,
qualifications, tasks, and jobs.
/V^^V\SK`V\KLZJYPILZVTLVM[OLJVYLJVTWL[LUJPLZULLKLK[VILHULќLJ[P]L,UNSPZO
teacher?
>P[O*)3;YH[OLY[OHUZLLRPUN[V[LHJONLULYHS,UNSPZO[OLMVJ\ZPZVU[OLZWLJPÄJSHUN\HNLZRPSSZ
ULLKLK [V M\UJ[PVU PU H ZWLJPÄJ JVU[L_[ 0U KL]LSVWPUN JVTWL[LUJ` KLZJYPW[PVUZ [OL JVTWL[LUJ`
domain is broken down into smaller components and often the essential linguistic features involved are
HSZVPKLU[PÄLK;OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[PUJV\YZLWSHUUPUNPZ[OLYLMVYLHUPKLU[PÄJH[PVUVM[OL[HZRZ[OLSLHYULY
^PSS [`WPJHSS` OH]L [V JHYY` V\[ ^P[OPU H ZWLJPÄJ ZL[[PUN LN PU [OL YVSL VM MHJ[VY` ^VYRLY Z[\KLU[
tourist, tour guide, restaurant employee, or nurse) and the language demands of those tasks – a similar
approach to that used in some versions of Task-Based Instruction (see below). The competencies
ULLKLKMVYZ\JJLZZM\S[HZRWLYMVYTHUJLHYL[OLUPKLU[PÄLKHUK\ZLKHZ[OLIHZPZMVYJV\YZLWSHUUPUN
;VSSLMZVU WVPU[LKV\[[OH[[OLHUHS`ZPZVMQVIZPU[V[OLPYJVUZ[P[\LU[M\UJ[PVUHSJVTWL[LUJPLZPU
VYKLY[VKL]LSVW[LHJOPUNVIQLJ[P]LZNVLZIHJR[V[OLTPKUPUL[LLU[OJLU[\Y`0U[OLZ:WLUJLY
described the main areas of human activity and behavior that he recommended should form the
IHZPZ MVY KL]LSVWPUN J\YYPJ\SHY VIQLJ[P]LZ :PTPSHYS` PU )VIIP[[ KL]LSVWLK J\YYPJ\SHY VIQLJ[P]LZ
according to his analysis of the functional competencies required for adults living in the United States.
;OPZ HWWYVHJO ^HZ WPJRLK \W HUK YLÄULK HZ [OL IHZPZ MVY [OL KL]LSVWTLU[ VM JVTWL[LUJÌHZLK
programs since the 1960s. For example, the following competencies were included in a popular
JV\YZL MVY HK\S[ Z[\KLU[Z PU [OL Z KLZPNULK ¸MVY HK\S[ Z[\KLU[Z ÔV ULLK [V SLHYU [OL VYHS
language patterns and vocabulary needed in real-life situations” (Keltner, Howard, and Lee 1981):
Topic: Food and money
*VTWL[LUJ`VIQLJ[P]LZ! On completion of this unit the students will show orally, in writing or through
demonstration, that they are able to use the language needed to function in the following situations:
A. SHOPPING FOR FOOD
1. Identify the most common foods.
2. Ask for and locate foods.
3. Use common tables of weight and measures.
+PќLYLU[PH[LIL[^LLU[`WLZVMMVVKZ[VYLZ!KPZJV\U[Z\WLYTHYRL[HUKOV\YZ[VYLZ
B. USING MONEY AND CHANGE
1. Use American money.
2. Ask for and receive change.
C. EATING OUT
1. Order from a menu.
2. Know how to tip.
As we noted above, competency-based frameworks have been adopted in many countries,

particularly for vocational and technical education. They are also increasingly being adopted in
national language curricula as a framework for the whole school curriculum (e.g., the Common Core
Standards in the United States, www.corestandards.org). The descriptions of the components of the
skills of speaking, reading, writing, and listening found in the CEFR are also described in terms of
competencies. For example, for the skill of listening, the performance of a learner at the basic level
(A1 and A2 of the framework) is described as follows (Council of Europe 2001, 66):
• Can understand phrases and expressions related to areas of immediate priority (e.g. very
basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment), provided
speech is clearly and slowly articulated. (A1)
• Can understand enough to be able to meet needs of a concrete type, provided speech is
clearly and slowly articulated. (A2)
• Can follow speech which is very slow and carefully articulated. (A2)
We can compare this with the ability of an advanced-level listener (C1 and C2 on the CEFR):
• Has no difficulty in understanding any kind of spoken language, whether live or broadcast,
delivered at fast native speed. (C2)
• Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond
his/her own field, though he/she may need to confirm occasional details, especially if the
accent is unfamiliar. (C1)
• Can recognize a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms, appreciating reg-
ister shifts. (C1)
• Can follow extended speech even when it is not clearly structured and when relationships
are only implied and not signalled explicitly. (C1)
(Council of Europe 2001, 66)
What characterizes a competency-based approach is the focus on the outcomes of learning as

the driving force of teaching and the curriculum. Hence, this is an example of a backward-design
HWWYVHJO (Z ^P[O V[OLY IHJR^HYKKLZPNU HWWYVHJOLZ UV ZWLJPÄJH[PVU PZ NP]LU HZ [V how the
competencies should be taught, and therefore the choice of methodology as well as the language
needed to achieve the competency are left to the course designer or teacher.
(\LYIHJO PKLU[PÄLK LPNO[ MLH[\YLZ PU]VS]LK PU [OL PTWSLTLU[H[PVU VM *)3; WYVNYHTZ PU
language teaching, particularly those with a vocational or social-survival focus.
• (MVJ\ZVUZ\JJLZZM\SM\UJ[PVUPUNPUZVJPL[`! The goal is to enable students to become
autonomous individuals capable of coping with the demands of the world.
• (MVJ\ZVUSPMLZRPSSZ! Rather than teaching language in isolation, CBLT teaches language as a function
VMJVTT\UPJH[PVUHIV\[JVUJYL[L[HZRZ:[\KLU[ZHYL[H\NO[Q\Z[[OVZLSHUN\HNLMVYTZZRPSSZYLX\PYLK
by the situations in which they will function. These forms are normally determined by needs analysis.
• ;HZRVYWLYMVYTHUJLVYPLU[LKPUZ[Y\J[PVU! What counts is what students can do as a result of
instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviors rather than on knowledge or the ability to talk
about language and skills.
• 4VK\SHYPaLKPUZ[Y\J[PVU!3HUN\HNLSLHYUPUNPZIYVRLUKVÛPU[VTLHUPUNM\SJO\URZ6IQLJ[P]LZ
HYLIYVRLUKVÛPU[VUHYYV^S`MVJ\ZLKZ\IVIQLJ[P]LZZV[OH[IV[O[LHJOLYZHUKZ[\KLU[ZJHU
get a clear sense of progress.
• 6\[JVTLZHYLTHKLL_WSPJP[! Outcomes are public knowledge, known and agreed upon by both
SLHYULYHUK[LHJOLY;OL`HYLZWLJPÄLKPU[LYTZVMILOH]PVYHSVIQLJ[P]LZZV[OH[Z[\KLU[ZRUV^
what behaviors are expected of them.
• *VU[PU\V\ZHUKVUNVPUNHZZLZZTLU[! Students are pre-tested to determine what skills they lack
and post-tested after instruction on that skill. If they do not achieve the desired level of mastery,
[OL`JVU[PU\L[V^VYRVU[OLVIQLJ[P]LHUKHYLYL[LZ[LK
• +LTVUZ[YH[LKTHZ[LY`VMWLYMVYTHUJLVIQLJ[P]LZ! Rather than the traditional paper-and-pencil
[LZ[ZHZZLZZTLU[PZIHZLKVU[OLHIPSP[`[VKLTVUZ[YH[LWYLZWLJPÄLKILOH]PVYZ
• 0UKP]PK\HSPaLKZ[\KLU[JLU[LYLKPUZ[Y\J[PVU!0UJVU[LU[SL]LSHUKWHJLVIQLJ[P]LZHYLKLÄULKPU
terms of individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into account in developing
curricula. Instruction is not time-based; students progress at their own rates and concentrate on
Q\Z[[OVZLHYLHZPUÔPJO[OL`SHJRJVTWL[LUJL
Examples of CBI courses

*)0OHZILLU^PKLS`\ZLKPU[OLKLZPNUVMTHU`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJV\YZLZZVTLVMÔPJOHYLV\[SPULK
below.
Occupational and vocational courses. As noted above, the commonest use of CBI in course design
is in preparing work-related courses that are often built around the tasks learners need to perform in
their work situations and the competencies needed to perform the tasks.
Social-survival courses. Courses designed for immigrants and other new arrivals have often been
developed around a competency framework, grouped around situations, activities, and tasks that new
arrivals encounter and competencies related to task performance. Mrowicki (1986) described the process
of developing a competency-based curriculum for a refugee program designed to develop language skills
for employment. The process included reviewing existing curricula, resource materials, and textbooks;
needs analysis (interviews, observations, survey of employers); identifying topics for a survival curriculum;
identifying competencies for each of the topics; grouping competencies into instructional units.
Issues with Competency-Based Instruction

Although there has been a resurgence in competency-based approaches in recent years, as seen
with CEFR, for example, such approaches are not without their critics. The following issues are
commonly mentioned.
Identifying competencies. Critics such as Tollefson (1986, 1995) have argued that no valid procedures
HYLH]HPSHISL[VKL]LSVWJVTWL[LUJ`ZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ(S[OV\NOSPZ[ZVMJVTWL[LUJPLZJHUILNLULYH[LK
intuitively for many areas and activities, there is no way of knowing which ones are essential. Typically,
competencies are described based on intuition and experience. In addition, focusing on observable
behaviors can lead to a trivialization of the nature of an activity.
Components of competencies. *VTWL[LUJ` Z[H[LTLU[Z HYL HSZV KPѝJ\S[ [V VWLYH[PVUHSPaL PU [LYTZ
of their precise linguistic components, since there is no direct form-to-competence correspondence.
The realization of a competency is often to some extent unpredictable, depending on factors in
the situation: who the participants are, what their roles are, their emotional state, and so on. It is
ZPTPSHYS` KPѝJ\S[ [V KPќLYLU[PH[L WYLJPZLS` IL[^LLU KPќLYLU[ SL]LSZ VM WLYMVYTHUJL VM H JVTWL[LUJ`
For example, the following are characteristics of competence in conversation at level B1 in the CEFR
(Council of Europe 2001, 76):
Can enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday conversations, though
will sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.
Can maintain a conversation or discussion, but may sometimes be difficult to follow when try-
ing to say exactly what he/she would like to.
Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness, interest and indif-
ference.
However, to operationalize these statements in terms of linguistic features and processes – an

essential step in developing teaching materials or tests to teach and assess mastery of these
JVTWL[LUJPLZ¶PZSHYNLS`HZ\IQLJ[P]LHUKPTWYLZZPVUPZ[PJWYVJLZZ(Z3L\UNJVTTLU[Z!
Quite clearly teachers will need to judge the appropriateness of the B1 descriptors (or any
others within the CEFR scales) in relation to the students they are teaching. If one is work-
ing with, say, a group of Italian-speaking bank employees learning English for professional
reasons, then some of the descriptors might make sense at some stage of their teaching.
However, if one is teaching linguistic-minority students in England who are learning to use
English to do academic studies, then these descriptors would only be, at best, appropriate in a
very vague and abstract sense; they would need to be adapted and expanded locally because
an independent user of English as a second language in school would have to do a good deal
more than what is covered in these CEFR descriptors.
;OLSHJRVMHZ`SSHI\ZVYZWLJPÄJH[PVUVMJVU[LU[[OH[^V\SKLUHISL[OLV\[JVTLZPU[OL*,-9[VIL
HJOPL]LKOHZILLUPKLU[PÄLKHZWYVISLTH[PJPU\ZPUN[OLMYHTL^VYRHUKOHZSLK[V[OLKL]LSVWTLU[
VM[OL,UNSPZO7YVÄSLWYVQLJ[HJVSSHIVYH[P]LYLZLHYJOWYVNYHTYLNPZ[LYLK^P[O[OL*V\UJPSVM,\YVWL
and mainly funded by Cambridge University Press and Cambridge English Language Assessment.
;OL HPT VM [OL ,UNSPZO 7YVÄSL WYVQLJ[ PZ [V KL]LSVW H ¸WYVÄSL¹ VY ZL[ VM YLMLYLUJLSL]LS KLZJYPW[PVUZ
of the grammar, vocabulary, and functions of English linked to the CEFR. These reference-level
descriptions are intended to provide detailed information about the language that learners can be
L_WLJ[LK[VKLTVUZ[YH[LH[LHJOSL]LSVќLYPUNÔH[PZPU[LUKLKHZHJSLHYILUJOTHYRMVYWYVNYLZZ
that will inform curriculum development as well as the development of courses and test materials to
support learners, teachers, and other professionals involved in the learning and teaching of English
HZHMVYLPNUSHUN\HNL-VYM\Y[OLYPUMVYTH[PVUZLLO[[W!^^^LUNSPZOWYVÄSLVYN
7.5 Task-based syllabus

Task-Based Instruction or TBI (also known as Task-Based Teaching) is an approach that draws
heavily on second language acquisition (SLA) theory (or at least, selections from SLA theory) and is
based on the view that successful language learning results from engagement with tasks (Van den
Branden 2006, 2012; Van den Branden, Bygate, and Norris 2009; Long 2015) rather than through
a focus on grammar or other aspects of the linguistic system. A task-based syllabus makes use of
both tasks that have been specially designed to facilitate second language learning and tasks that
resemble the kinds of tasks learners will have to accomplish or carry out in the real world. Through
JVTWSL[PUN KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM [HZRZ SLHYULYZ HYL ZHPK [V LUNHNL PU WYVJLZZLZ [OH[ MHJPSP[H[L ZLJVUK
SHUN\HNL KL]LSVWTLU[ -VY L_HTWSL 3VUN HUK *YVVRLZ JSHPTLK [OH[ [HZRZ ¸WYV]PKL H
vehicle for the presentation of appropriate target language samples to learners – input which they
will inevitably reshape via application of general cognitive processing capacities – and for the delivery
VM JVTWYLOLUZPVU HUK WYVK\J[PVU VWWVY[\UP[PLZ VM ULNV[PHISL KPѝJ\S[`¹ :RLW[PJZ VM ;)0 ZLL P[ HZ
simplistic (e.g., Swan 2005), while advocates see it as solving the language-teaching problem once
and for all (Long 2015) (a refrain that has been heard many times in the past). Proponents of TBI
contrast it with earlier grammar-focused approaches to teaching such as audiolingualism, which they
JOHYHJ[LYPaLHZ¸[LHJOLYKVTPUH[LKMVYTVYPLU[LKJSHZZYVVTWYHJ[PJL¹=HUKLU)YHUKLU
How would you distinguish between a task and an exercise?
;OL[OLVY`VM;)0OHZKL]LSVWLKPUKPќLYLU[KPYLJ[PVUZZPUJLP[^HZÄYZ[WYVWVZLK,HYS`JVUJLW[PVUZ
of TBI such as those above proposed tasks as a unit that could be used to activate second
language learning processes and focused primarily on acquisition of grammar through tasks. A
more appropriate name for this view of tasks would be task-based grammar instruction. Tasks were
regarded as procedures that learners engage with which promote learning as a by-product of task
LUNHNLTLU[HUKJVTWSL[PVU(U\TILYVMJYP[LYPH^LYLWYVWVZLKPUKLÄUPUNH[HZR!
• It is something that learners do or carry out, initially using their existing language resources.
• It has an outcome that is not simply linked to learning language, though language acquisition
may occur as the learner carries out the task.
• It involves a focus on meaning.
• It calls upon the learners’ use of communication strategies and interactional skills (shared tasks).
Examples of tasks from this perspective are ÄUKPUNHZVS\[PVU[VHW\aaSL, reading a map and giving
directions, or reading a set of instructions and assembling a toy. Tasks of this kind can be described
as pedagogic tasks ( [HZR PU ÔPJO [^V SLHYULYZ OH]L [V [Y` [V ÄUK [OL U\TILY VM KPќLYLUJLZ
between two similar pictures is an example of a pedagogic task. The task itself is not something one
would normally encounter in the real world. However, the interactional processes it requires provide
useful input to language development. Other examples of tasks of this kind include the following:
• 1PNZH^[HZRZ!;OLZL[HZRZPU]VS]LSLHYULYZPUJVTIPUPUNKPќLYLU[WPLJLZVMPUMVYTH[PVU[VMVYT
HÔVSLLN[OYLLPUKP]PK\HSZVYNYV\WZTHÒH]L[OYLLKPќLYLU[WHY[ZVMHZ[VY`HUKOH]L[V
piece the story together).
• 0UMVYTH[PVUNHW[HZRZ!Tasks in which one student or group of students has one set of
information and another student or group has a complementary set of information. They must
ULNV[PH[LHUKÄUKV\[ÔH[[OLV[OLYWHY[`»ZPUMVYTH[PVUPZPUVYKLY[VJVTWSL[LHUHJ[P]P[`
• 7YVISLTZVS]PUN[HZRZ!Students are given a problem and a set of information. They must arrive
at a solution to the problem. There is generally a single resolution of the problem.
• +LJPZPVUTHRPUN[HZRZ!Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible
outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion.
• 6WPUPVUL_JOHUNL[HZRZ!Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas. They do not
need to reach agreement.
7LKHNVNPJ[HZRZLUNHNL[OL\ZLVMZWLJPÄJPU[LYHJ[PVUHSZ[YH[LNPLZ;OL`TH`HSZVYLX\PYL[OL\ZLVM
ZWLJPÄJ[`WLZVMSHUN\HNLZRPSSZNYHTTHY]VJHI\SHY`/V^L]LYÔLU[OL`PUJS\KLHMVJ\ZVUSHUN\HNL
development, such a focus might occur after the task has been attempted, since the linguistic demands
of the task are often to some extent unpredictable. A sequence of classroom activities is suggested that
consists of (1) pre-task activities (to prepare students for a task), (2) the task, and (3) follow-up activities
based on the language that emerged during the task (Willis 1996; Willis and Willis 2007).
(KPќLYLU[WLYZWLJ[P]LVU[HZRZTHRLZ\ZLVMÔH[JHUILKLZJYPILKHZreal-world tasks. These are
HJ[P]P[PLZ[OH[YLÅLJ[YLHS^VYSK\ZLZVMSHUN\HNLHUKÔPJOTPNO[ILJVUZPKLYLKHYLOLHYZHSMVYYLHS
^VYSK[HZRZ(YVSLWSH`PUÔPJOZ[\KLU[ZWYHJ[PJLHQVIPU[LY]PL^^V\SKILH[HZRVM[OPZRPUK;OPZ]PL^
of tasks is seen in the following description taken from the CEFR of the Council of Europe (2001, 157):
Tasks are a feature of everyday life in the personal, public, educational domains. Task accomplish-
ment by an individual involves the strategic activation of specific competencies in order to carry out
a set of purposeful actions in a particular domain with a clearly defined goal and specific outcome.
Examples of tasks of this nature include:

• PU[LYHJ[PUN^P[OHW\ISPJZLY]PJLVѝJPHS"
• [HRPUNWHY[PUHQVIPU[LY]PL^"
• purchasing something in a store;

• describing a medical problem to a doctor;
• completing a form to apply for a driver’s license;
• following written instructions to assemble something;
• reading a report and discussing its recommendations;
• replying to an email message.
What are some of the real-world tasks your learners use English for?
Thus, while early versions of TBI proposed tasks as a unit that could be used to teach language,
i.e., they are a means to an end, later versions propose mastery of tasks as an end in itself, i.e., they
focus mainly on real-world tasks:
The design of a task-based syllabus preferably starts with an analysis of the students’ needs.
What do these students need to be able to do with the target language? What are the tasks
they are supposed to perform outside of the classroom? Using different sources and different
methods (such as interviews, observations, and surveys) a concrete description of the kinds
of tasks students will face in the real word is drawn up. This description, then, serves as the
basis for the design and sequencing of tasks in the syllabus.
(Van den Branden 2012, 134)
No matter which view of tasks one adopts, many classroom activities do not share the characteristics
of tasks as illustrated above and are best described as exercises. These include drills, cloze activities,
controlled writing activities, etc., and many of the traditional techniques that are familiar to many
teachers. With TBI the focus shifts to using tasks to create interaction, and then building language
awareness and language development around task performance. Grammar and other components of
accurate language use are addressed as and when the need for them arises during the completion
of tasks.
Examples of Task-Based Instruction

;HZRZHZHWSHUUPUN\UP[PUJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUOH]LILLU\ZLKPUHU\TILYVMKPќLYLU[^H`Z
As the sole framework for course planning and delivery. Such an approach was used in a program
described by Prabhu (1987) in which a grammar-based curriculum was replaced by a task-based one
in a state school system, albeit only for a short period.
As one component of a course. A task strand can also serve as one component of a course, where
it would seek to develop general communication skills. This is the approach described by Beglar and
/\U[ PU [OLPY Z[\K` VM H ^LLR JV\YZLMVYZLJVUK`LHY 1HWHULZL\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z;OL
task strand was based on a survey. Students designed a survey form, then collected data, analyzed it,
and presented the results. In this case task is being used in ways others would use the term project.
At the same time, students were also involved in classroom work related to a direct approach to
[LHJOPUN ZWLHRPUN ZRPSSZ YLJLP]PUN L_WSPJP[ PUZ[Y\J[PVU PU ZVTL VM [OL ZWLJPÄJ Z[YH[LNPLZ HUK TPJYV
skills required for conversation.
As a technique. Tasks can be used as one technique in the teacher’s repertoire and can also be used
PUJVUQ\UJ[PVU^P[OV[OLYHWWYVHJOLZZ\JOHZZRPSSIHZLKVY[L_[IHZLKVULZ
Issues with task-based syllabuses

As with any innovation in curriculum design, new proposals such as TBI raise a number of issues for
J\YYPJ\S\TWSHUULYZHUKTH[LYPHSZKLZPNU:VTLVM[OLZLHYLKLZJYPILKIYPLÅÌLSV^
+LÄUP[PVU VM [HZR +LÄUP[PVUZ VM [HZRZ HYL ZVTL[PTLZ ZV IYVHK HZ [V PUJS\KL HSTVZ[ HU`[OPUN [OH[
involves learners doing something.
Choice and sequencing of tasks. Tomlinson (2015, 336–337) suggests that if tasks are chosen
primarily for the pedagogic potential, there is a danger that students will not acquire the language
ZRPSSZ[OLÙLLKIL`VUK[OLJSHZZYVVT/LWYVWVZLZ[OH[[HZRZ¸ZOV\SKILWYLKL[LYTPULKZV[OH[
[OL`JV]LY[OLZP[\H[PVUZVIQLJ[P]LZ[OLV\[JVTLZ[OLZRPSSZHUK[OLZ[YH[LNPLZÔPJOHYLYLSL]HU[[V
the learners’ post-course performance in the target language.”
Development of accuracy. ,_JLZZP]L \ZL VM JVTT\UPJH[P]L [HZRZ TH` LUJV\YHNL Å\LUJ` H[ [OL
expense of accuracy.
Lack of relevance in an assessment-driven curriculum. Many students study English in order to pass
local or national tests, and these are typically not based on task performance.
Demands on teachers. A task-based approach is heavily dependent on the teacher’s initiative. Since
the kind of language skills a learner needs to develop cannot be predicted in advance and will depend
on his or her needs and learning context, task-based approaches are typically one-of-a-kind. Hence,
there are no general task-based syllabuses for teachers or course designers to use as a reference,
and likewise, since the approach precludes the use of a pre-designed syllabus, there are no published
courses or course materials based on this approach.
7.6 Text-based syllabus

Another way to think about the goals of language learning is to view them as a means of learning
OV^[V\UKLYZ[HUKHUK\ZLKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LU[L_[ZHUK[VWHY[PJPWH[LPUSHUN\HNL
based social practices. As Mickan (2013, 1) argues:
Texts are integral to everyday life. We organize our lives and those of others with numerous
spoken and written texts – greetings, instructions, news, emails, telephone calls, calendars,
timetables and diaries. Invitations, weather forecasts, sporting programmes and televisions
shows influence our decisions, actions and events …
;L_[ZTHÌL]PL^LK[OLUHZZ[Y\J[\YLK\UP[ZVMKPZJV\YZL[OH[HYL\ZLKPUZWLJPÄJJVU[L_[ZPUZWLJPÄJ
ways, that is as conversations, directives, exchanges, explanations, expositions, factual recounts,
information texts, instructions, interviews, narratives, opinion texts, personal recounts, persuasive texts,
presentations, procedures. (See Appendix 3 for a list of common text types.) A text-based syllabus is
VYNHUPaLKHYV\UK[OL[L_[[`WLZVJJ\YYPUNTVZ[MYLX\LU[S`PUZWLJPÄJJVU[L_[Z;OLZLJVU[L_[ZTPNO[
include such situations as studying in an English-medium university, studying in an English-medium
WYPTHY` VY ZLJVUKHY` ZJOVVS ^VYRPUN PU H YLZ[H\YHU[ VѝJL VY Z[VYL ZVJPHSPaPUN ^P[O ULPNOIVYZ PU H
OV\ZPUNJVTWSL_;OLZLHYLPKLU[PÄLK[OYV\NOULLKZHUHS`ZPZ[OH[PZ[OYV\NO[OLHUHS`ZPZVMSHUN\HNL
HUK JVTT\UPJH[PVU HZ P[ VJJ\YZ PU KPќLYLU[ ZL[[PUNZ ;OL HZZ\TW[PVU ILOPUK ;)0 PZ [OH[ ZLJVUK
SHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNPU]VS]LZTHZ[LYPUN[OLJVU]LU[PVUZ\UKLYS`PUN[OLZWLJPÄJ[`WLZVM[L_[Z[OLSLHYULYZ
encounters in his or her domains of language use – e.g., at school, work, in social situations, and so on.
Identifying these texts and their features and then building a course around them form the basis of text-
based syllabus design. Mickan (2013, 13) describes the rationale for a text-based approach as follows:
[A text approach] constructs the curriculum around social practices and their texts rather than
presenting language as grammatical and lexical objects … The ready availability of texts as
resources for teaching simplifies curriculum planning and implementation.
A curriculum constructed around social practices and their texts is a curriculum designed for
learners’ engagement with meaning – not as an afterthought, but as the central activity. The
focus on texts creates potential to make meanings with other people.
What are some of the kinds of spoken and written texts your learners need to become
WYVÄJPLU[PU&
A text-based approach has been used as a component of a national curriculum in some contexts.
The following are examples of the text types that were used in the national curriculum in Singapore:
7YVJLK\YLZ!e.g., procedures used in carrying out a task.
,_WSHUH[PVUZ!e.g., explaining how and why things happen.
,_WVZP[PVUZ!e.g., reviews, arguments, debates.
-HJ[\HSYLJV\U[Z!e.g., magazine articles.
7LYZVUHSYLJV\U[Z!LNHULJKV[LZKPHY`QV\YUHSLU[YPLZIPVNYHWOPLZH\[VIPVNYHWOPLZ
0UMVYTH[PVUYLWVY[Z!e.g., fact sheets.
5HYYH[P]LZ! e.g., stories, fables.
*VU]LYZH[PVUZHUKZOVY[M\UJ[PVUHS[L_[Z!e.g., dialogs, formal/informal letters, postcards,
e-mail, notices.
The CEFR includes a far broader set of text types and lists the following as examples of texts learners
may need to understand, produce, or participate in (Council of Europe 2001, 95):
Spoken texts Written texts

• Public announcements and instructions • Books: fiction and non-fiction …
• Public speeches, lectures, • Magazines
• Presentations, sermons • Newspapers
• Rituals (ceremonies, formal religious • Instructions (e.g. DIY, cookbooks, … etc.)
services) • Textbooks
• Entertainment (drama, shows, • Comic strips
readings, songs) • Brochures, prospectuses
• Sports commentaries (football, • Leaflets
cricket, … etc.)
• Advertising material
• News broadcasts
• Public signs and notices
• Public debates and discussion
• Supermarket, shop and market-stall signs
• Interpersonal dialogues and conversations
• Packaging and labelling on goods
• Telephone conversations
• Tickets, … etc.
• Job interviews
• Forms and questionnaires
• Dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual),
thesauri
• Business and professional letters, faxes
• Personal letters
• Essays and exercises
• Memoranda, reports and papers
• Notes and messages, … etc.
• Databases (news, literature, general information)
Syllabus and course design from a text-based perspective involves identifying the spoken and written
text types most relevant to the learners’ needs, analyzing the discourse and linguistic features of the
texts, and developing strategies to help learners develop the knowledge and skills involved in using
[L_[ZHZ[OLIHZPZMVYH\[OLU[PJHUKTLHUPUNM\SJVTT\UPJH[PVU(JJVYKPUN[V-LLaHUK1V`JL
teaching from a text-based approach involves:
• teaching explicitly about the structures and grammatical features of spoken and written texts;
• linking spoken and written texts to the cultural context of their use;
• designing units of work which focus on developing skills in relation to whole texts;
• providing students with guided practice as they develop language skills for meaningful
communication through whole texts.
This approach is seen in Mickan (2013, 48–57), who describes a syllabus developed to prepare
1HWHULZL\UKLYNYHK\H[LZMVYHUV]LYZLHZZ[\K`WYVNYHT[OH[PU[LNYH[LKSHUN\HNLL_WLYPLUJLZ^P[O
local sightseeing in an Australian city. Core texts used in the program included the following:
• Copies of transcripts of classroom practices – discourse with a focus on teacher instructions;
NYV\W^VYR[HSR"YLX\LZ[PUNJSHYPÄJH[PVUHUKHZZPZ[HUJL"PUP[PH[PUNLUX\PYPLZHZ^LSSHZYLZWVUKPUN
to enquiries.
• Examples of oral reports, with transcripts, on visits to wildlife park.
• Procedural texts illustrating the processes of grape production and wine production.
• Descriptions of tourist destinations around Adelaide.
Mickan does not describe where and how the transcripts referred to were obtained, who transcribed
them, or how they were used: obviously the logistics and time involved would be considerable.
As we saw above, the notion of text types is central to the planning of a text-based syllabus, and the
organization of skill-based courses (e.g., courses in reading, writing, listening, or speaking) is often
based on text types (also referred to as genres) at the macro level. Other syllabus strands, such
as grammar and vocabulary, will be chosen depending on the nature of each skill. For example, in
WSHUUPUNHJV\YZLHYV\UKZWLHRPUNZRPSSZ[OLÄYZ[WSHUUPUNKLJPZPVUPUH[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJOOHZ[V
do with determining the types of spoken texts the course will address based on the learners’ needs,
such as small talk, casual conversation, telephone conversations, formal conversation, transactions,
discussions, interviews, presentations, etc. Each text type has distinct characteristics. Other syllabus
Z[YHUKZ^PSSYLÅLJ[[OLUH[\YLVMLHJONLUYL;OLZ`SSHI\ZHSZV\Z\HSS`ZWLJPÄLZV[OLYJVTWVULU[ZVM
texts, such as grammar, vocabulary, topics, and functions; hence, it is a type of mixed syllabus, one
which integrates reading, writing, and oral communication, and which teaches grammar and other
features of texts through the mastery of texts rather than in isolation.
For example, in the case of the text type of conversation this would include at the micro level, opening
and closing conversations, topic choice, topic development, discourse management, turn taking,
back channeling, questioning, clarifying meaning. Other syllabus components for a speaking course
at the micro level could include functions, conversational routines, and vocabulary.
See Appendix 4 for procedures involved in teaching from a text-based syllabus.
Examples of a text-based approach

;L_[ZHZWSHUUPUN\UP[ZPUJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNUOH]LILLU\ZLKPUHU\TILYVMKPќLYLU[^H`ZHZV\[SPULK
below.
ESP and EAP courses. English for Special Purposes and English for Academic Purposes are obvious
cases where a text-based approach would be relevant. Such a course would be built around the
ZWVRLU HUK ^YP[[LU [L_[ [`WLZ LUJV\U[LYLK PU ZWLJPÄJ JVU[L_[Z (Z 4PJRHU JVTTLU[Z
^P[O YLMLYLUJL [V ;)0 PU HJHKLTPJ JVU[L_[Z! ¸(JHKLTPJ Z[\K` YLX\PYLZ \UKLYZ[HUKPUN HUK \ZPUN
specialized discourses for participation in disciplinary practices … Academic language comprises
multiple texts and tasks embedded in disciplinary practices.”
Textbooks for a state curriculum. TBI has also been used as the framework for textbooks used in state
schools at both primary and secondary level (e.g., in Singapore).
A component of CBI and CLIL. A text-based approach is compatible with other approaches and can
be used as the basis for integrating content with language learning. Texts become the vehicle through
which learners engage with content.
Issues with a text-based approach

Critics have raised a number of questions about both the theory and the practice of TBI, principal
HTVUNÔPJOHYL[OVZLKLZJYPILKIYPLÅÌLSV^
Focus on products rather than processes. As can be seen from the above summary, a text-based
approach focuses on the products of learning rather than the processes involved. Critics have pointed
out that an emphasis on individual creativity and personal expression is often missing from the TBI
model, which is heavily wedded to a methodology based on the study of model texts and the creation
of texts based on models.
Practicality. The practical demands of assembling and analyzing spoken and written texts might also
be unrealistic in many situations. Accounts given in Mickan (2013) make extensive use of transcripts
VMH\[OLU[PJZWVRLU,UNSPZOÔPJO^V\SKILKPѝJ\S[MVYTHU`[LHJOLYZ[VVI[HPU6U[OLV[OLYOHUK
a text-based approach lends itself readily to the design of textbooks and other materials, so some of
the planning required may not necessarily involve the teacher.
Conclusions
;OL Z`SSHI\Z HWWYVHJOLZ PU [OPZ JOHW[LY VќLY KPќLYLU[ ZVS\[PVUZ [V [OL WYVISLT VM KL]LSVWPUN H
rational approach to the design of a language course and syllabus. In the case of content-based,
[HZRIHZLK HUK [L_[IHZLK HWWYVHJOLZ [OL Z[HY[PUN WVPU[Z PU LHJO JHZL KPќLY -VY *)0 HUK *303
a focus on the communication and understanding of meaning and information initiates the process
of syllabus development. Other planning decisions, such as those related to lexis, grammar, and
texts, are dependent upon how meaning and content is presented. Methodology is not prescribed.
In the case of task-based approaches, the process of syllabus development starts with identifying
tasks. These are used to activate learning processes and also to prepare leaners for out-of-class
task performance. A cycle of classroom activities is prescribed. A text-based approach begins with
identifying text types, and classroom activities center on text analysis and text creation following a
WYLZJYPILKZL[VMWYVJLK\YLZ*VTWL[LUJÌHZLKHWWYVHJOLZKPќLYMYVTLHJOVM[OLHIV]LZ`SSHI\Z
TVKLSZZPUJLPU[OPZJHZLZ`SSHI\ZKL]LSVWTLU[Z[HY[Z^P[OPKLU[PÄJH[PVUVMSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZHUK
YLSH[LK JVTWL[LUJPLZ :\IZLX\LU[ ZWLJPÄJH[PVU VM Z`SSHI\Z JVU[LU[ KLWLUKZ VU [OL JVU[L_[ HUK
could include linguistic items and content, texts, and skills. Methodology is not prescribed.
In the next chapter we will consider other approaches to syllabus design and review the use of skills,
functions, grammar, vocabulary, and situation in syllabus design.
1. Go online and look at the (*;-3 7YVÄJPLUJ` .\PKLSPULZ MVY ,UNSPZO ^^^HJ[ÅVYN
W\ISPJH[PVUZN\PKLSPULZHUKTHU\HSZHJ[ÅWYVÄJPLUJ`N\PKLSPULZLUNSPZOZWLHRPUN HUK
read the descriptions for any level of one of the four macro-skills. Where would you place yourself
on the scale for any foreign language you speak?
2. How would you explain the notion of macro- and micro-level units of course organization to a
UV]PJL[LHJOLY&.P]LL_HTWSLZMYVTZL]LYHSKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMJV\YZLZ
3. You have been asked to plan a unit on climate change for an intermediate-level speaking class.
What skills and grammar could you link to this topic?
4. (YL*)0HUK*303PKLU[PJHS&/V^KV`V\\UKLYZ[HUK[OLPYZPTPSHYP[PLZHUKKPќLYLUJLZ&
5. @V\HYLKL]LSVWPUNHJVTWL[LUJÌHZLKJV\YZLMVYYLZ[H\YHU[Z[Hќ^HP[WLYZVUZ/V^^V\SK
you identify the competencies they need to master in English? Give examples of what the
competencies would look like.
6. Give an example of a pedagogic task and a real-world task that could be used in designing (a)
a reading course and (b) a listening course.
7. 0UÔH[JPYJ\TZ[HUJLZKV`V\[OPURH[HZRIHZLKHWWYVHJO^V\SKILHTVZ[LќLJ[P]LISLHZ[
LќLJ[P]L&
8. Choose a group of learners that you are familiar with. What kinds of spoken and written texts
KV`V\[OPUR[OL`TVZ[MYLX\LU[S`LUJV\U[LY&>OH[RPUKZVMKPѝJ\S[PLZHYL[OLZL[L_[ZSPRLS`[V
pose for them?
9. Prepare a sample lesson plan based on each of the four syllabus models discussed in this
chapter, and compare them. What features do they have in common?
10. Read Case study 10 by Lindsay Miller at the end of this chapter.
• How were language and content integrated throughout the course?
• What language skills do you think the learners were likely to develop?
• What other areas of content do you think could be used in a similar way with this group
of learners?
11. Read Case study 11 by Rosa Bergadà.
• /V^KV[OLNVHSZVMOLYJV\YZLHUK3PUKZH`»ZJV\YZLKPќLY&
• How does the course link content to language development?
• /V^KVLZ[OLJV\YZLYLÅLJ[HSLHYULYJLU[LYLKHWWYVHJO&
12. Read Case study 12 by Phil Chappell.
• /V^KVLZ[OLJV\YZLYLÅLJ[H[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJO[VJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNU&
• /V^KVLZ[OLJV\YZLYLÅLJ[SLHYULYZ»ULLKZ&
APPENDIX 1 ;OL(*;-37YVÄJPLUJ`.\PKLSPULZ – For Speaking

DISTINGUISHED
:WLHRLYZH[[OL+PZ[PUN\PZOLKSL]LSHYLHISL[V\ZLSHUN\HNLZRPSSM\SS`HUK^P[OHJJ\YHJ`LѝJPLUJ`
HUK LќLJ[P]LULZZ ;OL` HYL LK\JH[LK HUK HY[PJ\SH[L \ZLYZ VM [OL SHUN\HNL ;OL` JHU YLÅLJ[ VU
a wide range of global issues and highly abstract concepts in a culturally appropriate manner.
Distinguished-level speakers can use persuasive and hypothetical discourse for representational
purposes, allowing them to advocate a point of view that is not necessarily their own. They can
tailor language to a variety of audiences by adapting their speech and register in ways that are
culturally authentic.
Speakers at the Distinguished level produce highly sophisticated and tightly organized
extended discourse. At the same time, they can speak succinctly, often using cultural and historical
references to allow them to say less and mean more. At this level, oral discourse typically resembles
written discourse.
A non-native accent, a lack of a native-like economy of expression, a limited control of deeply
embedded cultural references, and/or an occasional isolated language error may still be present at
this level.
SUPERIOR
:WLHRLYZ H[ [OL :\WLYPVY SL]LS HYL HISL [V JVTT\UPJH[L ^P[O HJJ\YHJ` HUK Å\LUJ` PU VYKLY [V
WHY[PJPWH[LM\SS`HUKLќLJ[P]LS`PUJVU]LYZH[PVUZVUH]HYPL[`VM[VWPJZPUMVYTHSHUKPUMVYTHSZL[[PUNZ
MYVT IV[O JVUJYL[L HUK HIZ[YHJ[ WLYZWLJ[P]LZ ;OL` KPZJ\ZZ [OLPY PU[LYLZ[Z HUK ZWLJPHS ÄLSKZ VM
competence, explain complex matters in detail, and provide lengthy and coherent narrations, all with
LHZLÅ\LUJ`HUKHJJ\YHJ`;OL`WYLZLU[[OLPYVWPUPVUZVUHU\TILYVMPZZ\LZVMPU[LYLZ[[V[OLT
such as social and political issues, and provide structured arguments to support these opinions. They
are able to construct and develop hypotheses to explore alternative possibilities.
When appropriate, these speakers use extended discourse without unnaturally lengthy hesitation
to make their point, even when engaged in abstract elaborations. Such discourse, while coherent,
TH` Z[PSS IL PUÅ\LUJLK I` SHUN\HNL WH[[LYUZ V[OLY [OHU [OVZL VM [OL [HYNL[ SHUN\HNL :\WLYPVY
level speakers employ a variety of interactive and discourse strategies, such as turn-taking and
separating main ideas from supporting information through the use of syntactic, lexical, and
phonetic devices.
Speakers at the Superior level demonstrate no pattern of error in the use of basic structures, although
they may make sporadic errors, particularly in low-frequency structures and in complex high-
frequency structures. Such errors, if they do occur, do not distract the native interlocutor or interfere
with communication.
ADVANCED
Speakers at the Advanced level engage in conversation in a clearly participatory manner in order to
communicate information on autobiographical topics, as well as topics of community, national, or
international interest. The topics are handled concretely by means of narration and description in the
THQVY[PTLMYHTLZVMWHZ[WYLZLU[HUKM\[\YL;OLZLZWLHRLYZJHUHSZVKLHS^P[OHZVJPHSZP[\H[PVU
with an unexpected complication. The language of Advanced-level speakers is abundant, the oral
paragraph being the measure of Advanced-level length and discourse. Advanced-level speakers have
Z\ѝJPLU[JVU[YVSVMIHZPJZ[Y\J[\YLZHUKNLULYPJ]VJHI\SHY`[VIL\UKLYZ[VVKIÙH[P]LZWLHRLYZVM
the language, including those unaccustomed to non-native speech.
ADVANCED HIGH
Speakers at the Advanced High sublevel perform all Advanced-level tasks with linguistic ease,
JVUÄKLUJL HUK JVTWL[LUJL ;OL` HYL JVUZPZ[LU[S` HISL [V L_WSHPU PU KL[HPS HUK UHYYH[L M\SS` HUK
accurately in all time frames. In addition, Advanced High speakers handle the tasks pertaining to
the Superior level but cannot sustain performance at that level across a variety of topics. They
may provide a structured argument to support their opinions, and they may construct hypotheses,
but patterns of error appear. They can discuss some topics abstractly, especially those relating to
[OLPY WHY[PJ\SHY PU[LYLZ[Z HUK ZWLJPHS ÄLSKZ VM L_WLY[PZL I\[ PU NLULYHS [OL` HYL TVYL JVTMVY[HISL
discussing a variety of topics concretely.
Advanced High speakers may demonstrate a well-developed ability to compensate for an imperfect
NYHZW VM ZVTL MVYTZ VY MVY SPTP[H[PVUZ PU ]VJHI\SHY` I` [OL JVUÄKLU[ \ZL VM JVTT\UPJH[P]L
strategies, such as paraphrasing, circumlocution, and illustration. They use precise vocabulary
HUK PU[VUH[PVU [V L_WYLZZ TLHUPUN HUK VM[LU ZOV^ NYLH[ Å\LUJ` HUK LHZL VM ZWLLJO /V^L]LY
when called on to perform the complex tasks associated with the Superior level over a variety of
topics, their language will at times break down or prove inadequate, or they may avoid the task
HS[VNL[OLYMVYL_HTWSLI`YLZVY[PUN[VZPTWSPÄJH[PVU[OYV\NO[OL\ZLVMKLZJYPW[PVUVYUHYYH[PVUPU
place of argument or hypothesis.
ADVANCED MID
:WLHRLYZH[[OL(K]HUJLK4PKZ\ISL]LSHYLHISL[VOHUKSL^P[OLHZLHUKJVUÄKLUJLHSHYNLU\TILY
of communicative tasks. They participate actively in most informal and some formal exchanges on
a variety of concrete topics relating to work, school, home, and leisure activities, as well as topics
relating to events of current, public, and personal interest or individual relevance.
(K]HUJLK 4PK ZWLHRLYZ KLTVUZ[YH[L [OL HIPSP[` [V UHYYH[L HUK KLZJYPIL PU [OL THQVY [PTL MYHTLZ
of past, present, and future by providing a full account, with good control of aspect. Narration
and description tend to be combined and interwoven to relate relevant and supporting facts in
connected, paragraph-length discourse.
Advanced Mid speakers can handle successfully and with relative ease the linguistic challenges
presented by a complication or unexpected turn of events that occurs within the context of a routine
situation or communicative task with which they are otherwise familiar. Communicative strategies such
as circumlocution or rephrasing are often employed for this purpose. The speech of Advanced Mid
ZWLHRLYZWLYMVYTPUN(K]HUJLKSL]LS[HZRZPZTHYRLKI`Z\IZ[HU[PHSÅV^;OLPY]VJHI\SHY`PZMHPYS`L_[LUZP]L
although primarily generic in nature, except in the case of a particular area of specialization or interest.
;OLPYKPZJV\YZLTH`Z[PSSYLÅLJ[[OLVYHSWHYHNYHWOZ[Y\J[\YLVM[OLPYVÛSHUN\HNLYH[OLY[OHU[OH[VM[OL
target language.
Advanced Mid speakers contribute to conversations on a variety of familiar topics, dealt with concretely, with
much accuracy, clarity and precision, and they convey their intended message without misrepresentation
or confusion. They are readily understood by native speakers unaccustomed to dealing with non-natives.
When called on to perform functions or handle topics associated with the Superior level, the quality and/or
quantity of their speech will generally decline.
ADVANCED LOW
Speakers at the Advanced Low sublevel are able to handle a variety of communicative tasks. They
are able to participate in most informal and some formal conversations on topics related to school,
home, and leisure activities. They can also speak about some topics related to employment, current
events, and matters of public and community interest.
(K]HUJLK 3V^ ZWLHRLYZ KLTVUZ[YH[L [OL HIPSP[` [V UHYYH[L HUK KLZJYPIL PU [OL THQVY [PTL MYHTLZ
of past, present, and future in paragraph-length discourse with some control of aspect. In these
narrations and descriptions, Advanced Low speakers combine and link sentences into connected
discourse of paragraph length, although these narrations and descriptions tend to be handled
separately rather than interwoven. They can handle appropriately the essential linguistic challenges
presented by a complication or an unexpected turn of events.
Responses produced by Advanced Low speakers are typically not longer than a single paragraph.
The speaker’s dominant language may be evident in the use of false cognates, literal translations,
or the oral paragraph structure of that language. At times their discourse may be minimal for the
SL]LS THYRLK I` HU PYYLN\SHY ÅV^ HUK JVU[HPUPUN UV[PJLHISL ZLSMJVYYLJ[PVU 4VYL NLULYHSS` [OL
performance of Advanced Low speakers tends to be uneven.
Advanced Low speech is typically marked by a certain grammatical roughness (e.g., inconsistent
control of verb endings), but the overall performance of the Advanced-level tasks is sustained, albeit
TPUPTHSS`;OL]VJHI\SHY`VM(K]HUJLK3V^ZWLHRLYZVM[LUSHJRZZWLJPÄJP[`5L]LY[OLSLZZ(K]HUJLK
Low speakers are able to use communicative strategies such as rephrasing and circumlocution.
(K]HUJLK 3V^ ZWLHRLYZ JVU[YPI\[L [V [OL JVU]LYZH[PVU ^P[O Z\ѝJPLU[ HJJ\YHJ` JSHYP[` HUK
precision to convey their intended message without misrepresentation or confusion. Their speech
can be understood by native speakers unaccustomed to dealing with non-natives, even though
this may require some repetition or restatement. When attempting to perform functions or handle
topics associated with the Superior level, the linguistic quality and quantity of their speech will
KL[LYPVYH[LZPNUPÄJHU[S`
INTERMEDIATE
Speakers at the Intermediate level are distinguished primarily by their ability to create with the language
when talking about familiar topics related to their daily life. They are able to recombine learned material
in order to express personal meaning. Intermediate-level speakers can ask simple questions and can
handle a straightforward survival situation. They produce sentence-level language, ranging from discrete
sentences to strings of sentences, typically in present time. Intermediate-level speakers are understood
by interlocutors who are accustomed to dealing with non-native learners of the language.
INTERMEDIATE HIGH
0U[LYTLKPH[L /PNO ZWLHRLYZ HYL HISL [V JVU]LYZL ^P[O LHZL HUK JVUÄKLUJL ÔLU KLHSPUN ^P[O [OL
routine tasks and social situations of the Intermediate level. They are able to handle successfully
uncomplicated tasks and social situations requiring an exchange of basic information related to their
work, school, recreation, particular interests, and areas of competence.
Intermediate High speakers can handle a substantial number of tasks associated with the Advanced
level, but they are unable to sustain performance of all of these tasks all of the time. Intermediate
/PNO ZWLHRLYZ JHU UHYYH[L HUK KLZJYPIL PU HSS THQVY [PTL MYHTLZ \ZPUN JVUULJ[LK KPZJV\YZL VM
paragraph length, but not all the time. Typically, when Intermediate High speakers attempt to perform
Advanced-level tasks, their speech exhibits one or more features of breakdown, such as the failure to
JHYY`V\[M\SS`[OLUHYYH[PVUVYKLZJYPW[PVUPU[OLHWWYVWYPH[LTHQVY[PTLMYHTLHUPUHIPSP[`[VTHPU[HPU
paragraph-length discourse, or a reduction in breadth and appropriateness of vocabulary.
Intermediate High speakers can generally be understood by native speakers unaccustomed to
dealing with non-natives, although interference from another language may be evident (e.g., use
of code-switching, false cognates, literal translations), and a pattern of gaps in communication
may occur.
INTERMEDIATE MID
Speakers at the Intermediate Mid sublevel are able to handle successfully a variety of uncomplicated
communicative tasks in straightforward social situations. Conversation is generally limited to those
predictable and concrete exchanges necessary for survival in the target culture. These include
personal information related to self, family, home, daily activities, interests and personal preferences,
as well as physical and social needs, such as food, shopping, travel, and lodging.
Intermediate Mid speakers tend to function reactively, for example, by responding to direct questions
or requests for information. However, they are capable of asking a variety of questions when necessary
to obtain simple information to satisfy basic needs, such as directions, prices, and services. When
called on to perform functions or handle topics at the Advanced level, they provide some information
I\[OH]LKPѝJ\S[`SPURPUNPKLHZTHUPW\SH[PUN[PTLHUKHZWLJ[HUK\ZPUNJVTT\UPJH[P]LZ[YH[LNPLZ
such as circumlocution.
Intermediate Mid speakers are able to express personal meaning by creating with the language, in part
by combining and recombining known elements and conversational input to produce responses typically
consisting of sentences and strings of sentences. Their speech may contain pauses, reformulations,
and self-corrections as they search for adequate vocabulary and appropriate language forms to express
themselves. In spite of the limitations in their vocabulary and/or pronunciation and/or grammar and/or
syntax, Intermediate Mid speakers are generally understood by sympathetic interlocutors accustomed
to dealing with non-natives.
Overall, Intermediate Mid speakers are at ease when performing Intermediate-level tasks and do so
^P[OZPNUPÄJHU[X\HU[P[`HUKX\HSP[`VM0U[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSSHUN\HNL
INTERMEDIATE LOW
Speakers at the Intermediate Low sublevel are able to handle successfully a limited number of
uncomplicated communicative tasks by creating with the language in straightforward social situations.
Conversation is restricted to some of the concrete exchanges and predictable topics necessary for
survival in the target-language culture. These topics relate to basic personal information; for example,
self and family, some daily activities and personal preferences, and some immediate needs, such as
ordering food and making simple purchases. At the Intermediate Low sublevel, speakers are primarily
reactive and struggle to answer direct questions or requests for information. They are also able to
ask a few appropriate questions. Intermediate Low speakers manage to sustain the functions of the
0U[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSHS[OV\NOQ\Z[IHYLS`
Intermediate Low speakers express personal meaning by combining and recombining what they
know and what they hear from their interlocutors into short statements and discrete sentences. Their
YLZWVUZLZ HYL VM[LU ÄSSLK ^P[O OLZP[HUJ` HUK PUHJJ\YHJPLZ HZ [OL` ZLHYJO MVY HWWYVWYPH[L SPUN\PZ[PJ
forms and vocabulary while attempting to give form to the message. Their speech is characterized
I` MYLX\LU[ WH\ZLZ PULќLJ[P]L YLMVYT\SH[PVUZ HUK ZLSMJVYYLJ[PVUZ ;OLPY WYVU\UJPH[PVU ]VJHI\SHY`
HUKZÙ[H_HYLZ[YVUNS`PUÅ\LUJLKI`[OLPYÄYZ[SHUN\HNL0UZWP[LVMMYLX\LU[TPZ\UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ[OH[
may require repetition or rephrasing, Intermediate Low speakers can generally be understood by
sympathetic interlocutors, particularly by those accustomed to dealing with non-natives.
NOVICE
Novice-level speakers can communicate short messages on highly predictable, everyday topics that
HќLJ[[OLTKPYLJ[S`;OL`KVZVWYPTHYPS`[OYV\NO[OL\ZLVMPZVSH[LK^VYKZHUKWOYHZLZ[OH[OH]L
ILLU LUJV\U[LYLK TLTVYPaLK HUK YLJHSSLK 5V]PJLSL]LS ZWLHRLYZ TH` IL KPѝJ\S[ [V \UKLYZ[HUK
even by the most sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to non-native speech.
NOVICE HIGH
Speakers at the Novice High sublevel are able to handle a variety of tasks pertaining to the Intermediate
level, but are unable to sustain performance at that level. They are able to manage successfully a
number of uncomplicated communicative tasks in straightforward social situations. Conversation
is restricted to a few of the predictable topics necessary for survival in the target language culture,
Z\JO HZ IHZPJ WLYZVUHS PUMVYTH[PVU IHZPJ VIQLJ[Z HUK H SPTP[LK U\TILY VM HJ[P]P[PLZ WYLMLYLUJLZ
and immediate needs. Novice High speakers respond to simple, direct questions or requests for
information. They are also able to ask a few formulaic questions.
Novice High speakers are able to express personal meaning by relying heavily on learned phrases or
recombinations of these and what they hear from their interlocutor. Their language consists primarily
of short and sometimes incomplete sentences in the present, and may be hesitant or inaccurate.
On the other hand, since their language often consists of expansions of learned material and stock
WOYHZLZ[OL`TH`ZVTL[PTLZZV\UKZ\YWYPZPUNS`Å\LU[HUKHJJ\YH[L7YVU\UJPH[PVU]VJHI\SHY`HUK
ZÙ[H_THÌLZ[YVUNS`PUÅ\LUJLKI`[OLÄYZ[SHUN\HNL-YLX\LU[TPZ\UKLYZ[HUKPUNZTH`HYPZLI\[
with repetition or rephrasing, Novice High speakers can generally be understood by sympathetic
interlocutors used to non-natives. When called on to handle a variety of topics and perform functions
pertaining to the Intermediate level, a Novice High speaker can sometimes respond in intelligible
sentences, but will not be able to sustain sentence-level discourse.
NOVICE MID
Speakers at the Novice Mid sublevel communicate minimally by using a number of isolated words and
memorized phrases limited by the particular context in which the language has been learned. When
responding to direct questions, they may say only two or three words at a time or give an occasional
stock answer. They pause frequently as they search for simple vocabulary or attempt to recycle their
VÛHUK[OLPYPU[LYSVJ\[VY»Z^VYKZ5V]PJL4PKZWLHRLYZTHÌL\UKLYZ[VVK^P[OKPѝJ\S[`L]LUI`
sympathetic interlocutors accustomed to dealing with non-natives. When called on to handle topics
and perform functions associated with the Intermediate level, they frequently resort to repetition,
words from their native language, or silence.
NOVICE LOW
Speakers at the Novice Low sublevel have no real functional ability and, because of their pronunciation,
may be unintelligible. Given adequate time and familiar cues, they may be able to exchange greetings,
NP]L[OLPYPKLU[P[`HUKUHTLHU\TILYVMMHTPSPHYVIQLJ[ZMYVT[OLPYPTTLKPH[LLU]PYVUTLU[;OL`HYL
unable to perform functions or handle topics pertaining to the Intermediate level, and cannot therefore
participate in a true conversational exchange.
(For more information, see ACTFL 2012.)
IDEAS &
LEVELS OVERALL ACCURACY FLUENCY APPROPRIATENESS INTELLIGIBILITY
ARGUMENT
Nonwriter.
Cannot write
Beginner
in English at
all.
Very limited grasp of Can convey only
Evidence of
lexical, grammatical, Use of language very simple
few ideas with
Intermittent and relational Isolated words (including layout) meanings.
no apparent
writer. Very patterns. Little grasp or short stock minimally Concentration
Elementary development.
difficult to of conventions of phrases only. appropriateto text and constant
Little apparent
follow. punctuation and Very short text. type, function, and verification
coherence to the
spelling and use of communicative goal. necessary on the
text.
cohesive devices. part of the reader.
from the IELTS test [Paltridge 1992])
Limited range of
Texts may Use of language
ideas expressed. Limited grasp of
be simple, generally appropriate
Development lexical, grammatical,
showing little to function, text type,
may be restricted and relational Can convey basic
Limited writer. development. and communicative
and often patterns and use of meanings, although
Intermediate Rather difficult Limited goal within a limited
incomplete cohesive devices. with some diffi-
to follow. structures and range of text types.
or unclear. Weaknesses in culty.
vocabulary. Layout generally
Information is punctuation and/or
Little subtlety appropriate to text
not arranged spelling.
and flexibility. type.

coherently.
Moderate Texts show
Moderate
writer. Moderate grasp of increased Broadly able to
range of ideas Use of language
Fairly easy lexical, grammatical, development. convey meanings,
Upper- expressed. Topic generally appropriate
to read and and relational Writes with although errors
Intermediate development is to function, text type,
understand. patterns and use of a fair range can interfere with
present, but may and communicative
Texts generally cohesive devices and variety of communication.
still lack
well organised. language.
APPENDIX 2 Description of performance levels; writing (adapted by Paltridge
some detail enabling the expres- Moderate level goal within a moderate
and supporting sion of a broader of subtlety and range of text types.
statements. range of meanings flexibility. Textual organisation
Information and relationships and layout generally
is generally between those appropriate to text
arranged meanings. type.
coherently. Occasional faults
in punctuation and
spelling.
Good range and Can generally
Competent grasp
progression of write
of lexical and
ideas expressed spontaneously Use of language
grammatical
and coherently on general generally appropriate
Competent patterns, although Communicates
arranged, topics. to function, text type,
writer. Easy to problems may meanings
although Competent use and communicative
read from start still occur with effectively.
Advanced there may still of a range of goal within a range
to finish. Texts punctuation Only occasional
be isolated grammatical of text types. Textual
generally well and spelling. interference due to
problems. Ideas structures and organisation and
organised. Relationships within errors.
and evidence vocabulary. layout appropriate to
and between pro-
are relevant, but Competent text type.
positions generally
more detail may level of subtlety
well managed.
still be desirable. and flexibility.
Good writer. Confident and Writes well on
Good range of Communicates
Can write generally accurate general topics
relevant ideas Use of language meanings
well within use of lexical and on matters
are coherently mainly appropriate to competently and
general and and grammatical relevant to own
expressed. function, text type, and effectively;
own special patterns, special purpose
Evidence is communicative goal qualified
Special purpose cohesive devices, interests.
presented and within a good range intelligibility in
Purpose areas. Able punctuation, Good range of
discussed. Where of text types. Textual certain special
to produce and spelling. grammatical
appropriate, a organisation and layout purpose areas. Can
organised, Relationships structures and
point of view is appropriate to text generally be under
coherent, within and between vocabulary,
presented and type. stood without any
and cohesive propositions well subtlety, and
developed. difficulty.
discourse. managed. flexibility.
APPENDIX 3 Some common text types
Advertisements Lists
Announcements Manuals
Autobiographies Maps and legends
Biographies Memoranda
Book reviews/reports Menus
Brochures Myths
Business letters Newspaper articles
Catalogs News reports
Conversations Notes and messages
Diaries Notices
Dictionaries Pamphlets
Directions Personal descriptions
Discussions Personal letters
Editorials Personal recounts
Emails Poems
Essays Postcards
Encylopedias Posters
Explanations of how and why Product information
Expositions/expository texts Questionnaires
Fables and fairy tales Recipes
Feature articles Rules
Film reviews Short stories
Forms Signs
Formal letters Songs
Informational reports Stories
Instructions Telephone conversations
Interviews Timetables
1VRLZHUKYPKKSLZ Weather reports
1V\YUHSZ
3LHÅL[Z
APPENDIX 4 Designing a course from texts (from Burns and Joyce 1997)*
STEP DISCUSSION AND EXAMPLES
1 Identify the overall context University: course focus is preparing students for
study at university
2 Develop an aim To develop the spoken and written language skills
required to undertake university study
3 Note the language event sequence These could include:
within the context • enrolling at university
• discussing course selection
• attending lectures
• attending tutorials
• using the library
• reading reference books
• writing essays
• writing reports
• undertaking examinations
• participating in casual conversations
4 List the texts arising from the sequence These could include:
• enrollment forms
• service encounter – selecting courses
• lectures
• tutorial discussions
• service encounter – library enquiry
• Range of possible written texts, for example:
– discipline-specific essays
– discipline-specific reports
• Range of possible reading texts, for example:
– discipline-specific journal articles
– discipline-specific books
– library catalogues
– lecture notes
• examination papers
• genres within casual conversation
(e.g., anecdote)
5 Outline the sociocultural knowledge Students need knowledge about:
students need • academic institutions
• academic procedures and expectations
• the role of the student
(continued)
STEP DISCUSSION AND EXAMPLES

6 Record or gather samples of texts • Written texts:
Gather examples of essays, catalogues, journals etc.
• Spoken texts:
You may need to:
– find available recordings
– prepare some semi-scripted dialogues yourself
– record authentic interactions
7 Develop units of work related to the Classroom tasks should be sequenced within units of
texts and develop learning objectives work to provide students with:
to be achieved • explicit input
• guided practice
• an opportunity to perform independently
* Extract adapted from Focus on Speaking by A. Burns and H. Joyce (1997) with permission from the
National Centre for English Language Teaching and Research (NCELTR), Australia. ©Macquarie
University.
CASE STUDY 11 Developing a content-based course

Lindsay Miller
Sports Culture and Society is a 3-credit General Education (GE) course that any undergraduate
Z[\KLU[ PU [OL *P[` <UP]LYZP[` VM /VUN 2VUN JHU [HRL PU VYKLY [V M\SÄS [OLPY KLNYLL YLX\PYLTLU[Z
Altogether, students must take 9 credits of GE courses during their four-year degree programme.
They need to take one course from each of three areas: Area 1: Arts and Humanities; Area 2: Study
of Societies, Social and Business Organization; and Area 3: Science and Technology. Sports Culture
HUK :VJPL[` PZ ^P[OPU (YLH ., JV\YZLZ ¸PU LZZLUJL H\NTLU[Z HUK YV\UKZ V\[ [OL ZWLJPHSPZLK
[YHPUPUN Z[\KLU[Z ^PSS YLJLP]L PU [OLPY THQVYZ I` LUHISPUN [OLT [V HJOPL]L H IYLHK[O VM RUV^SLKNL
through exposure to multiple disciplines. GE is the glue that holds disciplines together. GE is the core
of an undergraduate education. It is ‘general’ in that GE provides students with a comprehensive
educational experience and prepares them for lifelong learning; it promotes intellectual curiosity and
a love of learning” (EDGE 2015).

The main goals of the course are to:
a) Apply the basic theoretical approaches in the field of sports theory.
b) Examine critically issues related to sports and develop higher-order thinking skills by
doing so.
c) Identify elements of sports in daily experiences and practices using a communicative

and collaborative format for information exchange.
d) Compare and contrast different approaches from multiple disciplines to understand

sports as a social phenomenon.
e) Interpret both local and global perspectives on sports.

(Course Documents 2015)

Sports, Culture and Society was co-developed and is team-taught by an applied linguist from the
English Department and a sports psychologist from the Applied Social Sciences Department. Content
was paramount when developing the course. Both tutors researched what they considered to be
interesting content, and the course was then developed around this content. Although the course
was content driven, the applied linguist ensured that the material was accessible to second language
Z[\KLU[ZTVZ[S`/VUN2VUN*OPULZLSLHYULYZ^P[O*HU[VULZLHZ[OLPYÄYZ[SHUN\HNLI\[^P[OHML^
European exchange students in each class also), and where appropriate supplementary handouts
were prepared, for instance vocabulary lists of technical terms. The course did not have an English
language focus (i.e. we did not explicitly teach language), although all the material was presented
in English, students were encouraged to have their in-class discussions in English, and a small
percentage of the course grade was given for each student’s oral presentation. This type of course
often has a zero grammar approach (Ellis 1999) whereby students rely on their existing knowledge of
the language in order to make sense of the content.
Sports Communication is a vast area, and so a lot of selection was needed in respect of topics and
materials. This selection was based on themes which had universal interest, e.g. the use of drugs
in sports; media coverage, e.g. the social lives of sports people; and topics which could be directly
related to the students’ lives, e.g. fashion in sport.

,HJO JV\YZL PU [OL \UP]LYZP[` PZ VќLYLK V]LY H ^LLR ZLTLZ[LY ;OYLL ^LLRZ VM [OPZ JV\YZL PZ
taken up with a Reading Week, which allows students time to catch up with their readings and
JVTWSL[LVULVM[OLJV\YZLHZZPNUTLU[ZHUK[^V^LLRZH[[OLLUKVM[OLJV\YZLMVYNYV\WWYVQLJ[
WYLZLU[H[PVUZ>LZ[PSSTHUHNL[VJV]LYHYV\UK[VWPJZLHJO[PTL[OLJV\YZLPZVќLYLK
As can be seen from the following table, the course is theme based, and each week one or two main
topics are covered. The lessons are team taught, although one of the tutors will take the lead in giving
the mini-lectures. In weeks 3 and 4 the students are divided into two large groups of 30. One group
attends a class on the culture of the gym, while the other class has a practical class on dancing. The
following week the groups swap over.
WEEK THEME TUTOR

1 Introduction: theory of sports communication Lindsay & Ben
2 The History of Sport Lindsay
Fashion in Sport
3 The Culture of the Gym/Dance Ben/Lindsay
4 The Culture of the Gym/Dance Ben/Lindsay
5 Gender in Sport Ben
6 The Media Lindsay
7 READING WEEK
8 Issue of Race and Equality in Sport (hand in Assignment 1 – Film Review) Ben
9 Benefits, Commercialisation & Advertising Lindsay
10 Disability Sports Ben
11 Review Ben/Lindsay
12 PROJECT PRESENTATIONS Lindsay & Ben
13 PROJECT PRESENTATIONS Lindsay & Ben
(hand in Assignment 2 – Reflection)

The learning goals are achieved by using a progressive teaching pedagogy (Peters 2012; Miller 2015).
The course is organized around a series of mini-lectures, online readings, and in-class discussion with
feedback. In such a way, the students’ vertical learning is complemented with their horizontal input
(Bernstein 1999). That is, the lectures give students the essential information they need in order to
discuss and debate relevant questions raised in each lesson (vertical learning), while the students’
own experiences and opinions add the horizontal element to the course.
This type of pedagogy aims to enhance students’ communication skills and allows them to take
on more responsibility for their learning. With a team-teaching approach, students’ group work is
constantly monitored as both tutors circulate in the class during the group discussion sessions to
assist with ideas and vocabulary, and to encourage critical discussions.

In order to engage our students with the course, we use a mixture of multi-modal texts in each lesson.
These texts often come from the Internet, and we make references to online blogs, YouTube, and online
texts, e.g. newspapers and magazines. Some core texts, like Sports in Society (Coakley 2009); The
Business of Sports (Rosner and Shropshire 2011); and Strategic Sports Communication (Pedersen,
Miloch, and Laucella, 2007) are used by the tutors to inform their lectures, but these expensive texts
are not required readings for the students. On the basis of the input mini-lectures, students are then
given discussion questions, presented on PowerPoint, in each class such as in the following examples:
>LLR!0U[YVK\J[PVU
1. What were your PE lessons at secondary school like?
2. Were you a good sports person?
3. What positive or negative experiences have you had from playing sports?
4. Do you like maintaining the status quo in sports, or would you like to see changes?
5. Do some people get more advantages from sports than others? Is this fair?
>LLR!;OL/PZ[VY`VM:WVY[-HZOPVUPU:WVY[
1. /VÔH]LJOHUNLZ[VZVJPL[`HќLJ[LK[OL^H`^L]PL^HUKWSH`ZWVY[ZUV^HKH`Z&
2. What is the value of sports?
3. /V^LHZ`VYKPѝJ\S[PZP[[VKLÄULWSH`NHTLZHUKZWVY[Z&
4. Why is the social context important to consider when talking about sports?
5. (YL`V\PUÅ\LUJLKI`MHZOPVUPU[OLZWVY[ZJSV[OLZ`V\I\`&
:[\KLU[ZHYLHSZVYLX\PYLK[VKVYLZLHYJOYLHKPUNZVUSPULVYPU[OLSPIYHY`MVY[OLPYNYV\WWYVQLJ[([
the end of their presentations, students have to show a list of their references.
:KDWGLτFXOWLHVGLG\RXH[SHULHQFHLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
In developing a content-based course, the content will always pose some problems. There are many
topics and themes in Sports Communication and the course cannot cover them all. At the end of
each course, the students’ feedback usually suggests some other areas they would have liked to
be included in the course (e.g. extreme sports). The course content can be changed each semester
[VYLÅLJ[J\YYLU[PZZ\LZPU[OLUL^ZI\[^L[YÙV[[VJOHUNL[OLJV\YZLJVU[LU[[VVT\JOHZ[OL
Z[\KLU[Z»MLLKIHJRVM[LUYLÅLJ[ZWLYZVUHSWYLMLYLUJLZ
;OL V[OLY THPU PZZ\L ^P[O HU` ., JV\YZL PZ [OH[ Z[\KLU[Z JVTL MYVT KPќLYLU[ KLWHY[TLU[Z MYVT
KPќLYLU[ `LHYZ HUK OH]L KPќLYLU[ 3 WYVÄJPLUJPLZ -L^ VM [OL Z[\KLU[Z RUV^ LHJO V[OLY H[ [OL
beginning of the semester. This can cause some problems when using a content-based approach
to teach L2 students, as a lot of the coursework is based on group discussions, and therefore they
have to deal with the social aspects of forming groups and the potential language barriers that may
HYPZLILJH\ZLVMZ[\KLU[Z»KPќLYPUNSHUN\HNLSL]LSZPULHJONYV\W0UVYKLY[VIYLHRKVÛZVTLVM
these barriers and help students get to know each other better, a dance class was introduced into
the course. One of the tutors is also a Scottish country dance teacher, and so the students are given
H SLZZVU VU OV^ [V KHUJL ;OPZ [`WL VM ZVJPHS KHUJPUN ÔPJO Z[\KLU[Z HYL H[[LTW[PUN MVY [OL ÄYZ[
time, means that they have to work together to help each other complete the dances. It is also a
NVVKSLHYUPUNL_WLYPLUJLÔPJOMLLKZPU[V[OLNYV\WWYVQLJ[HZ[OLPUZ[Y\J[PVUZZ[\KLU[ZWYLWHYLMVY
[OLPYUL^NHTLZLLILSVÔH]L[VILJSLHYHUKHJJ\YH[L;OL[VWPJVMKHUJLHSZVÄ[ZUPJLS`PU[V[OL
course content. We have found that after week 4, students work well together and with their tutors.

There are four aspects to the course assessment. This is in line with the overall university guidelines
that students should have a variety of assessment which can be both individual and group oriented.
1. 0UKP]PK\HS^YP[[LUHZZPNUTLU[!:[\KLU[Z^YP[LH¶^VYKÄSTYL]PLÎHZLKVUHTV]PL
with a sporting theme (30%).
2. .YV\WWYLZLU[H[PVUHUKWYVQLJ[Z!:[\KLU[Z^VYRPUNYV\WZVMMV\Y[VKLZPNUHUKKL]LSVWHUL^
NHTLVYTVKPM`HUL_PZ[PUNVUL;OLUL^VYTVKPÄLKNHTLZOV\SKHKKYLZZZVTLZVJPHSHUK
or cultural issues related to the participants it has been designed for, for instance, a new activity
for the elderly who use wheelchairs. Each group has 25 minutes to present their ideas and/or
KLTVUZ[YH[L[OLPYNHTLVY]PKLV[V[OLJSHZZH[[OLLUKVM[OLJV\YZL;OLWYVQLJ[PZNYHKLKVU
content (30%) and individual oral performance (10%).
3. Critical reflections: Students keep a weekly diary based on answers to questions posted on
the course management website (Canvas). At the end of the semester, they write a short
(1,000-word) critically reflective essay on what they have learnt from the course (20%).
4. Participation: Students are encouraged to attend all classes and to contribute to the in-class
tutorial discussion sessions (10%).
References
Bernstein, B. 1999. Vertical and horizontal discourse: An essay. British Journal of Sociology of
Education 20(2): 157–173.
*VHRSL`1 Sports in society (tenth edition). Boston: McGraw Hill Higher Education.
Course Documents. 2015. Sports, Culture and Society (Form 2B). Available at: www.english.cityu.
edu.hk/en/programmes/courses/
,+., 6ѝJL VM ,K\JH[PVU +L]LSVWTLU[ HUK .H[L^H` ,K\JH[PVU *P[` <UP]LYZP[` VM /VUN
Kong. Available at: www.cityu.edu.hk/edge/.
Ellis, R. 1999. Making the classroom acquisition-rich. In R. Ellis (ed.), Learning a second language
through interaction(TZ[LYKHT!1VOU)LUQHTPUZ¶
Miller, L. 2015. Sports communication as a way to develop critical competencies in the L2 classroom.
RELC Journal 46(1): 89–104.
Pedersen, P. M., K. S. Miloch, and P. C. Laucella. 2007. Strategic sports communication. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics.
7L[LYZ . +PќLYLUJL IL[^LLU [YHKP[PVUHS HUK WYVNYLZZP]L LK\JH[PVU (]HPSHISL H[! ^^^
wingraschool.org/who/progressive.htm
Rosner, S. R., and K. L. Shropshire. 2011. The business of sports ZLJVUKLKP[PVU:\KI\Y`!1VULZ
& Bartlett Learning.
3PUKZH`4PSSLYPZ(ZZVJPH[L7YVMLZZVYPU[OL+LWHY[TLU[VM,UNSPZOH[*P[`<UP]LYZP[`VM/VUN2VUN/L
has been responsible for designing, developing and teaching a wide variety of ESP courses. Lindsay’s
main areas of research have focused on self-access language learning and academic listening, and he
has co-authored two books in these areas for Cambridge University Press, Establishing Self-Access:
From Theory To Practice HUK Second Language Listening: Theory and Practice
and another for City University Press, Managing Self-Access Language Learning
CASE STUDY 12 A CLIL course: The Thinking Lab Science

Rosa Bergadà
The Thinking Lab Science teaches science content through English in the context of a small rural
school in the village of Torà in Catalonia, Spain. In this course students discover the world of science
through a series of modules for CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) or bilingual
education programmes in primary and lower secondary schools. Each module focuses on a unique
science topic, such as ‘Ecosystems’, ‘Too much waste’, ‘Flowering plants’.
The course integrates language and science curricular content, on the one hand, and on the other,
an approach which combines the most innovative teaching practices of science and the teaching of
English from a communicative perspective.
The CLIL theoretical frame includes four contextualized sections, known as the 4 Cs: content
(curricular content), communication (the use and knowledge of language), cognition (the cognitive
processes involved in the learning process) and culture (intercultural knowledge and citizenship).
The motto of the course is ‘Think, Do, Communicate and Feel Science’, which summarizes the
philosophy of the course. ‘Think’ promotes thinking skills. Students, working cooperatively, not only
understand concepts but also apply them, and create and evaluate new situations. ‘Do’ refers to
SLHYUPUNI`KVPUNVIZLY]PUNL_WLYPTLU[PUNHUKPU]LZ[PNH[PUNPU[OLÄLSKVMZJPLUJLº*VTT\UPJH[L»
LTWOHZPaLZZ[\KLU[Z»JHWHJP[`[VL_WYLZZ[OLTZLS]LZPUHZJPLU[PÄJTHUULYI`KLZJYPIPUNJVU[YHZ[PUN
O`WV[OLZPaPUNQ\Z[PM`PUNL[J>P[OYLNHYK[Vº-LLS»[OLPKLHPZ[VZL[[OLZJPLU[PÄJRUV^SLKNLJSVZLY[V
the students’ context, and thus to promote motivation and to increase students’ interest in learning
and discovering the world around them.

;OL JV\YZL HPTZ [V HJOPL]L H TVYL LќLJ[P]L KÙHTPJ HUK LUYPJOPUN HWWYVHJO ÔLU [LHJOPUN
curricular content, science, through English as a foreign language. Each module brings students’
WYL]PV\ZRUV^SLKNLHUKYLHSL_WLYPLUJLZPU[V[OLJSHZZYVVT"\ZPUNKPќLYLU[WLKHNVNPJHSZ[YH[LNPLZ
the course aims to help pupils to develop thinking skills and not only to construct their own models
VM RUV^SLKNL I\[ HSZV [V JVUZVSPKH[L [OL ULÎ\PS[ TVKLSZ HUK HWWS` [OLT PU KPќLYLU[ JVU[L_[Z
ÔPSLKPZJV]LYPUN[OLUH[\YHS^VYSK:[\KLU[ZSLHYUHIV\[UH[\YHSWOLUVTLUHMYVTHTVYLZJPLU[PÄJ
perspective.
;OLSLHYUPUNVIQLJ[P]LZHYLTHKLL]PKLU[[VZ[\KLU[ZH[[OLILNPUUPUNVMLHJOTVK\SL;OLW\YWVZLPZ
to make the teaching-learning process as well as the assessment criteria implemented throughout the
modules meaningful to learners. This process also promotes both collaborative learning and students’
autonomy. Students learn cognitive academic language in a foreign language (English).

The course is well organized, but when developing the course there were some key aspects to
JVUZPKLY;OLÄYZ[VM[OLZLPZ[PTPUN(JJVYKPUN[V[OLZ[\KLU[Z[VÔPJO[OLTVK\SLPZHKKYLZZLK
teachers should be careful when considering the number of sessions to devote to each activity
because of CLIL’s double purpose, the learning of both language and content. The fact that the
course is delivered in a language that students do not master implies extra time in the whole teaching-
learning process. Moreover, the innovative science approach in which the concepts are introduced
PTWSPLZRLLWPUNHUH[\YHSWHJLPU[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VM[OLZLZZPVUZZV[OH[W\WPSZJHULUQV`KVPUN
learning and communicating science.
The second issue to consider is that teachers need to have the all necessary resources at hand. They
need to plan in advance what material will be needed for each activity, especially in two of the stages
described below, ‘discovering’ and ‘creating’.
The last aspect to bear in mind is the need to plan in terms of language so that students are able
to communicate in the target language. This planning occurs on three levels: language of (the What:
Content), language for (How to: metacognition & grammar system) and language through (The Why:
Cognition, thinking skills, new knowledge).

;OL JV\YZL PU[LNYH[LZ H WHWLY IVVR H ÄLSK IVVR ÔPJO PZ VUL VM [OL Z[\KLU[Z» [VVSZ HUK VUSPUL
TH[LYPHSZIHZLKVU[OLÄLSKIVVR;OLYVSLVM[OLVUSPULTH[LYPHSZPZKL[LYTPUHU[MVYZ[\KLU[ZSLHYUPUN
autonomously. They can enter the platform and check if some of the activities done in the paper book
HYLKVULHZL_WLJ[LK;OLVUSPUL]LYZPVUHSZVVќLYZZ[\KLU[Z[OLWVZZPIPSP[`VMSPZ[LUPUN[V[L_[ZHUK
thereby improving their own oral production.
Teachers can keep track of the students’ logins in the platform and evaluate them.
)V[O[OLWHWLYIVVRHUK[OLVUSPULTH[LYPHSZHYLWYLZLU[LK\ZPUNÄ]LJVSV\YJVKLKISVJRZ;OLZL
indicate the following stages in the learning process: Starting (blue), Discovering (green), Structuring
(yellow), Creating (red), My portfolio, Vocabulary and paper cut-outs (purple).
The course modules start with an introduction where two main characters, real students in a school,
explain the stages in which the learning process will develop throughout the module. They consider four
main stages: starting, discovering, structuring and creating. Language support is provided in all stages.
• Starting – A video sets the topic. The scenario is always a classroom in a school, where a lesson
is in progress. In the video, a case for study is presented which generates students’ questions.
;OLX\LZ[PVUZ^PSSIL[OLZ[HY[PUNWVPU[MYVTÔPJO[OLTVK\SL^PSSKL]LSVWPUVYKLY[VÄUK[OL
JVYYLJ[HUKZJPLU[PÄJHUZ^LYZ[V[OLX\LZ[PVUZ;OLHJ[P]P[PLZPU[OPZZLJ[PVUOLSWZ[\KLU[ZYL]PZL
their prior knowledge of the topic.
• Discovering – At this stage new concepts are introduced and students’ thinking skills challenged.
It involves students’ cooperative work, games, readings, observations and some investigations.
The activities conclude with a rounding-up text called ‘We have learned that …’ which
summarizes the new facts discovered that are the core of the learning process and that should
WYV]PKLHZJPLU[PÄJHUZ^LY[V[OLPUP[PHSX\LZ[PVUZ;OPZPZ[OLSVUNLZ[ZLJ[PVUVM[OLJV\YZLHUK
the one that takes most time in the teaching-learning process.
• Structuring – This stage helps students mentally organize the newly introduced concepts. A
mind map, as a graphic organizer, is the tool used in this stage. Students should also be able to
give answers to the initial questions that arose in the Starting section.
• Creating – Once the new knowledge has been acquired, students should be able to apply it
to new situations, that is, to give evidence that the learning in the Discovering stage has been
consolidated. During this stage some problems and new contexts are given to students. They
should be able to solve them and to create new proposals.

The course focuses on learner-centred instruction in most of the activities. The teacher becomes an
VIZLY]HU[N\PKLHUKMHJPSP[H[VYÔVSLHKZ[OLZLZZPVUHUKOLSWZV]LYJVTLKPѝJ\S[PLZ
0U[OLÄYZ[[^VZ[HNLZVM[OLTVK\SL[OLYLHYLHSV[VMVYHSX\LZ[PVUHUKHUZ^LYPUN[HZRZZPUJL[OL
W\YWVZLVMIV[OZ[HNLZPZMVY[LHJOLYZ[VÄUKV\[Z[\KLU[Z»WYPVYRUV^SLKNLHUKLUJV\YHNLZ[\KLU[Z
[VYLÅLJ[VU[OL[HZRZ
As science itself demands, collaborative work is a goal in most of the activities, which must be carried
V\[\ZPUNZL]LYHSJVVWLYH[P]L[LJOUPX\LZZ\JOHZKPHTVUKUPULQPNZH^YLHKPUNL[J7YHJ[PJHSHUK
meaningful investigations and observations are included in the module, too. These kinds of activities
are encountered particularly in the second stage of the module where students ‘discover’ new
content and concepts. Pair work and individual work are used in activities which require a more
ZWLJPÄJSLHYUPUNZ[`SLMVYL_HTWSLÔLUYLÅLJ[PUNVU[OLUL^S`HJX\PYLKJVUJLW[ZVYÔLUKVPUN
the online activities.
(Z H YLJHWWPUN HUK YV\UKPUN\W HJ[P]P[` H TPUK THW VќLY Z[\KLU[Z ]PZ\HS PUMVYTH[PVU VU HSS [OL
introduced content. Sometimes games help students consolidate the new knowledge, too.
0U[OLÄUHSZ[HNLVM[OLTVK\SLZ[\KLU[ZT\Z[^VYRJVVWLYH[P]LS`[VJVTWSL[LHJOHSSLUNPUNWYVQLJ[
in which they must demonstrate that the learning has been meaningfully achieved.

=PZ\HSZWSH`HJY\JPHSYVSLILJH\ZLVM[OL*303HWWYVHJO7VZ[LYZÅHZOJHYKZHUKPU[LYHJ[P]LZPT\SH[PVUZ
are a must. They support language and make content comprehensible.
;VOH]LHNVVKZWVRLUTVKLSOLSWZZ[\KLU[Z»VYHSWYVK\J[PVUHUKWYVTV[LZYLHKPUN^P[OÅ\LUJ`
Investigations also support understanding of the activity, even for weak learners. Materials help cater
MVYKPќLYLU[SL]LSZVMHIPSP[`
Happily, the course was carefully designed and the sections in it thoughtfully planned, which eases
the whole teaching-learning process. All steps are clearly explained and provide advice on how to
PTWSLTLU[ [OL HJ[P]P[PLZ /V^L]LY PM HU` KPѝJ\S[` ZOV\SK IL TLU[PVULK [OH[ ^V\SK IL [OL THQVY
concern about timing. Experimenting and investigating often need time and may slow the average
rhythm of the sessions; likewise, the fact that whole lessons are conducted in a foreign language
(the use of English means that the teacher must employ resources and strategies such as repetition,
paraphrasing, revision, and extra language support). These appear to be basic requirements in order
for pupils to acquire and consolidate new knowledge through English. Again these activities might at
times be time-consuming, especially depending on the level of autonomy and capacity of the students.

The Thinking Lab considers the assessment principles established by the Assessment Reform Group
(ZZLZZTLU[ PZ PU[LNYH[LK HZ WHY[ VM HU LќLJ[P]L WSHUUPUN VM [OL [LHJOPUNSLHYUPUN WYVJLZZ
It has its own section in the course called ‘My Science Portfolio’ in which students keep a record of
[OLPYSLHYUPUN0[PUJS\KLZÄ]LHJ[P]P[PLZ!
1. 6IQLJ[P]LZHUKHJ[P]P[PLZ0U[OPZWVY[MVSPVZ[\KLU[ZOH]L[VTHRLL_WSPJP[ÔPJOHJ[P]P[PLZVM[OL
TVK\SLJV]LY[OLSLHYUPUNVIQLJ[P]LZ
2. Portfolio cards. Under ‘personal and individual opinion’, students note down the most important
activity, the most challenging activity, their feelings (I’m proud of …HUKÄUHSS`[OLPYWYVNYLZZPU
knowledge development (At the beginning I thought that … Now I know that …).
3. Final test. This is to record the mark, comments and improvement.
4. Peer-assessment and oral presentation. A rubric is used as the assessing tool.
5. Self-assessment. ‘What do I know? What can I do?’ Students tick graded boxes alongside a
series of ‘I can …’ statements. Students are also asked to make a note of things they want to
improve on in the future.
Assessment always has an impact on students, and that’s why some of the activities described above
have emotional and constructive elements. The assessment activities in this course make evident
Z[\KLU[Z»HJOPL]LTLU[ZKL]LSVWZ[\KLU[Z»JHWHJP[`MVYZLSMHZZLZZTLU[HUKWYVTV[LYLÅLJ[PVUHUK
autonomy. Finally, assessment is intended to be a constructive guide so that students know how to
improve themselves under teacher supervision.
Reference
Assessment Reform Group. 2012. Assessment for Learning: Research-based principles to guide
JSHZZYVVTWYHJ[PJL(ZZLZZTLU[9LMVYT.YV\W3LHÅL[+VÛSVHKHISLMYVT!^^^HZZLZZTLU[
reform-group.org.uk
Rosa Bergadà is an English language and CLIL teacher and teacher-trainer, who also specializes
in Maths and Science teaching. She holds a postgraduate degree in ICT and foreign language
[LHJOPUN:OL^HZNYHU[LKWHPKZ[\K`SLH]LI`[OL*H[HSHU.V]LYUTLU[[V^VYRVUKL]LSVWPUN*303
ZJPLUJLTH[LYPHSPU[OL<2:OLJVSSHIVYH[LZVU[OLKLZPNUVMVUSPUL,UNSPZOSHUN\HNLTH[LYPHS^P[O
the Catalan Department of Education. She is a co-author of a coursebook for Cambridge University
Press. She has also written several articles on CLIL for Spanish educational magazines.
CASE STUDY 13 A pre-university course for international students in Australia

Phil Chappell
This is a pre-university course for international students in Australia who are undertaking a Diploma
in Business Studies as a pathway to an undergraduate degree. A requirement of the diploma course
PZ[OH[[OLZ[\KLU[ZZ\JJLZZM\SS`JVTWSL[L[^VHJHKLTPJSP[LYHJ`Z\IQLJ[ZÔPJOHYLJYLKP[ILHYPUN
Many of the students have already undertaken an EAP course at the University language centre,
and therefore the focus of the course is less on learning the formal and communicative properties of
SHUN\HNL HUK TVYL VU [OL ZWLJPÄJ ZRPSSZ YLSH[LK [V YLHKPUN HUK ^YP[PUN MVY HJHKLTPJ Z\JJLZZ PU H
\UP]LYZP[`ZL[[PUN0HTYLMLYYPUN[V[OLÄYZ[SL]LSVM[OPZ[^VSL]LSZ\IQLJ[PU[OPZJHZLZ[\K`

The course goals are quite explicit. They are linked to students successfully achieving learning
outcomes based on a set of academic literacy skills required for studying at undergraduate level in
business disciplines. These include:
• identifying relevant research-based texts and critically evaluating their quality and relevance;
• \UKLYZ[HUKPUN[OLNLULYPJHUKSPUN\PZ[PJJVU]LU[PVUZVM[OLZL[L_[ZPUVYKLY[VLќLJ[P]LS`HUK
LѝJPLU[S`SVJH[LYLSL]HU[PUMVYTH[PVU^P[OPU[OLT"
• evaluating a range of perspectives on a topic, synthesising the key themes;
• developing comprehensive notes and producing succinct outlines and full texts for a report on a
chosen topic;
• HWWS`PUNLќLJ[P]LLKP[PUNZRPSSZ[VHJOPL]LHOPNOX\HSP[`ÄUHSKYHM[

;OL JV\YZL ^HZ KL]LSVWLK PU JVUZ\S[H[PVU ^P[O HJHKLTPJ Z[Hќ ^P[OPU [OL \UP]LYZP[` HZ ^LSS HZ
experienced tutors in the academic literacy section of the college. The course was planned to cover
[^VRL`HJHKLTPJNLUYLZ¶9LWVY[PUNHUK(YN\PUN9LWVY[PUNPZ[OLJVUJLYUVM[OLZ\IQLJ[YLWVY[LK
VU OLYL HUK ZHTWSL HZZPNUTLU[Z HUK NYHKLK YLWVY[Z MYVT ÄYZ[`LHY \UP]LYZP[` Z\IQLJ[Z ^LYL
analysed to inform the academic literacy curriculum. Importantly, the marking criteria developed by
HJHKLTPJSLJ[\YLZ^LYLTHKLL_WSPJP[PU[OLTH[LYPHSZ[VWYV]PKLHZLUZLVMH\[OLU[PJP[`[V[OLZ\IQLJ[
Ethics approval was obtained to use marked reports as teaching materials.
;OL ZLX\LUJPUN VM [OL Z\IQLJ[ [OYV\NO WHYHSSLS Z[YLHTZ VM YLHKPUN HUK ^YP[PUN ^HZ HJOPL]LK I`
considering the relationships between reading and writing in Stream A, with a focus on reading, and
the academic literacy practices for preparing academic reports in Stream B. This was planned at
[OLZHTL[PTLHZ[OLZLJVUKZ\IQLJ[PU]VS]PUN[OLNLUYLVM(YN\PUN;OLYLMVYL[^V^LLRZ`SSHIP
were developed that involved three-hour workshops, divided by time into Stream A (90 minutes) and
Stream B (90 minutes).
:[\KLU[ MLLKIHJR PU [OL ÄYZ[ [^V ZLZZPVUZ [OH[ [OL Z\IQLJ[ ^HZ Y\U ^HZ JY\JPHS PU YL]PZPUN HUK
reworking particular elements of the syllabus. Notably, students favoured the workshop sessions of
Stream B, and therefore more time was allocated to these practical sessions, and some additional
out-of-class work was assigned to ensure the areas of Stream A were adequately covered.

As mentioned above, organizational principles guiding the course were based on the academic
literacy skills required for tertiary studies. In each of 13 weeks, there was a particular business theme
HUKHMVJ\ZVUZWLJPÄJYLHKPUNHUK^YP[PUNWYHJ[PJLZPU:[YLHT(HUKWYHJ[PJHS^VYRVUWYVK\JPUN
written text in Stream B. For example, in Stream A one week involved the practices of locating
PUMVYTH[PVUYLWVY[Z[OYV\NOVUSPULKH[HIHZLZJP[PUN[L_[ZHWWYVWYPH[LS`PKLU[PM`PUNZWLJPÄJKL[HPSZPU
information reports and synthesizing those details in written form through paraphrasing and quoting.
In Stream B, the workshop activities are to locate, cite, summarize and synthesize information from
a range of information reports.

;OL Z\IQLJ[ ^HZ WSHUULK ^P[O H ]PL^ [OH[ HJHKLTPJ SP[LYHJ` WYHJ[PJLZ HYL ILZ[ SLHYULK [OYV\NO
modelling and guiding the students through a range of skills and practices involving academic texts.
;LHJOPUNZ[YH[LNPLZ^LYLIHZLKVUWYPUJPWSLZVMZJHќVSKPUNN\PKPUNHUKTVKLSSPUN3LHYUPUNHJ[P]P[PLZ
were collaborative and stressed the principle of ownership – the students were expected to use the
support to develop their own set of practices for successful academic literacy.
When texts were modelled, I used the principles of the teaching/learning cycle from the Australian
genre school. This involves four main stages (Chappell and Moore 2012):
• )\PSKPUNRUV^SLKNLVMÄLSK
• Modelling of text
• 1VPU[JVUZ[Y\J[PVUVM[L_[
• Independent construction of text

7\ISPZOLKH\[OLU[PJTH[LYPHSZWSH`H]LY`PTWVY[HU[YVSLPU[OLZ\IQLJ[(Z[OPZPZ[OLÄUHSVWWVY[\UP[`
for students to receive explicit guidance in working with authentic academic materials, it was felt
HWWYVWYPH[L [OH[ [OL Z\IQLJ[ PZ º[L_[ YPJO» HUK [OH[ Z[\KLU[Z ZOV\SK IL PTTLYZLK PU [OL RPUKZ VM
authentic texts that they would need to deal with in their university courses. Technologically, these
texts are available in print and in electronic mode to be read across a range of devices, and therefore
students were encouraged to bring their own devices to workshops and develop their own practices
in using them to work with texts. As the teacher, I modelled these practices using portable devices
as much as possible. However, the underlying literacy practices remained the key focus, and it was
necessary many times to sideline distracting uses of technology in favour of getting on with working
with academic reports.

(Z H JYLKP[ILHYPUN Z\IQLJ[ Z\TTH[P]L HZZLZZTLU[ ^HZ ]P[HS PU PUMVYTPUN Z[HRLOVSKLYZ VM LHJO
student’s readiness for entrance to university, based on their academic literacy skills. Formative,
developmental assessment was also a key part of the program and was carried out by both the
teacher and the student through self-assessment. In order to prepare students for the range of rubrics
\ZLK I` HJHKLTPJ Z[Hќ H[ [OL \UP]LYZP[` HZZLZZTLU[ Y\IYPJZ ^LYL PTWSLTLU[LK [OYV\NOV\[ [OL
Z\IQLJ[(SSHZZLZZTLU[[HZRZ^LYLKL]LSVWLK[VHZZLZZ[OLZ[\KLU[Z»HIPSP[PLZ[V\UKLY[HRLH\[OLU[PJ
academic literacy tasks using authentic information reports.
-\Y[OLYHZTLU[PVULKHIV]LJV\YZLL]HS\H[PVU^HZPTWVY[HU[HUKHJHKLTPJZ[HќMYVT[OL\UP]LYZP[`
as well as students from the course were invited to provide regular feedback. Key areas that
continued to require innovation were:
• paraphrasing, citing and referencing;
• structuring information reports;
• critically evaluating a range of sources.
Reference
Chappell, P., and S. Moore. 2012. Novice teachers and linguistics: Foregrounding the functional. TESOL
Quarterly 46(3): 589–598.
Phil Chappell has taught English, developed curriculum and managed language programs in Asia and
(\Z[YHSPH/LJ\YYLU[S`SLJ[\YLZPU(WWSPLK3PUN\PZ[PJZHUK;,:63H[4HJX\HYPL<UP]LYZP[`ÔLYLOL
also conducts research and publishes in a range of areas related to second language teaching and
learning.
8 COURSE PLANNING (2):
SKILL-BASED, FUNCTIONAL,
GRAMMATICAL, VOCABULARY,
AND SITUATIONAL SYLLABUSES
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the following syllabus types and issues involved in sequencing items in
a syllabus:
• Skill-based syllabus • Situational syllabus

• Functional syllabus • Determining the scope and sequence
• Grammatical syllabus • Developing instructional segments
• Vocabulary syllabus
Case study 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[ZPhil Wade

Case study 15 A general English course for international students Frank S. Rogers
Introduction
As with the syllabus approaches discussed in Chapter 7, the syllabus proposals described in this
JOHW[LY YLÅLJ[ KPќLYLUJLZ PU \UKLYZ[HUKPUNZ VM ÔH[ [OL UH[\YL VM SHUN\HNL HUK SHUN\HNL SLHYUPUN
is, how language is used, what its core components are, and how these can best be addressed in a
syllabus and course design. As we suggested in Chapter 7, some of the syllabus types we will examine
here are often used at a micro level of organization in a syllabus. They are used as one strand in a
syllabus that might be organized at the macro level in terms of tasks, texts, competencies, or content.
However, they have also sometimes been used as the principal framework for course organization
(i.e., at the macro level), as is the case with skill-based and functional syllabuses. In this chapter we
^PSSL_HTPUL[OLMLH[\YLZVMÄ]LZ`SSHI\ZTVKLSZHUK[OLPZZ\LZ[OL`YHPZLMVYJ\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNU!skill-
based syllabus, functional syllabus, grammatical syllabus, vocabulary syllabus, situational syllabus.
8.1 Skill-based syllabus

(ZRPSSIHZLKHWWYVHJO[VZ`SSHI\ZKLZPNUMVJ\ZLZVU[OLKPќLYLU[\UKLYS`PUNHIPSP[PLZ[OH[HYLPU]VS]LK
in using a language for purposes such as reading, writing, listening, or speaking – sometimes referred
to as the four macro-skills. (See Appendix 1 for an example of a skill-based syllabus.) Approaching a
language through skills is based on the belief that learning a complex activity such as “listening to a
lecture” involves mastery of a number of individual subskills (also known as micro-skills) that together
make up the activity.
What are some of the skills involved in listening to a lecture?
201
)LSV^HYLZVTLL_HTWSLZVMZRPSSZ[OH[YLSH[L[VKPќLYLU[[`WLZVMSHUN\HNL\ZL!
• Writing: creating a topic sentence, distinguishing between main ideas and supporting sentences,
self-editing.
• Listening: recognizing key information, \ZPUNKPZJV\YZLTHYRLYZ[VPKLU[PM`[OLÅV^VMKPZJV\YZL
following rapid speech.
• Speaking: using back channeling, recognizing turn-taking signals, introducing a topic, using
communication strategies.
• Reading: reading for gist, guessing words from context, reading and making inferences.
(U\TILYVMHJJV\U[ZOH]LILLUTHKLVM[OLKPќLYLU[Z\IZRPSSZVYTPJYVZRPSSZ[OH[\UKLYSPLHIPSP[`PUYLHKPUN
listening, and other skills. For example, an early paper of mine (Richards 1983) that has been updated from
[PTL[V[PTLLN)YVÛPKLU[PÄLKTPJYVZRPSSZMVYJVU]LYZH[PVUHSSPZ[LUPUNHUKHM\Y[OLYMVY
listening to lectures. (See Appendix 2 for a curriculum for a listening course that is built around skills.)
4\UI` PKLU[PÄLK [OL MVSSV^PUN ZRPSSZ [OH[ HYL ULJLZZHY` MVY KL]LSVWPUN LќLJ[P]L YLHKPUN
comprehension:
• Recognising the script of the language
• Deducing the meaning and use of unfamiliar items
• Understanding explicitly stated information
• Understanding information not explicitly stated
• Understanding conceptual meaning
• Understanding the communicative value of sentences
• Understanding relations within the sentence
• Understanding relations between parts of a text through cohesion devices
• Recognising discourse markers
• Identifying the main point or key information
• Distinguishing the main idea from supporting details
• Extracting relevant points selectively
• Skimming
• Scanning for specific information
• Converting text into graphic form
What is the advantage of identifying skills and subskills in this way?
Munby’s list includes skills or processes that are both top-down (from meaning to text), and bottom-up
(from text to meaning).The following are sometimes described as skills needed for “reading to learn”
and are often used in the design of courses in reading for academic purposes.
• 9LHKPUN[VÄUKMHJ[ZHUKKL[HPSZ
• Skimming a text quickly for gist.
• Reading to obtain new ideas and information.
• 9LHKPUN[VJVUULJ[PUMVYTH[PVUMYVTKPќLYLU[ZV\YJLZ
• Reading as a preparation for writing, or discussing a topic.
• Responding critically to things one reads.
• Reading for main ideas.
In analyzing speaking in terms of its individual subskills, Bygate (1987) distinguished between
production skills and interaction skills. Production skills include using simple grammatical structures,
\ZPUN YV\[PULZ HUK Ä_LK L_WYLZZPVUZ \ZPUN ÄSSLYZ HUK OLZP[H[PVU KL]PJLZ \ZPUN JVTT\UPJH[PVU
strategies. Interaction skills include using familiar scripts and routines, using turn-taking devices,
THUHNPUN [VWPJ ÅV^ \ZPUN VWLUPUN HUK JSVZPUN YV\[PULZ 3ÙJO WVPU[Z V\[ [OH[ PU WSHUUPUN
a course and syllabus around skills, issues arise relating to the validity of such lists of skills and the
order in which they should be introduced in a syllabus.
Issues with skill-based syllabuses

(U\TILYVMQ\Z[PÄJH[PVUZOH]LILLUTHKL[VZ\WWVY[[OL\ZLVMZRPSSIHZLKZ`SSHI\ZLZ!
They focus on behavior or performance ( ZRPSSIHZLK Z`SSHI\Z PKLU[PÄLZ ILOH]PVYZ [OH[ JHU IL
isolated and taught and tested and that can transfer to many other situations.
They identify teachable and learnable units:RPSSIHZLKZ`SSHI\ZLZYLÅLJ[WYHJ[PJHSYLHS^VYSKULLKZ
and provide a practical framework for designing courses and teaching materials. They may be
WHY[PJ\SHYS`YLSL]HU[[VZP[\H[PVUZPUÔPJOZ[\KLU[ZOH]L]LY`ZWLJPÄJHUKPKLU[PÄHISLULLKZZ\JOHZ
preparing for university-level studies in English).
However, skill-based syllabuses have also been criticized on a number of grounds:
They lack a research basis. There is an inadequate research basis for validating skills taxonomies.
4VZ[YLÅLJ[PU[\P[PVUHUKTHÙV[YLÅLJ[H\[OLU[PJJVNUP[P]LWYVJLZZLZ
;OL` KV UV[ YLÅLJ[ H OVSPZ[PJ ]PL^ VM SHUN\HNL By breaking skills down into micro-skills, such
syllabuses focus on discrete components of ability rather than on developing more global and
integrated communicative abilities. In authentic language use, skills are more often used together
HUKZOV\SKILPU[LNYH[LKYH[OLY[OHU[H\NO[ZLWHYH[LS`PUHJV\YZL(Z3ÙJOWVPU[ZV\[!
even what is labelled as a single-skill lesson, e.g. “Writing a Letter”, may well integrate the
skills: pre-reading discussion (listening and speaking), reading of a sample letter (reading),
comprehension questions (reading and writing), paired comparison of answers (reading, lis-
tening and speaking), drafting of students’ own letters (reading and writing), and peer review
(reading, speaking, listening and writing).
;OL`KVUV[YLÅLJ[H\[OLU[PJSHUN\HNL\ZLThe advent of the Internet has prompted a rethinking of

how “skills” should be understood in today’s world. Today’s learners require a new mode of literacy –
multimodal literacy skills – and multimodal practices are blurring the distinction between skills such as
reading and writing. Similarly, with mobile technology and access to spoken and written texts through
the Internet, listening is increasingly linked with viewing and reading. Reading skills, too, are increasingly
developed as a component of digital literacy (Jones and Hafner 2012) and “contemporary new readers
have no other way of learning about reading except within the context of a background of vast textual
L_WLYPLUJLHJYVZZTHU`TLKPH¹4HJRL`!JP[LKPU3ÙJO
8.2 Functional syllabus

-\UJ[PVUHS Z`SSHI\ZLZ ^LYL ÄYZ[ WYVWVZLK PU [OL Z HZ WHY[ VM [OL *VTT\UPJH[P]L 3HUN\HNL
;LHJOPUN*3;TV]LTLU[HUKMVYTLK[OLIHZPZMVYTHU`SHUN\HNLJV\YZLZHUK[L_[IVVRZMYVT[OH[
[PTL;OL`^LYLVULVM[OLÄYZ[WYVWVZHSZMVYHJVTT\UPJH[P]LZ`SSHI\Z[OH[PZVUL[OH[HKKYLZZLZ
communicative competence. In Threshold Level English, IHZPJ M\UJ[PVUZ ^LYL PKLU[PÄLK [OYV\NO
analysis of the purposes for which learners use English, particularly younger learners up to the
intermediate level using a language for social survival and travel purposes. (The functions included in
Threshold Level English appear in Appendix 1 of Chapter 3.)
What are some of the functions that are involved in ordering food in a restaurant?
Functional syllabuses such as Threshold Level WYV]PKLK[OLÄYZ[ZLYPV\ZHS[LYUH[P]L[VHNYHTTH[PJHS

syllabus as a basis for general-purpose course design, and major courses published from the 1980s
increasingly employed functional syllabuses, sometimes linked to a parallel grammatical syllabus.
A landmark publication in the literature of functional language use, however, was Brown and Yule’s
book Teaching the Spoken Language (1983), which made a distinction between interactional and
transactional functions of language, the former concerned with maintaining social interaction and the
latter with carrying out real-world information-focused functions. Burns (1998) further distinguishes
IL[^LLU [^V KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM [YHUZHJ[PVUZ ;OL ÄYZ[ [`WL YLMLYZ [V [YHUZHJ[PVUZ [OH[ VJJ\Y PU
situations where the focus is on giving and receiving information, and where the participants focus
primarily on what is said or achieved (e.g., asking someone for directions or bargaining at a garage
sale). The second type refers to transactions that involve obtaining goods or services, such as
checking into a hotel or ordering food in a restaurant.
For what transactional purposes have you used English in the last 24 hours?
In addition to identifying potential functions the learner may need to master, the language and
communicative resources used in expressing functions was also a central issue in the design of
functional syllabuses. What expressions and phrases would be required to realize each function?
These were referred to as the exponents of a particular function, on the assumption that there was a
KPYLJ[SPURIL[^LLUM\UJ[PVUZHUKZWLJPÄJMVYTZVYL_WYLZZPVUZHZZLLUPU;HISLILSV^
Table 8.1 Examples of functions and their exponents

FUNCTION EXPONENTS
Request Please …
Could you …
Would you mind …
I’d like you to …
Suggestion Why don’t you …
It would be a good idea to …
I think you really should …
Inviting Would you like to …
I’d love you to …
How about …?
8 Course planning (2) •
Because they often focus on communication skills, functional syllabuses have frequently been
used as the basis for courses in spoken English. Person to Person (Richards and Bycina 1984), for
L_HTWSL YLÅLJ[Z [OL \ZL VM H M\UJ[PVUHS Z`SSHI\Z HZ [OL IHZPZ MVY H ZWLHRPUNSPZ[LUPUN JV\YZL ;OL
following main functions are introduced in Book 1:
• Introducing yourself
• Asking people about occupations
• Opening conversations
• Asking about names and addresses
• Making telephone inquiries
• Comparing families
• Describing locations
• Giving directions
• Inviting
• Declining and accepting invitations
• Comparing likes and dislikes
• Agreeing and disagreeing
• Recounting personal biography
• Making appointments
• Ordering food in a restaurant
• 6ќLYPUNMVVKHUKKYPUR
• Making small talk
• Ending a conversation
Issues with functional syllabuses

(U\TILYVMQ\Z[PÄJH[PVUZOH]LILLUWYVWVZLKPUZ\WWVY[VMM\UJ[PVUHSZ`SSHI\ZLZ!
;OL`YLÅLJ[H]PL^VMSHUN\HNLHZJVTT\UPJH[PVU. Functions were thought to represent the building
blocks of communication, and mastery of a core set of functions and their exponents would provide
for the development of communicative competence.
They can be linked to other types of syllabus content. With functions as the organizing principle of a
course, grammar, topics, and vocabulary could be selected as needed for functional communication.
;OL` WYV]PKL H JVU]LUPLU[ MYHTL^VYR MVY [OL KLZPNU VM [LHJOPUN TH[LYPHSZ. Functions provide a
convenient approach to the teaching of listening and speaking skills.
/V^L]LY H U\TILY VM SPTP[H[PVUZ VM M\UJ[PVUIHZLK JV\YZLZ OH]L HSZV ILLU PKLU[PÄLK WYPUJPWHS
among which is the following:
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H ZPTWSPZ[PJ ]PL^ VM JVTT\UPJH[PVU Functional syllabuses suggest that there is a
predictable relationship between functions (e.g., requesting) and forms of expression (the phrases
or exponents used), which is not in fact the case. Communication involves much more than learning
Ä_LKL_WYLZZPVUZ[V\ZLMVYKPќLYLU[M\UJ[PVUZ,HJO¸M\UJ[PVU¹YLMLYZ[VHJVTWSL_WYVJLZZ[OH[PZ
realized as a series of moves through negotiation and interaction, depending on the type of interaction
and the roles of the participants involved.
Consider the function of apologizing HUK PKLU[PM` ZVTL VM [OL MHJ[VYZ [OH[ PUÅ\LUJL OV^ HU
apology is expressed.
Other criticisms of functional syllabuses include the following:

• There are no clear criteria for selecting or grading functions.
• They represent an atomistic approach to language, that is, one that assumes that language
ability can be broken down into discrete components that can be taught separately.
• They often lead to a phrase-book approach to teaching that concentrates on teaching
L_WYLZZPVUZHUKPKPVTZ\ZLKMVYKPќLYLU[M\UJ[PVUZ
• Students learning from a functional course may have considerable gaps in their grammatical
competence because some important grammatical structures may not be elicited by the
functions that are taught in the syllabus.
8.3 Grammatical syllabus

We noted in Chapter 3 that prior to the development of communicative approaches to language
teaching, grammar was the main organizing framework used for language courses. Approaches to
course and syllabus design emphasized the role of the sentence and sentence grammar as providing
the foundation of language, language learning, and language use (McCarthy 2001). This can be seen
PUJV\YZLIVVRZIHZLKVU[OL(\KPVSPUN\HS4L[OVKVY:P[\H[PVUHS3HUN\HNL;LHJOPUN[OH[^LYL^PKLS`
used in the 1960s and 1970s. Practice in producing grammatically correct sentences was viewed
as the key to learning, embedded within a methodology with the following features (Ellis 2003, 168):
1. A specific grammatical feature is isolated for focused attention.
2. The learners are required to produce sentences containing the targeted feature.
3. The learners are provided with opportunities for repetition of the targeted feature.
4. There is an expectancy that the learners will perform the grammatical feature correctly;
therefore practice activities are success oriented.
5. The learners receive feedback on whether their performance of the grammatical structure
is correct or not. This feedback may be immediate or delayed.
(ULќLJ[P]LNYHTTHYIHZLKZ`SSHI\Z^HZZLLUHZWYV]PKPUN[OLIHZPZMVY[OLZ\JJLZZM\SVYNHUPaH[PVU
of a general English course, and as we saw in Chapter 1, grammar syllabuses of this kind have
become a core component in the development of language courses, tests, and materials. And it is still
seen as an important strand in major international four-skill integrated courses such as Interchange,
/LHK^H`, Cutting Edge, and so on. (See Appendix 3 for a grammatical syllabus from an integrated
course.) There are several reasons for this. On the one hand, including an explicit grammar strand in
a language course represents a familiar approach to teaching for many people. Many teachers and
students expect to see a grammar strand in a course and react negatively to its absence. At the same
time, grammar is a component of many high-stakes tests.
Why do you think grammar continues to be a component of most “communicative” courses?
Issues with grammatical syllabuses

The use of grammar-based syllabuses in general English courses has been criticized on a number
of grounds:
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H SPTP[LK ]PL^ VM SHUN\HNL Grammar represents only a partial dimension of language
WYVÄJPLUJ` VUL ÔPJO KVLZ UV[ HJJV\U[ MVY H SLHYULY»Z JVTT\UPJH[P]L JVTWL[LUJL 2UV^SLKNL
VM NYHTTHY KVLZ UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` [YHUZSH[L PU[V [OL HIPSP[` [V \ZL ,UNSPZO LќLJ[P]LS` MVY ZWVRLU HUK
written purposes.
There is a lack of focus on discourse. The focus of a grammar syllabus is typically the sentence rather
than longer units of discourse. In many grammar-based courses, grammar is taught through isolated
ZLU[LUJLZ[OH[KVUV[YLÅLJ[[OLTVYLJVTWSL_YVSLVMNYHTTHYPUKPZJV\YZLHUK[L_[ZVY[OLYVSLVM
grammar in communication.
There is a lack of research basis. The choice or sequence of grammatical items typically found in
grammar syllabuses is typically based on intuition and tradition rather than being derived from the
ÄUKPUNZVMJVYW\ZIHZLKYLZLHYJO)PILYHUK9LWWLU"9LWWLU
/V^L]LY NYHTTHY PZ HWWYVHJOLK KPќLYLU[S` PU JVU[LTWVYHY` Z`SSHI\ZLZ JV\YZLIVVRZ HUK
materials. Current understanding of the status of grammar rests on the distinction between
grammatical knowledge and grammatical ability. Grammatical RUV^SLKNLrefers to knowledge of the
rules that account for grammatically correct language. Its unit of focus is the sentence. In traditional
approaches to language teaching, it was typically viewed as an independent component of language
HIPSP[` HUK HZZLZZLK [OYV\NO KPZJYL[L WVPU[ [LZ[Z [OH[ HZZLZZLK THZ[LY` VM KPќLYLU[ NYHTTH[PJHS
items. Grammatical knowledge of this kind can be contrasted with grammatical ability.
Grammatical ability refers to knowing how to use grammar as a communicative resource in spoken
HUK^YP[[LUKPZJV\YZLHUKYLX\PYLZHKPќLYLU[WLKHNVNPJHSHWWYVHJO1VULZ0[Z\UP[VMMVJ\ZPZ
the text(Z*\SSLU W\[ZP[!
The grammatical choice that speakers or writers make – for example, whether to use an active
or passive be + verb form, or whether to use the modal can or would when making a request
– are not made in a vacuum, but in a context of language use. They are thus text-based, not
sentence-level, choices made in the act of participating in a communicative event, whether it
be a conversation with friends or writing an e-mail to a colleague. In each situation there is
“text” being created and an audience.
Currently, therefore, grammar is more often seen as one strand of a multi-skilled or integrated syllabus
rather than as the sole basis for a syllabus, and grammar is taught through meaning rather than
simply through form. It is approached as a communicative resource that is used in spoken and written
discourse. For example, Richards and Reppen (2014) describe 12 principles for integrating grammar
with the teaching of texts:
1. Identify the grammatical resources the learners need.
2. Teach awareness of the nature of texts.
3. +L]LSVWH^HYLULZZVMKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLUZWVRLUHUK^YP[[LU[L_[Z
4. Use corpora to explore texts.
Use a variety of teaching approaches, both deductive and inductive.
6. Provide opportunities for guided noticing.
7. Provide opportunities for meaningful communicative practice.
8. Provide opportunities for students to produce stretched output.
9. Make links between grammar and vocabulary.
10. Use student errors to inform instruction.
11. Integrate grammar with the four skills.
12. Use the resources of the Internet and technology.
Hence, grammar can be treated as a micro-level course component and linked to its role in texts,
tasks, and skills. Its status will depend on the syllabus framework that is being used – be it text-
based, task-based, content-based, skill-based. The syllabus planner is typically mapping out
grammar together with other potential course content in the form of topics, skills, texts, and tasks,
HUK MVY [OPZ YLHZVU NYHTTH[PJHS Z`SSHI\ZLZ VM[LU KPќLY MYVT VUL JV\YZL [V [OL UL_[ L]LU ÔLU
[HYNL[PUN[OLZHTLWYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LS
What might the role of grammar be in a reading course?
8.4 Vocabulary syllabus

>L ZH^ PU *OHW[LY [OH[ ]VJHI\SHY` Z`SSHI\ZLZ ^LYL HTVUN [OL ÄYZ[ [`WLZ VM Z`SSHI\ZLZ [V IL
developed in language teaching. Today there is a large degree of consensus in English language teaching
JVUJLYUPUN[HYNL[ZMVY]VJHI\SHY`[LHJOPUNH[KPќLYLU[SL]LSZHUK[L_[IVVRHUKTH[LYPHSZ^YP[LYZ[LUK
to keep materials within target vocabulary bands. Corpus research has enabled older syllabuses to be
revised and other types of syllabuses developed, such as the Academic Word List (Coxhead 2000,
;`WPJHS]VJHI\SHY`[HYNL[ZMVYHNLULYHS,UNSPZOJV\YZLOH]LILLUPKLU[PÄLK5H[PVU!
Elementary level: 1,000 words
Intermediate level: an additional 2,000 words
Upper Intermediate level: an additional 2,000 words
Advanced level: an additional 2,000+ words
Of course vocabulary is central to all language use, so no matter what syllabus framework is adopted,
P[^PSSOH]L[V[HRLHJJV\U[VM[OLYVSLVM]VJHI\SHY`PUTHZ[LYPUNZWLJPÄJJVTWL[LUJPLZPUKPќLYLU[
genres of spoken communication, in reading texts, composing essays, and so on.
In terms of the quantitative dimension of vocabulary learning, vocabulary development can be
[OV\NO[VMHZPU]VS]PUNHJX\PZP[PVUVMHJVYL]VJHI\SHY`ÔPJOPZJVTTVU[VTHU`KPќLYLU[KVTHPUZ
genres, and text types, as well as the accumulation of more specialized vocabulary related to the
SLHYULY»Z VÛ ÄLSKZ VM PU[LYLZ[Z HUK ULLKZ ÔL[OLY [OLZL IL HJHKLTPJ VJJ\WH[PVUHS VY ZVJPHS
Researchers suggest that a minimum vocabulary of 3,000 words is required to provide coverage
of a high percentage of words on an average page of a text. This represents a target for the lower-
PU[LYTLKPH[LSLHYUPUNSL]LS/\HUK5H[PVUMV\UK[OH[H]VJHI\SHY`VM^VYKZ^HZULLKLK
[VYLHKZOVY[\UZPTWSPÄLKUV]LSZMVYWSLHZ\YLÔPSL/HaLUILYNHUK/\SZ[PQU MV\UK[OH[[^PJL
HZ THU` ^VYKZ HZ [OH[ ^LYL ULLKLK [V YLHK ÄYZ[`LHY \UP]LYZP[` TH[LYPHSZ 0U HKKP[PVU [V [OPZ JVYL
vocabulary, there are another 600 or so words common to academic disciplines that form the basis
of an academic vocabulary (see Appendix 1).
6»2LLќLL[HS¶ JSHYPM`[OLUH[\YLVM]VJHI\SHY`[HYNL[ZIHZLKVU[OLPYYLZLHYJO!
A receptive vocabulary of some 5,000 to 6,000 words would appear to be a good threshold
at which to consider learners at the top of the intermediate level and ready to take on an
advanced program. Such a program would ideally have the following aims:
• To increase the receptive vocabulary size to enable comprehension targets above 90% (e.g.
up to 95%) for typical texts to be reached.
• To expose the learner to a range of vocabulary at frequency levels beyond the first 5000–6000
word band, but which is not too rare or obscure to be of little practical use.
• To inculcate the kinds of knowledge required for using words at this level, given their often
highly specific lexical meanings and connotations.
• To train awareness skills and strategies that will help the learner become an independent
vocabulary-learner.
What are some ways in which learners can expand their receptive listening and reading
vocabularies?
Vocabulary is addressed at the micro level in syllabus design. However, some applied linguists have
ZV\NO[[VYLWVZP[PVU]VJHI\SHY`H[[OLTHJYVSL]LSZ\JOHZ3L^PZ ^P[OOPZWYVWVZHSMVY
HSL_PJHSZ`SSHI\ZÔPSLV[OLYZLN)VLYZHUK3PUKZ[YVTILYN OH]LHYN\LKMVY[OLJLU[YHSP[`VM
chunks, lexical phrases, and vocabulary in course design. This is referred to as a lexical approach.
A lexical approach in language teaching derives from the belief that the building blocks of language
learning and communication are not grammar, functions, notions, or some other unit of planning
and teaching, but lexis, that is, words and particularly multi-word combinations or “chunks” that are
learned and used as single items. These may consist of either collocations, a term that refers to the
YLN\SHYVJJ\YYLUJL[VNL[OLYVMJLY[HPU^VYKZVYÄ_LKWOYHZLZ
An interest in the role of chunks in language learning goes back at least to Palmer ([1922] 1968), but
their status in language theory has undergone reassessment, beginning with a classic paper by Pawley
and Syder (1983), as a consequence of the development of corpus-based studies of language use
[OH[KYH^VUSHYNLZJHSLJVTW\[LYKH[HIHZLZVMH\[OLU[PJSHUN\HNLLN6»2LLќLL[HSHUK
YLZLHYJOPUWZ`JOVSPUN\PZ[PJZLN>YH`)VLYZHUK3PUKZ[YVTILYN VIZLY]L!
The relevance of chunks for second and foreign language learners has meanwhile stimulated
dictionary makers to include more information about collocation in learners’ dictionaries gen-
erally and to produce dictionaries of collocations in particular. Concrete proposals for instruc-
tional methods targeting chunks have also been launched and resource books for teachers are
becoming available.
A lexical approach in language teaching thus seeks to develop proposals for syllabus design and language
teaching founded on a view of language in which multi-word units, or chunks, play the central role. As with
lexis in general, proponents of the lexical approach recommend, for lower-level students, direct teaching
of the chunks that occur most frequently in the kinds of texts students engage with in their learning.
3HUN\HNLJVYWVYHJHUILHZV\YJLVMPUMVYTH[PVUMVY[OPZZ[YH[LN`:OPUHUK5H[PVUMVYL_HTWSL
provide a list of the most frequent chunks that occur in spoken English. However, for intermediate-level
and advanced-level learners, similar information is not readily available. Since there are potentially many
thousands of multi-word units that students may encounter in their exposure to English that often cannot
be predicted in advance, some advocates of the lexical approach argue that the goal for learners at higher
levels is not to teach a core set of lexical units but rather to develop students’ awareness of the nature of
lexical units and to provide them with strategies for recognizing, learning, structuring, storing, and using
chunks which they encounter. The “syllabus” will therefore consist of an organized record of the chunks
SLHYULYZOH]LLUJV\U[LYLKPUKPќLYLU[^YP[[LUHUKZWVRLU[L_[Z¶PLP[PZHYL[YVZWLJ[P]LZ`SSHI\Z
An early and relatively rare example of an application of the lexical approach was the Collins COBUILD
English Course (Willis and Willis 1989), whose rationale and design was described in The Lexical
Syllabus >PSSPZ ;OL*6)<03+JV\YZLYLWYLZLU[LKHIYLHR^P[OLHYSPLYHWWYVHJOLZ[VJV\YZLIVVR
KLZPNUZPUJLP[^HZ[OLÄYZ[W\ISPZOLKJV\YZLIVVR[OH[PUJVYWVYH[LKHSL_PJHSYH[OLY[OHUHNYHTTH[PJHS
syllabus (although the syllabus mainly consisted of single-word lexical items rather than chunks). In
Q\Z[PM`PUN[OLPYZ`SSHI\Z>PSSPZYLWVY[LK[OH[[OH[[OL*6)<03+JVTW\[LYHUHS`ZLZVM[L_[Z[OH[MVYTLK
the basis for the vocabulary syllabus indicated that “the 700 most frequent words of English account
for around 70% of all English text.” This “fact” led to the author’s decision that “word frequency would
KL[LYTPUL[OLJVU[LU[ZVMV\YJV\YZL3L]LS^V\SKHPT[VJV]LY[OLTVZ[MYLX\LU[^VYKZ[VNL[OLY
with their common patterns and uses” (Willis 1990, vi). Interestingly, this approach resembled the earlier
MYLX\LUJÌHZLKHUHS`ZLZVM]VJHI\SHYÌ`>LZ[ HUKV[OLYZYLMLYYLK[VPU*OHW[LY>P[O[OL
*6)<03+JV\YZLOV^L]LY[OLMVJ\Z^HZVU^VYKWH[[LYUZKLYP]LKMYVT[OLJVTW\[LYHUHS`ZPZ>PSSPZ
stresses, however, that “the lexical syllabus not only subsumes a structural syllabus, it also indicates how
[OLZ[Y\J[\YLZÔPJOTHRL\WHZ`SSHI\ZZOV\SKILL_LTWSPÄLK¹ZPUJL[OLJVTW\[LYJVYW\ZYL]LHSZ[OL
JVTTVULZ[Z[Y\J[\YHSWH[[LYUZPUÔPJO^VYKZHYL\ZLK ]P7LYOHWZ[OLMHJ[[OH[[OL*6)<03+
course marked a break with traditional course design procedures accounts for the lack of success of the
course.) A more recent global coursebook – the Touchstone series (McCarthy, McCarten, and Sandiford
PZHUV[OLYL_HTWSLVMHJV\YZLIVVR[OH[PUJVYWVYH[LZHJVYW\ZIHZLKSL_PJHSZ`SSHI\ZPUJS\KPUN
both single-word units and chunks. In this case the lexical syllabus is based on the most common words
HUKWOYHZLZPU[OL5VY[O(TLYPJHUZWVRLUZLNTLU[VM[OL*HTIYPKNL,UNSPZO*VYW\Z
Have you added any news words to your vocabulary recently? If so, where did they come from?
Issues with vocabulary syllabuses

Vocabulary is generally a micro-level strand of a course and in theory can be dealt with either directly
or indirectly. A direct approach suggests that appropriate consideration is given to the selection of
words in a course, to the number of new lexical items to be introduced in each unit and each level of a
course, and to the recycling of words throughout the course. With a direct approach, developing such
a syllabus is often necessary before other components of the course are planned. However, except
MVY]LY`SV^SL]LSTH[LYPHSZ^P[OH]LY`YLZ[YPJ[LK]VJHI\SHY`JVU[LU[P[PZVM[LUKPѝJ\S[[VLUZ\YL[OH[
[OL]VJHI\SHY`\ZLKPUHJV\YZLPZNYHKLKZ\ѝJPLU[S`HUK[OH[[OLYLPZHJVU[YVSSLKPU[YVK\J[PVUVMUL^
words, since the primary planning units are normally macro-level units such as topics, content, skills
or functions, which tend to dictate the selection of lexical items needed in each lesson or unit. An
indirect approach to vocabulary in a course is therefore more typical, one where other components of
the course are given priority during the planning stages and vocabulary is addressed as it is needed
for the introduction of content, skills, texts, and tasks. The disadvantage of this approach is that there
might be considerable gaps in the learners’ vocabulary knowledge and development.
8.5 Situational syllabus

The last type of syllabus we will consider is one that is organized around the language needed for
KPќLYLU[ ZP[\H[PVUZ Z\JO HZ at the airport or at a hotel. A situation is a setting in which particular
JVTT\UPJH[P]LHJ[Z[`WPJHSS`VJJ\Y(ZP[\H[PVUHSZ`SSHI\ZPKLU[PÄLZ[OLZP[\H[PVUZPUÔPJO[OLSLHYULY
will use the language and the typical communicative acts and language used in that setting. Features
of a “situation” include the following:
The setting: where the interaction takes place, the physical locale.
Participants: who is involved and what their roles are.
Goals: what the purpose or purposes of the interaction are.
Activities: what sequence of activities take place.

Procedures: how these activities take place.
Resources: what resources are used.
Language: what language is used in order to complete the interaction.
Outcomes: what the outcomes of the interaction are.
:P[\H[PVUHSZ`SSHI\ZLZOH]LILLUHMHTPSPHYMLH[\YLVMSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN[L_[IVVRZMVYJLU[\YPLZ2LSS`
1969) and are often used in travel books such as Passport )\JRPUNOHTHUK>OP[UL` ÔPJO
was organized around situations such as On an airplane, At an immigration counter, At a bank, In a
restaurant,([[OLWVZ[VѝJL. Syllabus frameworks such as Threshold, for example, include “situation”
as one of the many interrelated factors that need to be considered in planning a syllabus.
*V\YZLZ WYLWHYPUN SLHYULYZ [V \ZL H SHUN\HNL PU ZWLJPÄJ JVU[L_[Z LN VJJ\WH[PVUHS HUK ZVJPHS
survival courses) have often used “situation” as the focus for the choice of syllabus items. It is
HSZV H MLH[\YL VM [OL KLZPNU VM ,:7 JVTWL[LUJÌHZLK HUK [L_[IHZLK JV\YZLZ 5LLKZ HUHS`ZPZ
WYVJLK\YLZ KL]LSVWLK I` 4\UI` HUK I` HK]VJH[LZ VM ;HZR)HZLK 0UZ[Y\J[PVU 3VUN
similarly start with the situations where language is used and the activities or tasks the learners are
engaged in within those situations as a central focus in course planning and syllabus design (Holmes
"3VUN/V^L]LYPUJ\YYLU[HWWYVHJOLZ[VJV\YZLKLZPNUZP[\H[PVUPZ\Z\HSS`\UKLYZ[VVK
as a micro-level aspect of a course rather than a macro-level organizational principle.
/V^KV`V\[OPUR[OLSHUN\HNL\ZLKPUHWHY[PJ\SHYZP[\H[PVULNH[[OLKVJ[VY»ZVѝJLJV\SK
ILPKLU[PÄLKHUKKLZJYPILK&
Issues with situational syllabuses

Situation syllabuses have been criticized on a number of grounds:
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H ZPTWSPZ[PJ ]PL^ VM SHUN\HNL HUK JVU[L_[ As with functional approaches, critics of
situationally organized courses (particularly those designed for travel and work-related situations such
as English for telephone operators,,UNSPZOMVYYLZ[H\YHU[^VYRLYZ, English for shopping, etc.) argue
[OH[ H ZP[\H[PVUHS HWWYVHJO YLÅLJ[Z H ILSPLM [OH[ [OL SHUN\HNL \ZLK PU ZP[\H[PVUZ PZ WYLKPJ[HISL HUK
Ä_LKYH[OLY[OHULTLYNPUNMYVTHJVTWSL_WYVJLZZVMPU[LYHJ[PVUIL[^LLUWHY[PJPWHU[Z
There is a lack of transferability. 3HUN\HNL \ZLK PU ZWLJPÄJ ZP[\H[PVUZ TH` UV[ [YHUZMLY [V V[OLY
situations, and hence the learner’s ability is restricted to those situations that have been presented
and practiced in the course or course materials.
;OL` YLÅLJ[ H WOYHZLIVVR HWWYVHJO Situational courses often lead to a dialog and phrase-book
HWWYVHJO[OH[PZ[VHMVJ\ZVUÄ_LKL_WYLZZPVUZHUKPKPVTZ^P[OSP[[SLZ`Z[LTH[PJSHUN\HNLKL]LSVWTLU[
They lead to an unsystematic treatment of grammar. Since grammar is dealt with incidentally, it may
result in gaps in a student’s grammatical knowledge.
They lead to an uneven syllabus. 0[PZKPѝJ\S[[VZLX\LUJL[OLKPќLYLU[Z[YHUKZVMHZP[\H[PVUHSJV\YZL
in such a way that each of its components develops in a well-sequenced progression.
Can you suggest a case where a situational approach to course design might be the most
appropriate one to use?
8.6 Determining the scope and sequence

Decisions about course content also need to address the distribution of content throughout the
course. This is known as planning the scope and sequence of the course. Scope is concerned with the
breadth and depth of coverage of items in the course. The sequencing of content in the course also
needs to be determined. This involves deciding which content is needed early in the course, and which
provides a basis for things that will be learned later. Sequencing may be based on the following criteria:
Simple to complex. 6ULVM[OLJVTTVULZ[^H`ZVMZLX\LUJPUNTH[LYPHSPZI`KPѝJ\S[`SL]LS*VU[LU[
presented earlier is thought to be simpler than later items. This is typically seen in relation to grammar
JVU[LU[ I\[ HU` [`WL VM JV\YZL JVU[LU[ JHU IL NYHKLK PU [LYTZ VM KPѝJ\S[` -VY L_HTWSL YLHKPUN
[L_[ZPUHYLHKPUNJV\YZLTHÌLZPTWSPÄLKH[[OLILNPUUPUNVM[OLJV\YZLHUK\UZPTWSPÄLKH[SH[LY
levels. Simple skills such as “literal comprehension” may be required early on, and more complex skills
such as “inferencing” taught at a later stage. Or topics that are not cognitively demanding will occur
LHYSPLYPUHJV\YZL[OHU[OVZL[OH[HYLJVTWSL_HUKKPѝJ\S[
How could a writing course be sequenced in terms of simple to complex?
Chronology. Content may be sequenced according to the order in which events occur in the real
world. For example, in a writing course the organization might be based on the sequence writers
are assumed to employ when composing: (1) brainstorming, (2) drafting, (3) revising, (4) editing. In a
WYVÄJPLUJ`JV\YZLZRPSSZTPNO[ILZLX\LUJLKHJJVYKPUN[V[OLZLX\LUJLPUÔPJO[OL`HYLUVYTHSS`
acquired: (1) listening, (2) speaking, (3) reading, (4) writing.
Need. Content may be sequenced according to when learners are most likely to need it outside of
the classroom. For example, the sequencing of content in a social-survival curriculum consists of the
following topics (Mrowicki 1986, xi):
1. basic literacy skills 9. directions
2. WLYZVUHSPKLU[PÄJH[PVU 10. transportation
3. money 11. housing
4. shopping 12. WVZ[VѝJL
time and dates 13. IHURPUNIPSSZ
6. telephone 14. social language
7. health JSHYPÄJH[PVU
8. emergencies
Prerequisite learning. ;OL ZLX\LUJL VM JVU[LU[ TH` YLÅLJ[ ÔH[ PZ ULJLZZHY` H[ VUL WVPU[ HZ H
foundation for the next step in the learning process. For example, a certain set of grammar items may
be taught as a prerequisite to paragraph writing. Or, in a reading course, word attack skills may be
[H\NO[LHYS`VUHZHWYLYLX\PZP[L[VYLHKPUN\UZPTWSPÄLK[L_[ZH[SH[LYZ[HNLZVM[OLJV\YZL
>OVSL[VWHY[VYWHY[[VÔVSLIn some cases, material at the beginning of a course may focus on the
overall structure or organization of a topic before considering the individual components that make
it up. Alternatively, the course might focus on practicing the parts before the whole. For example,
students might read short stories and react to them as whole texts before going on to consider
ÔH[[OLLSLTLU[ZHYL[OH[JVUZ[P[\[LHULќLJ[P]LZOVY[Z[VY`6YZ[\KLU[ZTPNO[Z[\KÒV^[V^YP[L
paragraphs before going on to practice putting paragraphs together to make an essay.
Spiral sequencing. This approach involves the recycling of items to ensure that learners have repeated
opportunities to learn them.
8.7 Developing instructional segments

So far we have described the processes used to make decisions about the content of a course
as well as its syllabus framework. A course also needs to be mapped out in terms of instructional
segments. An instructional segment is a self-contained learning sequence that has its own goals and
VIQLJ[P]LZHUK[OH[HSZVYLÅLJ[Z[OLV]LYHSSVIQLJ[P]LZMVY[OLJV\YZL0UZ[Y\J[PVUHSZLNTLU[ZYLWYLZLU[
[OLPUZ[Y\J[PVUHSMVJ\ZVM[OLJV\YZLHUKTHÌL]LY`ZWLJPÄJLNHZPUNSLSLZZVUVYTVYLNLULYHS
(e.g., a unit of work consisting of several lessons). Planning the organizational structure in a course
involves selecting appropriate segments and deciding on the sequence in which these will appear. In
organizing a course into teaching segments, one seeks to achieve the following:
• To make the course more teachable and learnable.
• ;VWYV]PKLHWYVNYLZZPVUPUSL]LSVMKPѝJ\S[`
• To create overall coherence and structure for the course.
Two commonly used instructional segments are planning by modules and by units.
Modules. This is a self-contained and independent learning sequence with its own objectives. For
example, a 120-hour course might be divided into four modules of 30 hours each. Assessment is
JHYYPLKV\[H[[OLLUKVMLHJOTVK\SL4VK\SLZHSSV^MVYÅL_PISLVYNHUPaH[PVUVMHJV\YZLHUKJHUNP]L
SLHYULYZHZLUZLVMHJOPL]LTLU[ILJH\ZLVIQLJ[P]LZHYLTVYLPTTLKPH[LHUKZWLJPÄJ*HYLULLKZ[V
be taken, however, to ensure that the course does not appear fragmented and unstructured.
Units. This teaching block is normally longer than a single lesson but shorter than a module and is the
commonest way of organizing courses and teaching materials. It is normally a group of lessons that
is planned around a single instructional focus. (Sometimes units are referred to as a ZJOLTLVM^VYR)
A unit seeks to provide a structured sequence of activities that lead toward a learning outcome. The
factors that account for a successful unit include:
• Length: :\ѝJPLU[I\[UV[[VVT\JOTH[LYPHSPZPUJS\KLK
• Development: 6ULHJ[P]P[`SLHKZLќLJ[P]LS`PU[V[OLUL_["[OL\UP[KVLZUV[JVUZPZ[VMHYHUKVT
sequence of activities.
• Coherence: The unit has an overall sense of coherence.
• Pacing: ,HJOHJ[P]P[`^P[OPU[OL\UP[TV]LZH[HYLHZVUHISLWHJL-VYL_HTWSLPM[OLYLHYLÄ]L
activities in the unit, one does not require four times as much time to complete as the others.
• Outcome: At the end of the unit, students should be able to know or do a series of things that
are related.
>OH[V[OLYMHJ[VYZTPNO[HJJV\U[MVY[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMH\UP[&
Conclusions
(Z ^L Z\NNLZ[LK HIV]L HU` NLULYHS SHUN\HNL JV\YZL ^PSS ULLK [V PUJS\KL THU` KPќLYLU[ Z`SSHI\Z
strands, including texts, skills, content, tasks, grammar, and vocabulary, and these will therefore all
need to be addressed at some stage in a course and integrated into an overall syllabus framework.
Rather than be restricted to a single syllabus approach, it is often more practical to consider what
HZWLJ[ZVMKPќLYLU[Z`SSHI\ZTVKLSZJHUILKYHÛ\WVU[VILZ[ZLY]L[OLNVHSZVMV\YWYVNYHTHUK
[OL ULLKZ VM V\Y Z[\KLU[Z (ZWLJ[Z VM KPќLYLU[ Z`SSHI\Z MYHTL^VYRZ JHU VM[LU IL \ZLK [VNL[OLY
HUK TH` PU MHJ[ IL TVYL LќLJ[P]L ÔLU ZV \ZLK -VY L_HTWSL [OLYL HYL VI]PV\Z SPURZ IL[^LLU
text-based and skill-based, between content-based and task-based, and between skill-based and
grammar-based approaches.
Proponents of particular syllabus frameworks often present them as a superior alternative to other
options. For example, Mickan (2013), an advocate of a text-based approach, reviews alternative
syllabus proposals in a few pages before concluding that they all have failed with the exception of a
[L_[IHZLKHWWYVHJO3VUNPZZPTPSHYS`KPZTPZZP]LVMHS[LYUH[P]LZ[VH[HZRIHZLKHWWYVHJO@L[
ÔLU^LL_HTPUL[OLHWWSPJH[PVUZVMZWLJPÄJZ`SSHI\ZTVKLSZ[OLKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLU[OLTT\JO
as with the various competing method proposals of the 1980s and 1990s, are often less distinct at
the level of classroom processes and practices. Many of the accounts of task-based approaches
NP]LU PU ;OVTHZ HUK 9LPUKLYZ MVY L_HTWSL JV\SK LX\HSS` IL ZLLU HZ HWWSPJH[PVUZ VM [L_[
based and skill-based approaches. Moreover, the accounts of text-based approaches in Mickan
JV\SK ZPTPSHYS` IL PU[LYWYL[LK HZ UV[ ILPUN ]LY` KPќLYLU[ MYVT HJJV\U[Z VM ZRPSSIHZLK HUK
task-based approaches.
0UWYHJ[PJHS[LYTZ[OLYLMVYLHSSZ`SSHI\ZLZYLÅLJ[ZVTLKLNYLLVMPU[LNYH[PVU2YHOURLTHKL[OPZWVPU[
ULHYS``LHYZHNVÔLUOLJVTTLU[LK !
For almost all instructional programs, it is clear that some combination of types of instruc-
tional content will be needed to address the complex goals of the program … for most general
teaching applications, whose goal is functional ability in broadly defined settings and struc-
tural knowledge and communicative ability in specific situations, a combination of functional,
structural, situational, and skill-based instruction is the probable choice. On the other hand,
in some second language teaching settings, skills and tasks can be more narrowly specified,
instructional resources are richer, or specific structural or formal knowledge is not required by
the program for students to succeed, and a combination of task-based, skill-based, situational,
functional, and content instruction may be chosen.
The priority given to any particular organizing element (e.g., competencies, skills, or content),
however, depends on a number of factors, including the following:
Current practice. Particular approaches in syllabus design emerge in what appear to be ten-
`LHY J`JSLZ YLÅLJ[PUN LK\JH[PVUHS MHZOPVUZ HUK [YLUKZ PU KPќLYLU[ WHY[Z VM [OL ^VYSK ;L_[IHZLK
HWWYVHJOLZ MVY L_HTWSL OH]L H[[YHJ[LK TVYL H[[LU[PVU PU (\Z[YHSPH HUK 5L^ ALHSHUK [OHU PU [OL
<:(VY[OL<2
Government or institutional mandates. Teachers may sometimes have little choice over a syllabus
framework, since it may have been selected or mandated by higher authorities.
Tests. Teaching in many contexts is aligned with assessment practices, and a particular syllabus
approach may provide better preparation for a school or national test.
Expediency. Some approaches are more easily used than others as a basis for course and materials
design or are supported by published materials and textbooks, such as skill-based courses.
However, while a syllabus provides the design framework for a language course, teaching involves
more than simply reproducing or realizing the intentions of the syllabus. It is a more creative and
WLYZVUHSWYVJLZZ[OH[YLÅLJ[Z[OLSLHYUPUNJVU[L_[HUK[OLPU[LYHJ[PVUZVM[OLWHY[PJPWHU[Z^P[OPUP[
We explore the nature of this process in the next chapter.
1. Compare two or more textbooks for the same skill area and level (e.g., reading, listening). Do
they cover the same skills?
2. How do you think the skills involved in reading a text in print, as opposed to reading it online,
KPќLY&0M[OLYLHYLKPќLYLUJLZÔH[PTWSPJH[PVUZHYL[OLYLMVY[LHJOPUNYLHKPUN&
3. *OVVZL [OYLL KPќLYLU[ HWWYVHJOLZ [V Z`SSHI\Z KLZPNU [OH[ HYL WVZZPISL MVY [OL MVSSV^PUN [`WLZ
of courses and consider the advantages and limitations of each approach: a reading course, a
speaking course,H^YP[PUNJV\YZL.
4. :LSLJ[ [^V VY [OYLL YLSH[LK M\UJ[PVUZ MYVT [OL ;OYLZOVSK 3L]LS Z`SSHI\Z ZLL *OHW[LY
Appendix 1) and consider the language that would be needed to teach these functions to lower-
intermediate learners in a speaking course. What decisions are involved in selecting the language
realizations (or exponents) for functions in a functional syllabus?
Compare two textbooks for teaching reading or writing. Do they include a grammar strand? If so,
on what basis is the grammar chosen?
6. Review the treatment of grammar in an integrated-skills course. To what extent do the grammar
activities in the course teach grammar as RUV^SLKNL or grammar as ability?
7. Review the treatment of vocabulary in a vocabulary textbook or a four-skills coursebook. To what
extent are multi-word units included?
8. Compare two units from two coursebooks that are designed for the same area and level. What
\UP[Z[Y\J[\YLKVLZLHJOIVVRLTWSV`&/V^LќLJ[P]LPZ[OL\UP[Z[Y\J[\YLMVYLHJOIVVR&
9. Examine the curriculum for a listening course in Appendix 2. What criteria do you think were used
for sequencing the objectives in the course?
10. Read Case study 12 by Phil Wade at the end of this chapter.
• How would you describe the approach used to develop the syllabus for this course?
• How is accuracy addressed in the course?
• How is a learner-centered focus addressed in the course?
11. 5V^YLHK*HZLZ[\KÌ`-YHUR9VNLYZ
• How does CEFR inform the design of the course?
• What is the role of textbooks and technology in the course?
APPENDIX 1 Skills syllabus for listening and speaking

From Malaysian Secondary School Syllabus form IV (1989).
1.0 Listening and Speaking

The component on listening and speaking deals with the skills of sound discrimination, extracting information,
HUKWYLKPJ[PVUPUVYKLY[VWLYMVYTZWLJPÄJM\UJ[PVUZ;OLZRPSSZHSZVPUJS\KL[OVZLVMKL[LYTPUPUNHUK\ZPUN
YLNPZ[LYZ[VZ\P[KPќLYLU[H\KPLUJLZHUKMVYKPќLYLU[W\YWVZLZZV[OH[Z[\KLU[ZHYLHISL[VL_WYLZZ[OLPY
thoughts clearly and succinctly and be able to fully participate in conversations and discussions.
The sub-skills that follow the main skills in this component are to be taught together with the main
skills. These sub-skills are not arranged in a hierarchy and are thus not intended to be followed as a
YPNPKZLX\LUJL;OLÙLLK[VILYLWLH[LKPUKPќLYLU[I\[TLHUPUNM\SJVTIPUH[PVUZ
Objectives of the component on listening and speaking

3PZ[LUPUN[VHUKKPZJYPTPUH[PUN!JVUZVUHU[JS\Z[LYZZLU[LUJLZ[YLZZHUKPU[VUH[PVUKPWO[OVUNZHUK
homonyms
3PZ[LUPUN[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKPUN!^VYKZWOYHZLZHUKZLU[LUJLZ"PUZ[Y\J[PVUZTLZZHNLZ"Z[VYPLZ"[HSRZ"
YLWVY[Z" VWPUPVUZ" WVLTZ" KPHSVN\LZ" PUMVYTH[PVU PU YLWVY[Z N\PKLZ JOHY[Z NYHWOZ THU\HSZ
MVYTZHUKSL[[LYZ"KLZJYPW[PVUVMZJLULZL]LU[ZWSHJLZ[OPUNZHUKWYVJLZZLZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ
Speaking with correct pronunciation, intonation, word stress and sentence rhythm
(ZRPUN MVY HUK NP]PUN! TLHUPUNZ VM ^VYKZ WOYHZLZ HUK ZLU[LUJLZ" PUZ[Y\J[PVUZ" TLZZHNLZ" [HSRZ"
YLWVY[Z" VWPUPVUZ" PUMVYTH[PVU PU YLWVY[Z N\PKLZ JOHY[Z NYHWOZ THU\HSZ MVYTZ HUK SL[[LYZ"
KLZJYPW[PVUZVMZJLULZL]LU[ZWSHJLZ[OPUNZHUKWYVJLZZLZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ"HUK
Telling stories
:RPSSZWLJPÄJH[PVUZ
([[OLLUKVM[OL,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL7YVNYHTTLMVY-VYT0=Z[\KLU[ZZOV\SKILHISL[V
3PZ[LU[VHUKKPZJYPTPUH[LIL[^LLU!JVUZVUHU[JS\Z[LYZKPWO[OVUNZHUKOVTVU`TZ
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LTLHUPUNZVM^VYKZWOYHZLZHUKZLU[LUJLZ
1.3 Speak with correct intonation, word stress and sentence rhythm.
3
PZ[LU [V HUK \UKLYZ[HUK HUK HZR MVY HUK NP]L PUZ[Y\J[PVUZ VU OV^ [V Ä_ [OPUNZ Z\JO HZ H
leaking tap.
3
PZ[LU [V HUK \UKLYZ[HUK HZR MVY HUK NP]L HUK YLSH` TLZZHNLZ YLJLP]LK [OYV\NO [OL THZZ
media, such as the radio and the television.
3
PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHUK[LSSZ[VYPLZVUTVYHS]HS\LZZ\JOHZZLSMYLSPHUJLKPSPNLUJLHUK
public-spiritedness.
3
PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LPUMVYTH[PVUJVU[HPULKPU[HSRZVUJ\YYLU[PZZ\LZZ\JO
as consumerism and health care.
3
PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LPUMVYTH[PVUJVU[HPULKPUYLWVY[ZZ\JOHZUL^ZWHWLY
reports and book reports.
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LPUMVYTH[PVUJVU[HPULKPUJOHY[ZNYHWOZHUKTHU\HSZ
3PZ[LU [V HUK \UKLYZ[HUK HZR MVY HUK NP]L PUMVYTH[PVU JVU[HPULK PU PUMVYTHS SL[[LYZ PU
newspapers and in formal letters of enquiry and complaint.
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LKLZJYPW[PVUZVMZJLULZZ\JOHZ[V\YPZ[ZWV[ZPU[OL
(:,(5YLNPVU
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LKLZJYPW[PVUZVML]LU[ZZ\JOHZ[OL:,(NHTLZ
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LVWPUPVUZVUJ\YYLU[PZZ\LZZ\JOHZ\ULTWSV`TLU[
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKZLSLJ[LKWVLTZVM^YP[LYZMYVT(:,(5YLNPVU
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHZRMVYHUKNP]LKLZJYPW[PVUZVMWYVJLZZLZHUKWYVJLK\YLZZ\JOHZ
the recycling of material.
3PZ[LU[VHUK\UKLYZ[HUKHUKL_WYLZZKPZWSLHZ\YLHUKYLNYL[
1.17 Practice social skills such as interrupting a conversation, and joining in and participating in a
conversation.
The following sub-skills need to be combined and taught simultaneously with the above main skills
where appropriate.
Sub-skills of listening
a. Discerning main ideas
b. Understanding sequence
J 5V[PJPUNZWLJPÄJKL[HPSZ
d. Inferring
e. Comparing
f. Predicting
g. Determining relevance
O +PZ[PUN\PZOPUNMHJ[HUKÄJ[PVU
P +PќLYLU[PH[PUNIL[^LLUMHJ[HUKVWPUPVU
j. Generalizing
k. Classifying
Sub-skills of speaking
l. Using correct pronunciation
m. Questioning
n. Paraphrasing
o. Supporting and clarifying
p. Summarizing
q. Using registers
r. Speaking coherently
APPENDIX 2*\YYPJ\S\TMVYHSPZ[LUPUNJSHZZ̸
Curriculum design: Low-Intermediate Adult ESL Listening Class
by Rebecca Nicholson
Course Foundation
;OPZJ\YYPJ\S\TPZMVYHSV^PU[LYTLKPH[LSL]LSRUVÛHZ0U[LYTLKPH[L3PZ[LUPUNJSHZZ;OLJSHZZY\UZ
for 2 hours a week and is part of a 20-hour a week, ten-week, intensive adult English course. The course
PZJVUK\J[LKH[[OL<UP]LYZP[`VM*HUILYYH,UNSPZO3HUN\HNL0UZ[P[\[L<*,30HWYP]H[LMHJPSP[`ÔPJOPZ
part of the University of Canberra College. The course is a general English course, with the move to an
academic English course in upper-intermediate. The other classes in the course are: Core Text, Writing,
Speaking, Reading, and Grammar & Vocab. A formal needs analysis will be conducted at the beginning
of the course. The users will be the students and their teacher, but results will also be passed on to the
level coordinator and school directors. It will take place in the form of a questionnaire and class activities
K\YPUN [OL ÄYZ[ SLZZVU ;OL HUHS`ZPZ ^PSS IL \ZLK [V PKLU[PM` Z[\KLU[Z» ULLKZ PU[LYLZ[Z JOHSSLUNLZ
L_WLJ[H[PVUZHIV\[SLHYULYHUK[LHJOLYYVSLZÔPJOTHÙLLK[VILULNV[PH[LK[VÄ[[OLSLHYULYJLU[YLK
TVKLSHUKHSZVWLYZVUHSNVHSZ(ZOVY[LYTPKJV\YZLULLKZHUHS`ZPZ^PSSILNP]LUPU^LLR[VHZZLZZ
how students think the course is going and how they are moving towards their goals. Ongoing, informal
needs analysis will complement the formal needs analyses as part of classroom events (Richards 2001).
By the end of the 10 weeks, students are expected to have met the following aims and objectives, which
OH]LILLUHTLUKLKZPUJL[OLWYVWVZHSPUVYKLY[VIL[[LYZ\P[[OLÄUHSZ`SSHI\Z
Aim 1: Students will be able to understand spoken passages on familiar matters, including current
HќHPYZ HUK [VWPJZ VM WLYZVUHS PU[LYLZ[ ;OL` ^PSS JVTWYLOLUK LUV\NO [V WHY[PJPWH[L LќLJ[P]LS` PU
simple, everyday communications, with both native and non-native English Speakers.
Objectives:
• )LJVTLMHTPSPHY^P[OHUKI\PSK]VJHI\SHY`PU[OLHYLHZVMMVVKJVVRPUNSPRLZKPZSPRLZWOVIPHZ
stories, opinions, feelings, describing places, holidays, weather reports, job enquiries, time
phrases, gestures, health, the environment and news reports.
• Develop skills in listening for details, understanding gist, identifying the topic and main ideas,
making inferences, following instructions and note-taking.
• Develop active listening skills (such as feedback) and listening for cues.
• +L]LSVWJVUÄKLUJLPUMHJL[VMHJLHUK[LSLWOVULJVU]LYZH[PVUZ
Aim 2: Students will become active participants in their own learning.
Objectives:
• Identify their own goals for improving listening ability and consciously work towards them.
• 9LÅLJ[VU[OLPYVÛWYVNYLZZ
• Participate in class discussions, ask questions and use only English in the classroom.
Aim 3: Students will begin to think critically.
Objectives:
• Understand and draw conclusions of others’ opinions, and from their own in regards to the
topics presented.
• Make predictions by considering what they already know about a topic, and formulate questions.
• Relate listening topics to their own personal experiences.
Aim 4: Students will develop an understanding of the way of life of people in English-speaking
countries, with a particular emphasis on Australia.
Objectives:
• Be exposed to a range of native-English accents.
• )LJVTLTVYLMHTPSPHY^P[OJ\S[\YHSKPќLYLUJLZIL[^LLU(\Z[YHSPHHUK[OLPYVÛJV\U[YPLZHZ^LSS
as those of their classmates.
References
Richards, J. C. 2001. Curriculum development in language teaching*HTIYPKNL3HUN\HNL,K\JH[PVU
Series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
APPENDIX 3.YHTTHYP[LTZHUK[OLPYZLX\LUJLPUHÄYZ[`LHY,UNSPZOJV\YZL
(from Richards and Bohlke 2012)
The verb be
Possessive adjectives
UNIT 1
Subject pronouns
Yes/No questions with be
Plural subject pronouns
UNIT 2 Questions with be
Who and /V^VSK with be
Demonstratives
Articles a and an
Plurals
UNIT 3
Possessive pronouns
Whose
’s and s’
Simple present statements
UNIT 4
Simple present yes/no questions
Adverbs of frequency
UNIT 5
Simple present Wh-questions with do
Simple present Wh-questions with does
UNIT 6 Can for ability
And, but, and or
Count and noncount nouns

Some and any
UNIT 7
How often
Time expressions
Prepositions of location
UNIT 8
There is, there are
Present continuous statements
UNIT 9
Present continuous questions
Simple past regular verbs
UNIT 10 Simple past irregular verbs
Yes/No questions
Past of be
UNIT 11
Simple past Wh-questions
Be going to
Yes/no questions
UNIT 12
Wh-questions with be, going to
Object pronouns
CASE STUDY 14(JV\YZLMVYÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`Z[\KLU[Z

Phil Wade
6YHS,UNSPZOPZHÄYZ[`LHY\UP]LYZP[`JV\YZLPU[LYTVULMVYHSS,UNSPZOTHQVYZ[\KLU[Z;OL<UP]LYZP[`
PZ SVJH[LK PU 3H 9L\UPVU 0ZSHUK BH -YLUJO départment in the Indian Ocean, JCR]. The course also
includes some students from other departments taking English as an option, working adult students
who are not required to attend classes, and repeating students who failed last year and so have to do
the course again. The average age range is 17 to 23, and class sizes are about 20 due to the seating
capacity of the classrooms. English levels start at A2 and go up to C1, and speaking is generally
students’ weakest skill. The students do several related courses, such as grammar, vocabulary,
phonetics, translation, culture and literature.

;OLJV\YZLPZKLZPNULK[VOLSWZ[\KLU[ZKL]LSVWWYHJ[PZLHUKYLÄUL[OLPYHJHKLTPJWYLZLU[H[PVU
skills about topics related to their studies and also to improve their listening comprehension skills
[V H Z\ѝJPLU[ SL]LS MVY [OL ÄYZ[ `LHY )V[O ZRPSSZ HYL LZZLU[PHS MVY [OLPY V[OLY JV\YZLZ HZ [OL` HYL
primarily conducted in English with native and non-native teachers and involve extensive lectures
HUK HZZLZZLK JSHZZ WYLZLU[H[PVUZ 6\Y Z[\KLU[Z ULLK [V IL HISL [V M\UJ[PVU LќLJ[P]LS` H[ H
minimum B2 level.
The course goals are:
a) To actively participate in all lessons.
I;VWYLWHYLHUKKLSP]LYHÄ]LTPU\[LHJHKLTPJWYLZLU[H[PVU
c) To ask and answer relevant questions following presentations.
d) To successfully complete all listening comprehension tasks.

We have a department course program booklet, and this has been one of the core courses for as long
HZ0JHUYLTLTILY;OLYLPZHJVUJPZLVѝJPHSZ`SSHI\ZNVHSZHUKHZ\TTHY`VM[OLJV\YZLÔPJO^L
MVSSV^6]LY[OL`LHYZOV^L]LYHZKPќLYLU[[LHJOLYZOH]LKLSP]LYLK[OLJV\YZL^LOH]LI\PS[\WH
bank of past tests as well as copies. Thus, the course has naturally evolved, and we teachers now
have a certain amount of freedom because of the bank of materials that has been developed. So at
[OL LUK VM L]LY` [LYT ^L YLÅLJ[ VU [OL WYL]PV\Z JV\YZL Z[\KLU[ MLLKIHJR HUK L_HT YLZ\S[Z HUK
select appropriate materials for the next, and then discuss ideas for the exams. We also consider
any issues which have arisen or might arise regarding attendance, public holidays, sickness and the
pass rate compared to other courses.

;OL6YHS,UNSPZOJV\YZLZWHUZ[LU^LLRZHUKPZTHKL\WVM^LLRS` TPU\[LSLZZVUZ0U[OLÄYZ[
we explain the course and its objectives, get to know the students and describe how they will be
HZZLZZLKHUKÔH[[OL`ZOV\SKKV[VZ\JJLZZM\SS`JVTWSL[L[OLJV\YZL0UT`ÄYZ[SLZZVUZ0HS^H`Z
give a sample presentation and go over basic presentation structures and language, and then
students brainstorm suitable topics and I give them feedback, so they all know which are acceptable.
0[OLUJOVVZL[OYLLZ[\KLU[Z[VWYLZLU[[OLMVSSV^PUN^LLR-VSSV^PUN[OH[^LKV[OLÄYZ[SPZ[LUPUN
comprehension tasks.
Every lesson then follows the same structure:

1. Five-minute assessed student presentations.
2. Student questions and answers and teacher questions where necessary.
3. A short open discussion about the topic.
4. Peer and teacher feedback with suggestions on how to improve.
7YLZLU[H[PVUZRPSSZSHUN\HNL^VYR
6. A listening comprehension task with several questions.
7. (UV[OLYSPZ[LUPUNJVTWYLOLUZPVU^P[OHNHWÄSS[HZR
8. 3LHYULYZLSLJ[LKHKKP[PVUHSSPZ[LUPUNL_LYJPZLZPM[PTL
0U[OLÄUHS^LLRSLZZVU^LWYV]PKLZVTLL_HTWYLWHYH[PVUI`L_WSHPUPUN[OLL_HTMVYTH[HUK
marking and giving tips based on the students’ levels, strengths and weaknesses. Time is allocated
for any students who were unable to give their presentations during the course.

The course is quite structured and there is a lot to accomplish within each session. It is not a typical
,-3SLZZVUHUKZV^LHKHW[[V[OLZP[\H[PVU4VZ[SLZZVUZHYLKVULPUJVTW\[LYSHIVYH[VYPLZHUKZV
JHUILJSHZZPÄLKHZ\ZPUNH)SLUKLK3LHYUPUNHWWYVHJO"Z[\KLU[ZHSZV\ZL[OLPYWOVULZMVYSVVRPUN
\WKLÄUP[PVUZVM^VYKZ>LOH]LHUVUSPUL-SPWIVHYKTHNHaPULÔPJOJVU[HPUZ^LLRS`Z\WWSLTLU[HY`
listening exercises that are done at the end of the session, if there is time, or at home. As it is an app,
students can use it on any device.
The listening tasks are often taken from past exam papers, and so they not only provide good general
listening practice but also help students understand and get accustomed to the exam format and
instructions. Due to job rotation, not every test was written by the current team, so there are some
style variations.
As for the presentation element, it is more of a CBI (Content-Based Instruction) style, as the topic is
central and the students’ language is assessed as a delivery tool for that topic. The questioning is
also aimed at real discussion rather than just practising question-and-answer forms. We are aiming
to develop presentation skills which will help the students throughout their studies.
The feedback part relies completely on the delivered presentations and student peer assessments.
Students are asked to give honest feedback and suggestions using the “feedback sandwich”
method. The teacher then follows that up with a coaching style in which students are encouraged
[V ZLSMHZZLZZ HUK PKLU[PM` [OLPY KPѝJ\S[PLZ VY VIZ[HJSLZ ;OL JSHZZ [OLU ^VYRZ [VNL[OLY [V JYLH[L
strategies for moving forward.
The related language work is done in the Dogme style, where the teacher notes down common
errors, weaknesses and areas that could be developed and then creates some activities to work on
them. These can be an extension of the previous stage or something else. The teacher can also ask
students what they feel they need help with.
;OLSPZ[LUPUN[HZRZHYLJVYYLJ[LKPUKPќLYLU[^H`Z:VTLZ[\KLU[ZQ\Z[WYLMLYL_HTZ[`SLÔLYL[OL`
listen and then are given the answers. Others like the teacher to pause the recording after each
answer and to explain it. The latter is quite helpful, especially with lower-level students. For the
student-selected supplementary listening tasks, students are given a choice from the online magazine
and select the ones they feel are appropriate for their level, their weaknesses or their interests. The
teacher then monitors and supports them and gives further homework suggestions.

We have a very limited resource budget, so we use photocopies of previous exam papers and
occasionally other listening exercises designed by our current and previous teams. These consist of
VULKV\ISLZPKLKZOLL[^P[OH[HZRVULHJOZPKL;OLÄYZ[[HZRJVUZPZ[ZVMJVTWYLOLUZPVUX\LZ[PVUZ
based on a British or American English recording. The second is a poem or story extract with gaps
that the students try to complete. Each usually has around 20 questions. We use a CD and mp3
players for the recordings, and the computers for the additional work. Students also use paper,
phones and tablets to write on.
The Flipboard magazine is very practical, as it provides listening practice for students who cannot
attend and extra work for those who do. The teacher also knows who subscribes to it, and they can
comment on exercises.
Everything depends on the students that are in each particular class, as we do not separate them
I`SL]LS;O\ZZVTLNYV\WZTHÒH]L]LY`SV^WYVÄJPLUJ`SL]LSZWLYOHWZ(VU*,-96[OLYZTH`
OH]LOPNOWYVÄJPLUJÌ\[[OLTHQVYP[`HYLTP_LK/H]PUNHTP_VMZ[\KLU[ZH[SL]LSZ([V*VYL]LU
*PUVULJSHZZJHUILKPѝJ\S[;OLTH[LYPHSZHYL)*SL]LSZVSV^LYSL]LSZ[\KLU[ZÄUK[OLT]LY`
hard and lose motivation, whereas very high-level students are not as challenged as they might wish
[VIL(ZHYLZ\S[[LHJOLYZKPќLYLU[PH[L[OLILZ[[OL`JHU(Z^LHYLHW\ISPJPUZ[P[\[PVU[OLYLHYL
]HYPV\Z MHJ[VYZ [OH[ HќLJ[ V\Y [LHJOPUN -VY PUZ[HUJL UL^ Z[\KLU[Z JHU IL LUYVSSLK ZL]LYHS ^LLRZ
PU[V[OLJV\YZL:[\KLU[ZHSZVKYVWV\[VYJOHUNLJSHZZVYKLWHY[TLU[;OPZTLHUZ[OH[P[PZKPѝJ\S[
to keep doing continuous development work. We also have a very limited budget, so just ensuring
that we have copied enough handouts as well as tests for our registered students is expensive. We
HYLHK]PZLK[VTHRLL]LY`WHNLJV\U[HUK[VWHJRHZT\JOPUMVYTH[PVUPU[V[OLTHZWVZZPISL5V
big gaps are permitted.
5V[ HSS Z[\KLU[Z ÔV HYL ZLSLJ[LK [V WYLZLU[ JVTL [V [OLPY ZLZZPVU ;OPZ TLHUZ [OH[ [OL` MHPS OHSM
the course, but it also means that there is another ten minutes of class time that the teacher needs
to make use of. When two or even three presenters do not come, the teacher has to extend the
listening work or focus on some presentation skills. If those students turn up the following week with
HSLNP[PTH[LL_J\ZLHUKHZR[VWYLZLU[[OL[LHJOLYTH`[OLUOH]LÄ]LVYL]LUZP_WYLZLU[LYZHUK
must negotiate suitable times for each over the next two weeks.
Our computers are quite old and the Internet is quite slow, so there are often technical problems. The
[LHJOLYZOH]L[VILWYLWHYLKMVY[OPZHUKLP[OLYÄ_[OLWYVISLTZVYJHSSH[LJOUPJPHU

;OLYLPZHÄUHSL_HTÔPJOJHYYPLZVM[OL[V[HSTHYR;OLHZZLZZLKWYLZLU[H[PVUZJHYY`[OLV[OLY
:[\KLU[ZHYLYLX\PYLK[VHJOPL]LV]LYHSS[VWHZZ[OLJV\YZL;OPZTLHUZ[OH[Z[\KLU[ZÔV
HYL^LHRH[[OLWYLZLU[H[PVUZJHUTHRL\W[OLPYZJVYLZPU[OLÄUHS[LZ[
Phil Wade is an English teacher in the Department of English at the University of La Reunion. He
teaches on the Oral English and English Communication courses and is currently developing an
English through Digital Technology course. He has self-published ten teacher development ebooks
HUK HU L_HT WYLWHYH[PVU LIVVR HUK OHZ ^VYRLK VU WYPU[LK HUK KPNP[HS WYVK\J[Z MVY H YHUNL VM
publishers and ELT companies. His articles on teaching methodology and lesson ideas have been
published by numerous ELT associations.
CASE STUDY 15(NLULYHS,UNSPZOJV\YZLMVYPU[LYUH[PVUHSZ[\KLU[Z

Frank S. Rogers
This is a general English (GE) class at the B1 level which I teach at EF Auckland, a private language
ZJOVVS PU 5L^ ALHSHUK 0[»Z H T\S[PUH[PVUHS NYV\W ^P[O THU` ,HZ[ (ZPHU Z[\KLU[Z I\[ HSZV :V\[O
(TLYPJHUZ4PKKSL,HZ[LYULYZHUK,\YVWLHUZ:[\KLU[ZILNPUHUKNYHK\H[LH[KPќLYLU[WVPU[ZI\[
the class size generally consists of between 12 and 17 students. Classes are grouped by CEFR level,
but within that there is inevitably some variation in abilities. A typical student tends to have reasonable
declarative knowledge of grammar but particularly wants to work on speaking and listening. Students
have ten 80-minute GE classes per week and take additional elective courses, such as Grammar,
*VTT\UPJH[PVU0,3;:-V\UKH[PVUL[J

The CEFR provides a framework for all of our courses, so the most obvious goal is to help students
fully achieve the descriptors for their CEFR level and prime them for the levels beyond. That said, I
also ask students to develop personalized goals, so I try to slot occasional 1-to-1 catch-ups into class
and give support and guidance there. Because students perceive listening to be an area of special
need, I’ve set students the additional goals of becoming comfortable with ungraded speech, aware
of some common sound changes in ungraded speech, and aware of outside, authentic resources
for autonomous work. In terms of speaking, many students come in very tight-lipped, so I aim to get
them feeling comfortable about speaking for an extended stretch of time – two or three minutes and
eventually beyond.

The textbook lays out a pretty detailed plan, so I start by looking at what’s in the unit and deciding
ÔH[ ZOV\SK IL LTWOHZPaLK KLLTWOHZPaLK VY Z\WWSLTLU[LK 0 KV H ÄYZ[^LLR ULLKZ HUHS`ZPZ
and then another one in the third or fourth week. The information gleaned there gives me a basis for
these judgements. It probably goes without saying, but textbook coverage is generally not performed
verbatim as that would be quite mechanical and unpopular.
I also have the freedom to create ‘bespoke’ lessons of my own, which I usually do at least once a
^LLR0KVU»[[LHJOL]LY`[OPUNPUHNP]LU\UP[I\[0»KZH`0JV]LYHIV\[VM\UP[JVU[LU[:VTL
of that gets done as homework. I think it’s important that derivation is still coherent. For me, that
means keeping a focus on unit grammar and keeping new content and tasks in line with the unit
topic (units are arranged thematically). That way, outside content should reinforce and build on what’s
in the textbook, but students see that there’s more beyond the textbook. Obviously, it’s not realistic
to design ten completely new lessons a week, and there is an implicit expectation that the textbook
should have some purpose, so you need to strike the right balance. Usually I do two to three lessons
per week based primarily on self-designed material and authentic content from other sources.
My particular focus has been on ungraded speech, usually (but not always) from native speakers,
and is meant to provide a balance with the textbook listenings, which are crystal clear, patient and
ULH[S` LU\UJPH[LK 5LLKSLZZ [V ZH` Z[\KLU[Z KVU»[ HS^H`Z LUJV\U[LY [OPZ PU YLHS SPML HUK KLÄUP[LS`
notice the contrast.

Within a level, we have three sub-levels running for six weeks each. So, ideally, a student spends
18 weeks in a CEFR level. The hypothetical layout for a week is as follows: 2 iPad-based classes,
JVTW\[LYIHZLK JSHZZ WYLZLU[H[PVU ZVM[^HYLIHZLK JSHZZ JVTT\UPJH[PVUMVJ\ZLK JSHZZ

textbook-based classes. Everything has company-provided materials which tie into unit topics. In
MHJ[ 0 KVU»[ MVSSV^ [OPZ ZJOLTL YLSPNPV\ZS`" PU H NP]LU ^LLR 0 TPNO[ ÄUK [PTL MVY HU L_[YH JVTW\[LY
session focused on writing and use iPads less than allotted, and certainly, communication focus is
not limited to a single session. At the end of a six-week cycle, we have a computerized progress test
covering grammar, listening and reading. The content of the test is not directly based on unit content,
but I nevertheless set aside some time in week 6 to revise and consolidate what has been covered.

It’s hard to generalize, but in vocabulary and grammar I try to give students a lot of accurate,
contextualized input and get pairs analysing and discussing this. I like contrasting pairs of sentences
as a teaching device, which might be called a Processing Instruction-esque approach, as well
as textual enhancement in which the students do the highlighting themselves and other students
subsequently analyse this. I used to be a pretty conventional PPP-style teacher, and while I’ve fallen
V\[ VM SV]L ^P[O OLH]` \ZL VM NHWÄSS VY ÄUKHUKJVYYLJ[[OLTPZ[HRL HJ[P]P[PLZ 0 Z[PSS [OPUR L_WSPJP[
instruction, when focused and concise, is very important.
With listening and reading, I prefer activities in which students need to paraphrase or explain content
PU[OLPYVÛ^VYKZYH[OLY[OHUMVJ\ZOLH]PS`VUÄUKPUNZWLJPÄJP[LTZ^P[OPU[OLJVU[LU[0MJVU[LU[PZ
engaging, pausing for a simple comprehension check can spark very engaged discussions. I try to
draw a link between listening and reading by incorporating transcripts whenever possible.
:WVRLU JVTT\UPJH[PVU PZ H THQVY PZZ\L MVY T` Z[\KLU[Z ZV 0 [Y` [V ÄSS T` JSHZZLZ ^P[O HZ THU`
SP[[SLZ[\KLU[¶Z[\KLU[PU[LYHJ[PVUZHZ0JHU"0[OYVÎHJR]PY[\HSS`HU`X\LZ[PVUH[Z[\KLU[ZMVYWHPYLK
discussion and probably say ‘don’t tell me, tell your partner’ at least 20 times a day. I open most of
T` JSHZZLZ HUKVY SVUNLY HJ[P]P[PLZ ^P[O Ä]L¶[LU HNYLLKPZHNYLL Z[H[LTLU[Z YLSH[LK [V [OL JVU[LU[
Many students’ instinctive response to these is to grab a pen and individually write out an answer,
but with diligent enforcement, students come round to setting down their pens and speaking with
VULHUV[OLY0UT`Z[\KPLZ0»]LKVULHSV[VMYLHKPUNHUKYLZLHYJOVUZWLHRPUNHJ[P]P[PLZHUK
0»]L[YPHSSLKZL]LYHSTVKPÄJH[PVUZ[VPUJSHZZ0ÄUK[OPZHWHY[PJ\SHYS`NVVKTL[OVKMVYT`X\PL[LY
B1 students.
Developing autonomy is an important part of my class, and yet another reason that I like incorporating
outside material is that it’s a chance to highlight the wealth of material that is now available online and
start a dialogue about learning strategies.

EF content is a framework, but that framework gets tailored quite regularly. Outside resources,
WHY[PJ\SHYS`H\[OLU[PJTH[LYPHSMYVT^LIZP[LZZ\JOHZ579HUK[OL))*WSH`HIPNYVSLPUT`JSHZZLZ
as well as extracts from longer podcasts such as This American Life and Invisibilia. It’s helpful in this
regard that the school has a large supply of iPads and projectors, with internet access in every room.
4` Z[\KLU[Z HYL JYHa` HIV\[ ºNHTPÄLK» X\PaaLZ ÔPJO 0 THRL [OYV\NO [OL NHTLIHZLK SLHYUPUN
WSH[MVYT2HOVV[[V[OLWVPU[[OH[0»]LOHK[VSPTP[V\Y\ZL[VQ\Z[VUJLH^LLR,KTVKVBHUVUSPUL
networking application, JCR] is also an important element of classes for communicating homework
(particularly if the homework involves online content), but also for polling, quizzing or getting online
discussions going. We’ve also begun experimenting with Padlet [an online noticeboard, JCR], which
seems promising. I think it is important, though, that technology remains a means to an end and not
HML[PZOPUHUKVMP[ZLSM-VYL_HTWSLHºNHTPÄLK»YLZV\YJLSPRL2HOVV[PZNYLH[I\[`V\ULLK[VIL
careful that the game element doesn’t become the overwhelming focus. I’ve had to make rules at
times to keep this in check.
EF provides a lot of content for our iPad app and computer lab, but again, this is a framework to
ÔPJOHKKP[PVUHUKTVKPÄJH[PVUPZHUVYT
;OLMHJ[[OH[Z[\KLU[ZLUYVSHUKNYHK\H[LH[KPќLYLU[[PTLZJYLH[LZZVTLO\YKSLZ5L^MHJLZHUK
VYNYHK\H[PUNZ[\KLU[ZJHUJOHUNL[OLÅH]V\YVM[OPUNZHUKJYLH[LJOHSSLUNLZPU[LYTZVMPU[LNYH[PVU
and referring back to previous content.
I personally feel that, in many cases, company-provided material could be a bit more challenging and
L_[LUZP]L;OPZPZVULVM[OLYLHZVUZMVYTÌYPUNPUNPUTVYLH\[OLU[PJTH[LYPHS"Z[HY[PUN^P[O[OPZH[
B1 is perhaps an earlier exposure than normal and dealing with even short chunks of ungraded audio
or reading has the potential to cause anxiety or frustration. Reducing this and emphasizing that word-
for-word comprehension is not necessarily the goal is thus quite important.
Our evaluation model can require a bit of explaining to those students who expect a test based
directly on the textbook, to be passed or failed. EF’s level progress tests are meant more as indicators
VMWYVNYLZZºHTPSLZ[VUL»PZVULVM[OLMH]V\YLKTL[HWOVYZI\[^LKVUV[ZWLJPÄJHSS`[LZ[[L_[IVVR
content or test to determine advancement.
Finally, the test’s target grades do not correspond to the 70% pass threshold that many students
HYLHJJ\Z[VTLK[VMYVTZJOVVS"P[»ZHWYL[[`JOHSSLUNPUN[LZ[HUK[OL[HYNL[ZJVYLZHYLHJJVYKPUNS`
lower. This can cause initial alarm when students get their results back, and you need to be careful
that certain students aren’t demotivated by test scores which are, in fact, perfectly in line with our
expectations.

We do an entrance test for placement, a progress test every six weeks and an exit test. Alongside the
level-progress test, every six weeks students receive a writing grade. This can be based on a piece of
timed writing, a holistic assessment, or a combination of both (my personal preference). Speaking is
assessed every two weeks in six subcategories. Both the speaking and the writing are assessed on
a 10-point scale. My students tend to get marks between 4 (limited) and 6 (competent). I base these
on how students’ English would be perceived in a non-classroom setting, rather than grading within
the context of their level. There is also a weekly A–F letter grade and a participation grade.
0U ^LLRZ ¶ ZVTLVUL PUL]P[HIS` HZRZ TL ÔH[ [V Z[\K` MVY [OL [LZ[ ;OPZ PZU»[ YLHSS` WVZZPISL [V
answer as the test doesn’t incorporate class content. But I can understand why students would want
a measurable score based on what we’ve studied. So, in week 6 I give a self-written, multiple-choice
quiz based on material covered in class. This, however, is just an extra indicator of learning, not a
determiner for advancement.
Before any decisions about advancement are made, I meet one-to-one with each student for an
HZZLZZTLU[HUK[VKPZJ\ZZWYVTV[PVUUVUWYVTV[PVU;OLZLHYLUV[[PNO[S`Z[Y\J[\YLK[HSRZI\[P[»ZH
chance to give feedback in a number of areas, address concerns and set or adjust goals. While much
more relaxed than a test, this is one of the most important assessments my students will receive, as
our conversation is a major factor in advancement or non-advancement. It is, however, a genuine
discussion, not to be passed or failed.
-YHUR:9VNLYZ^HZIVYUHUKYHPZLKPU[OL<UP[LK:[H[LZI\[OHZ[H\NO[,UNSPZOPU-YHUJL[OL*aLJO
9LW\ISPJHUK5LÂLHSHUKÔLYLOLJ\YYLU[S`SP]LZ/LPZ^VYRPUNVUHU4(PU(WWSPLK3PUN\PZ[PJZ
at Victoria University of Wellington and is particularly interested in listening and online educational
YLZV\YJLZ(ZPKLMYVTVUL`LHY^VYRPUNHZHNOVZ[^YP[LYOLOHZILLU[LHJOPUNMVY[OLWHZ[[LU`LHYZ
9 CURRICULUM AS PROCESS
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the following aspects of the curriculum as process:
• An alternative understanding of curriculum • What happens during lessons

• What teachers bring to teaching – Realizing personal values and principles
– Engaging in improvisational teaching
• How teachers think about lesson purposes
– Using one’s own materials
– Rethinking the role of the teacher
– ,UNHNPUNPUYLÅLJ[P]LHUKL_WSVYH[VY`
practice
– Focusing on learning from the learners’
perspective
– Helping learners become autonomous
learners
Case study 16 Thinking through English Alan S. Mackenzie
Introduction
0ULHYSPLYJOHW[LYZ^LJVUZPKLYLK[OLKPќLYLU[SL]LSZVMPUMVYTH[PVUNH[OLYPUNHUKWSHUUPUN[OH[HYL
involved in developing a curriculum. From this perspective, the curriculum can be considered an
action plan that provides a rational and organized basis for teaching and learning. We have seen that
the form in which a curriculum as plan is realized depends upon the theoretical framework that it is
IHZLKVU¶VUL[OH[PZPUMVYTLKI`JVUJLW[PVUZVMSHUN\HNLVMSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHUK[LHJOPUNHZ
^LSS HZ I` H KL[HPSLK JVUZPKLYH[PVU VM [OL JVU[L_[ PU ÔPJO [OL J\YYPJ\S\T ^PSS IL \ZLK 0[ WYV]PKLZ
the basis for implementation through instructional activities and teaching resources that often exist
HZ WYLZJYPW[PVUZ MVY [LHJOLYZ HIV\[ ÔH[ HUK OV^ [OL` ZOV\SK [LHJO PU VYKLY [V HJOPL]L [OL HPTZ
of the curriculum. We earlier referred to this as a top-down understanding of curriculum. In this
chapter we want to explore the alternative understanding of curriculum referred to in Chapter 1, that
PZ VM [OL J\YYPJ\S\T HZ WYVJLZZ VY HZ HU LJVSVN`¶HIV[[VT\W]PL^VMJ\YYPJ\S\T[OH[]PL^Z[OL
J\YYPJ\S\THZZVTL[OPUN[OH[LTLYNLZMYVTJSHZZYVVTWYHJ[PJL(Z2LUULK`JVTTLU[Z!
¸0[ PZ WLYZVUJLU[YLK JVUZPKLYZ \ZLYZ» ULLKZ PKLU[PÄLZ WYVISLTZ YH[OLY [OHU Y\ZOPUN [V ZVS\[PVUZ
HUKKVLZUV[YLS`VU[VWKVÛTLJOHUPZ[PJTVKLSZI\[PZHWYVJLZZ[OH[^VYRZ[V^HYKZPU[LYHJ[PVU
between participants at all levels.”
>OH[KV`V\\UKLYZ[HUKI`H[VWKVÛHWWYVHJO[VJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[&
9.1 An alternative understanding of curriculum

>OPSL H[ [OL UH[PVUHS VY PUZ[P[\[PVUHS SL]LS [OL J\YYPJ\S\T PZ NLULYHSS` X\P[L ZWLJPÄJ PU [LYT VM HPTZ
VIQLJ[P]LZVYSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZHUKOV^[OLZLHYLVWLYH[PVUHSPaLKPU[OLMVYTVM[OLZ`SSHI\ZHUK
[L_[IVVRZ [LHJOPUN PZ UV[ ZPTWS` H WYVJLZZ VM LUHJ[TLU[ ;LHJOLYZ HJOPL]L [OLPY HPTZ PU KPќLYLU[
227
^H`Z [OH[ YLÅLJ[ [OLPY ILSPLMZ HUK L_WLYPLUJL HZ ^LSS HZ [OL JVU[L_[ PU ÔPJO [OL` HYL [LHJOPUN
Teaching is more than just a technical process in which teachers “present” lessons that have been
WYLWHYLKI`V[OLYZMYVTHIVVRVYLSZLÔLYLVY¸YLHSPaL¹VY¸PTWSLTLU[¹WSHUZL]LUPM[OLÒH]L
THKL[OLZL[OLTZLS]LZ.VVK[LHJOPUNPZHKÙHTPJHUKPU[LYHJ[P]LWYVJLZZ4HU`\UWSHUULK[OPUNZ
occur during lessons. Teachers “create” lessons from the ground up, so to speak. This is what Aoki
calls the “lived curriculum” and what others refer to as the “ecological perspective” on curriculum.
;\KVY JOHYHJ[LYPaLZ [OL LJVSVNPJHS WLYZWLJ[P]L HZ HU PUZPKLY ]PL^ VM [LHJOPUN [OH[ ZLLRZ [V
understand the teaching-learning perspective from the viewpoint of the participants and to capture
OV^[OL`L_WLYPLUJLP[ZZ\IQLJ[P]LYLHSP[`0[ZLLZ[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUNHZT\S[PMHJL[LKHUKPU]VS]PUN
H KÙHTPJ PU[LYHJ[PVU IL[^LLU [OL [LHJOLY»Z TL[OVKVSVN` HUK [OL JVU[L_[ VM [LHJOPUN 0[ PZ [O\Z H
situated or local approach to understanding the decision-making that is at the heart of teaching. At
[OLZHTL[PTLP[YLX\PYLZHYLL]HS\H[PVUVMOV^^L\UKLYZ[HUK[OLYLSH[PVUZOPWIL[^LLU[OLVY`HUK
practice and the need for the development of a research agenda that acknowledges the complex
realities of teaching and learning in the classroom as well as the nature of pedagogical decision-making.
0UZ[P[\[PVUZOV^L]LY[`WPJHSS`WYVTV[LHTVYL[LJOUPJHSWYVK\J[IHZLK]PL^VM[LHJOPUNKVTPUH[LK
I`Z[HUKHYKZHUK[LZ[Z;OLMLH[\YLZVMHJVYWVYH[LJ\S[\YLHYLJVVW[LKPU[V[OLSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN
WYVMLZZPVU^P[OHULTWOHZPZVUWYHJ[PJLZZ\JOHZX\HSP[`JVU[YVSHUKWLYMVYTHUJLV\[W\[Z[OH[LJOV
features of the service and manufacturing industries. Teaching is embedded within an organizational and
HKTPUPZ[YH[P]LJVU[L_[HUKPZPUÅ\LUJLKI`VYNHUPaH[PVUHSJVUZ[YHPU[ZHUKWYVJLZZLZ/LUJLPUVYKLY[V
JVU[YVSHUKTHUHNLWYVNYHTZHUK[LHJOPUNZJOVVSZNLULYHSSÒH]LWYVJLK\YLZPUWSHJL[V[Y`[VLUZ\YL
a close degree of alignment between the stated curriculum and teachers’ practices. These include:
• schemes of work that are provided for teachers or that teachers develop themselves;
• [LHJOLYZ»SLZZVUWSHUZÔPJOTHÌLYL]PL^LKI`Z\WLY]PZVYZ"
• observation, both for purposes of monitoring, professional development, or evaluation;
• procedures for the evaluation of teacher performance.
+VLZ`V\YPUZ[P[\[PVUOH]LWYVJLK\YLZPUWSHJL[VTVUP[VY[LHJOLYZ»[LHJOPUN&
/HKSL` ¶ KLZJYPILZ [OL PUÅ\LUJL VM H THUHNLYPHS HUK THYRL[IHZLK HWWYVHJO [V
teaching and comments:
The experience of language teachers today is often one of diminished classroom autonomy
and of being managed by business-savvy administrators. Within the matrix of increasingly
large class sizes structured for cost performance, students are to be treated as knowledge con-
sumers, and language teachers are expected to successfully deliver a standardized language
content that results in measurable, often marketable, improvement.
;OLYLJHU[O\ZILHKPSLTTHMVY[LHJOLYZÔVZLLR[V[LHJOJYLH[P]LS`HUK[VKL]LSVWH[LHJOPUN
Z[`SLIHZLKVU[OLPYSLHYULYZ»ULLKZHUK[OLPYVÛWYPUJPWSLZHUKILSPLMZ^P[OPU[OLJVUZ[YHPU[ZVMH
WYLZJYPILKJ\YYPJ\S\T0U[OLMVSSV^PUNL_HTWSLH[LHJOLYKLZJYPILZOV^ZOLULNV[PH[LZOLYVÛ^H`
toward the goals of the curriculum.
The more experienced I become as a teacher, the more comfortable I am with finding a way of working
with the specified curriculum. I think a course outline can be a highly creative document. Once I feel
confident that I understand what the required course outcomes are, I love the freedom of finding my own
9 Curriculum as process •
way of achieving them. Of course there are always recommended practices, activities, texts, and books
to use on any course. But there is also always room to try new things which have served you well in the
past or which the students demonstrate an interest in. It all depends on how confident you feel that you
know what you are aiming at.
(Teacher A, English teacher, UAE)
To understand how curriculum occurs at the level of classroom teaching, then, we need to consider
both what teachers bring to the classroom, in terms of knowledge, experience, values, beliefs, and
teaching skills, and how teachers make use of these resources during the process of teaching itself.
9.2 What teachers bring to teaching

;LHJOLYZHJJLZZHUKTHRL\ZLVMTHU`KPќLYLU[[`WLZVMRUV^SLKNLZRPSSZHUK\UKLYZ[HUKPUNÔLU
[OL` [LHJO )VYN ;VNL[OLY [OLZL JVUZ[P[\[L [OL JVNUP[P]L HUK L_WLYPLU[PHS SHUKZJHWL
in which teachers act and make decisions. The core components of teacher knowledge can be
summarized as follows:
• Contextual knowledge: MHTPSPHYP[`^P[O[OLZJOVVSVYPUZ[P[\[PVUHSJVU[L_[ZJOVVSUVYTZHUK[OL
school culture.
• Language ability:[OL[LHJOLY»ZWYVÄJPLUJ`PU,UNSPZOHUKOPZVYOLYHIPSP[`\ZPUN,UNSPZOHZ[OL
language of instruction.
• Content knowledge: the teacher’s understanding of the subject of second language teaching,
PUJS\KPUNRUV^SLKNLHIV\[SHUN\HNLHUK,UNSPZOWLKHNVNPJHSNYHTTHYWOVUVSVN`[LHJOPUN
[OLVYPLZZLJVUKSHUN\HNLHJX\PZP[PVUHZ^LSSHZ[OLZWLJPHSPaLKKPZJV\YZLHUK[LYTPUVSVN`VM
language teaching.
• Pedagogical knowledge: HIPSP[`[VYLZ[Y\J[\YLJVU[LU[RUV^SLKNLMVY[LHJOPUNW\YWVZLZHUK[V
plan, adapt, and improvise based on the teaching context.
• Knowledge of learners: understanding of the knowledge, beliefs, dispositions, attitudes,
motivations, learning preferences, etc. that learners bring to the classroom.
• Values: moral and ethical principles that shape the teacher’s attitudes and behavior and his or
her relations with students and colleagues.
• Knowledge of teaching methods: MHTPSPHYP[`^P[OVULVYTVYL[LHJOPUNHWWYVHJOLZVYTL[OVKZ
• Practical knowledge: [OL[LHJOLY»ZYLWLY[VPYLVMJSHZZYVVT[LJOUPX\LZYV\[PULZHUKZ[YH[LNPLZ
• Experiential knowledge: knowledge of the learners accumulated over time, understanding of
[`WPJHSWYVISLTZHUKZVS\[PVUZLќLJ[P]L\ZLVMTH[LYPHSZHUKYLZV\YJLZ
• Personal knowledge: the teacher’s personal beliefs and principles and his or her individual
approach to teaching.
• 9LÅLJ[P]LRUV^SLKNL![OL[LHJOLY»ZJHWHJP[`[VYLÅLJ[VUHUKHZZLZZOPZVYOLYVÛWYHJ[PJLZ
*HU`V\NP]LL_HTWSLZVMH[LHJOLY»Z¸WLYZVUHSRUV^SLKNL¹&
The knowledge and understanding outlined above serve as the basis for the actions and decisions
[LHJOLYZTHRLILMVYL[OL`[LHJOplanning decisionsÔPSL[LHJOPUNPU[LYHJ[P]LKLJPZPVUZHUKHM[LY
[LHJOPUNHSLZZVUL]HS\H[P]LKLJPZPVUZ-YLLTHU H>LZLLHUL_HTWSLVM[OLSH[[LYILSV^
One way that I help myself to remain reflective on my teaching is to regularly ask my learners to scrib-
ble on a piece of paper at the end of a morning’s teaching what they remember about the class. This can
be very telling. Sometimes the learners refer to something that I didn’t pay much attention to, and that
makes me wonder why it was so salient for them and not for me. Sometimes I realize that they are more
focused on the content of what we are writing about than the strategies and skills and elements that
contribute to effective written texts. This information is extremely valuable, as it gives me an inkling of
how the learners perceive what goes on in class and gives me the opportunity to make adjustments to
my practice where I think this is needed.
9.3 How teachers think about lesson purposes

To further understand what the lived curriculum might look like, let us consider purposes from the
point of view of the teacher rather than from the stance of the curriculum planner. Nunan made this
WVPU[ ÔLU OL KPZ[PUN\PZOLK IL[^LLU [^V ^H`Z PU ÔPJO [OL [LYT curriculum can be understood.
;OLÄYZ[\UKLYZ[HUKPUNPZVMJ\YYPJ\S\THZ¸HZ[H[LTLU[VMPU[LU[[OLºÔH[ZOV\SKIL»VMHSHUN\HNL
WYVNYHTTL HZ ZL[ V\[ PU Z`SSHI\Z V\[SPULZ ZL[Z VM VIQLJ[P]LZ HUK ]HYPV\Z WSHUUPUN KVJ\TLU[Z¹
;OLV[OLYPZVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\T¸HZYLHSP[`¹VY¸ÔH[HJ[\HSS`NVLZVUMYVTTVTLU[[VTVTLU[PU[OL
SHUN\HNLJSHZZYVVT¹5\UHU ÔPJO^LKPZJ\ZZLKPU*OHW[LY
;LHJOLYZNLULYHSS`RUV^ÔH[[OL`HYLKVPUNHUKÔ`[OL`JOVVZL[VKV[OL[OPUNZ[OL`KVK\YPUN
SLZZVUZ;OL`THÌL[LHJOPUNMYVTHIVVR\ZPUN[OLPYVÛTH[LYPHSZVYTHRPUN\ZLVM[LJOUVSVN`
I\[[OL`JOVVZLHJ[P]P[PLZMVYHW\YWVZL<USLZZYLX\PYLK[VKVZVI`[OLPYZJOVVS[OL`[LUKUV[[V
WSHUSLZZVUZHYV\UK[OLMYHTL^VYRVMHPTZHUKVIQLJ[P]LZVYJVTWL[LUJPLZ\ZLKI`[OLWLVWSLÔV
^YV[L[OLPYJV\YZLIVVRVYWYLWHYLK[OLPYJ\YYPJ\S\THUKZ`SSHI\Z0UT`L_WLYPLUJL[OL`[LUK[V[OPUR
PUTVYLNLULYHS[LYTZ¶HNLULYHSW\YWVZLVYW\YWVZLZ[OH[ZLY]L[VKL[LYTPUL[OLHJ[P]P[PLZ[OL`^PSS
\ZL4VZ[SHUN\HNLSLZZVUZPU]VS]LW\YWVZLZZ\JOHZ[OLMVSSV^PUN!
• ;VHJX\PYLHZWLJ[ZVM[OLSHUN\HNLZ`Z[LTLN^VYKZNYHTTHYWYVU\UJPH[PVU
• ;VWYLWHYLSLHYULYZMVYHWLYMVYTHUJLLNH[LZ[
• ;VPTWYV]LÅ\LUJ`VYHOPNOLYSL]LSVM\UKLYZ[HUKPUNLNJYP[PJHSYLHKPUN
• ;VKL]LSVWHZRPSSLNSPZ[LUPUNMVYTHPUPKLHZ
• ;VWYHJ[PJLHUHJ[P]P[`LNPU[LY]PL^ZRPSSZ
• To improve learners’ motivation for learning.
• ;VSLHYUOV^[VKVZVTL[OPUNLNTHRLH[LSLWOVULJHSS
• ;VHWWS`ZVTL[OPUNMYVTHWYL]PV\ZSLZZVULNHZ[YH[LN`
• ;VSLHYUUL^JVU[LU[PUMVYTH[PVULNPUHYLHKPUNJSHZZ^H[JOPUNH]PKLV
• ;VWYVK\JLZVTL[OPUNLNHYLWVY[H]PKLVKVJ\TLU[HY`
• ;VPTWYV]LHJJ\YHJ`LNPUWYVU\UJPH[PVUVYJVTWVZP[PVU
• To review and consolidate previous learning.
• ;VOH]LHM\UL_WLYPLUJLLNSPZ[LU[VHZVUN^H[JOHM\UU`]PKLVJSPW
• ;VWYV]PKLHUVWWVY[\UP[`MVYSLHYULYZ[VOH]LHZ\JJLZZM\SL_WLYPLUJL
• ;VWYLWHYLMVYV\[VMJSHZZSHUN\HNL\ZLLNJVU]LYZH[PVUZ[YH[LNPLZ
( [LHJOLY TH` OH]L ZL]LYHS Z\JO W\YWVZLZ PU TPUK MVY H SLZZVU (Z JHU IL KLK\JLK MYVT [OL SPZ[
HIV]LZVTLW\YWVZLZOH]LHJSLHYS`PUZ[Y\J[PVUHSHPT¶[OL`HPT[V[LHJOZVTLHZWLJ[VMSHUN\HNL
or of language use. Others have more of a supportive or facilitating function, helping create positive
JVUKP[PVUZ MVY SLHYUPUN LN I` SV^LYPUN [OL HќLJ[P]L ÄS[LY ;V HJOPL]L [OLZL KPќLYLU[ RPUKZ VM
W\YWVZLZ[LHJOLYZLTWSV`KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMHJ[P]P[PLZ-VYL_HTWSL!
Exercises: procedures intended to practice, review, and consolidate learned material, such as making
X\LZ[PVUZMYVTZ[H[LTLU[ZYL^YP[PUNHJVU]LYZH[PVUHZHWLYZVUHSYLJV\U[
Drills: controlled repetition and manipulation of sentence patterns and structures.
Tasks:ZVTL[OPUN[OH[SLHYULYZKVVYJHYY`V\[PUP[PHSS`\ZPUN[OLPYL_PZ[PUNSHUN\HNLYLZV\YJLZÔPJO
WYVTV[LZSLHYUPUNHZHI`WYVK\J[VM[HZRLUNHNLTLU[HUKJVTWSL[PVU;OLZLHYL\Z\HSS`[OLWYPTHY`
PUZ[Y\J[PVUHSHJ[P]P[`PU[OL[LHJOPUNVMHU`Z\IQLJ[
Performances: KLTVUZ[YH[PVU VM SHUN\HNL HIPSP[` HUK \ZL ILMVYL HU H\KPLUJL Z\JO HZ ZVUNZ
TVYUPUN[HSRZYVSLWSH`Z
(ќLJ[P]LHJ[P]P[PLZ! songs, games, and other activities that can raise the morale and enthusiasm of
the class.
>OLU[LHJOLYZWSHUSLZZVUZ[OLU[OL`NLULYHSS`[OPURPU[LYTZVMIV[OW\YWVZLZHUKHJ[P]P[PLZ0[PZ
while developing activities themselves, however, that consideration of outcomes becomes important,
MVY [OPZ PZ ÔLYL ¸LUKZ MVY SLHYUPUN ILJVTL PU[LNYH[LK ^P[O TLHUZ MVY SLHYUPUN¹ *SHYR HUK @PUNLY
/LUJLHJ[P]P[PLZHYL¸[OLIHZPJZ[Y\J[\YHS\UP[ZVMWSHUUPUNHUKHJ[PVUPU[OLJSHZZYVVT¹
W-YLLTHU I VIZLY]LK!
[Teachers] did not naturally think about planning in the organized formats which they had
been taught to use in their professional training. Further, when they did plan lessons accord-
ing to these formats, they often did not teach them according to plan. Teachers were much
more likely to visualize lessons as clusters or sequences of activities: they would blend con-
tent with activity, and they would generally focus on their particular students. In other words,
teachers tended to plan lessons as ways of doing things for given groups of students rather
than to meet particular objectives.
;OPZ [LUKLUJ` [V \ZL HJ[P]P[PLZ YH[OLY [OHU ZWLJPÄJ V\[JVTLZ PZ PSS\Z[YH[LK PU HU HJJV\U[ I`
-\QP^HYH PU ÔPJO ZOL KLZJYPILZ OLY Z[Y\NNSL [V MVSSV^ [OL WYLZJYPILK SPULHY MVY^HYK
planning model:
my method of planning still begins with activities and visions of the class. It’s only when I
look at the visions that I can begin to analyse why I’m doing what I’m doing. I also need to be
in dialogue with students, so it’s hard for me to design a year’s course in the abstract. Just as
my language-learning process is no longer in awareness, so my planning process is based on
layers and layers of assumptions, experiences, and knowledge. I have to dig down deep to find
out why I make the decisions I do.
;Z\P ZPTPSHYS` VIZLY]LZ [OH[ [LHJOLYZ NLULYHSS` ILNPU [OL SLZZVU WSHUUPUN WYVJLZZ I`
thinking about lesson content and classroom activities rather than start with objectives:
Studies of teachers’ planning processes and planning thoughts observe that experienced
teachers seldom start with aims and objectives when they plan a lesson. Rather, they will
start with materials or content, and think about students’ interests and activities that may be
required. They are more efficient in lesson planning, and they often plan their lessons men-
tally with only brief notes as reminders. Their planning thoughts are much richer and more
elaborate than novice teachers. Novice teachers, on the other hand, tend to start with aims
and objectives, and to stick closely to the prescribed curriculum guide. They tend to spend a
long time preparing for lessons and have detailed lesson plans, which may include what they
are going to say, what actions they intend to take, and even what they will put on the black-
board. The differences observed between expert and novice teachers have been attributed to
the fact that expert teachers have rich experience on which to rely, and they have mastered a
repertoire of routines from which they can draw, whereas novice teachers have not.
;VÔH[L_[LU[KV`V\\ZLSLZZVUWSHUZPU[LHJOPUN&>OH[MVYTKV[OL`[HRL&
9.4 What happens during lessons

When teaching is viewed from an ecological perspective, the focus is on how the teacher creates
VWWVY[\UP[PLZMVYSLHYUPUNPU[OLWHY[PJ\SHYSLHYUPUNJVTT\UP[`[OH[JVUZ[P[\[LZOPZVYOLYJSHZZ;OPZPZ
HKÙHTPJWYVJLZZ[OH[PU]VS]LZPU[LYHJ[PVUULNV[PH[PVUPTWYV]PZH[PVUVIZLY]H[PVUL_WLYPTLU[H[PVU
HUK YLÅLJ[PVU ( U\TILY VM [OL WYVJLZZLZ [OH[ HYL PU]VS]LK HZ [LHJOLYZ ZLLR [V YLHSPaL [OLPY
understandings of good teaching are outlined below.
Realizing personal values and principles

;LHJOLYZ[LHJOPUKPќLYLU[^H`ZIYPUNPUN[V[OLPY[LHJOPUN[OLPYVÛWLYZVUHSILSPLMZHUKWYPUJPWSLZHZ
well as their own interpretation of a teacher’s role in the classroom. Hence, even though two teachers
^VYR [V^HYK PKLU[PJHS NVHSZ [OL` TH` JOVVZL KPќLYLU[ ^H`Z VM NL[[PUN [OLYL -VY L_HTWSL )HPSL`
HUK 9PJOHYKZ IV[O YLWVY[ Z[\KPLZ VM OV^ [LHJOLYZ» WYPUJPWSLZ WYVTW[LK KLWHY[\YLZ
MYVT[OLPYSLZZVUWSHUZ)HPSL`KLZJYPILK[OLWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[WYVTW[[LHJOLYZ[VTHRL[OLMVSSV^PUN
improvisations:
• :LY]PUN[OLJVTTVUNVVK!*OHUNLMVJ\Z[VHWYVISLT[OH[THU`SLHYULYZL_WLYPLUJLKPU[OLJSHZZ
• Teaching to the moment: React to immediate opportunities that arise during lessons.
• Furthering the lesson: 4V]L[OLSLZZVUVUÔLUWVZZPIPSP[PLZHYLL_OH\Z[LK
• (JJVTTVKH[PUNKPќLYLU[PUKP]PK\HSSLHYUPUNZ[`SLZ!0TWYV]PZL^P[OKPќLYLU[[LHJOPUNZ[YH[LNPLZ
• 7YVTV[PUNZ[\KLU[PU]VS]LTLU[! Allow space for students to participate.
• Distributing the wealth: Stop particular students from dominating the class, and encourage other
students to take turns.
Teachers’ principles such as these are a product of their experience, their training, and their beliefs.
)YLLUUKZ\NNLZ[Z[OH[[LHJOLYZ»WYPUJPWSLZHYLJLU[YHS[V[OLPYJHWHJP[`[VHKVW[JOHUNLHUK
WYV]PKLH[`WLVMSLUZ[OYV\NOÔPJO[OL`YL]PL^PUUV]H[PVUZ!
Any innovation in classroom practice – from the adoption of a new task or textbook to the
implementation of a new curriculum – has to be accommodated within a teacher’s own
pedagogic principles. Greater awareness of what these are on the part of the designer or
curriculum planner and, indeed, the teachers themselves, will facilitate harmony between
a particular innovation and the teacher’s enacted interpretation of it in the classroom. The
opportunity for teachers to reflect upon the evolving relationship between their own beliefs
and their practices lies at the heart of curriculum change.
;OLRPUKZVMWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[Z\WWVY[[OL[LHJOLY»ZWYHJ[PJLTH`VMJV\YZLSLHK[VLP[OLYH[LHJOLY
KVTPUH[LKWYVK\J[HWWYVHJO[V[LHJOPUNVYHS[LYUH[P]LS`YLÅLJ[HTVYLLJVSVNPJHS]PL^VMSLHYUPUN
;OLMVSSV^PUNHYLZVTLL_HTWSLZVMWYPUJPWSLZVM[OLÄYZ[RPUK!
• Teach to the test.
• (S^H`Z^VYR[V^HYKHJJ\YHJ`VMSHUN\HNL\ZL
• Follow the lesson plan.

• Avoid distractions.
Examples of principles of the second kind are:

• Find out how learners learn best.
• (JRUV^SLKNLKP]LYZP[`HTVUNSLHYULYZHZHZ[YLUN[O
• 4PUPTPaL[OL[LHJOLY»ZYVSLPU[OLSLZZVU
• -HJPSP[H[LSLHYULYYLZWVUZPIPSP[`VYH\[VUVT`
*HU`V\NP]LL_HTWSLZVMZVTLVM[OLWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[PUMVYT`V\Y[LHJOPUN&
(UPTWVY[HU[MVJ\ZPU[LHJOLYLK\JH[PVU[OLYLMVYLPZ[VWYV]PKL[OLTLHUZI`ÔPJO[LHJOLYZJHUTHRL
L_WSPJP[[OL[OLVYPLZHUKWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[PUMVYT[OLPY[LHJOPUN(Z3L\UNHUK;LHZKHSL VIZLY]L!
Clearly there can be effective teaching without teachers making explicit the theories which
underlie their practice. However, we would contend that, other things being equal, privileging
and developing the intellectual frameworks which inform teaching offers a principled way of
conceptualizing teaching as purposeful action.
Engaging in improvisational teaching

;LHJOPUNHZPTWYV]PZH[PVUTLHUZ[LHJOPUNHJJVTWHUPLK^P[OVIZLY]H[PVUYLÅLJ[PVUHUKHZZLZZTLU[
enabling the teacher to make “online” decisions about which course of action to take from a range of
available alternatives. These interactive decisions, based on critical incidents and other unanticipated
aspects of the lesson, often prompt teachers to change course during a lesson. Rather than adhere
Z[YPJ[S` [V H ZJYPW[ VY SLZZVU WSHU [OH[ KPJ[H[LZ [OL UH[\YL VM [OL SLZZVU [OL [LHJOLY ÔPSL RLLWPUN
IYVHKLYW\YWVZLZPUTPUKHKHW[ZYL]PZLZJOHUNLZKPYLJ[PVUHUKPTWYV]PZLZHYV\UKZPNUPÄJHU[VY
teachable moments that occur during lessons. This notion of teaching as improvisation is illustrated
in the teachers’ comments below.
The longer I teach the more often “teachable moments” emerge in my teaching. It might be a topic, a
particular text, a situation – many prompts can invite me to share a story or an experience with my
learners which relates to the lesson goals. Usually I find these diversions are helpful; sometimes they
relieve tension when we have been working hard on something.
For instance, one day I was working through some examples with my EAP class on how to integrate
another writer’s ideas into my own text. In the example I was using, one of the learners suddenly stopped
me to ask about the name of one of the authors in the in-text citation. Since I had noticed that my
learners frequently confused Western authors’ first and family names, this gave me a perfect opportunity
to draw attention to the names of the authors in the text and to ask them to suggest what the citation
would be if each of them had written the original text. Personalizing the example in this way and being
willing to be diverted from the focus of the activity at hand is sometimes necessary. I usually tell myself if
one learner has thought it important enough to ask the question, others are likely to be wondering about
the same thing. It’s important to be ready to let the learners’ agenda take over at times.
When I teach I may not have a detailed lesson plan, but I keep my goals firmly in mind and I know
what I am trying to teach, whether it is a reading lesson, a speaking lesson and so on. And if I decide to
do something that I hadn’t planned, it’s because I suddenly thought of a more interesting and engaging
way of practicing something. For example, the other day we were studying narratives and were looking
at a text in the book when it occurred to me that it would be fun if students created a jigsaw narrative
in groups. Each group would prepare the opening section of a narrative, and then pass them around so
that each group added the next section to the story. It turned out to be a good way of reinforcing what
we had been studying, about the features of narrative texts – you know, about setting, characters,
events, problems, and resolutions.
(Teacher B, English teacher, Mexico)
Teachers who engage in what we can call “principled improvisation” view lessons as a collaborative
WYVJLZZIL[^LLU[OL[LHJOLYHUK[OLSLHYULYZZOHWLKI`[OL[LHJOLY»ZWSHUZMVY[OLSLZZVUI\[HSZV
moving in unpredictable directions through the interactions that take place. We see an example of
this in the following vignette:
A general English class of form 4 students reading a dialogue in pairs, each staring hard at his or her
textbook, reading out their lines in a dreary, expressionless staccato. Cantonese is a syllable-timed
language and when Hong Kong students speak in English they may transfer their accustomed syllable
timing into English, a stress-timed language – the effect can be to make their English sound mechani-
cal, expressionless, robotic. It was the end of a long morning, and these young students were looking
tired and in need of sustenance. I had an idea; it just popped up and I acted on it; my intuition told me
it was the right thing to do. “Close your books,” I announced. They stared at me, blankly. I picked up the
book on my desk and closed it. They followed suit. “One, two,” I said, and indicated with my hands that
they were to repeat what I had said. “One, two,” the class droned back. “Buckle my shoe,” I said, bending
down and fiddling with my shoe. The class stirred. What was going on?…
“Buckle my shoe,” I said again, clapping my hands as I did so, emphasizing “buckle” and “shoe,” rush-
ing hastily past a weak “my,” that slid between “buckle” and “shoe” without a pause. And I scribbled
it quickly on the whiteboard and said it again.“Three, four.” “Three, four” the class chanted back. More
energy in their voices now. And I walked to the door and opened it. “Open the door.” And they chanted
that back too. Again I clapped the stress on “open” and “door” and slid in the definite article, and wrote it
on the blackboard. And on I went, “Five six,” “Five six,” “Pick up sticks,” and so on, to the end. And then
I divided the class in half. “One two,” chanted students on the left.“Buckle my shoe,” chanted back stu-
dents on the right. And when they finished they changed over. “Faster, faster,” I urged them. And as they
speeded up, the unstressed syllables were forced to shrink as the rhythm took hold. “Nineteen, twenty,”
“My plates empty,” and with that I sent them all off to lunch with a spring in their step, and in their
English too.
One, two, Buckle my shoe; Three, four, Open the door;
Five, six, Pick up sticks; Seven, eight, Lay them straight:
Nine, ten, A big, fat hen; Eleven, twelve, Dig and delve;
Thirteen, fourteen, Maids a-courting; Fifteen, sixteen, Maids in the kitchen;
Seventeen, eighteen, Maids a-waiting; Nineteen, twenty, My plate’s empty.

(Dino Mahoney, teacher-researcher, Hong Kong/London)
;OLZLUL^KPYLJ[PVUZYLZ\S[MYVT¸VUSPUL¹WYVJLZZPUNVM[OLSLZZVUZHUKTHÌLWYVTW[LKI`JYP[PJHS
incidents that arise as well as the learners’ responses to a lesson. No matter how brief or detailed
[OL [LHJOLY»Z SLZZVU WSHU TH` IL [OL [LHJOLY TVUP[VYZ Z[\KLU[Z» WLYMVYTHUJL K\YPUN H SLZZVU HUK
THRLZ THU` PUKP]PK\HS KLJPZPVUZ IHZLK VU OV^ [OL SLZZVU PZ WYVJLLKPUN ;OLZL KLJPZPVUZ TH`
PU]VS]L WYV]PKPUN HU L_WSHUH[PVU VM H JVUJLW[ VY SHUN\HNL P[LT JSHYPM`PUN WYVJLK\YLZ [V JHYY` V\[ H
[HZRX\LZ[PVUPUNZ[\KLU[ZHIV\[SHUN\HNLRUV^SLKNLVYJOHUNPUN[OLMVJ\ZVMHUHJ[P]P[`HZ^LZH^
above in the discussion of teachers’ principles and as we see in the following comments from teachers
VU[OLPYSLZZVUZJP[LKPU9PJOHYKZ ÔPJOPSS\Z[YH[L[OH[[LHJOPUNPZUV[ZVT\JOHWYVJLZZVM
realizing plans, but a creative interaction between plans, student responses, and teacher improvisation.
I realized that they were having difficulty with the vocabulary, so I decided to add extra vocab-
ulary work and spent more time eliciting vocabulary than I’d planned. By building in an extra
vocab activity, they were able to do the writing task more successfully.
[…]
I always think of lesson plans as a kind of springboard. I never write them out in full and
usually just work from a few points I want to cover. But I am always ready to drop my plan if
something comes up that I see the students want to spend more time on. Or perhaps they are
having a difficulty with language that I had not anticipated, so I might need to spend more
time on vocabulary or grammar or something.
[…]
I changed my mind twice during my last lesson, sensing that what I’d planned was too much
for the students. I think I must have taken into account their body language, subconsciously
almost. I’d been going to get them to complete worksheets individually as homework for the
next class, but then I decided to get the class as a whole to collaborate and do it as a whole-
class activity, pooling their knowledge. It worked really well.
Using one’s own materials

;OLHWWYVHJORUVÛHZ+VNTLH[LYT[HRLUMYVT[OLÄSTPUK\Z[Y`[OH[YLMLYZ[VÄSTPUN^P[OV\[ZJYPW[ZVY
YLOLHYZHSHK]VJH[LZI\PSKPUNSLZZVUZHYV\UKYLZV\YJLZMV\UKPU[OLJSHZZYVVT0[PZIHZLKVU[OLPKLH[OH[
PUZ[LHKVM\ZPUNHWYLWSHUULKZ`SSHI\ZHZL[VMVIQLJ[P]LZHUKW\ISPZOLKTH[LYPHSZ[LHJOPUNPZI\PS[HYV\UK
conversational interaction between teacher and students and among students themselves. “Teaching
ZOV\SK IL KVUL \ZPUN VUS` [OL YLZV\YJLZ [OH[ [OL [LHJOLYZ HUK Z[\KLU[Z IYPUN [V [OL JSHZZYVVT ¶ PL
[OLTZLS]LZHUKÔH[OHWWLUZ[VILPU[OLJSHZZYVVT¹4LKKPUNZHUK;OVYUI\Y`
;OVYUI\Y`L_WSHPUZ[OH[+VNTLJVUZPKLYZSLHYUPUN[VILL_WLYPLU[PHSHUKOVSPZ[PJHUKSHUN\HNL
SLHYUPUN [V IL HU LTLYNLU[ QVPU[S` JVUZ[Y\J[LK HUK ZVJPHSS` JVUZ[P[\[LK WYVJLZZ TV[P]H[LK I` IV[O
JVTT\UHSHUKJVTT\UPJH[P]LPTWLYH[P]LZ/LM\Y[OLYJVTTLU[Z !
In effect, Dogme attempts to accommodate two kinds of emergence: at the social, or macro,
level where language emerges out of collaborative activity, and at the individual, or micro,
level, where each learner’s developing linguistic system evolves out of the need to satisfy their
social and communicative needs.
Rethinking the role of the teacher

Teaching from the ecological perspective means that the teacher sees his or her role not so much as
being a technician but as being a facilitator whose task is to help learners realize their own potential
MVYSLHYUPUN2L`[V[OPZ[HZRPZ[OLHIPSP[`[VVIZLY]L[VSPZ[LUHUK[VYLÅLJ[;OLYLÅLJ[P]LWYHJ[P[PVULY
YL]PL^ZHUKYLÅLJ[ZVUOPZVYOLYHZZ\TW[PVUZHUKILSPLMZHUK[OLHZZ\TW[PVUZ\UKLYS`PUNOPZVYOLY
teaching practices, for example through the use of activities such as journal writing, blogging, peer
observation, or though audio or video recording some of his or her lessons. In the following account,
H [LHJOLY KLZJYPILZ OV^ QV\YUHS ^YP[PUN WYV]PKLZ H YLN\SHY VWWVY[\UP[` [V YLÅLJ[ VU OPZ [LHJOPUN
enabling him to become more self-aware in his approach to teaching as well to plan for the future.
I keep a teaching journal in which I jot down thoughts and reflections on my teaching. I try to take
30 minutes or so, once a week, to look back at my teaching and reflect on things of interest, or
issues that arose that I need to think more about. If I have tried out a new activity and it worked
particularly well, I may make a note of it for future reference. I find journal-writing to be a useful
consciousness-raising tool. It helps me focus on things that I may otherwise forget and helps me make
better decisions about my future teaching. It’s interesting to read things I wrote at different times to
get a sense of my understanding of myself as a teacher.
(Teacher C, teacher, Mexico)
Engaging in reflective and exploratory practice

9LÅLJ[P]LHUKL_WSVYH[VY`WYHJ[PJLYLMLYZ[VHJ[P]P[PLZ[OH[[LHJOLYZ\ZL[VIL[[LY\UKLYZ[HUK[OLYLSH[PVUZOPWZ
IL[^LLU [LHJOPUN HUK SLHYUPUN HUK [OL UH[\YL VM JSHZZYVVT SPML HUK [V [Y` [V HWWYLJPH[L OV^ SLHYUPUN
LTLYNLZV\[VM[OLVWWVY[\UP[PLZVYHќVYKHUJLZ[OH[HYLWYV]PKLKPU[OLJSHZZYVVT;OLYLÅLJ[P]LKPTLUZPVU
[V [OLZL HJ[P]P[PLZ YLMLYZ [V L_WSVYPUN JSHZZYVVT L_WLYPLUJL [OYV\NO H YLÅLJ[P]L SLUZ [OH[ PZ VUL ÔPJO
X\LZ[PVUZ[OLTLHUPUNVMJSHZZYVVTL_WLYPLUJLZMVYIV[O[LHJOLYZHUKSLHYULYZ;OLL_WSVYH[VY`KPTLUZPVU
HZKL]LSVWLKI`(SS^YPNO[HUKV[OLYZYLMLYZ[V[LHJOLYZHUKSLHYULYZPKLU[PM`PUNPZZ\LZHUKJVUJLYUZ
PU [LHJOPUN LN [OL \ZL VM [OL TV[OLY [VUN\L PU [LHJOPUN" SLHYUPUN ^P[O SHYNL NYV\WZ VM SLHYULYZ HUK
L_HTPUPUN[OLT[OYV\NO[OL\ZLVML]LY`KH`JSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZHUKWYHJ[PJLZYH[OLY[OHUJVU]LU[PVUHS
YLZLHYJOTL[OVKVSVNPLZZLL*OHW[LY:LL(WWLUKP_MVYHUL_HTWSLVML_WSVYH[VY`WYHJ[PJL
Focusing on learning from the learners’ perspective

;LHJOPUN MYVT [OL WLYZWLJ[P]L VM [OL SLHYULYZ PZ YLÅLJ[LK PU [OL MVSSV^PUN HZWLJ[Z VM [OL [LHJOLY»Z
lessons:
• The degree of engagement learners have with the lesson.
• The extent to which learners’ responses shape the lesson.
• The amount of learner participation and interaction that occurs.
• The learning outcomes the lesson produced.
• ;OLHIPSP[`[VWYLZLU[Z\IQLJ[TH[[LYMYVT[OLSLHYULYZ»WLYZWLJ[P]L
• How the teacher is able to reshape the lesson based on learner feedback.
• /V^[OLSLZZVUYLÅLJ[ZSLHYULYZ»ULLKZHUKWYLMLYLUJLZ
• How the lesson connects with the learners’ life experiences.
• /V^[OL[LHJOLYYLZWVUKZ[VSLHYULYZ»KPѝJ\S[PLZ
In the next vignette, a teacher describes how she made a shift in her understanding of teaching as
she realized the need for a learner-centered perspective on teaching.
As a beginning teacher, I was given the lower levels of English, and classes tended to be large, about
30 students. I enjoyed the dynamics of a large class and prepared my classes thinking of how I could
get across the grammar I was teaching. I looked at the textbook and planned how to get through each
activity of the unit I was planning. I felt if I could go through every textbook and workbook activity,
students would learn. Of course, this type of thinking was somewhat top-down because I assumed that
giving out the information on these activities would be the way for my students to learn the language.
In essence, I controlled these activities, beginning with the first activity and continuing on with each one.
The activities seemed to be rushed. In one of my classes, I was teaching questions in the present simple
tense, such as “What do you do?” “Where do you live?” etc. I ran through the activities, and at the end
of the class, two of my students asked me if they could use the grammar related to their lives. It was a
wake-up call for me, and I learned two things. I realized my way of thinking was not tapping into my
students’ lives, and that completing all the book activities was not necessarily the best way for learning.
(Martha Lengeleng, teacher, Mexico. Cited in Richards 2015b, 121)
;OL HWWYVHJO KLZJYPILK HIV]L JVU[YHZ[Z ^P[O [OL SLHYULYJLU[LYLK HWWYVHJO YLÅLJ[LK PU HUV[OLY
[LHJOLY»ZJVTTLU[ZVUOPZ[LHJOPUNWOPSVZVWO`!
To me the most important thing is that the students enjoyed themselves and had useful practice. And
that the lesson was at the right level for them – not too easy or too difficult so that they felt it was real-
ly worthwhile coming to class today. I believe every child in my class has got the capacity to learn, even
if he or she is not aware of it. Every learner is a winner. I try to encourage each student to discover what
he or she is good at and to help them be successful at it.
(José Lema, teacher and teacher educator, Quito, Ecuador)
>OH[Z[YH[LNPLZKV`V\\ZL[VTHRL`V\YSLZZVUZSLHYULYJLU[LYLK&
:LUPVYZ\NNLZ[Z[OH[HJLU[YHSHZWLJ[VMSLHYULYMVJ\ZLK[LHJOPUNPZJYLH[PUNHJSHZZYVVT
[OH[M\UJ[PVUZHZHJVTT\UP[`VMSLHYULYZ¸0[PZZVTL[PTLZMVYNV[[LU[OH[SHUN\HNLJSHZZLZVWLYH[L
as communities, each with its own collection of shared understandings that have been built up over
[PTL;OLV]LYHSSJOHYHJ[LYVMLHJOSHUN\HNLJSHZZPZJYLH[LKKL]LSVWLKHUKTHPU[HPULKI`L]LY`VUL
PU [OL YVVT¹ ;LHJOLYZ LTWSV` KPќLYLU[ Z[YH[LNPLZ [V KL]LSVW H ZLUZL VM JVTT\UP[` HTVUN [OLPY
learners. These include using group-based activities, addressing common student interests and
JVUJLYUZYLN\SHYS`JOHUNPUNZLH[PUNHYYHUNLTLU[ZZV[OH[Z[\KLU[ZL_WLYPLUJL^VYRPUN^P[OKPќLYLU[
JSHZZTH[LZ\ZPUNO\TVYHUKV[OLY^H`ZVMJYLH[PUNH^HYTHUKMYPLUKS`JSHZZYVVTH[TVZWOLYLHUK
recognizing that students have social, as well as learning, needs in the classroom.
(J[P]P[PLZ Z\JO HZ [OVZL KLZJYPILK HIV]L JHU HSZV OLSW SV^LY [OL SL]LS VM HU_PL[` THU` SLHYULYZ
L_WLYPLUJLPUJSHZZYVVTSLHYUPUN;Y`PUN[VJVTT\UPJH[LPUHZLJVUKSHUN\HNLPZPUOLYLU[S`Z[YLZZM\S
ZPUJLSVZZVMMHJLPZPU]VS]LKPMVUL»ZLќVY[ZHYLSLZZ[OHUZ\JJLZZM\S-VY[OLSLHYULY[Y`PUN[V\UKLYZ[HUK
OV^[OLJSHZZM\UJ[PVUZOV^[`WPJHSJSHZZYVVT[HZRZZ\JOHZNYV\W^VYR\UMVSKÔH[OPZVYOLYYVSL
ZOV\SKILPU[OLJSHZZHUKÔL[OLYOLVYZOLOHZJVYYLJ[S`\UKLYZ[VVK[OL[LHJOLYZ»PU[LU[PVUZJHU
HSZVJYLH[LHU_PL[`;LHJOPUN[OLYLMVYLTLHUZUV[VUS`LUNHNPUNSLHYULYZ^P[O[OLJVU[LU[VMSLZZVUZ
but also considering the emotional demands that learning a language involves and helping students
KL]LSVW [OL LTV[PVUHS ZRPSSZ ULLKLK [V \ZL ,UNSPZO PU IV[O [OLZL ZP[\H[PVUZ +YU`LP " +YU`LP
HUK4\YWOL`;OLRPUKVMIVUK[OH[[OL[LHJOLYLZ[HISPZOLZ^P[OOPZVYOLYZ[\KLU[ZWSH`ZH
WHY[PUSV^LYPUN[OLHU_PL[`SL]LSPU[OLJSHZZYVVT+L]LSVWPUNHUH^HYLULZZVM[OLJH\ZLZVMULNH[P]L
emotions associated with language learning can also be achieved through activities in which students
[HSRVY^YP[LHIV\[OV^[OL`KLHS^P[O[OLHќLJ[P]LKPTLUZPVUZVMSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN
Helping learners become autonomous learners

3LHYULYH\[VUVT`YLMLYZ[V[OLWYPUJPWSL[OH[SLHYULYZZOV\SK[HRLPUJYLHZPUNYLZWVUZPIPSP[`MVYÔH[
[OL`SLHYUHUKOV^[OL`SLHYUP[)LUZVU(\[VUVTV\ZSLHYUPUNTHRLZSLHYUPUNTVYLWLYZVUHS
and focused and contrasts with the traditional teacher-led approach in which most decisions are
THKLI`[OL[LHJOLY(MVJ\ZVUSLHYULYH\[VUVT`JHUILYLHSPaLKPUHU\TILYVMKPќLYLU[^H`Z¶
for example, through the teacher’s awareness of his or her learners’ needs, through introducing and
TVKLSPUN Z[YH[LNPLZ MVY PUKLWLUKLU[ SLHYUPUN [OYV\NO NP]PUN SLHYULYZ [LJOUPX\LZ [OL` JHU \ZL [V
monitor their own learning, through regular consultation with students to help learners plan for their
VÛSLHYUPUNHUK[OYV\NO[OL\ZLVMHZLSMHJJLZZJLU[LYÔLYLH]HYPL[`VMZLSMKPYLJ[LKSLHYUPUN
YLZV\YJLZHYLH]HPSHISL)LUZVUV\[SPULZÄ]LWYPUJPWSLZMVYMVZ[LYPUNH\[VUVTV\ZSLHYUPUN!
1. )LHJ[P]LS`PU]VS]LKPUZ[\KLU[SLHYUPUN
2. Provide options and resources.
6ќLYJOVPJLZHUKKLJPZPVUTHRPUNVWWVY[\UP[PLZ
Support learners.
,UJV\YHNLYLÅLJ[PVU
>OH[HYLZVTL[LJOUPX\LZ[OH[[LHJOLYZJHU\ZL[VMVZ[LYH\[VUVTV\ZSLHYUPUN&
In teaching that seeks to develop autonomous learning, the teacher becomes less of an instructor and
TVYLVMHMHJPSP[H[VY0UKLLKZ[\KLU[ZHYLKPZJV\YHNLKMYVTYLS`PUNVU[OL[LHJOLYHZ[OLTHPUZV\YJL
VM RUV^SLKNL HUK \YNLK PUZ[LHK [V KL]LSVW H JHWHJP[` [V SLHYU MVY [OLTZLS]LZ HUK HU H^HYLULZZ
VM [OLPY VÛ SLHYUPUN Z[`SLZ HUK SLHYUPUN Z[YH[LNPLZ ;OL *V\UJPS VM ,\YVWL»Z ,\YVWLHU 3HUN\HNL
7VY[MVSPV,37"3P[[SLÔPJOPZPU[LUKLK[VOLSWZ\WWVY[H\[VUVTV\ZSLHYUPUNVUH^PKLZJHSL
KLTVUZ[YH[LZ[OLHWWSPJH[PVUVM[OLWYPUJPWSLZVMSLHYULYH\[VUVT`;OL,37OHZ[OYLLJVTWVULU[Z!
HSHUN\HNLWHZZWVY[ÔPJOZ\TTHYPaLZ[OLVÛLY»ZSPUN\PZ[PJPKLU[P[`"HSHUN\HNLIPVNYHWO`ÔPJO
WYV]PKLZMVYHYLÅLJ[P]LHJJV\U[VM[OLSLHYULY»ZL_WLYPLUJLPUSLHYUPUNHUK\ZPUN[OLMVYLPNUSHUN\HNL"
HUKHKVZZPLYPUÔPJO[OLSLHYULYJVSSLJ[ZL]PKLUJLVM[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMOPZVYOLYWYVÄJPLUJ`PU
the language. The ELP involves regular goal setting and self-assessment.
Conclusions
0U HU` [LHJOPUN JVU[L_[ [LHJOLYZ HYL JVUMYVU[LK ^P[O [OL JOHSSLUNL VM JYLH[PUN SLZZVUZ [OH[
engage their learners, that support and guide their learning, and that provide content and
activities that lead to successful learning outcomes. Various teaching contexts determine the
YVSL [OH[ [OL PUKP]PK\HS [LHJOLY WSH`Z PU [OL WYVJLZZ 6U [OL VUL OHUK THU` VM [OL KLJPZPVUZ
PU]VS]LK PU J\YYPJ\S\T KL]LSVWTLU[ HZ ^LSS HZ [OL KL]LSVWTLU[ VM TL[OVKZ HUK TH[LYPHSZ TH`
OH]L ILLU THKL I` V[OLYZ HUK NVVK [LHJOPUN PZ PKLU[PMPLK ^P[O [OL [LHJOLY»Z Z\JJLZZM\S \ZL
of recommended methods, teaching strategies, and materials. A successful lesson is one that
conforms to expected norms of practice. However, the alternative understanding of teaching
that is the focus of this chapter views teaching as something that is more indeterminate. While it
VJJ\YZ^P[OPUKLMPULKWHYHTL[LYZHUKPZUV[ZPTWS`HJHZLVM¸HU`[OPUNNVLZ¹P[ZZOHWLPZT\JO
less predictable and reflects both the individual attributes that the teacher brings to teaching and
[OL KÙHTPJZ [OH[ KL]LSVW PU [OL [LHJOLY»Z JSHZZ ;OLZL PU [\YU YLMSLJ[ [OL SLHYUPUN J\S[\YL [OH[
develops over time as a result of the interaction among the students and between the teacher, the
Z[\KLU[Z HUK [OL JVU[LU[ VM OPZ VY OLY SLZZVUZ 0U [OPZ ZLUZL J\YYPJ\S\T PZ ZLLU HZ HU LJVSVN`
Tudor emphasizes that the ecological perspective involves viewing language teaching from
IL`VUK [OL VMMPJPHS WLYZWLJ[P]L VY ]PL^WVPU[ MV\UK PU YLZLHYJO VY [OLVY`VYPLU[LK W\ISPJH[PVUZ
and curriculum frameworks. It involves recognizing that there are different rationalities involved in
understanding a situation rather than a single concept and that there are different perceptions and
choices possible. Participants bring different understandings and perceptions to the classroom
JVU[L_[ HUK [V [OLPY L_WLYPLUJL VM [LHJOPUN HUK SLHYUPUN HUK [OPZ PZ [OL YLHSP[` [OH[ ULLKZ [V IL
acknowledged and explored.
From the personal understandings of teaching described in this chapter we move in the next chapter
to an examination of two of the principal resources teachers often make use of in teaching - textbooks
HUK[LJOUVSVN`
1. >OH[ KV `V\ [OPUR OH]L ILLU [OL TVZ[ PTWVY[HU[ PUÅ\LUJLZ VU `V\Y \UKLYZ[HUKPUN HUK
HWWYVHJO[V[LHJOPUN&
2. +V `V\ [OPUR [OL \ZL VM H [LHJOPUN HWWYVHJO VY TL[OVK LN *VTT\UPJH[P]L 3HUN\HNL
;LHJOPUN;HZR)HZLK;LHJOPUNMHJPSP[H[LZVYOPUKLYZ[OLYLHSPaH[PVUVMLќLJ[P]L[LHJOPUN&
;VÔH[L_[LU[[V`V\LUNHNLPUPTWYV]PZH[PVUHS[LHJOPUN&/V^KVLZ[OPZPUÅ\LUJL[OL^H``V\
[LHJO&
4VUP[VY VUL VM `V\Y SLZZVUZ HUK HM[LY [OL SLZZVU UV[L ZVTL VM [OL \UWSHUULK [OPUNZ [OH[
OHWWLULKK\YPUN[OLSLZZVU>OH[WYVTW[LK[OLTHUKPUÔH[^H`ZKPK[OL`PTWHJ[[OLUH[\YL
VM[OLSLZZVU&
>OH[ HYL ZVTL ^H`Z PU ÔPJO ZJOVVSZ JHU WYVTV[L JYLH[P]L HUK PUKP]PK\HS HWWYVHJOLZ [V
[LHJOPUN&
+V`V\[OPUR`V\OH]LJOHUNLKZVTLVM`V\Y[LHJOPUNWYPUJPWSLZZPUJL`V\Z[HY[LK[LHJOPUN&0U
ÔH[^H`ZHUKÔH[WYVTW[LKHU`JOHUNLZ`V\THKL&
7. /V^JHU[LHJOLYZYLZWVUK[VZP[\H[PVUZÔLYL[OL`[OPUR[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THUK[OLJ\S[\YLVM[OL
PUZ[P[\[PVUZHJ[HZHJVUZ[YHPU[VUOV^[OL`^V\SKSPRL[V[LHJO&
8. /H]L`V\OHKHUVWWVY[\UP[`[VL_WSVYLHU`HZWLJ[ZVM`V\Y[LHJOPUN&0MZVOV^KPK`V\KVZV
HUKÔH[KPK`V\SLHYUMYVT[OLL_WLYPLUJL&
9LHK*HZLZ[\KÌ`(SHU:4HJRLUaPLH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY
• >OH[^LYLZVTLVM[OLPZZ\LZ[OH[HYVZLPUKL]LSVWPUN[OLJV\YZL&
• >OH[^HZ[OLYVSLVMHZZLZZTLU[[OYV\NOV\[[OLJV\YZL&
• >O`KPK[OLH\[OVYJVUZPKLY[OPZH[HZRIHZLKHWWYVHJO&
APPENDIX 1 Example of exploratory practice (EP) (Edwards 2005)
;VWPJMVYL_WSVYH[PVU!:[\KLU[UVUWHY[PJPWH[PVUPUÔVSLJSHZZKPZJ\ZZPVU
:L[[PUN!(JSHZZVM4(,UNSPZOSHUN\HNL[LHJOLYZTHPUS`PU[LYUH[PVUHSZ[\KLU[ZMYVT*OPUH2VYLH
HUK1HWHU
Puzzle
>OLUL]LY 0 HKKYLZZLK H X\LZ[PVU [V [OL ÔVSL JSHZZ ]LY` ML^ ]VS\U[LLYLK [V HUZ^LY 0 [OV\NO[
[OPZ Z[YHUNL PU H JSHZZ M\SS VM L_WLYPLUJLK [LHJOLYZ Z[\K`PUN H[ 4HZ[LY»Z SL]LS L]LU HM[LY YLÅLJ[PUN
VU WVZZPISL YLHZVUZ Z\JO HZ KPќLYLU[ J\S[\YHS UVYTZ 0 MLS[ [OLPY YLS\J[HUJL [V ZWLHR PU W\ISPJ ^HZ
preventing them from sharing views or comparing experiences. I wanted their views and explanations.
An EP principle is that the focus should be on exploring puzzles rather than solving problems;
HS[OV\NOT`W\aaSL^HZHSZVHWYVISLTPUT`]PL^T`HPT^HZ[VKPZJV]LYÔ`P[^HZVJJ\YYPUN
rather than to move straight to seeking a solution.
Method
+\YPUN[OLSHZ[Ä]LTPU\[LZVMJSHZZ0KPZ[YPI\[LK7VZ[P[UV[LZHZRLKT`X\LZ[PVUHUK[OLUHZRLK
Z[\KLU[Z [V ^YP[L HUZ^LYZ VU [OL UV[L ÔPJO [OL` ZOV\SK SLH]L \UZPNULK ;OL` Z[\JR JVTWSL[LK
UV[LZ[VHZOLL[VMWHWLYHZ[OL`SLM[[OLYVVTH[[OLLUKVM[OLZLZZPVU(WYPUJPWSLVM,7PZ[OH[P[
ZOV\SKILJVUK\J[LK[OYV\NOUVYTHS[LHJOPUNHJ[P]P[PLZ!0YLN\SHYS`\ZLTPUP7VZ[P[UV[LZ[VNH[OLY
ad-hoc student feedback on ongoing course satisfaction, things students would like to ask or tell me,
L[JZV[OLZLZ[\KLU[Z^LYLMHTPSPHY^P[O[OL[LJOUPX\L-\Y[OLYTVYLHZP[[VVRVUS`Ä]LTPU\[LZVM
JSHZZ[PTLP[KPKUV[KPZ[YHJ[\ZZPNUPÄJHU[S`MYVT[OLTHPUI\ZPULZZVM[OLJV\YZL
;OLYL^LYLZL]LYHSYLWLH[YLZWVUZLZLN¸0[OPUR[OH[T`VWPUPVUTPNO[UV[PU[LYLZ[T`JSHZZTH[LZ¹
0NYV\WLK[OLZLHUK[`WLK[OLT\W[VYL[\YU[V[OLZ[\KLU[ZHKKPUNJVTTLU[ZHUKL_[YHX\LZ[PVUZ
VMT`VÛ;OLÔVSL[OPUNÄ[[LKVU[^VZPKLZVM(WHWLYHUK[VVRTLHIV\[TPU\[LZ:LL[OL
(WWLUKP_[V[OPZKVJ\TLU[B,K^HYKZDMVYL_HTWSLZVM7VZ[P[UV[LMLLKIHJR
I distributed the collated comments before break for further discussion and Post-it note feedback.
;OLU ZVTL[OPUN \UL_WLJ[LK OHWWLULK! (M[LY IYLHR 0 OHK HU[PJPWH[LK KPZJ\ZZPUN T` M\Y[OLY
X\LZ[PVUZ I\[ [OPZ ^HZ WYLLTW[LK I` VUL VM [OL Z[\KLU[Z PTTLKPH[LS` ZH`PUN ¸>L»]L Q\Z[ ILLU
KPZJ\ZZPUN[OLZOLL[`V\NH]L\Z¹HUKHUV[OLYPU[LYY\W[LKHUKZHPK¸@LZHUKWLYZVUHSS`0[OPURP[»Z
important to speak out in class, it’s just that I felt embarrassed to, because we aren’t used to doing
[OH[IHJROVTL¹([OPYKJOPTLKPU¸@LZP[»Z[OLZHTLMVYTLHUK[VILOVULZ[ÔLU0YLHK[OLZL
JVTTLU[Z0^HZYLHSS`Z\YWYPZLK[VÄUKZVTHU`V[OLYZMLS[[OLZHTL^H`HZ0KPK>L^LYL[HSRPUN
HIV\[ [OH[ HUK ^L»]L HNYLLK [OH[ ^L ZOV\SK THRL HU LќVY[ [V ZWLHR V\[ 5V^ ^L RUV^ ^L HYL
UV[HSVULPUV\YMLLSPUNZZVTLOV^P[THRLZP[LHZPLY¹0[Z\KKLUS`MLS[HZ[OV\NOHJSVHRVM[LUZPVU
OHKILLUSPM[LKMYVT[OLNYV\W;OLH^R^HYKULZZ^LOHKHSSMLS[OHKL]HWVYH[LK)`PU]VS]PUN[OL
students, the problematic aspect of the puzzle had been resolved.
5HñHFWLRQVDQGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
;OL \UKLYZ[HUKPUN NHPULK ^HZ UV[ Q\Z[ [OL YLSH[P]LS` Z\WLYÄJPHS VUL [OH[ ¸0 HT UV[ HSVUL PU T`
anxieties about speaking out in class,” but the deeper one that it was OK to talk about the classroom
processes that we were all participating in, and that doing so somehow broke down the conventional
social barriers between teacher and students; a new sense of openness and mutual trust improved
[OLX\HSP[`VMJSHZZYVVTSPMLMVYHSSVM\ZHUK[OLYLTHPUKLYVM[OLJV\YZL^HZMHYTVYLYLSH_LKHUK
discursive, than the initial sessions.
,PSOLFDWLRQV
6WLUKPZJ\ZZPVUVMJSHZZYVVTWYVJLZZLZHTVUNZ[\KLU[[LHJOLYZPUHJ\S[\YHSS`KP]LYZLJSHZZYVVT
WVZZPIS` PUP[PH[LK [OYV\NO H UVU[OYLH[LUPUN TLKP\T SPRL [OL 7VZ[P[ UV[L ^YP[[LU MLLKIHJR PZ H
powerful tool in promoting understanding of our own classroom and classrooms in general, in terms
VM[OLZWLJPÄJWYVJLZZL_WSVYLKHUKHSZVILJH\ZL[OYV\NO[OL]LY`HJ[VML_WSVYPUNHWYVJLZZ^L
HYLJVUMYVU[LK^P[O[OLILULÄ[ZVMPU]VS]PUNHSSWHY[PJPWHU[ZPUL_WSVYH[VY`WYHJ[PJL
CASE STUDY 16 Thinking through English

Alan S. Mackenzie
:KDWLVWKHFRQWH[WRIWKHFRXUVH"
0 ÄYZ[ Z[HY[LK [LHJOPUN [OPZ JV\YZL ^P[O 1HWHULZL \UP]LYZP[` Z[\KLU[Z HZ H VUL`LHY ^LLR JV\YZL
;OLZLKH`Z0TVZ[S`[LHJO[LHJOLYZMYVTHYV\UK[OL^VYSKVUZOVY[JV\YZLZ¶^LLRZHIV\[OV^[V
integrate thinking skills exercises into their classes. This still involves a lot of language learning, including
[LYTZMVY[HSRPUNHIV\[[OL[OLVY`HUKWYHJ[PJLVM[OPURPUNZRPSSZHUKH^HYLULZZYHPZPUNVMSHUN\HNLVM[LU
KLWYPVYP[PZLKMYVT,UNSPZOJV\YZLZZ\JOHZTVKHSZMVYL_WYLZZPUNWVZZPIPSP[`HUK[LU[H[P]LULZZULNV[PH[PVU
skills, and exploring “what ifs” to formulate opinions rather than making snap judgements. The courses can
YHUNLMYVTH TPU\[L^LIPUHY[VH[OYLL^LLRWYVNYHTTLVMZLZZPVUZKLZPNULK[VJOHUNL[LHJOPUN
WYHJ[PJL7HY[PJPWHU[ZHYLKP]LYZLHUKOH]LKPќLYLU[Z[HY[PUNWVPU[ZVMRUV^SLKNLVMÔH[[OPURPUNZRPSSZHYL
:KDWDUHWKHJRDOVRIWKHFRXUVH"
No matter who the audience, the larger aim of the course is to develop the thinking skills and
H\[VUVT`VM[OLWHY[PJPWHU[Z;OLIHZPJV\[JVTLZMVY[OLJV\YZLHYL[OH[WHY[PJPWHU[Z^PSSILHISL[V!
• 9LJHSS[OLZP_SL]LSZVM)SVVT»Z;H_VUVT`
• .P]LL_HTWSLZVM[OPURPUNZRPSSZ[HZRZHZZVJPH[LK^P[OLHJOSL]LSVM)SVVT»Z;H_VUVT`
• Use appropriate language to complete a range of thinking skills tasks.
• Choose appropriate thinking skills strategies to complete a series of problems.
(KKP[PVUHSS`[LHJOLYZVUSVUNLYJV\YZLZZOV\SKILHISL[VHJOPL]L[OLMVSSV^PUNV\[JVTLZ!
• Write a range of thinking skills tasks appropriate to their learners.
• 0U[LNYH[L[OPURPUNZRPSSZPU[V[OLPYJV\YZLZHUKHKHW[[L_[IVVRTH[LYPHSZHWWYVWYPH[LS`
• 7YLKPJ[SHUN\HNLULLKZVMSLHYULYZHZZVJPH[LK^P[OKPќLYLU[[HZRZ
• Give clear, unambiguous instructions.
• Give positive feedback.
• +LHSHWWYVWYPH[LS`^P[OJVU[YV]LYZPHSVYVќ[OL^HSSHUZ^LYZ
:KDWSODQQLQJZDVLQYROYHGLQGHYHORSLQJWKHFRXUVH"
0 YLZLHYJO [OL ^VYRZ VM ,K^HYK +L )VUV HUK OPZ *V9; WYVNYHTTL HZ ^LSS HZ V[OLY ^YP[LYZ VU
[OPURPUN ZRPSSZ KL]LSVWTLU[ 6UJL 0 OHK KLÄULK [OL V\[JVTLZ 0 VYKLYLK [OLT SVNPJHSS` PU [LYTZ VM
ÔH[ ULLKZ [V IL HJOPL]LK ÄYZ[ [OLU UL_[ HUK JYLH[LK MVYTH[P]L HZZLZZTLU[ [HZRZ KLZPNULK [V
OH]L SLHYULYZ KPZWSH` ÔL[OLY [OL` OH]L HJOPL]LK [OL V\[JVTLZ VY UV[ 0 [OLU JYLH[LK H ZLYPLZ VM
learning tasks to help learners to achieve the outcomes and therefore perform well on assessments.
;OLWYLKPJ[LK[PTLYLX\PYLK[VJVTWSL[L[OLSLHYUPUN[HZRZHUKTV]LMYVTVULHZZLZZTLU[WVPU[[V
another is used to generate the course plan.
+RZLVWKHFRXUVHRUJDQL]HG"
A basic course outline is given below. Items in parentheses indicate when it is a teacher development
course:
>OH[HYL[OPURPUNZRPSSZ&
>O`HYL[OL`PTWVY[HU[PU[OLZ[JLU[\Y`&
>O`PUJVYWVYH[L[OLTPU[V,3;&
,_HTWSLZVMKPќLYLU[[OPURPUNZRPSSZ[HZRZ!
• )YLHK[O
• Organization
• Logical examination and extrapolation
• )LPUNJYP[PJHS!(ZRPUNwhy!
• )LPUNJYLH[P]L
• Planning
• 9LÅLJ[PUNVUWYVJLZZLZ
• Assessing
+LZPNUPUN[OPURPUNZRPSSZ[HZRZ
.P]PUNPUZ[Y\J[PVUZ
.P]PUNMLLKIHJR
(KHW[PUN[L_[IVVRZ
*VUZPKLYH[PVUZPUJV\YZLWSHUUPUN
Putting it all together: Course Project Planning
:KDWWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJPHWKRGVGR\RXXVH"
0 HZR H SV[ VM X\LZ[PVUZ HUK OH]L Z[\KLU[ JVTWSL[L WYVISLTZVS]PUN HJ[P]P[PLZ ;OL THPU HPT PZ [V
NL[Z[\KLU[Z[V[OPUR:VL]LUÔLUPU[YVK\JPUN)SVVT»Z;H_VUVT`P[PZKVULPUHW\aaSLMVYT!LN
6YKLY[OLZL[HZRZMYVTSLZZ[VTVYLKPѝJ\S[JVNUP[P]LS`KLTHUKPUN,_WSHPUÔ`,ZZLU[PHSS`P[PZH
[HZRIHZLKHWWYVHJO!(ZR[OLSLHYULYZ[VJVTWSL[LH[HZRNL[[OLT[VYLÅLJ[VUP[NP]L[OLTZVTL
MLLKIHJRPU[YVK\JLUL^PUMVYTH[PVUSHUN\HNLVYJVU[LU[HUK[OLUHZR[OLT[VYLKV[OL[HZRHUK
JVU[PU\L[OLJ`JSLLSHIVYH[PUN[OL[HZRZLHJO[PTL
:KDWLVWKHUROHRIPDWHULDOVDQGRWKHUUHVRXUFHV"
0\ZLJ\YYLU[UL^ZHY[PJSLZVYNLULYPJWYVISLTKLZJYPW[PVUZJHZLZ[\KPLZ:[\KLU[ZHYLMYLX\LU[S`
asked to provide topics and examples of their own to generate motivation and ensure personal
PU[LYLZ[ 0 [HPSVY L_HTWSLZ [V [OL NYV\W»Z PU[LYLZ[Z VY ZWLJPÄJHSS` JOVVZL [VWPJZ MYVT V\[ZPKL [OLPY
knowledge base to stretch their thinking skills. The main resources are the learners and what
[OL` IYPUN [V [OL JV\YZL [OLPY PU[LYLZ[Z HUK PTHNPUH[PVUZ ;LJOUVSVN` ILJVTLZ \ZLM\S K\YPUN [OL
WYVQLJ[Z[HNLVYH[HU`[PTL[OH[Z[\KLU[ZHYLHZRLK[VIYPUNZVTL[OPUNVMPU[LYLZ[PU[VJSHZZ0OH]L
JVUK\J[LK[OPZJV\YZLHZH^LIPUHYPU[OLWHZ[HUKP[^HZ]LY`PU[LYLZ[PUN[VZLL[OLO\NLYHUNLVM
comments being expressed in the online chat room.
5V[THU`0[[VVRTLHJV\WSLVMH[[LTW[Z[VNL[[OLVYKLYVMV\[JVTLZHJOPL]LTLU[YPNO[HUK[V
NLULYH[LHWWYVWYPH[LL_HTWSLZMVYKPќLYLU[JVU[L_[Z
:KDWUROHGRHVDVVHVVPHQWSOD\LQWKHFRXUVH"
Assessment points give the course structure and control the learning plan. The assessments are
T\S[PKPTLUZPVUHSH\[OLU[PJ[HZRZ[OH[YLX\PYLHYHUNLVMJVTT\UPJH[PVUHUKWYVISLTZVS]PUNZRPSSZ
(SSSLHYUPUN[HZRZVU[OLJV\YZLHPT[VLUHISLSLHYULYZ[VILHISL[VKL]LSVW[OPZZWLJPÄJZL[VMZRPSSZ
HUK[OLSHUN\HNLULJLZZHY`[VHJJVTWSPZO[OL[HZRZ
)LJH\ZL [OL MVYTH[P]L HZZLZZTLU[Z HYL UV[ KLJSHYLK HZ MVYTHS HZZLZZTLU[Z [OL` HSZV SVVR SPRL
SLHYUPUN[HZRZZVPMSLHYULYZHYLZ[PSSOH]PUNKPѝJ\S[`0JHU\ZLHKKP[PVUHS[HZRZ[VLUZ\YLL]LY`VULPZ
VU[YHJRHUK[OLUYLHZZLZZ^P[OZPTPSHYI\[KPќLYLU[L_HTWSLP[LTZ;OLYLHYLZWLJPÄJMVYTHS[LYTPUHS
assessment points that are declared at the beginning of the course. For students this would be:
Describe a social issue in your country. Explain what the problem is, what effect it has on
society, how it is caused and what the possible solutions are to it. Evaluate the solutions and
propose an action plan for dealing with the issue. Present your action plan to your classmates.
They will question your plan: be prepared to answer difficult questions!
Often I split this assessment into two parts, with the problem description and the action plan as
separate assessment points.
For teachers, the assessment is:
Create a learning plan that integrates the development of thinking skills into a current course
that you teach. Present it to your classmates, explaining your teaching context and the ration-
ale behind your plan. They will question your plan: be prepared to answer difficult questions!
:PTPSHYS`[OPZPZVM[LUIYVRLUKVÛPU[VKLZPNUPUNHZPUNSL[OPURPUNZRPSSZHJ[P]P[`VMHJLY[HPU[`WLHUK
HKHW[PUNH[L_[IVVR\UP[\ZPUNHZLYPLZVM[OPURPUNZRPSSZL_LYJPZLZVMKPќLYLU[[`WLZ
Throughout the course, learners self-assess their own performance on each learning task through
SLHYUPUN QV\YUHSZ MVY OVTL^VYR HUK PUJSHZZ YLÅLJ[PVUZ VU HWWYVHJOLZ [HRLU SHUN\HNL \ZLK HUK
YLZ\S[ZNLULYH[LK;OLÄUHSQV\YUHSLU[Y`PZHYLÅLJ[PVUVU[OLPYWLYMVYTHUJLV]LY[OLÔVSLJV\YZL
HUK[OLPYWLYJLW[PVUVMÔH[HUKOV^[OLÒH]LKL]LSVWLK>OLYLNYHKLZHYLHZZPNULK[OPZQV\YUHS
LU[Y`MHJ[VYZPU[V[OLV]LYHSSNYHKL
Alan S. Mackenzie started his career in Japan in 1989 where he taught in language schools,
JVSSLNLZ HUK SH[[LYS` \UP]LYZP[PLZ MVY `LHYZ /L TV]LK [V ;OHPSHUK PU [V ^VYR VU [LHJOLY
KL]LSVWTLU[ WYVQLJ[Z MVY [OL )YP[PZO *V\UJPS ILJVTPUN OLHK VM YLNPVUHS [YHPUPUN WYVQLJ[Z MVY ,HZ[
(ZPH:\IZLX\LU[SÒL^VYRLKVUSHYNLZJHSLKL]LSVWTLU[WYVQLJ[ZPU0UKPHHUK7HRPZ[HU/LPZUV^
HU(JHKLTPJ+PYLJ[VYH[5VY^PJO0UZ[P[\[LMVY3HUN\HNL,K\JH[PVU503,
10 TEXTBOOKS, TECHNOLOGY, AND
THE CURRICULUM
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the role of textbooks and technology in the language curriculum, focusing
on the following aspects:
resource
teaching the four skills
curriculum
Using textbooks in a large-scale language program Eric Anthony Tejeda Evans

Hiroyuki Obari
Introduction
How much of your teaching is dependent upon textbooks and technology?
244
10 Textbooks, technology, and the curriculum • 245
10.1 Textbooks as teaching resource

Textbooks (also referred to as coursebooks) and other kinds of specially prepared or selected
instructional materials are still an important component of the curriculum in many language programs.
printed materials such as books, workbooks,

worksheets, or readers; (b) non-print materials such as audio materials, videos, or computer-based
materials; (c) materials that comprise both print and non-print sources such as self-access materials
and materials on the Internet. In addition, materials not designed for instructional use but from
also play a role in the curriculum. Much of the language teaching that occurs throughout the world
today could not take place without the use of commercial materials, primarily textbooks, and teachers
generally have a choice of published materials for most kinds of teaching situation. Below the owner
of a large language school in Mexico describes the role of textbooks in his institute:
In our language institute in Mexico, commercial textbooks provide the basis for all our courses. In this
sense, they ARE the curriculum. They provide us with a structured program that is tried and tested
and that works well with the different courses and levels we offer. I would say that the success of our
institute is due to the choice of the textbooks that we have been using over the last 15 years. Teachers
and students both enjoy them, since they come with all sorts of extras (DVDs, tests, etc.), but the main
thing I can say is that they deliver successful learning. Particularly at the lower levels, students who
had never thought they could master English find that after a few weeks they can really see progress,
and this gives them a real boost. Of course our teachers (who typically have a Cert-level qualification)
supplement the books with other activities, but the textbook series we use has been the basis for the
success of our school.
(Private institute owner, Pueblo, Mexico)
How similar is your experience with textbooks to that described in the vignette above?
Commercial textbooks are generally examples of expert-produced resources developed by publishers
case, textbooks may also be produced by a country’s ministry of education to maintain control over
content. Prior to digital technology and the Internet, textbooks served as the basis for much of the
language input and practice that occurred in the classroom. Cooke (cited in Cooke and Simpson
2008, 53–54) found that teachers gave a number of reasons for using textbooks. These included
teachers’ workloads are too heavy to allow them to develop their own materials, and that teachers’
However, textbooks also have another role for some teachers. In the case of inexperienced teachers,
they may serve as a form of teacher training, providing ideas on how to plan and teach lessons as
above, well-chosen textbooks can also help an institution achieve its goals, since they can provide the
basis for courses and tests, they can help support a coherent approach to teaching, and by relieving
teachers of much of the burden of developing materials, they enable teachers to spend more time
on other classroom activities.
In summary, textbooks can thus serve some of the following purposes for teachers, learners, and
institutions:
For teachers:
For learners:
For institutions:
resource source
10.2 Criticism of textbooks
They contain inauthentic language.
We know from our knowledge of our first language that in most textbook discourse, we
are getting something which is concocted for us, and may therefore rightly resent being
disempowered by teachers or materials writers who, on apparently laudable ideological
grounds, appear to know better.
bound assumptions derived from the cultures of origin – Britain, Australasia, and North America. The
kinds of learners who study in institutes and universities in these countries generally have instrumental
reasons for learning English, namely for academic or professional purposes or as new settlers. Their
(e.g., public schools) in other parts of the world – studying in tertiary, secondary, or primary settings.
They do not match learners’ needs. Since international textbooks are designed for use in many
which will vary greatly according to who the learners are and their teaching and learning contexts.
own lives. As Gray (2010, 142) reports:
The kind of English contained in coursebooks can be called “cosmopolitan English” because it
“assumes a materialistic set of values in which international travel, not being bored, positively
being entertained, having leisure and, above all, spending money casually, and without
consideration of the sum involved in the pursuit of these ends, are the norm.”
They can deskill teachers. If teachers use textbooks as their primary teaching resource, leaving
the textbook and the teaching manual to make their main instructional decisions, the teacher’s
role is reduced to that of a technician. There is little room for creative and improvisational teaching
(Thornbury 2013).
They represent a transmission-oriented approach to teaching. Thornbury (2013) argues that the pre-
packaged syllabus and content of textbooks is out of alignment with progressive, experientially based
interests, and concerns.
Do you agree with the criticisms above? Which of the points raised do you think is the most serious?
one component of their contact with English. As we noted above, learners increasingly make use of
language learning opportunities beyond the textbook and the classroom, and hence, the textbook
– whatever its strength or limitations – plays a less important role than it did for learners of earlier
generations (Richards 2015a). Moreover, it is interesting to note that although there has been an
expansion in the range of critical studies of the use of textbooks, the views of teachers themselves
In any one week, I teach in three or four different institutions and also work with learners whose ages
range from 10 to 50. I have no choice but to use published materials for all of my classes. Before choos-
ing a textbook, I analyze it carefully to find out exactly what it contains, how it works, how well organ-
ized it is, and how relevant it will be to my learners. The better I know the book and understand what it
contains and how it is constructed, the better I am able to use it and know where I may need to adapt it
to my needs. I am constantly reminded of how fortunate we teachers are that we have such an amazing
range of published materials to choose from, many of an extremely high quality. Without them, for many
of us, life would be impossible.
(José Lema, teacher and teacher educator, Quito, Ecuador)
10.3 Authentic versus created materials

When textbooks and commercial materials were the primary sources of classroom teaching and
learning, a debate that emerged related to the use of authentic materials as opposed to created
materials. Authentic materials are materials such as texts, photographs, video selections, realia,
and other teaching resources that were not specially prepared for pedagogic purposes. Created
materials are textbooks and other instructional resources that have been specially developed to
conversational strategies. Hence, it has often been argued that authentic materials are preferred to
created materials because unlike the often rather contrived content of much created material, they
learning: “Authenticity is felt to be important because it gives learners a taste of the real world, an
opportunity to ‘rehearse’ in a sheltered environment; hence the less authentic the materials we use,
A number of other points are typically raised in the debate about the role of authentic materials. In
support of the use of such materials, we might note the following assertions:
Against the use of authentic materials, however, are the claims below:
a graded syllabus.
What kinds of authentic materials do you use in your teaching?
In many language programs, therefore, teachers use a mixture of created and authentic materials
distinction between authentic and created materials is increasingly blurred because many published
10 Textbooks, technology, and the curriculum •
Such books [begin to] take on the aura, if not the actuality, of authenticity, containing
considerable amounts of photographically reproduced “realia,” in the form of newspaper
articles, maps, diagrams, memo pads, menus, application forms, advertisements, instructional
leaflets and all the rest. Some books, indeed, almost entirely consist of authentic material,
including illustrations, extracted from newspapers, or magazines.
In addition, as we noted above, this debate has become less relevant in today’s world, since
the Internet provides ready access to authentic materials of every kind. Classroom teaching and
classroom materials hence serve to prepare learners to navigate, explore, and access authentic
materials related to their needs and interest through the Web, as we discuss further below. There is no
reason, therefore, why textbooks and other classroom materials should not contain a mix of authentic
and created texts depending on the intentions of the materials.
10.4 Evaluating textbooks

The nature and role of textbooks – particularly those designed for global markets – has become an
area of increasing interest to researchers and applied linguists in recent years (Gray 2013; Garton
and Graves 2014; Harwood 2014). A number of checklists have been proposed for use in textbook
Appendix 1, for example.) These typically focus on factors such as the linguistic content of books,
and students, their interest level, as well as on aesthetic factors such as design, and practical factors
such as their length and cost.
own purposes.
target language and the learner.
What are the main factors you look for when choosing a textbook?
are unwieldy to apply. An important issue in evaluating textbooks is considering them against the
contexts in which they will be used. Evaluation can only be done by considering something in relation
to its purpose. A book may be ideal in one situation because it matches the needs of that situation
elements in it (such as a grammar syllabus) that are not needed in the program. Textbook evaluation
Hence, before one can evaluate a textbook, information is needed on a number of factors relating to
the institution where it is to be used, and the teachers and learners who will be using it.
analysis
evaluation
Evaluation: a professional interpretation of the information obtained in the analysis stage. The
evaluator(s) may use their experience and expertise – reflecting their views and priorities based
on a number of factors, such as learner and teacher expectations, methodological preferences,
the perceived needs of learners, syllabus requirements and personal preferences – and give
weights or provide value judgment to the obtained information.
books aimed at the same market.

10.5 Adapting materials

Most teachers are not creators of teaching materials but rather providers of good materials. Dudley-
appropriately from what is available and be creative with it, modify activities to suit learners’ needs,
and supplement what is available by providing extra activities (and extra input). In fact, commercial
textbooks can seldom be used without some form of adaptation to make them more suitable for the
particular context in which they will be used. This adaptation may take a variety of forms, as detailed
below.
Content may need to be changed because it does not suit the target learners,
perhaps because of factors related to the learners’ age, gender, social class, occupation, religion, or
cultural background.
Adding or deleting content. The book may contain too much or too little for the program. Whole units
may have to be dropped, or perhaps sections of units throughout the book omitted. For example, a
course may focus primarily on listening and speaking skills, and hence writing activities in the book
will be omitted.
Reorganizing content.
units in what he or she considers to be a more suitable order. Or within a unit the teacher may decide
Addressing omissions. The text may omit items that the teacher feels are important. For example, a
teacher may add vocabulary activities or grammar activities to an existing unit.
Exercises and activities may need to be changed to give them an additional focus.
For example, a listening activity may focus only on listening for information, so it is adapted so that
Extending tasks.
to be added.
The ability to adapt commercial textbooks in these ways is an essential skill for teachers to develop.
gradually as the teacher becomes more familiar with the book, because the dimensions of the text
that need adaptation may not be apparent until the book is tried out in the classroom. When a number
of teachers in a program are teaching from the same textbook, it is useful to build in opportunities for
teachers to share information about the forms of adaptation they are making.
If textbooks are used in your institution, how are they chosen?
10.6 Monitoring the use of materials

No matter what form of materials teachers make use of, whether they teach from textbooks,
institutional materials, or teacher-prepared materials, the materials represent plans for teaching. They
do not represent the process of teaching itself. As teachers use materials, they adapt and transform
them to suit the needs of particular groups of learners and their own teaching styles. These processes
out of the resources they make use of. It is useful, therefore, to collect information on how teachers
use coursebooks and other teaching materials in their teaching. The information collected can serve
the following purposes:
used with the materials.
Monitoring teachers’ use of textbooks can take a number of forms:

Observation:
Feedback sessions: group meetings in which teachers discuss their experience with materials.
Written reports:
using the materials.
comments from students on their experience with the materials.
While other variables and limitations to this study should not be minimized, the fact that the
groups in this study spent five classes a week for over 30 weeks with [the global textbook] as
the core study materials suggests that, far from being detrimental, the GT [global textbook
series] appears to have played a major role in the students’ improvement.
10.7 Technology as a teaching and learning resource
creates new modes of instruction. More and more teachers and school administrators accept the
available.) Moreover, blended learning, which combines face-to-face instruction with online-based
learning, is now a crucial component of the curriculum in many contexts (Gruba and Hinkelman 2012).
Advocates of methods such as Task-Based Teaching argue that technology-mediated communication
Digital language learning
Digital language learning is a broad category that includes:
Online learning, whether self-paced or collaborative;
Digital learning resources (e.g., e-textbooks, e-gradebooks, interactive media);
Mobile learning apps, including educational games and other mobile services.
complement to classroom instruction for students on site, or a tool to use before or after studying abroad.
Additionally, a school may choose to provide mobile devices or mobile apps to allow students greater
opportunity for independent study outside of class time. Teachers may bring technology into the classroom in
the form of new teaching tools, such as interactive whiteboards or computer-based assessments, and more.
(ICEF Monitor 2015)
the resources technology makes available, as seen in these standards for teachers developed by the
International Society for Technology.
Model digital age work and learning

Teachers exhibit knowledge, skills and work processes representative of an innovative
professional in a global and digital society.
a. demonstrate fluency in technology systems and the transfer of current knowledge to new
technologies and situations
b. collaborate with students, peers, parents and community members using digital tools and
resources to support student success and innovation
c. communicate relevant information and ideas effectively to students, parents, and peers
using a variety of digital age media and formats
d. model and facilitate effective use of current and emerging digital tools to locate, analyse,
evaluate and use information resources to support research and learning
Promote and model digital citizenship and responsibility

Teachers understand local and global societal issues and responsibilities in an evolving digital
culture and exhibit legal and ethical behaviour in their digital practices.
a. advocate, model, and teach, safe, legal, and ethical uses of digital information and
technology, including respect for copyright, intellectual property, and the appropriate
documentation of courses
b. address the diverse needs of all learners by using learner-centred strategies providing
equitable access to digital tools and resources
c. promote and model digital etiquette and responsible social interactions related to the use
of technology and information
d. develop and model cultural understanding and global awareness by engaging with
colleagues and students of other cultures using digital age communication and
collaboration tools
(ISTE 2008)
which consist of both goals and standards (Healey et al. 2011). The goal that describes teachers’ use
of technology states, “Language teachers integrate pedagogical knowledge and skills with technology
1. Language teachers identify and evaluate technological resources and environment for
suitability for their teaching context.
2. Language teachers coherently integrate technology into their pedagogical approaches.
3. Language teachers design and manage language learning activities and tasks, using
technology appropriately to meet curricular goals and objectives.
4. Language teachers use relevant research findings to inform the planning of language
learning activities and tasks that involve technology.
What kinds of technology is available in your school to support teaching and learning?
10.8 Support provided by technology
The physical level, with tools such as mobile phones, digital cameras, laptops, and tablets.
The management level, which includes learning management systems (LMSs) that enable the
administration, delivery, tracking, reporting, etc. of a language course.
The applications level, including word-processing software, email and chat clients, social-
networking sites and blogs.
The resource level, which includes access to authentic materials, such as online newspapers,
The component technology level, such as spelling checkers, grammar checkers, electronic
dictionaries, and other support tools.
More and more schools worldwide are now being challenged to embrace the new opportunities that
Support for learners

Today, the Internet, technology, and the media as well as the use of English in both face-to-face and
virtual social networks provide learners with greater opportunities for meaningful and authentic language
use than are available in the classroom. As Lankshear and Knobel (2003) and Jones and Hafner
(2012) point out, these learning opportunities are more likely to be interactive, social, and multimodal.
Learners can interact using English with people in almost every part of the world. They can download
apps that support many aspects of language learning and can use these while waiting for the bus or
train or traveling to school. Moreover, when they get home they may enter a chat room to interact with
other language learners or with native speakers, they may enter game sites and play video games that
following with subtitles if necessary.
detailed below.
Exposure. Technology provides a greater exposure to English than is possible in the limited amount
of time available in the classroom. The Internet allows contact with communities of learners and other
users of English worldwide, providing opportunities for authentic interaction and communication in
English. In addition, learners can access language as it used in the media as well as examples of
English as it is used globally as an international language, including varieties such as Indian English
and Singapore English.
Flexibility. Students can choose where and when they wish to learn and how much time they
want to spend on their learning. Furthermore, in the case of watching television, students can
choose different ways of watching, such as showing or hiding subtitles, and using repeated
viewing of scenes.
Autonomy. Many technology-based activities encourage autonomous learning. With the popular
site TED Talks, for example, students can decide what kinds of speech events to select, based
on their interests. Similarly, when reading texts on the Internet students can choose what kinds
their own learning.

Learning mode.
preferred learning style, for example by allowing them to choose visual or auditory learning (as seen
Depending on their interests, learners can focus on a particular skill such as reading,
listening, or writing. Mahoney (2014), for example, describes how he uses blogging in a writing
Active learning. With many technology-based activities, learners are more in control of the process
and the outcomes of their learning. They are engaged actively and purposefully in their language-
using experiences, setting goals for themselves and making use of the situations and resources
available to them to achieve their goals.
Interactive. Technology can provide a social context for learning, allowing learners to interact directly
with other learners. Social interaction is a feature of some chat room activities as well as blogging.
Participants can experience a social learning space that is made up of a community of learners with
shared interests, concerns, and needs.
Motivatin
periods of time in chat rooms and playing digital games or watching YouTube clips can serve a variety
of social as well as cognitive purposes.
technology for your learners?
Multimedia presentation
Peter loves a screen. It does not matter if it is a television, iPad, video console, or computer screen. He
loves to be engaged with technology. At school, since kindergarten, Peter has had to build some form
In Year 3, it was suggested that students could use Microsoft PowerPoint to present a few slides while
try them. Peter settled on Skitch and added text and drawings to the photo he chose to use for his
presentation. Peter was engaged for hours, doing something that he loved while learning at the same
to install it on the school’s iPads and then asked Peter to teach the class how to use the app. She
thought it would be a great app to use for the class’s next creative arts lesson.
(Eady and Lockyer 2013)
One could cite many other aspects of technology that have appeal for learners. Indeed learners today
need little encouragement to embrace technology, since it is already an integral part of their daily
lives. For example, digital games and social media are used by learners out of class for entertainment
and for social interaction. Through linking language learning to these resources, one therefore builds
on the learners’ everyday activities and experience, and from the learners’ point of view these
experiences can be said to be valid and authentic.
Support for teachers

Technology changes the nature of the classroom and the dynamics of teacher–student interaction as well
as the role of teachers and students. It enables teachers to expand their teaching strategies and create new
learning opportunities. It also adds another dimension to teachers’ existing classroom practices as well as
making possible a new range of learning opportunities. Moreover, it can help make connections between
what happens in the classroom and what happens outside of the classroom. Technology-supported
Learner-centered.
the teacher to connect with students’ lives and interests. Whereas in a textbook the content is
content that match the students’ interests and needs.

Mixed levels. It allows students to take more control of their own learning, which is particularly helpful
in mixed-level classes. Rather than all students working on the same materials, individual students
can be working on those skills that they most need to practice.
It can take students out of the classroom and into the real world. Furthermore,
the input they can experience – like real-world language use – is often multimodal. For example,
TED, learners can access both spoken and written forms of texts and both watch and listen as they
learners beyond the classroom.)

Enriched content. Teachers have access to a huge and ever-changing range of content and resources
that enable them to develop a much richer and more varied curriculum.
More strategies.
Changed roles.
transmitters of knowledge but facilitators who support and guide student learning; teachers are also
Enhanced learning environment. Using technology can create a better learning environment where
students are engaged in interactions and communication among themselves. For example, teachers
can create a class wiki or a blogging site where students can post content and also respond to
comment from their peers.
Monitoring. Course and learning management systems (LMSs), as well as many computer-assisted
language learning (CALL) materials, include tools for monitoring students’ learning, allowing teachers
to provide early intervention where necessary.
Support. CALL environments can make the administration of assessments, the grading of papers,
and the distribution of learning materials, and can also provide a means for learners and teachers to
communicate outside of the classroom.
However, in order for teachers to be able to develop the knowledge and skills needed to use
technology in their teaching, schools may need to provide training, mentoring, and ongoing support.
whiteboards, digital cameras, and computers, they are sometimes less familiar with these devices
than their students. Hence, it is important that teachers have the opportunity to master the use of
new technologies. For example, if a school decides to deliver online tests through an LMS, then this
means all teachers need to know how the system works, how to create tests for it, and how to use it
Collaborating across countries
for students in Canada’s north and Australia’s outback, called Building Opportunities for Literacy
Development. This was an opportunity for students at distance to collaborate using an online, live-
time platform called CENTRA. The children in both countries worked together in groups to create
slide presentations about their part of the world. After months of preparation, each group presented
together to draw a picture on the white board and showed the students in Australia how a snowman
is built. In this example, the students worked collaboratively, using technology in their own schools and
classrooms, and then again with students at a distance, in the online synchronous environment.
Support for institutions
the role of technology in other spheres of life. Today’s learners expect their schools and classrooms
enhanced school learning environment – one where all teaching and learning is facilitated through the
use of appropriate technology and both teaching and school management seek to prepare learners for
Reputation. When technology is integrated into the curriculum, it enhances the reputation of the
school, showing that the school is up to date with developments in education. A commitment to
technology sends a message to students, teachers, and parents that the school is eager to stay at
whom expect technology to play a role in their learning.

Individualized curriculum.
enrollment, such as adult and vocational adult-education courses, students need not enter the class
interest and relevance to students, and individual students could follow a grammatical syllabus in
computer-based instruction outside the classroom.
Improved outcomes. Student achievement may be higher, since students receive additional learning
opportunities beyond the time scheduled on the timetable.
Flexible curriculum. With a mix of face-to-face and computer-mediated learning – i.e., through
so-called blended learning – schools can use the mix that best suits the needs of their clients.
through face-to-face instruction.
monitoring courses, attendance, and student learning.
experiences that they provide are better placed to prepare their students for success in the twenty-
creative solutions to problems not only help students learn in the classroom but also prepare them to
succeed in the world beyond the classroom.
10.9 Examples of the use of technology in teaching the four skills

Many technology-based learning opportunities are experiential in nature, providing opportunities for
comprehensible input and output and involving interactional processes that are likely to support the
learning outcome. In the examples that follow we will examine how technology and the Internet can
Speaking and pronunciation skills
for both speaking and pronunciation. For example, synchronous (real-time) computer-mediated
communication, such as chat rooms and some other forms of near instantaneous interaction
skills practice, and in an environment that many learners experience as non-threatening. Similarly,
programs such as Microsoft Skype® and Google Hangouts® allow two or more participants to
interact. The inclusion of video in many of these programs can be particularly helpful for learners, as
the added visual information helps them to understand the message.
performance. The students were assigned a topic, asked to prepare a short recording on the topic
(an average of approximately two minutes each) and then to upload it to their restricted area on
Once all of the recordings had been uploaded, teachers and learners would listen to them and record
their comments, impressions, and general feedback. Learners would then listen to the comments
considered relevant from their peers’ or teacher’s feedback. After having recorded and posted their
contributions, depending on how their peers reacted to their posts, they would revisit their work in
terms of grammar (accuracy), vocabulary (lexical appropriacy), or pronunciation (prosodic features),
which would then lead to improvements in their linguistic development.
Internet sites (such as YouTube) are also a rich source of examples of how spoken interactions take
place. For example, learners can watch video clips of real or simulated interactions (e.g., checking in
to a hotel), and then play the part of either of the participants in the interaction. (Sites such as Real
English® and YouTube provide examples of authentic greetings and descriptions: www.real-english.
Some websites allow learners to compare their spoken English with that of a native speaker. They
can record a spoken text, such as a story, a conversation, or an oral presentation, and then compare
their production with the speech of a native speaker.
Listening skills
Traditional teaching resources such as textbooks with accompanying audio or video generally provide
a limited source of listening input. However, sites are available with materials specially designed for
also provide access to a range of authentic listening text types (advertisements, movie clips, YouTube
videos), accompanied by listening-comprehension tasks. In addition, authentic listening materials are
that a teacher can then create activities for.
Reading skills
The Internet provides access to a huge variety of written texts that can provide opportunities to
software highlighting key parts of the text accompanied by explanations. There are also numerous
sites with specially developed activities to promote reading skills. These include activities designed
, activities
as well as activities
through the use of text-completion tasks where students see a text, guess missing words, and get
feedback on their choices.
Righini (2014) provides an example of how social media can be used to develop skills needed to read
authentic texts and news articles from the electronic media in an approach that integrates reading and
writing. News articles on topics of interest were taken from BBC News, CNN World, the Guardian,
the , the Australian and assigned at the end of each lesson as self-study. Students
were asked to choose one a week and teachers were encouraged to create a blog where students
would upload comments on their chosen news article and comment on their peers’ posts. In order
Writing skills
While word-processing software has often been used to auto-correct spelling, word choice, and
grammar, a range of more sophisticated types of support are now available to support learners with
written English. For example, learner support can be provided through web-based writing labs to help
students with writing assignments. Peer-feedback can be made more motivating through the use of
computer-mediated peer review: students can share drafts of written work, for example in the form
of blog posts that other students can then comment on. Technology also allows learners to share
and showcase their written work. They can share their compositions through desktop publishing
or via a blog or web publishing. They can also collaborate on writing tasks, making the process
of generating ideas, drafting, and revising a piece more interactive, such as in wikis. New forms of
writing, such as blogs, also enable students to create more personal and expressive writing and to
compare their blogs with those of other writers. Moreover, as they write, a variety of editing tools,
such as dictionaries, spell checkers, and model texts, are available to assist learners as they write.
Blogging
Journal writing has long been an activity utilised in the primary classroom. Journal writing allows
and-pencil activity can become digital when word-processing software is used. Or it can go online as
entry, add images, video and links to other websites. Readers of a blog usually can post comments.
promote writing skills … particularly when student peers provide feedback to the blog’s writer … It is
provided to the teacher, the class, the student’s parents and the world.
What is the most recent use of technology you have seen or used for teaching any of the four skills?
10.10 Determining the role of technology in the curriculum
However, the role of technology in the curriculum raises a number of important issues (Staples,
principal among these issues are described below.
The purposes for using technology

The role of technology in an institution will depend on a variety of factors including the nature of the
institution and its programs, who its teachers and students are, and the extent to which the resources
or learners and for the institution need to be considered, as well as how technology will change the
nature of teaching and learning, how it will support the goals of the curriculum, and in what ways it
is expected to lead to improvement in the learners’ knowledge and skills.
The technical skill needed by teachers and students
software, with students sometimes at a higher skill level than their teachers. Both need to be
The infrastructure requirements

The assets and resources available to support the use of technology are also crucial. These include
either directly in their classroom or in a media or self-access center.
The technology resources available

The technology resources available for classroom use are extensive and changing. They include
computers, interactive whiteboards, mobile devices like smartphones and tablets, digital cameras, social
media platforms and networks, software applications, and the Internet. The availability and accessibility of
these resources need to be considered as well as whether items such as CD-ROMs and other support
materials, such as commercially produced learning resources, will be provided by the school.
Integrating technology with classroom teaching, learning, and assessment

There are many ways in which technology can be integrated with teaching, learning, and assessment,
and new possibilities become available almost weekly. Examples include the following:
Balance of classroom-based face-to-face teaching with blended online learning
(Grgurovic 2010).
Table 10.1 Language learning options

TYPE FEATURES
Fully face-to-face All teaching is classroom-based
Web-enhanced A minimum amount of online material used, such as posting syllabus,
assignments, and test scores
Blended Significant online component (e.g., 55% face-to-face, 45% online)
Hybrid Online replaces 45–80% of classroom teaching
Fully online Up to 100% of learning activities conducted online
Impact on teachers
and moves around the class providing suggestions and support for student activity. Technology
therefore changes the nature of the relationship between teacher and students. It creates the
learning content and of interacting with the teacher and other students. It also encourages more
own decisions about how to search for and use content.
Provision of professional development opportunities

Teachers may need two kinds of support: technical knowledge about how to use the various
resources available and advice on how to integrate technology into their curriculum (Reinders
as well as help from other more experienced colleagues. Sharing information about the successful
uses of technology can be achieved through newsletters, bulletin boards, and informal meetings.
Teachers also need to know how to evaluate new technology resources as they become available
(see Appendix 2 for an evaluation checklist). Administrative support within schools can also assist
with problem solving and training.
What kind of support is provided in your institution to help teachers make the best use of the
resources of technology?
Conclusions
Teachers today have a wide range of resources available to them to support their teaching, including
traditional print and book-based resources and a growing range of digital ones. Teachers need to
book-based materials. They may also need to prepare materials for their own institutions and classes.
Increasingly, however, they are also expected to make use of a variety of digital and computer-
and success of a language program. While teachers are generally comfortable using textbooks and
aspect of curriculum development, therefore, is determining the role of teaching resources such
as textbooks and technology in a language program, as well as making provisions for the kinds of
How successfully resources such as these are used in a language program is an issue that falls within
1. Some institutions insist that teachers develop their own materials rather than using published
materials. What is your view of this policy?
2. In what ways do you think textbooks can serve as a source of teacher training for novice
teachers?
3. If you use textbooks in your teaching, how do you adapt them to make them more relevant to
your learners’ needs?
4. Do you make use of authentic materials in your teaching? What features of authentic materials
do you consider when choosing such materials?
5. Do you and your colleagues sometimes collaborate on the development of materials for your
classes? What has been your experience with materials development activities of this kind?
6. If you were evaluating a writing text for possible use with your learners, what criteria would you
use to evaluate it?
7.
in your institution?
8. What advice would you give to a teacher who is planning to make more use of technology in his
or her teaching?
Has your experience with technology been (a) very positive or (b) somewhat mixed? Compare
your experiences with a colleague.
10. Read the two case studies at the end of this chapter. One describes a program that makes
extensive use of textbooks; the second describes one where no textbooks are used and
technology is used as the primary learning resource. In each case, what advantages do you think
using textbooks or technology has
(a) for the institution
(b) for the students
(c) for the teachers.
Are there any disadvantages in your opinion?
11.
might like to ask each other?
APPENDIX 1 ESL reading textbook evaluation checklist (from Miekley 2005)

Textbook Evaluation Checklist
Not Applicable
Totally Lacking
Mandatory
Excellent
Optional
Good
Poor
I. Textbook
A. Content
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
ii. Does the content serve as a window into learning about the target
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
language culture (American, British, ect.)? (2,18)
iii. Are the reading selections authentic pieces of language? (5,10) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
iv. Compared to texts for native speakers, does the content contain
real-life issues that challenge the reader to think critically about 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
v. Are the text selections representative of the variety of literary genres, and do
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
they contain multiple sentence structures? (1,13)
i. Are the grammar rules presented in a logical manner and in increasing

4 3 2 1 0 M O N
ii. Are the new vocabulary words presented in a variety of ways (e.g.
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
glosses, multi-glosses, appositives)? (2,3,12)
iii. Are the new vocabulary words presented at an appropriate rate so that
the text is understandable and so that students are able to retain new 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
vocabulary? (1,2,3,5)
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
reinforce their meaning and use? (1,2,3,)
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
C. Exercises and Activities
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
use new vocabulary to communicate? (1,2,3,5)
ii. Do instructions in the textbook tell students to read for comprehension? (6) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
iii. Are top-down and bottom-up reading strategies used? (17) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
v. Do the activities facilitate students’ use of grammar rules by creating

4 3 2 1 0 M O N
situations in which these rules are needed? (1,2,3)
vi. Does the text make comprehension easier by addressing one new
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
concept at a time instead of multiple new concepts? (2,3)
vii. Do the exercises promote critical thinking of the text? (2) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
D. Attractiveness of the Text and Physical Make-up
i. Is the cover of the book appealing? (1,2,3) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
iii. Are the illustrations simple enough and close enough to the text that
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
they add to its meaning rather than detracting from it? (1)
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
II Teacher’s Manual
A. General Features
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
methodology of the text? (1,2,3)
ii. Are correct or suggested answers given for the exercises in the
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
textbook? (1,2,3,4)
B. Background Information
i. Are teachers shown how to teach students to use cues from

morphology, cognates, rhetorical relationships, and context to assist 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
them in lexical inferencing? (7)
ii. Is there a list of true and false cognates for vocabulary words? (1,2,3) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
C. Methodological Guidance
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
iii. Does the manual suggest a clear, concise method for teaching each
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
lesson? (1,2,3)
D. Supplementary Exercises and Materials
i. Does the manual give instructions on how to incorporate audio-visual

4 3 2 1 0 M O N
material produced for the textbook? (2)
ii. Does the manual provide teachers with exercises to practice, test, and
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
review vocabulary words? (1,2,3)
iii. Does the manual provide additional exercises for reinforcing grammar
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
points in the text? (1,2,3)
Ill. Context
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
B. Is the textbook appropriate for the students who will be using it? (1,2)
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
ii. Are the examples and explanations understandable? (1) 4 3 2 1 0 M O N
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
iv. Will the content meet students’ felt needs for learning English or can it
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
be adapted for this purpose? (2,3)
C. Are the textbook and teacher’s manual appropriate for the teacher who will be teaching from them? (1,2,4)
4 3 2 1 0 M O N
manual? (1)
APPENDIX 2 Evaluating technology
Age/year level:
Instructional content:
Assessment:
Flexibility:
Usability:
Technical considerations:
Support materials:
CASE STUDY 17 Using textbooks in a large-scale language program

Eric Anthony Tejeda Evans
between 5 and 20 students, and upon class registration, students receive, per level, a tailor-made
textbook designed by an international publishing house.
The PDU course takes true and false beginners to a B1–B2 level (CEFR). The main goal of the course
speakers within real-life situations. of the course describe what learners are
expected to achieve at the end of the course, that is, outcomes that can be observed and measured;
1. To make use of L1 as a tool only when necessary or to contrast L1 and L2.

2. To develop learning and communicative strategies.
3. To develop strategies for use with purposeful language functions.
4. To connect learners to the real world’s context by integrating the linguistic skills and socio-
5. To provide learners with thorough pronunciation support and practice.

6. To make use of purposeful ICT tasks.
the learning process. Even though American English is taught, non-native English and the variations
within American English, Canadian, Australian or British English is contrasted accordingly.
First, the academic secretary reviews ESL coursebooks in the market for adults and young adults that
comply with the following characteristics: current or previous year edition, American English, A1 to
B1–B2 levels including a true beginners’ level, and communicative, functional, and skills syllabus. The
of each one, the top four coursebooks are selected. Second, the selected publishing houses are
invited to become part of a four-month pilot course where they agree to train a group of four to six
classes. The publishing houses are encouraged to take part as much as possible in the follow-up
of the pilot course in respect of observation, design of tests, use of coursebook components, and
so on. This action serves to determine how much a publishing house is interested in and capable
of providing ongoing training if selected at the end of the pilot course. Third, teachers and students
involved in the pilot course provide feedback regarding the coursebook materials through surveys,
interviews, and learning outcomes. The results are reported in a document to the general director of
the institution, who then makes arrangements with the selected publishing house in respect of the
adoption and adaption of the coursebook.
In order to implement the new course, a PDU course manual for teachers is designed by the academic
coordinator. The intention of the manual is for teachers to become aware of the importance of unifying
teaching criteria in relation to students’ exit level and evaluation, with the idea that by unifying the teaching
standards there is a greater probability that the students’ exit level at the end of each level is basically the
same. The manual includes the institution’s vision, mission, educational philosophy, teacher and student
international exam exit level. Once the course is implemented, the following three months can be used to
make corrections and changes to components of the course as needed, for instance, to the evaluation
system. Six months after the course’s implementation, teachers receive a training update based on their
following the same course design in response to both new trends in EFL and community needs.
The PDU course is delivered in 12 levels of 40 hours each with a total of 480 hours. Instruction
is carried out in a face-to-face mode with two options: (1) during the week (2 hours daily) or (2)
At each level, 4 hours are allocated for testing and 36 hours for instruction. Levels 10–12 include time
to prepare students for an international exam. If newcomers believe they have L2 knowledge and wish
around 40 minutes, and it includes a multiple-choice test and an interview. The multiple-choice test
includes grammar, vocabulary, social language, and reading comprehension.
The instruction approach is learner-centered and the methodology is eclectic, which means it is skills-
integrated using a communicative and constructive approach that takes account of learners’ needs,
styles, multiple intelligences, ages, and context. Conversation models assist the weaker learners and
social contexts.
beginners.
Regarding technology, the textbook includes a take-home CD-ROM with interactive practice for the
four skills and games linked to the textbook lessons. However, the CD-ROM is optional and only for
those students who feel they need extra practice.
There were issues during the pilot course stage when some publishing houses did not have the
academic capability to provide support in respect of class observation and feedback or in adapting
the coursebook tests to match the institution’s time distribution and evaluation system. In addition,
the institution’s teacher observation-feedback system is a complex one, since it is time-consuming
and involves several academic coordinators observing and giving feedback to many teachers on a
procedures.
The PDU course evaluation system keeps a balance between form and function, and accuracy and
institution. Instead, students are trained linguistically and culturally to cope with situations where
language is the most important tool for successful communication. The evaluation system is designed
to provide learners and teachers with feedback for improvement. The evaluation system includes a
variety and balance of test types as follows: formative achievement, and summative; however, the
The ongoing oral assessment, for instance, is formative and tests the non-linguistic skills that are
important for communication to occur, for example, testing that the learner (1) is willing to interact
Learners are informed about this assessment at the beginning of the level. The productive skills
instance, by means of portfolios, essays, reports, articles, interviews, conversations, etc. which are
marked by teachers following band descriptions. When learners are weak and need extra help, the
accompanying components of the textbook are recommended (CD-ROM, workbook, audio CD) and
one-on-one tutoring sessions are provided by the teacher or academic coordinator. Achievement
tests at every level measure three aspects of language: social language (functions), vocabulary (lexis),
and grammar (form), and each language skill (and sub-skill) is also assessed through a variety of valid
and reliable tests.
curriculum developer and has co-authored three EFL coursebooks. He has been designing EFL
PROULEX Universidad de Guadalajara and is completing a master’s degree in teaching English as a

CASE STUDY 18 Using the resources of technology in a college English program

Hiroyuki Obari
is an English for third year seminar course from the College of Economics
at Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo, Japan. Students have to take a four-credit course as part of
their degree program at the university. During this course students learn about the way they look
developing their language skills while broadening their worldviews and improving their IT skills with
mobile technologies.
worldviews.
Governance)
social learning.
One of the main aims of this course is to enhance students’ IT skills and encourage them to become
more internationally minded as well as more independent learners. Students are given opportunities
to make many digital stories with their iPad and practice many presentations that help train them
to think in a more analytical way and give them some hands-on practice in dealing with technical
a) To develop students’ way of looking at the world, that is to say, their worldviews.
b)
c) To get them to produce a wide range of digital storytelling, including summaries of “Lecture
d)
via ICT and through social learning, for example using Facebook and the communication app
LINE.
such as a lecture video series on science and theology prepared by lecturers from Oxford University,
and preparing digital storytelling. They also develop their listening and speaking skills by watching a
variety of YouTube videos containing information on a variety of topics. In addition, they prepare for a
between two universities.

First of all, all my seminar students use an LMS (Learning Management System) and their iPads for
also make use of videos of lectures by scholars at Oxford University. About ten years ago when I was
a visiting research fellow at the University of Oxford, I happened to meet two esteemed professors in
the video materials with lecture notes, and I also give them several lectures both in English and in
Japanese in order to deepen their understanding of the course contents. All of the seminar students
In the classroom, they use these resources to present and discuss the lecture contents in more detail.
Secondly, social learning is very important nowadays, so all my students use Facebook. All assignments
(whether it is digital storytelling, PPTs, or Word documents) are uploaded and shared on Facebook. With
each talk with their iPad, and to share the content of each talk every week with their classmates. Last
year they came up with 20 summaries of TED Talks and greatly improved their writing skills in doing so.
Thirdly, in order to provide ample amounts of comprehensible input, online e-learning materials such
as the Newton e-Learning TOEIC (Test of English for International Communication) Practice Kit for
Assessment System for English Communication) computer test are used so that students can study
these materials anywhere, at any time, and even check their own progress using online computer
test is also used.

Fourthly, Globalvoice English is used to improve students’ pronunciation. This CALL software is very
useful in helping students develop better mastery of both segmental features and prosody of English.
Intelligence software] with mobile technologies. Students watch video lectures with their iPads and
complete a variety of types of exercises as well as preparing for digital storytelling presentations.
With mobile technologies, students use Cooori to study the vocabularies integrated with digital texts.
These activities provide a range of sources of comprehensible input, and through the use of mobile
weeks of the course, the focus is on helping students develop their worldviews and presentation
or storytelling skills for this course. From Week 1 to Week 6, worldviews based upon science and
Week 1 What are the worldviews?

Lecture Ready II, Chapter 1
TED Talks (Teach how to study)
Introduce students to the concept of the “flipped classroom” lesson, and how to
prepare for this course.
Pre-TOEIC TEST, Pre-CASEC text, ATR Brix TOEIC mini-test 1
Week 2 Pre-OPIc Speaking Test

Worldview Study 1 and presentation
Lecture Ready II, Chapter 1 presentation, digital storytelling
TED Talks (1) group presentation
CALL ATR Brix TOEIC mini-test 2
Week 3 Worldview Study 2 and presentation
Week 6 Worldview Study 5 (establish their own worldviews) and presentation
Week 7 Lecture Ready II, Chapter 6 presentation, digital storytelling
The second part of the course (Weeks 12 to 15) focuses on preparing students to complete a
Japanese culture in English. For this purpose, students have to do some research and make several
visits to places they would like to present and discuss using iPads. They make several digital movies
topic for each lesson in the second part of the course is as follows:
Week 12 Group Meetings (Simulation)

Plan a presentation project with NUS
Start preparing PPTs
Week 13 Preparing for PPTs
Sharing PPTs on Facebook
Discussion
Week 14 Preparing for PPTs
Sharing PPTs on Facebook
Discussion
Week 15 Presentation about their project
Assessment Tests
OPIc Speaking Test
TOEIC
CASEC
The course does not use one main teaching method. Instead, an eclectic approach is preferred. For
with a particular emphasis on group presentations. Students have to prepare the worldview study
with digital storytelling and PPTs. Every week during Weeks 2 to 11, students have to prepare a
that they can present their information with their iPads and discuss them in more detail with their
based on the information presented in the manual, to get them used to working together to prepare
facilitator and guide.
Students are given a 50-page text as well as videos that accompany the course, which can be
downloaded from the LMS of Oxford University Press. All the material has been produced in-house
with some references to other sources as illustrative examples of reports. The manual provides a
series of tasks to accompany each of the ten chapters. These tasks can be used as a basis for
creating a presentation for each lesson as well as for checking comprehension of the lectures (see
examples below).
In groups, brainstorm what you learn from the TED Talks and apply it to your life. Firstly, share the
content of the TED Talks and expand the content for further discussion about its relevance to your life.
1.
lecture and how can it be applied to your life?
2. Share the content of Chapter 1 using your iPad and take turns in presenting what you prepare
including showing your digital storytelling.
3.
4.
between the students for their group work has increased dramatically over the life of the course.
students to handle, they tend to lose motivation for learning. Some students feel that digital text is
be provided in advance. Weaker students are scared to make oral presentations without any scripts.
the worldview study lectures given by the Oxford lecturers without Japanese translation, so I have to
always try to explain it more in detail in Japanese.
The second issue is the digital text. Sometimes online digital text does not work because of
text as well. Ideally speaking, we need to make use of both a paper and a digital text.
The third issue relates to the learning materials with mobile technologies. Some of these learning
materials are purely internet-based, and unless the tutor is always mentoring the students and
taught thoroughly how to use mobile technologies and how to study online materials, and they need
good support from instructors.
lead to some unhappy students. Fortunately, this problem does not happen often, but it is something
the tutors are made aware of and are asked to monitor as the course progresses. About 10% of
The students are assessed both individually and for their group work. The individual assessment is the
comparison between pre-test and post-test, as measured using tests such as TOEIC, CASEC, OPIc
Speaking Assessment. Students take both pre-tests and post-tests and check their improvement.
Whenever my seminar students give many presentations, their presentations will be assessed by
tutors and their peers based on ten factors. (Assessment sheets are provided.) As for the ATR CALL
Brix, evaluation of each practice will be shown on the Internet so that students can check their
weaknesses and strengths. Portfolio assessment has been introduced to this course, so every lesson
the results were as shown in the graph below.
Improvements of TOEIC 181 points p<0.01 n=25

800
750 758
700
650
700
577
550
500
450
400
PreTOEO PreTOEO
Improvements of Each Level (Pre vs. Post Speaking Test)
UP and DOWN
–1 ±0 +1 +2
Advanced Low 1 – –
Intermediate High 3 –
Intermediate Mid(3) 1
Intermediate Mid(2) 4 3
Intermediate Mid(1) 1
Intermediate Low 1 7 1
Novice High 1 2
Number
My students 25 +6 +24.0%
Other Univ.
Junior Colleges 14 +1 +7.1%
Evaluation Sheet for Presentation
Preparation 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
Clarity 5 4 3 2 1
Content 5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
5 4 3 2 1
Eye Contact 5 4 3 2 1
Enthusiasm 5 4 3 2 1
Persuasiveness 5 4 3 2 1
Total score: 50 points
Holistic Assessment:
11 APPROACHES TO EVALUATION
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter examines the following aspects of approaches to evaluation:
• The focus of evaluation • Process-focused evaluation

• Audience for evaluation • Descriptive evaluation
• Quantitative and qualitative approaches • 9LÅLJ[P]LL]HS\H[PVU
• Product-focused evaluation • 0TWSLTLU[PUNYLÅLJ[P]LL]HS\H[PVU
• Formative and summative evaluation
Case study 19 Evaluating an in-service program for English language teachers .LVќYL`*YL^LZ
Case study 20 Evaluating the content of an EAP program 1VUH[OHU5L^[VU
Case study 21 Evaluating an English course for tertiary-level learners +H]PK*YHIIL
Introduction
We have discussed two ways of thinking about curriculum in this book. One is the dominant
philosophy in educational planning that considers curriculum as a set of processes to develop
LѝJPLU[HUKLќLJ[P]L^H`ZVMHJOPL]PUNKLÄULKSLHYUPUNV\[JVTLZ;OLYPNVY^P[OÔPJOJ\YYPJ\S\T
development is carried out – drawing on procedures that include needs analysis, planning learning
V\[JVTLZKLZPNUPUNHJV\YZLHUKZ`SSHI\ZMYHTL^VYRHUK\ZPUNLќLJ[P]LTL[OVKZVM[LHJOPUNHUK
learning – will determine the success of the outcomes. Curriculum processes are seen as ways of
bringing order, control, and direction into language teaching and language course design. From this
perspective, evaluation is viewed as essential to maintaining the quality and success of a language
WYVNYHT(Z2PLS`JVTTLU[Z !¸BWYVNYHTL]HS\H[PVUDPZHIV\[LќLJ[P]LULZZHUK[YHKP[PVUHSS`
the answer has been sought in terms of test results, a language learning theory, or a particular
syllabus.”
The alternative understanding of curriculum that we discussed in Chapters 1 and 9 focuses more on
[OL]HS\LZ[OH[[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TYLÅLJ[ZHUKOV^[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TPZYLHSPaLK[OYV\NO[OLWYVJLK\YLZHUK
HJ[P]P[PLZVM[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN-YVT[OPZWLYZWLJ[P]LL]HS\H[PVUOHZ]LY`KPќLYLU[NVHSZ0[ZNVHS
is exploration and understanding.
>L ^PSS JVUZPKLY IV[O HWWYVHJOLZ [V L]HS\H[PVU PU [OPZ JOHW[LY HUK JOHYHJ[LYPaL LќLJ[P]LULZZ
oriented evaluation as WYVK\J[MVJ\ZLKL]HS\H[PVU, and the alternative approach as WYVJLZZMVJ\ZLK
L]HS\H[PVU. However, before comparing these two approaches, it is necessary to clarify some basic
issues that arise in planning an evaluation.
What kinds of evaluations are conducted in your institution? What are their main purposes?
277
11.1 The focus of evaluation

,]HS\H[PVUTH`MVJ\ZVUTHU`KPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVMHSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTPUJS\KPUN[OLMVSSV^PUN!
• ;OLV\[JVTLZ! to discover what gains in performance the students achieved.
• *\YYPJ\S\TKLZPNU![VHZZLZZ[OLX\HSP[`VMWYVNYHTWSHUUPUNHUKVYNHUPaH[PVU
• ;OLVYL[PJHS\UKLYWPUUPUNZ![VÄUKV\[PM[OL`YLÅLJ[J\YYLU[\UKLYZ[HUKPUNZVMZLJVUKSHUN\HNL
acquisition.
• ;OLZ`SSHI\ZHUKWYVNYHTJVU[LU[!to determine how relevant and engaging it is, how easy or
KPѝJ\S[HUKOV^Z\JJLZZM\S[LZ[ZHUKHZZLZZTLU[WYVJLK\YLZ^LYL
• ;LHJOPUNTL[OVKZ!to provide insights about the extent to which the methods were suitable and
were implemented appropriately.
• 4H[LYPHSZVMPUZ[Y\J[PVU![VÄUKV\[PM[OL[LHJOPUNTH[LYPHSZHUKYLZV\YJLZHYLYLSL]HU[H[[OL
right level, and well designed.
• <ZLVMYLZV\YJLZ! how textbooks and technology are used.
• ;OL[LHJOLYZ!to learn how well they conducted their teaching and what their perceptions are of
the program.
• *SHZZYVVTSHUN\HNL! the nature of the language that is used by teachers and students.
• ;LHJOLY[YHPUPUN!to assess whether the training teachers have received is adequate for the program.
• ;OLPUZ[P[\[PVU! to assess to what extent the culture and practices of the institution facilitate
Z\JJLZZM\SJ\YYPJ\S\TPTWSLTLU[H[PVU"[VHZZLZZ[OLL_[LU[[VÔPJO[OLPUZ[P[\[PVUYLÅLJ[Z
standards of best practice. (See Appendix 1 for a statement of best practice at the
institutional level.)
• ;OLZ[\KLU[Z![VÄUKV\[ÔH[[OL`SLHYULKMYVT[OLWYVNYHT[OLPYWLYJLW[PVUZVMP[HUKOV^
they participated in it.
• 4VUP[VYPUNVMW\WPSWYVNYLZZ!to identify any problems that students encountered during the
program.
Choose one item from the list above? How could you collect information needed to explore
this issue?
/V^L]LYHZ2PLS`HUK9LH+PJRPUZLTWOHZPaL [OLNVHSZVML]HS\H[PVUHYL[VSLHYU from

the information gathered during an evaluation and to put it to good use: evaluation should provide
[OL IHZPZ MVY ¸KLJPZPVUTHRPUN HJ[PVU HUK HJ[\HS \[PSPaH[PVU¹ *YP[PJHS X\LZ[PVUZ [OH[ ULLK [V IL
answered include what can be learned from an evaluation? What are the implications for practice?
What decisions and recommendations can be made? Who will be responsible for recommended
actions, and what will be the impact of any changes made?
In evaluating a curriculum, a number of questions can be asked of the curriculum as a whole. For
example:
• +VLZ[OLYHUNLVMJV\YZLZVќLYLKJVYYLZWVUK[V[OLULLKZVMSLHYULYZ&
• Is the curriculum coherent, and do the courses represent a rational approach to achieving the
institution’s mission?
• Have courses been developed based on sound educational principles, with due attention given
[VYLJVNUPaLKJ\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWTLU[WYVJLZZLZ&
11 Approaches to evaluation • 279
• Have course descriptions been developed, including aims, goals, syllabuses, learning outcomes,
HUKJV\YZLVYNHUPaH[PVU&
• Are teaching materials and tests of high quality, have they been carefully selected or developed,
and are they regularly reviewed and revised?
• Are mechanisms in place to monitor the quality of teaching and learning?
• Is the curriculum subject to ongoing review and renewal? Is there ongoing interest in identifying
strengths and weaknesses and bringing about improvements in all aspects of the curriculum?
Monitoring the quality of teachers in a program is also often central to curriculum evaluation and
involves a number of issues. These include KL[LYTPUPUN [OL W\YWVZL VM HWWYHPZHS (e.g., to reward
teachers for good performance, to help identify needs for further training, to reinforce the need for
JVU[PU\V\ZZ[HќKL]LSVWTLU[[VOLSWPTWYV]L[LHJOPUN[VWYV]PKLHIHZPZMVYJVU[YHJ[YLUL^HSHUK
promotion, or to demonstrate an interest in teachers’ performance and development). Other important
aspects of monitoring involve KLJPKPUNVU[OLMVJ\ZVMHWWYHPZHS (e.g., lesson plans, teaching skills,
use of resources such as textbooks and technology, teacher discourse, teacher-made classroom
materials, course outlines and handouts, class assignments, as well as participation in professional
development activities) and OV^[OLHWWYHPZHS^PSSILJVUK\J[LK(e.g., appraisal by a supervisor or
colleague; self-appraisal using lesson reports, a teaching journal, audio/video recordings of lessons
or through the use of student appraisal).
11.2 Audience for evaluation

;OLYL HYL THU` KPќLYLU[ SL]LSZ VM PU]VS]LTLU[ PU SHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN WYVNYHTZ HUK [OPZ JYLH[LZ
KPќLYLU[RPUKZVMH\KPLUJLZMVYL]HS\H[PVU-VYL_HTWSLPUKL]LSVWPUNHUL^[L_[IVVRZLYPLZMVYW\ISPJ
ZJOVVSZM\UKLKI`[OLTPUPZ[Y`VMLK\JH[PVUVѝJLYZPU[OLTPUPZ[Y`ÔVTHÙV[ILZWLJPHSPZ[ZPU
language teaching) might be primarily interested in how the money provided for the project is spent
and whether all components of the project (student books, teacher guides, and workbooks) are
H]HPSHISLPUZJOVVSZI`HZWLJPÄJKH[L;LHJOLYZ[LHJOPUN[OLTH[LYPHSZTPNO[ILWYPTHYPS`JVUJLYULK
[OH[ [OL IVVRZ WYV]PKL Z\ѝJPLU[ TH[LYPHS MVY HSS [OL JSHZZLZ VU [OL ZJOVVS [PTL[HISL (U V\[ZPKL
consultant might be interested in the design of the materials and the kind of classroom interaction
and language practice they provide for. Vocational training centers might be interested in whether
the course prepares school leavers for vocational training programs conducted in English. Therefore,
L]HS\H[PVUOHZ[VZH[PZM`HSSPU[LYLZ[LKWHY[PLZ;OLX\LZ[PVUZ[OH[KPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZHZR^PSSHSZV
KPќLYHUKTH`PUJS\KL[OLMVSSV^PUN!
:[\KLU[Z!
• What did I learn?
• How well did I do compare to others?
• How well will I rate this course?
• How will this help me in the future?
• Do I need another course?
;LHJOLYZ!
• How well did I teach?
• What did my students learn?
• >LYLT`Z[\KLU[ZZH[PZÄLK^P[O[OLJV\YZL&
• How useful were the materials and course work?

• /V^LќLJ[P]L^HZ[OLJV\YZLVYNHUPaH[PVU&
*\YYPJ\S\TKL]LSVWLYZ!
• Is the design of the course and materials appropriate?
• What aspects of the course need replacing or revising?
• Do teachers and students respond favorably to the course?
• Do teachers need additional support with the course?
(KTPUPZ[YH[VYZ!
• Was the time frame of the course appropriate?
• Were the management and monitoring of the course successful in identifying and rectifying
problems?
• Were clients’ expectations met?
• Were testing and assessment procedures adequate?
• Were resources made use of?
:WVUZVYZ!
• >HZ[OLJVZ[VM[OLJV\YZLQ\Z[PÄLK&
• Did the course deliver what was promised?
• Was the course well managed?
• Is the reporting of the course adequate?
Can you suggest other questions an evaluation may seek to answer?
As we see above, two types of participants are typically involved in evaluation, and these may be
considered PUZPKLYZ and V\[ZPKLYZ. Insiders refers to teachers, students, and anyone else closely
involved in the development and implementation of the program. For example, formative evaluation,
discussed below, is often carried out by teachers who can monitor a course as it develops to check
[OLL_[LU[[VÔPJOP[PZ^VYRPUNÔH[KPѝJ\S[PLZHYLLUJV\U[LYLKOV^LќLJ[P]L[OLTH[LYPHSZHYL
HUK ÔH[ TVKPÄJH[PVUZ ^V\SK LUZ\YL [OL ZTVV[O Y\UUPUN VM [OL WYVNYHT :[\KLU[Z HYL VM[LU RL`
participants in the summative evaluation (discussed below) of the program, providing evidence of their
NHPUZPUSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`HUKJVTWSL[PUNL]HS\H[PVUZVU[OL^H`[OLWYVNYHT^HZ[H\NO[HUK[OL
relevance of what they have learned to their needs. The involvement of key insiders in the process of
designing and carrying out the evaluation is often an important factor in the success of the evaluation
because, as a consequence, they will have a greater degree of commitment to acting on its results.
(UL_HTWSLVMHU¸PUZPKLY¹WLYZWLJ[P]LVUHJV\YZLPZNP]LUPU/HYK`ÔV\ZLKHULUKVM
course questionnaire to obtain students’ feedback on a course for adults with the following questions:
1. What did you like about this course?

2. What did you not like about it?
3. Are there any activities or skills you think we should have spent more time on?
4. Are there any activities or skills you think we should have spent less time on?
5. In which area(s) do you feel that you made the most progress?
6. Was the total number of hour per day __ too few? __ just right? __ too many?
7. Was the amount of homework __ not enough? __ just right __? __ too much?
8. Other comments/ suggestions?
Do you think open-ended questions such as those above are preferable to providing choices
for the students to check for each question?
Outsiders refers to those other participants who are not involved in the program itself, and who may
be asked to give an objective view of aspects of the program. They may be consultants, supervisors,
or administrators whose job it is to supplement the teachers’ perceptions of what happened in a
course with independent observation and opinion.
11.3 Quantitative and qualitative approaches

;^VKPќLYLU[RPUKZVMPUMVYTH[PVUHYLPU]VS]LKPUL]HS\H[PVU¶X\HU[P[H[P]L and X\HSP[H[P]L. Quantitative
measurement refers to the measurement of something that can be expressed numerically. Many
tests are designed to collect information that can be readily counted and presented in terms of
frequencies, rankings, or percentages. Other sources of quantitative information are checklists,
surveys, and self-ratings. Quantitative data seek to collect information from a large number of people
VUZWLJPÄJ[VWPJZHUKJHUNLULYHSSÌLHUHSàLKZ[H[PZ[PJHSS`ZV[OH[JLY[HPUWH[[LYUZHUK[LUKLUJPLZ
LTLYNL;OLPUMVYTH[PVUJVSSLJ[LKJHUILHUHSàLKMHPYS`ZPTWSÌLJH\ZLZ\IQLJ[P]LKLJPZPVUZHYLUV[
\Z\HSS`PU]VS]LK;YHKP[PVUHSS`X\HU[P[H[P]LKH[HHYLYLNHYKLKHZ¸YPNVYV\Z¹VYJVUMVYTPUN[VZJPLU[PÄJ
WYPUJPWSLZ VM KH[H JVSSLJ[PVU [OV\NO [OL SPTP[H[PVUZ VM X\HU[P[H[P]L PUMVYTH[PVU HYL HSZV YLJVNUPaLK"
hence the need to complement such information with qualitative information.
Qualitative measurement, on the other hand, refers to measurement of something that cannot be
expressed numerically and that depends more on subjective judgment or observation. Information
obtained from classroom observation, interviews, journals, logs, and case studies is generally qualitative.
Qualitative approaches are more holistic and naturalistic than quantitative approaches and seek to collect
information in natural settings for language use and on authentic tasks rather than in test situations.
They are normally more exploratory and seek to collect a large amount of information from a fairly small
U\TILYVMJHZLZ;OLPUMVYTH[PVUVI[HPULKPZTVYLKPѝJ\S[[VHUHSàLILJH\ZLP[PZVM[LUVWLULUKLK
and must be coded or interpreted. Qualitative data are sometimes regarded as “soft” or less rigorous
than quantitative data, but such information is essential in many stages of program evaluation.
In language program evaluation, both quantitative and qualitative approaches to collecting information
HYLVM[LU\ZLKILJH\ZL[OL`ZLY]LKPќLYLU[W\YWVZLZHUKJHUJVTWSLTLU[LHJOV[OLY-VYL_HTWSL
in assessing students’ achievement at the end of a course on spoken English, the following
procedures might be used:
• 7LYMVYTHUJLVUHUVYHSWYVÄJPLUJ`[LZ[X\HU[P[H[P]L
• Observation of students’ performance on classroom tasks with evaluation using a holistic rating
scale (qualitative).
• Students’ self-assessment of improvement in their speaking skills (qualitative).
Do you think open-ended questions such as those above are preferable to providing choices
for the students to check for each question?
11.4 Product-focused evaluation

;^VTHQVYW\YWVZLZMVYSHUN\HNLWYVNYHTL]HS\H[PVUHYL\Z\HSS`PKLU[PÄLKPUYLSH[PVU[VJ\YYPJ\S\T
as product: program HJJV\U[HIPSP[` and program KL]LSVWTLU[. Accountability refers to the extent
to which those involved in a program are answerable for the quality of their work. Accountability-
VYPLU[LKL]HS\H[PVU\Z\HSS`L_HTPULZ[OLLќLJ[ZVMHWYVNYHTVYWYVQLJ[H[ZPNUPÄJHU[LUKWVPU[ZVMHU
LK\JH[PVUHSJ`JSLHUKPZ\Z\HSS`JVUK\J[LKMVY[OLILULÄ[VMHUL_[LYUHSH\KPLUJLVYKLJPZPVUTHRLY
Development-oriented evaluation, by contrast, is designed to improve the quality of a program as it
PZILPUNPTWSLTLU[LK0[TH`PU]VS]LZ[HќÔVHYLWHY[PJPWH[PUNPU[OLWYVNYHTHZ^LSSHZV[OLYZÔV
HYLUV[HUKTHÒH]LH[LHJOLYKL]LSVWTLU[MVJ\Z>LPYHUK9VILY[Z
Weir and Roberts (1994, 42) describe a view of evaluation typical of a product-focused orientation
JOHYHJ[LYPaLKI`!
• a need for both insider and outsider commitment and involvement to ensure adequate evaluation;
• a central interest in improvement, as well as the demonstration of the “product value” of a
program or project or their components;
• an associated commitment to a deeper professional understanding of the processes of
educational change, as well as the results of that change;
• systematic documentation for evaluation purposes both during implementation and at the
beginning and end of a program or project’s life;
• a willingness to embrace both qualitative and quantitative methodology appropriate to the
purpose of the evaluation and the context under review.
From this perspective, evaluation is an aspect of quality assurance and involves making measurements
HUKJVTWHYPZVUZ^P[OÄUKPUNV\[OV^^LSS[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TZLY]LZP[ZZ[HRLOVSKLYZHUKHJOPL]LZP[Z
V\[JVTLZ2L`^VYKZPU[OPZWYVJLZZHYLLќLJ[P]LULZZHUKLѝJPLUJ`HZQ\KNLKI`L_[LYUHSNVHSZHUK
standards. Relevant questions have to do with end–means relations. Following Tyler (1949), from this
perspective evaluation seeks to answer the following questions:
• How successful was the curriculum in achieving its learning outcomes?
• Was it based on a correct understanding of language and language learning?
• What did students learn?
• How well did the syllabus, the materials, teaching resources, and tests work?
• What was the quality of teaching and how did it contribute to the course outcomes?
• /V^ZH[PZÄLK^LYLKPќLYLU[Z[HRLOVSKLYZLN[LHJOLYZHKTPUPZ[YH[VYZZ[\KLU[ZWHYLU[Z
employers)?
• Does the curriculum compare favorably with others of its kind?
• How could it be improved?
(UZ^LYPUN [OLZL X\LZ[PVUZ PU]VS]LZ JVSSLJ[PUN PUMVYTH[PVU HIV\[ KPќLYLU[ HZWLJ[Z VM H SHUN\HNL
WYVNYHTPUVYKLY[V\UKLYZ[HUKOV^[OLWYVNYHT^VYRZHUKOV^Z\JJLZZM\SS`LUHISPUNKPќLYLU[RPUKZ
of decisions to be made about the program, such as whether the program responds to learners’ needs,
whether further teacher training is required for teachers working in the program, or whether students are
SLHYUPUNZ\ѝJPLU[S`MYVTP[(VRPUV[LK[OH[[OPZHWWYVHJO[VL]HS\H[PVUPZIHZLKVUZL]LYHSHZZ\TW[PVUZ!
• The most valuable form of knowledge is based on empirical evidence.
• Empirical data is valued more highly than other forms of data, and the “harder” they are, the better.
• .LULYHSPaHIPSP[`ZOV\SKILWVZZPISLMYVT[OLKH[H
• :JPLU[PÄJRUV^SLKNLPZVIQLJ[P]LUL\[YHSHUKMYLLMYVT]HS\LZ
• ;OLHPTPZ[VYLTV]L[OLPUÅ\LUJLVMO\THUZ\IQLJ[P]P[`
With the global spread of English and the substantial investment required to achieve goals for national
education in most countries, curriculum evaluation has become of increasing interest to governments,
educators, and curriculum planners. Funding for national curriculum projects in many parts of the
world is often linked to a requirement to provide evaluation reports that demonstrate accountability,
that help guide improvement of ongoing projects, and that document what happens in curriculum
projects. Increasingly, schools, program administrators, and teachers have had to be accountable
for the funds they received or for the programs they have been responsible for, and this has created
the need for an understanding of the nature of curriculum evaluation. The scope of evaluation has
moved from a concern with test results to the need to collect information and make judgments about
all aspects of the curriculum, from planning to implementation (Hewings and Dudley-Evans 1996).
11.5 Formative and summative evaluation

Two major types of product-centered evaluation can be distinguished, and these are known as
MVYTH[P]L and Z\TTH[P]L L]HS\H[PVU. Formative evaluation is carried out as part of the process of
WYVNYHTKL]LSVWTLU[PUVYKLY[VÄUKV\[ÔH[PZ^VYRPUN^LSSÔH[PZUV[HUKÔH[JHUILKVUL[V
ensure successful achievement of outcomes. It focuses on ongoing development and improvement
of the program. Typical issues that relate to formative evaluation include the following:
• +PZ[YPI\[PVUVM[PTLVUKPќLYLU[J\YYPJ\S\TVIQLJ[P]LZ
• Placement of students at an appropriate level.
• Suitability of the textbook and teaching resources.
• Appropriateness of use of materials and technology.
• Appropriateness of teaching methods and procedures.
• Quality of language used by students.
• +PѝJ\S[PLZL_WLYPLUJLKI`Z[\KLU[Z
• Students’ level of engagement with the course.
• Balance between exercises and tasks.
• Pacing of the course.
• Suitability of ongoing assessment procedures.
Information collected during formative evaluation is used to address problems that have been
PKLU[PÄLKHUK[VPTWYV]L[OLKLSP]LY`VM[OLWYVNYHTHZ^LZLLPU[OLMVSSV^PUNL_HTWSLZ
,_HTWSL! During the implementation of a new primary course in an EFL context, it is found that rather than
using the task-oriented communicative methodology that provides the framework for the course, a number
of teachers are resorting to a teacher-dominated drill and practice mode of teaching that is not in harmony
with the course philosophy. In order to address this problem, a series of Saturday morning workshops are
held to identify the kinds of problems teachers are having with the materials. Videos are used to model more
appropriate teaching strategies, and teachers agree to attempt to implement in their classrooms some of the
techniques they have seen demonstrated and to report back on their experiences at subsequent workshops.
,_HTWSL! A few weeks after a course on integrated skills has started, it is found that there are
KPќLYLU[WLYJLW[PVUZVMÔH[[OLWYPVYP[PLZPU[OLJV\YZLHYL;LHJOLYZHYLZWLUKPUN]LY`KPќLYLU[
HTV\U[ZVM[PTLVUKPќLYLU[JVTWVULU[ZVM[OLJV\YZLHUKHYLLTWOHZPaPUNKPќLYLU[[OPUNZ(
series of meetings are held to review teachers’ understanding of the course objectives and to further
JSHYPM`[OL^LPNO[PUN[OH[ZOV\SKILNP]LU[VKPќLYLU[JV\YZLJVTWVULU[Z7LLYVIZLY]H[PVUPZ[OLU
suggested as a way for teachers to compare teaching styles and priorities and to enable them to
achieve a consensus concerning teaching practices.
,_HTWSL! A ten-week course on spoken English has been started for a group of low-level learners.
Pronunciation is not a major element of the course, because it is assumed that most pronunciation
problems will sort themselves out after a few weeks. However, four weeks after the course has
commenced, teachers report that a number of students have persistent and major pronunciation
problems that the course is not addressing. It is decided to refocus one section of the course to
include a pronunciation component. Individual diagnostic sessions are held with students who have
the most serious pronunciation problems, and laboratory work as well as classroom time is allotted to
systematic pronunciation work for the remainder of the course.
The other aspect of a product-focused or ends–means approach to evaluation is Z\TTH[P]L

L]HS\H[PVU:\TTH[P]LL]HS\H[PVUPZJVUJLYULK^P[OKL[LYTPUPUN[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMHWYVNYHTP[Z
LѝJPLUJ`HUKP[ZPTWHJ[HUK[HRLZWSHJLHM[LYHWYVNYHTOHZILLUPTWSLTLU[LK)LSV^HYLZVTL
of the issues that could be addressed:
• ;OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMHJV\YZLHZYLÅLJ[LKPUP[ZYLZ\S[ZVYV\[JVTLZ
• Adequacy of program objectives.
• Adequacy of course design and syllabus.
• ,ќLJ[P]LULZZVMTH[LYPHSZYLZV\YJLZHUK[LZ[Z
• :\P[HIPSP[`HUKLќLJ[P]LULZZVM[LHJOPUNTL[OVKZ
• Perceptions of students and teachers on the course.
• Reports of problems experienced during the course.
0U VYKLY [V KLJPKL PM H JV\YZL PZ LќLJ[P]L JYP[LYPH MVY LќLJ[P]LULZZ ULLK [V IL PKLU[PÄLK ;OLYL HYL
THU` KPќLYLU[ TLHZ\YLZ VM H JV\YZL»Z LќLJ[P]LULZZ HUK LHJO TLHZ\YL JHU IL \ZLK MVY KPќLYLU[
purposes. For example:
4HZ[LY`VMVIQLJ[P]LZ6UL^H`VMTLHZ\YPUN[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMHJV\YZLPZ[VHZR¸/V^MHYOH]L
the objectives been achieved?” Each objective or learning outcome in the course is examined, and
criteria for successful achievement of each objective are chosen. In a course on speaking skills,
for example, an objective might be: 0UNYV\WKPZJ\ZZPVUZZ[\KLU[Z^PSSSPZ[LU[VHUKYLZWVUK[V[OL
VWPUPVUZVMV[OLYZPU[OLPYNYV\WThe extent to which the students have mastered this objective at the
end of the course can be assessed by the teacher’s observing students during group discussions and
recording on a scale the extent to which they listen and respond to opinions. If students’ performance
VU [OPZ VIQLJ[P]L PZ WVVY YLHZVUZ ^V\SK OH]L [V IL PKLU[PÄLK 7LYOHWZ MVY L_HTWSL PUZ\ѝJPLU[
opportunities were provided in the course for students to practice this task, or perhaps the materials
YLSH[PUN[V[OPZVIQLJ[P]L^LYL[VVKPѝJ\S[VYUV[Z\ѝJPLU[S`PU[LYLZ[PUN
/V^L]LY THZ[LY` VM VIQLJ[P]LZ KVLZ UV[ WYV]PKL H M\SS WPJ[\YL VM [OL LќLJ[P]LULZZ VM H JV\YZL
6IQLJ[P]LZJHUILHJOPL]LKKLZWP[LKLMLJ[ZPUHJV\YZL:[\KLU[ZTHÒH]LYLHSPaLK[OH[[OL[LHJOPUN
VYTH[LYPHSZ^LYLWVVYVYPUZ\ѝJPLU[HUKZVZWLU[HSV[VML_[YH[PTLPUWYP]H[LZ[\K`VYVU[OL0U[LYUL[
11 Approaches to evaluation •
to compensate for it. Or perhaps mastery of an objective was achieved, but the same objective could
have been covered in half the amount of time devoted to it. Or the program might have achieved its
learning outcomes, but students have a very negative perception of it because it was not stimulating
or the pacing was inappropriate.
7LYMVYTHUJL VU [LZ[Z Apart from the relatively informal way of assessing mastery of objectives,
formal tests are probably the commonest means used to measure achievement. Such tests might
IL\UP[[LZ[ZNP]LUH[[OLLUKVMLHJO\UP[VM[LHJOPUNTH[LYPHSZJSHZZ[LZ[ZVYX\PaaLZKL]PZLKI`
teachers and administered at various stages throughout the course, or formal exit tests designed
to measure the extent to which objectives have been achieved. Achievement tests can have an
PTWVY[HU[^HZOIHJRLќLJ[VU[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN;OL`JHUPUÅ\LUJLKLJPZPVUTHRPUNVUJOHUNLZ
needed to a program, such as which objectives require more attention or revision. Brindley (1989b,
43) reports, however, that in programs he studied in Australia, teachers preferred to rely on informal
methods of ongoing assessment rather than formal exit tests, but that this sometimes meant that
teachers’ preferences for informal measures of assessment clashed with the requirements of the
institution:
This [approach] does not seem to be sufficiently explicit to meet the expectations and require-
ments of either administrators or learners for more formal information on learners’ achieve-
ment of a course or a unit … The informal methods of ongoing assessment provided by
teachers do not provide the kind of explicit information on achievement required by learners
and administrators.
+PќLYLU[ [`WLZ VM [LZ[Z HYL JVTTVUS` \ZLK [V TLHZ\YL JOHUNLZ PU SLHYUPUN H[ [OL LUK VY H[
intermediate stages) of a course. Examples include the following:
• Institutionally or teacher-prepared tests, such as exit tests, designed to measure what students
have learned in the course.
• 0U[LYUH[PVUHS[LZ[ZZ\JOHZ;6,-30,3;:VYH*HTIYPKNLWYVÄJPLUJ`[LZ[PM[OLZLHYLYLSH[LK[V
the course aims and content.
• Textbook tests such as those provided in teachers’ manuals or as part of a commercial course.
• Student records, such as information collected throughout the course on course work or
JVU[PU\V\ZHZZLZZTLU[;OPZPUMVYTH[PVUTHÌL\ZLK[VHYYP]LH[HÄUHSZJVYLVYNYHKLMVYH
Z[\KLU[^P[OV\[\ZPUNHÄUHS[LZ[
Tests can provide a direct measure of achievement, particularly if they are based on student
performance, that is, they are criterion-referenced. However, it is not always easy to be sure whether
changes in learning as measured by tests are a direct result of teaching or are linked to other factors.
4LHZ\YLZVMHJJLW[HIPSP[À course might lead to satisfactory achievement of its objectives and good
levels of performance on exit tests yet still be rated negatively by teachers or students. Alternatively,
if everyone liked a course and spoke enthusiastically of it, could this be more important than the fact
that half the students failed to reach the objectives? Acceptability can be determined by assessments
of teachers and students. Reasons for a course being considered acceptable or unacceptable might
YLSH[L[VZ\JOMHJ[VYZHZ[PTL[HISPUNJSHZZZPaLJOVPJLVMTH[LYPHSZVY[LHJOLYZ»[LHJOPUNZ[`SLZ
9L[LU[PVU YH[L VY YLLUYVSSTLU[ YH[L ( TLHZ\YL VM H JV\YZL»Z LќLJ[P]LULZZ [OH[ TH` IL PTWVY[HU[
from an institution’s point of view is the extent to which students continue in the course throughout
its duration and the percentage of students who reenroll for another course at the end. If there is a
ZPNUPÄJHU[KYVWV\[YH[LPZ[OPZ[Y\LVMV[OLYJV\YZLZPU[OLPUZ[P[\[PVUHUK[OLJVTT\UP[`VYPZP[H
factor of a given course only?
,ѝJPLUJ`VM[OLJV\YZLAnother measure of the success of a course is how straightforward the course

^HZ[VKL]LSVWHUKPTWSLTLU[;OPZTHÌLHYLÅLJ[PVUVM[OLU\TILYVMWYVISLTZ[OH[VJJ\YYLKK\YPUN
[OLJV\YZL[OL[PTLZWLU[VUWSHUUPUNHUKJV\YZLKL]LSVWTLU[[OLULLKMVYZWLJPHSPaLKTH[LYPHSZHUK
teacher training, and the amount of time needed for consultations and meetings.
/V^PZ[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMJV\YZLZPU`V\YPUZ[P[\[PVUKL[LYTPULK&
11.6 The importance of documentation

The more documentation that is available about a course, the easier it is to arrive at decisions about
it. Relevant documentation includes the following:
*V\YZLZ[H[PZ[PJZ!information on why students chose the course, student numbers, attendance,

JSHZZZPaLKYVWV\[Z\ZLVMMHJPSP[PLZZ\JOHZSPIYHY`VYZLSMHJJLZZJLU[LY;OPZRPUKVMPUMVYTH[PVU
provides an overview of the nature of the course and its mode of operation and may reveal
certain patterns or problems.
9LSL]HU[JV\YZLKVJ\TLU[Z!compilation of all relevant documentation about the course, such as

descriptions, publicity materials, statements of aims, objectives and syllabus, course materials,
teaching guides, newsletters, newspaper articles, reports of planning meetings.
*V\YZL^VYR!examples of tests, class assignments, students’ work.
>YP[[LU JVTTLU[Z! anything that has been written about the course by external assessors,
teachers, learners, managers.
0UZ[P[\[PVUHSKVJ\TLU[Z!anything that is available about the school or institution, hiring policy, job
descriptions, needs analyses that have been conducted, reports of previous courses.
*V\YZLYL]PL^Z!a written account of a course, prepared by the teacher or teachers who taught
[OLJV\YZL;OPZZOV\SKILIV[OKLZJYPW[P]LHUKYLÅLJ[P]L0[ZOV\SKILHUHJJV\U[VMOV^[OL
course progressed, what problems occurred, the perceived strengths and weaknesses of the
course, and suggestions for the future. A well-written review is a useful resource for others who
will teach the course and also provides a record of the course, but more often than not the need
for and the value of such reviews are overlooked. As Weir and Roberts (1994, 12) comment:
“One shudders to think how many times the wheel has been reinvented in ELT programs and
projects around the world. Where is the collective memory of decades of projects? Where does
one go to learn from the mistakes and successes of similar projects in the past?”
11.7 Evaluating the evaluation

;OLW\YWVZLVML]HS\H[PVUPZ[VWYVTV[LYL]PL^YLÅLJ[PVUHUKYL]PZPVUVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TIHZLKVU
JHYLM\S JVTWPSH[PVU VM PUMVYTH[PVU MYVT H ]HYPL[` VM KPќLYLU[ ZV\YJLZ 0U VYKLY [V THRL KLJPZPVUZ
IHZLKVU[OLL]HS\H[PVUP[PZÄYZ[ULJLZZHY`[VYL]PL^[OLWYVJLZZVML]HS\H[PVU[VLUZ\YL[OH[[OL
evaluation was adequately designed. Questions related to the following aspects of design will help in
determining whether the evaluation process is satisfactory:
• :JVWL!+VLZ[OLYHUNLVMPUMVYTH[PVUJVSSLJ[LKPUJS\KLHSS[OLZPNUPÄJHU[HZWLJ[ZVM[OLWYVNYHT
being evaluated?
• (\KPLUJL!Does the information collected adequately serve the needs of all the intended
audiences?
• 9LSPHIPSP[`!/HZ[OLPUMVYTH[PVUILLUJVSSLJ[LKPUZ\JOH^H`[OH[[OLZHTLÄUKPUNZ^V\SKIL
obtained by others?
• 6IQLJ[P]P[`!Have attempts been made to make sure that there is no bias in the collecting and
processing of information?
• 9LWYLZLU[H[P]LULZZ!Does the information collected accurately describe the program?
• ;PTLSPULZZ!Is the information provided timely enough to be of use to the audiences for the
evaluation?
• ,[OPJHSJVUZPKLYH[PVUZ!Does the evaluation follow accepted ethical standards, e.g., such that
JVUÄKLU[PHSP[`VMPUMVYTH[PVUPZN\HYHU[LLKHUKPUMVYTH[PVUVI[HPULKPUHWYVMLZZPVUHSHUK
acceptable manner?
Once it has been determined that the evaluation meets acceptable standards of adequacy, it is
necessary to decide how to make use of the information obtained. The processes involved normally
PUJS\KL H YL]PL^ VM HSS PUMVYTH[PVU [OH[ ^HZ JVSSLJ[LK KPZZLTPUH[PUN ÄUKPUNZ [V YLSL]HU[ WHY[PLZ
KLJPKPUN VU ÔH[ JOHUNLZ TH` ULLK [V IL THKL PKLU[PM`PUN JVZ[Z HUK ILULÄ[Z VM WYVWVZLK
changes, developing a plan for the implementation of changes, identifying those responsible for
[HRPUNMVSSV^\WHJ[PVUHUKLZ[HISPZOPUNWYVJLK\YLZMVYYL]PL^VM[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVMJOHUNLZ
The kinds of changes that might be needed are numerous. For example, the revision or replacement of some
of the course objectives might be required. Sometimes the decision is made to prepare supplementary
materials to complement the textbook or to select a new textbook to replace the book currently being
used. In some cases replacement of some of the face-to-face components of the course with online
delivery might be needed, or perhaps the syllabus itself needs to be rewritten so that the sequence of
skills taught within a course is reordered. Other changes could include the revision or replacement of tests,
[OLVYNHUPaH[PVUVMPUZLY]PJL[YHPUPUNMVY[LHJOLYZVYZLTPUHYZMVYZ[Hќ[VZOHYL[LHJOPUNL_WLYPLUJLZ[OL
development of a peer review process for teachers or of a materials writing project.
/HZ`V\YPUZ[P[\[PVU\UKLYNVULZPNUPÄJHU[JOHUNLZPU[OLUH[\YLVMP[ZWYVNYHTZPUJV\YZLZ&
If so, what kind of information led to these changes?
11.8 Procedures used in conducting evaluations

Many of the procedures used in conducting evaluation are similar to those described elsewhere in this
IVVR[OV\NO[OLPYW\YWVZLZTHÌLKPќLYLU[*OHW[LYVUULLKZHUHS`ZPZMVYL_HTWSLKPZJ\ZZLZ
a number of the procedures mentioned here from the perspective of needs analysis. Here we will
consider their role in evaluation and possible advantages or limitations of each procedure.
Tests
+PќLYLU[ [`WLZ VM [LZ[Z JHU IL \ZLK [V TLHZ\YLJOHUNLZPUSLHYUPUNH[[OLLUKVYH[PU[LYTLKPH[L
stages) of a course. These tests may be:
• institutionally prepared tests such as exit tests designed to measure what students have learned
in the course;
• PU[LYUH[PVUHS[LZ[ZZ\JOHZ;6,-30,3;:VYH*HTIYPKNLWYVÄJPLUJ`[LZ[PM[OLZLHYLYLSH[LK[V
the course aims and content;
• textbook tests such as those provided in teachers’ manuals or as part of a commercial course;
• student records, such as information collected throughout the course based on coursework or
JVU[PU\V\ZHZZLZZTLU[;OPZPUMVYTH[PVUTHÌL\ZLK[VHYYP]LH[HÄUHSZJVYLVYNYHKLMVYH
Z[\KLU[^P[OV\[\ZPUNHÄUHS[LZ[
(K]HU[HNLZ! Tests can provide a direct measure of achievement, particularly if they are based on
student performance, that is, they are criterion-referenced.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ! It is not always easy to be sure that changes in learning as measured by tests
are a direct result of teaching or are linked to other factors. And if there is poor performance on
achievement tests, this does not identify the cause of the problem. Is it the teacher, the materials,
the students, or the course? Further investigation is normally needed. Student evaluation should not
ILJVUM\ZLK^P[OJV\YZLL]HS\H[PVU0UHKKP[PVUZV\UK[LZ[Z¶[LZ[Z[OH[YLÅLJ[WYPUJPWSLZVMYLSPHIPSP[`
HUK]HSPKP[`¶HYLKPѝJ\S[[VJVUZ[Y\J[
Comparison of two approaches to a course

;^V KPќLYLU[ ]LYZPVUZ VM H JV\YZL TPNO[ IL [H\NO[ HUK [OL YLZ\S[Z HZ TLHZ\YLK I` Z[\KLU[
HJOPL]LTLU[ JVTWHYLK ;OL JVTWHYH[P]L HWWYVHJO ZLLRZ [V JVTWHYL [OL LќLJ[Z VM [^V VY TVYL
KPќLYLU[[LHJOPUNJVUKP[PVUZ0[TLHZ\YLZ[OLLѝJPLUJ`VM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TI`JVTWHYPUN[OLYLSH[P]L
LќLJ[P]LULZZVM[^VKPќLYLU[^H`ZVM[LHJOPUNP[
(K]HU[HNLZ!The comparative approach seeks to control all relevant factors and to investigate factors
rigorously.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ! ;OPZ HWWYVHJO \Z\HSS` PTWVZLZ HY[PÄJPHS JVUZ[YHPU[Z VU [OL [LHJOLY 6UL [LHJOLY MVY
example, might be required always to give explicit error correction and another to give only indirect error
JVYYLJ[PVU/V^L]LYILJH\ZLVMO\THUMHJ[VYZP[PZ]LY`KPѝJ\S[[VTHPU[HPU[OLZLRPUKZVMKPќLYLUJLZ
It is usually impossible to control all relevant variables and the results are therefore usually inconclusive.
Interviews
Interviews with teachers and students can be used to get their views on any aspect of the course.
Normally, structured interviews provide more useful information than unstructured interviews.
(K]HU[HNLZ!0UKLW[OPUMVYTH[PVUJHUILVI[HPULKVUZWLJPÄJX\LZ[PVUZ
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ!Interviews are very time-consuming and only a sample of teachers or students can
normally be interviewed in depth; hence the representativeness of their views may be questionable.
Questionnaires
These can be used to elicit teachers’ and students’ comments on a wide range of issues.
(K]HU[HNLZ! Questionnaires are easy to administer and information can be obtained from large
numbers of respondents.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ!Questionnaires need to be carefully designed if they are to elicit unbiased answers,
HUK PUMVYTH[PVU TH` IL KPѝJ\S[ [V PU[LYWYL[ -VY L_HTWSL PM Z[\KLU[Z PUKPJH[L [OH[ [OL` MV\UK H
WHY[PJ\SHY\UP[PUHJV\YZLKPѝJ\S[MVSSV^\WPU]LZ[PNH[PVUTHÌLULLKLK[VKL[LYTPULL_HJ[S`Ô`
[OL`WLYJLP]LKP[[VILKPѝJ\S[>HZP[[OL\UP[P[ZLSMVY^HZP[IHKS`[H\NO[&
Teachers’ written evaluations

Teachers can complete a course evaluation using a structured feedback form that elicits comments
on all aspects of the course.
(K]HU[HNLZ!Teachers are in a good position to report on a course, and a well-designed evaluation

MVYTWYV]PKLZPUMVYTH[PVUX\PJRS`PUH^H`[OH[PZLHZ`[VZ\TTHYPaL
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ! The information obtained may be impressionistic and biased, because it presents
only the teacher’s point of view.
Diaries and journals

Teachers can keep an ongoing record of their impressions and experiences of a course. Diaries
provide a narrative record of things the teacher does, problems encountered, critical incidents, time
allocation, and other issues.
(K]HU[HNLZ! Diaries and journals provide relatively detailed and open-ended information and can
capture information that may be missed by other means.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ!0[PZKPѝJ\S[[VKLJPKLOV^[V\ZL[OLPUMVYTH[PVUVI[HPULK+PHYPLZHYLPTWYLZZPVUPZ[PJ
and unsystematic. They also require cooperation and a time commitment on the part of the teacher.
Teachers’ records
Use can be made of available written records of courses, such as reports of lessons taught, material
covered, attendance, students’ grades, and time allocation.
(K]HU[HNLZ!Records can provide a detailed account of some aspects of the course.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ! Not all of the information collected may be relevant. Some information may be
impressionistic and represent only the teacher’s point of view.
Student logs
Students might be asked to keep an account of what happened during a course, how much time they spent
VUKPќLYLU[HZZPNUTLU[ZOV^T\JO[PTL[OL`HSSVJH[LK[VOVTL^VYRHUKV[OLYV\[VMJSHZZHJ[P]P[PLZ
(K]HU[HNLZ!Student logs provide the students’ perspective on the course and gives insights that the
teacher may not be aware of.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ!They require the cooperation of students and time commitment. Students may not
ZLL[OLILULÄ[VMZ\JOHUHJ[P]P[`
Case studies
A teacher may conduct a case study of a course or some aspect of a course. For example, the
teacher might document how he or she made use of lesson plans throughout a course, or trace the
progress of a particular learner.
(K]HU[HNLZ! Case studies provide detailed information about aspects of a course, and over time the
HJJ\T\SH[LKPUMVYTH[PVUMYVTJHZLZ[\KPLZJHUWYV]PKLHYPJOWPJ[\YLVMKPќLYLU[KPTLUZPVUZVMHJV\YZL
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ!The information collected may not be typical or representative, and case studies are
time-consuming to prepare.
Student evaluations
Students can provide written or oral feedback on a course both during the course and after it has
been taught, commenting on features such as the teacher’s approach, the materials used, and their
relevance to the students’ needs.
(K]HU[HNLZ!Student evaluations are easy to obtain, provide feedback on a wide range of topics, and
enable large numbers of learners to be involved.
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ!0UMVYTH[PVUVI[HPULKTHÌLZ\IQLJ[P]LHUKPTWYLZZPVUPZ[PJHUKPZZVTL[PTLZKPѝJ\S[
[VPU[LYWYL[VYNLULYHSPaL
Audio or video recordings

3LZZVUZJHUILYLJVYKLK[VWYV]PKLL_HTWSLZVMKPќLYLU[[LHJOPUNZ[`SLZHUKSLZZVUMVYTH[Z
(K]HU[HNLZ!Recordings can provide a rich account of teaching in real time and record information
[OH[PZKPѝJ\S[[VKVJ\TLU[PUV[OLY^H`Z
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ! The presence of the recording instrument or person making the recording can
IL KPZY\W[P]L HUK JHU IPHZ [OL KH[H .VVK YLJVYKPUNZ JHU IL KPѝJ\S[ [V VI[HPU HS[OV\NO TVIPSL
technology has made it easier.
Observation
Regular observation of classes may be made by other teachers or a supervisor. Observation is usually
TVYL\ZLM\SPMP[PZZ[Y\J[\YLKPUZVTL^H`Z\JOHZI`NP]PUNHZWLJPÄJ[HZR[V[OLVIZLY]LYHUKI`
providing procedures for the observer to use (e.g., checklists or rating scales).
(K]HU[HNLZ! Observers can focus on any observable aspect of the lesson and can provide an
objective eye, identifying things that may not be apparent to the teacher. If teachers observe each
V[OLY»ZJSHZZLZP[HSZVWYV]PKLZHIHZPZMVYMVSSV^\WKPZJ\ZZPVUHUKYLÅLJ[PVU
+PZHK]HU[HNLZ! The observer’s presence may be intrusive. As noted earlier, observation is a
ZWLJPHSPaLKZRPSSHUKYLX\PYLZWYLWHYH[PVUHUKL_WSPJP[N\PKHUJLPMP[PZ[VIL\ZLM\S
Choose the three most useful or practical procedures above that could be applicable in your
teaching context.
As the examples above illustrate, the evaluation procedures chosen will depend on the kind of issue
[OH[ULLKZJSHYPÄJH[PVUVYYL]PL^>LPYHUK9VILY[Z Z\TTHYPaL[OLMVJ\ZHUKWYVJLK\YLZ
available in program evaluation as represented in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1 Issues and procedures in evaluation

FOCUS PROCEDURES
Teacher beliefs Pre/Post: questionnaires
interviews
observations
review of lesson plans

Teacher abilities Observations/videotapes
Self-assessment quizzes
Pre/Post: questionnaires
interviews
observations
review of lesson plans

FOCUS PROCEDURES
Teacher practices Record of activities
Lesson plan reviews
Observations/videotapes
Interviews
Questionnaires
Student behaviours Student interviews
Student questionnaires
Teacher logs
Observation
Teacher interviews
Student learnings Chapter/unit tests
Standardized test
Teacher logs
Student assignments
Comparison of present term grades to previous grades (or grades of

another group of students)
Student interviews
Teacher questionnaires
Student questionnaires
Teacher interviews
11.9 Process-focused evaluation: descriptive and reflective evaluation

Evaluation may also involve collecting information about how a curriculum is implemented – not in
order to improve it or to measure its outcomes but to gain a better understanding of the processes
of teaching and learning that occur in the program. This approach to evaluation has two aspects:
VULPZ[VJVSSLJ[PUMVYTH[PVUVUKPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVM[OLJ\YYPJ\S\TMVYHU`VULÔVTHÙLLKZ\JO
information. This will be called KLZJYPW[P]LL]HS\H[PVU. Below are some examples of issues that might
be explored from this perspective:
• ;PTPUN!OV^T\JO[PTLPZZWLU[VUKPќLYLU[HJ[P]P[PLZ
• ;PTLVU[HZR! the percentage of time that students are actively engaged on learning tasks.
• *SHZZYVVTTHUHNLTLU[!OV^[OL[LHJOLYVYNHUPaLKHUKTHUHNLKJSHZZYVVTHJ[P]P[PLZ
• .YV\WPUNHYYHUNLTLU[Z! the teacher’s use of whole-class and small-group teaching.
• 7HY[PJPWH[PVUWH[[LYUZ! how students participated during group activities.
• -LLKIHJR! the kinds of feedback strategies the teacher made use of.
• (J[PVUaVUL![OL[LHJOLY»Z[`WPJHSHJ[PVUaVULK\YPUNSLZZVUZ
• <UWSHUULKHJ[P]P[PLZ! the teacher’s departures from plans.
• <ZLVM[OL[L_[IVVRHUK[LJOUVSVN`! time spent with teaching resources and how they are used.
What kind of information of this kind would you be interested to learn about for your teaching?
As the name suggests, then, descriptive evaluation requires collecting as much information as
WVZZPISL[OH[^V\SKWYV]PKLHJVTWYLOLUZP]LHUKVIQLJ[P]LHJJV\U[VMKPќLYLU[HZWLJ[ZVMHJV\YZL
Many of the procedures described above can be used to collect information of this kind, such as
observation, questionnaires, interviews, teachers’ reports, and student logs. The following examples
illustrate this aspect of evaluation:
,_HTWSL! A teacher is teaching a course on reading skills and has developed a course which
focuses on a wide variety of reading skills, such as skimming, scanning, reading for details, surveying
a text, critical reading, and vocabulary development. All of the skills receive regular focus throughout
[OLJV\YZL;OL[LHJOLYPZPU[LYLZ[LKPUÄUKPUNV\[ÔH[[OLZ[\KLU[ZWLYJLP]L[VIL[OLTHPUWVPU[
VM[OLJV\YZL:[\KLU[ZJVTWSL[LHZOVY[X\LZ[PVUUHPYLH[KPќLYLU[[PTLZK\YPUN[OLJV\YZLPUVYKLY
[VKLZJYPIL[OLPYWLYJLW[PVUZVMÔH[[OLJV\YZLPZZLLRPUN[VHJOPL]L([[PTLZ[OLYLPZHKPќLYLU[
WLYJLW[PVUVU[OLWHY[VMZ[\KLU[ZHZ[V[OLW\YWVZLVMKPќLYLU[HJ[P]P[PLZVYL]LUVMÔVSLSLZZVUZ
(M[LYYLÅLJ[PUNVU[OPZWOLUVTLUVU[OL[LHJOLYJVTLZ[V\UKLYZ[HUK[OH[SLHYULYZ»WLYJLW[PVUZVM
HJV\YZLTH`YLÅLJ[ÔH[[OL`HYLTVZ[PU[LYLZ[LKPUVYÔH[[OL`MLLS[OLÙLLKTVZ[OLSW^P[OH[H
particular point in time.
,_HTWSL! A teacher is interested in learning more about teacher–student interaction in her

own classroom. She invites a colleague to visit her class and to carry out a series of classroom
VIZLY]H[PVUZ;OLVIZLY]LYPZNP]LU[OL[HZRVMUV[PUNOV^VM[LU[OL[LHJOLYPU[LYHJ[Z^P[OKPќLYLU[
students in the class and the kind of interaction that occurs. This involves noting the kinds of
questions the teacher asks and the extent to which she acknowledges and follows up on students’
questions. From the data collected by the observer, the teacher is able to assess the extent to which
she or the students control classroom interaction and gets a better understanding of how she uses
X\LZ[PVUZ[V¸ZJHќVSK¹SLZZVUJVU[LU[
,_HTWSL!([LHJOLY^HU[Z[VÄUKV\[TVYLHIV\[OV^Z[\KLU[ZJHYY`V\[NYV\W^VYRHUKÔL[OLY
OLPZHKLX\H[LS`WYLWHYPUNZ[\KLU[ZMVYNYV\W^VYR[HZRZ/LHYYHUNLZ[VYLJVYKKPќLYLU[NYV\WZ
VMZ[\KLU[ZJHYY`PUNV\[HNYV\W^VYR[HZRHUKYL]PL^Z[OLYLJVYKPUNZ[VÄUKV\[[OLL_[LU[[V
which students participate in group discussions and the kind of language they use. On reviewing the
recordings, the teacher is pleased to note that the strategy of assigning each member of a group a
KPќLYLU[YVSLK\YPUNNYV\W[HZRZ¶Z\JOHZJVVYKPUH[VYSHUN\HNLTVUP[VYVYZ\TTHYPaLY¶PZWYV]PUN
LќLJ[P]LPULUZ\YPUN[OH[NYV\WTLTILYZWHY[PJPWH[LHJ[P]LS`PU[HZRZ
Such examples suggest the variety of ways in which teachers seek to assess and monitor aspects
of their teaching, whether by asking students to describe how they understand the goals of the
course and the use of classroom activities, asking colleagues to collect information about patterns
of classroom interaction in order to understand better the kind of communication that occurs during
teaching, or by monitoring group-work activities to understand better the kinds of participation they
facilitate. Much classroom action research or teacher inquiry can be regarded as evaluation of this
kind and may be either teacher initiated or carried out by others.
The other aspect of process evaluation we refer to as YLÅLJ[P]LL]HS\H[PVUThis view of evaluation is
inquiry-based and is concerned with knowledge building, with understanding, and with explanation.
Perhaps the term L]HS\H[PVU does not really suit this orientation to understanding the curriculum as a
“lived experience,” since the focus is not on judgment but on exploration and understanding. The goal
is less diagnoses and improvement and more on a holistic exploration of teaching in context. Context
here is not viewed as a set of limitations but rather as central to the process by which curriculum is
enacted. This is a sociocultural approach to evaluation in which classrooms are seen to have a rich life
that unfolds over time, as events and processes interact and shape the way participants think, feel,
and act. It draws on social and situated perspectives on learning, on the classroom as a community
of practice, as a site where learners exercise their agency in identity formation, and as an ecology,
OH]PUN H SPML [V IL THUHNLK >YPNO[ ;OL JSHZZYVVT PZ ]PL^LK HZ OH]PUN ZVJPHS WHY[PJPWH[PVU
structures that can enhance or inhibit learning opportunity. This includes both the discourse and the
HJ[P]P[PLZVMJSHZZYVVTSPMLÔPJOHќLJ[OV^TLHUPUNPZTHKLHUKRUV^SLKNLJVUZ[Y\J[LK3H]LHUK
Wenger 1991; Wenger 1998; Lantolf 2000; Hawkins 2004). Learning is tied to artifacts, identities,
and the cultural space in which it is situated. These artifacts include books, whiteboards, tablets, and
SHW[VWZ[OH[NP]LÅLZO[VPKLU[P[PLZPUWYHJ[PJL/VSSHUKHUK3H]L
What kinds of classroom processes would a visitor typically observe in your classes?
(YLÅLJ[P]L]PL^VML]HS\H[PVU]PL^Z[OLJSHZZYVVTHZHJVTWSL_LJVSVNPJHSZP[LPUÔPJO[LHJOLYZHUK
learners have to navigate among unfolding events and processes in order to participate in teaching and
SLHYUPUN-YVTHZP[\H[LKZVJPHSWLYZWLJ[P]LVUSLHYUPUN[OLJSHZZYVVTPZJVUJLW[\HSPaLKHZHULTLYNPUN
“community of practice” (Lave and Wenger 1991). This shifts the focus to people jointly engaged in a
mutual enterprise, with a shared repertoire of actions, discourses, and tools (Wenger 1998).
Questions that evaluation seeks to answer from this perspective include the following:
• How do teachers and learners understand the curriculum?
• What is the nature of language teaching and learning?
• What does it mean to the participants?
• What roles do they participate in?
• What is the nature of the experiences they participate in?
• What learning opportunities arise during lessons?
• What do these activities mean to them?
• What underlying values and beliefs underlie the curriculum?
• /V^KVLZ[OL[LHJOLYYLHSPaLOPZVYOLYWYPUJPWSLZHUK]HS\LZPU[LHJOPUN&
• How are teacher and learner identities negotiated through their interactions?
How do you think questions such as those above could be explored? What research
procedures could be used?
8\LZ[PVUZ VM [OPZ RPUK YLÅLJ[ [OL LJVSVNPJHS \UKLYZ[HUKPUN VM J\YYPJ\S\T YLMLYYLK [V PU *OHW[LYZ
HUK (J[P]P[PLZ [OH[ PU]VS]L H YLÅLJ[P]L HUK LJVSVNPJHS \UKLYZ[HUKPUN VM L]HS\H[PVU HYL
VIZLY]H[PVU PUX\PY` WHY[PJPWH[PVU HUK JYP[PJHS YLÅLJ[P]P[` ;\KVY JVU[YHZ[Z [OL WYVK\J[
focused technological approach to curriculum with an ecological approach and, like Aoki,
suggests the tensions that can arise between these two perspectives. Tudor notes that a feature
VM H [LJOUVSVNPJHS HWWYVHJO PZ [OH[ P[ PZ SPURLK [V H ZWLJPÄJ WYVK\J[ HUK WYLZLU[Z H WVZP[P]L HUK
JVUÄKLU[ HWWYVHJO [V HJOPL]PUN V\[JVTLZ ;OL LJVSVNPJHS HWWYVHJO VU [OL V[OLY OHUK PZ SLZZ
JVUÄKLU[ HUK KLWLUKLU[ VU MHJ[VYZ [OH[ HYL UV[ JLY[HPU VY Ä_LK /L Z\NNLZ[Z [OH[ [OVZL ÔV
are not closely connected with classroom realities such as planning committees and educational
authorities are likely to favor a technological approach. However, classroom teachers operate
PU H KPќLYLU[ JVU[L_[ ¶ HU LJVSVNPJHS VUL [OH[ KYH^Z VU THU` KPќLYLU[ ZV\YJLZ! [OL ILSPLMZ HUK
expectations of students, parents, textbook writers and administrators, and above all the individual
teacher, for whom teaching is far more than following the teacher’s manual or making use of the
classroom technology.
11.10 Implementing reflective evaluation

9LÅLJ[P]LL]HS\H[PVUTHRLZ\ZLVMHU\TILYVMZ[YH[LNPLZMVYL_WSVYPUN[OLUH[\YLHUKTLHUPUNVM
[OL[LHJOLY»ZJSHZZYVVTWLKHNVN`(SL_HUKLYL_WSHPUZ[OLKPќLYLUJLIL[^LLU[LHJOPUNHUK
pedagogy:
Pedagogy I define as the discourse which attends the act of teaching. Teaching and pedagogy
are not the same. Teaching is a practical and observable act. Pedagogy encompasses that act
together with the purposes, values, ideas, assumptions, theories and beliefs which inform,
shape and seek to justify it.
Developing an understanding of pedagogy, then, involves examining not just the “what” and “how” of
teaching – content knowledge and classroom methodology respectively – but the questions of “what
kind of teacher am I and what kind of teacher do I want to become?” A teacher’s pedagogy is based
on answers to questions such as these from Bartlett (1990, 206–207):
• What caused me to want to become a second language teacher?
• Do these reasons still exist for me now?
• What does it mean to be a teacher?
• Is the teacher I am the person I am?
• Where did the ideas I embody in second language teaching come from historically?
• How did I come to appropriate them?
• Why do I continue to endorse them now in my teaching?
• Whose interests do these ideas serve?
• Who has power in my classroom and how is it expressed?
• How do power relationships in my classroom influence my interactions with students?
• How might I teach differently?
• What is the nature of knowledge that guides my teaching of content?
• Who creates this knowledge? How did this knowledge emerge during the evolution of
teaching?
• Whose interests does this knowledge about language teaching serve?
• How do/can I personally work to uncover the contradictions in my teaching?
• How does what I do affect the opportunities in life of students?
• What connections do I make with organizations outside the school or centre to demon-
strate my active role in society?
• Do I wish to uncover the “hidden curriculum” – the inconsistencies – in my teaching?
(J[P]P[PLZ [OH[ PU]VS]L YLÅLJ[P]L L]HS\H[PVU HUK [OH[ LUNHNL [LHJOLYZ PU L_WSVYPUN [OLPY WLKHNVN`
include journal writing, narrative inquiry, analysis of critical incidents, peer observation, and case
HUHS`ZPZ9PJOHYKZHUK-HYYLSS9LÅLJ[P]L[LHJOPUNL_WSVYH[VY`WYHJ[PJLHUKSLZZVUZ[\K`HYL
further examples of approaches that teachers sometimes use in this process of inquiry, and these are
KPZJ\ZZLKIYPLÅÌLSV^
Reflective teaching
9LÅLJ[P]L [LHJOPUN YLMLYZ [V [LHJOPUN [OH[ PZ HJJVTWHUPLK I` JYP[PJHS WYVJLZZPUN HUK YL]PL^ VM
WYHJ[PJL+L^L`WYVWVZLK[OPZHWWYVHJOÔLUOL^YV[LVM¸YLÅLJ[P]LPUX\PY`¹ 9VNLYZ
JSHYPÄLZ[OLUV[PVUVMYLÅLJ[P]LPUX\PY`HUKYLÅLJ[P]L[LHJOPUN!
a reflective teacher does not merely seek solutions, nor does he or she do things in the same
way every day without an awareness of both the source and the impact of his or her actions.
Rather, from his or her practice and the students’ learning, the teacher seeks meaning and
creates from this a theory to live by, a story that provides structure for the growth of the
students and of the teacher. When the teacher seeks solutions, he or she also pursues con-
nections and relationships between solutions so that a theory might grow. This theory guides
practice (which includes but is not limited to problem solving) until it encounters a situation
where the theory no longer serves, at which point, through more reflection, it is either revised,
refined, or discarded, and a new theory is born.
9LÅLJ[P]L [LHJOPUN PZ IHZLK VU [OL PKLH [OH[ L_WLYPLUJL HSVUL KVLZ UV[ ULJLZZHYPS` [YPNNLY JYP[PJHS
\UKLYZ[HUKPUN I\[ [OH[ L_WLYPLUJL SPURLK [V YLÅLJ[PVU JHU SLHK [V H KLLWLY \UKLYZ[HUKPUN VM [OL
TLHUPUN VM [LHJOPUN 9LÅLJ[PVU KYH^Z VU HJJV\U[Z VM [LHJOPUN LWPZVKLZ HUK PUJPKLU[Z PUJS\KPUN
activities such as journal writing, narratives, critical incident analysis, peer observation, and audio
or video recording of lessons. The teacher then reviews the data, either individually or with another
teacher, and poses questions about how and why things happened during the lesson, what value
systems they represent, and what alternatives might be available.
>O`KV`V\[OPURL_WLYPLUJLPZPUZ\ѝJPLU[HZHIHZPZMVY[LHJOLYSLHYUPUN&
Exploratory practice
This refers to a form of practitioner inquiry elaborated originally by Allwright (2003) that involves focus
on an issue or question (such as the teacher’s role in the classroom), exploring the issue from multiple
KPYLJ[PVUZ HUK \ZPUN PUMVYTH[PVU [OH[ YLZ\S[Z HZ H IHZPZ MVY JYP[PJHS YLÅLJ[PVU HUK H^HYLULZZ YHPZPUN
:LL*OHW[LY /HURZ¶PKLU[PÄLZZL]LUWYPUJPWSLZ[OH[JOHYHJ[LYPaLHUL_WSVYH[VY`
WYHJ[PJLHWWYVHJO0ZZ\LZHUKHYLYLMLYYLK[VHZ¸ÔH[¹PZZ\LZ"HUKHZ¸ÔV¹PZZ\LZHUK
6 and 7 as “how” issues:
1. Focus on quality of life as the fundamental issues.

2. Work to understand it before thinking about solving problems.
3. Involve everybody as practitioners developing their own understandings.
4. Work to bring people together in a common enterprise.
Work cooperatively for mutual development.
6. Make it a continuous enterprise.
7. 4PUPTPaL[OLI\YKLUI`PU[LNYH[PUN[OL^VYRMVY\UKLYZ[HUKPUNPU[VUVYTHSWLKHNVNPJWYHJ[PJL
Central to the notion of exploratory practice is that it involves adding a dimension to one’s existing
teaching practice rather than intervening in some way to change practice (as is the case with action
research). The processes involved could include peer observation, discussions, narratives, blogs,
reviewing video or written accounts of lessons, or analysis of critical incidents in order to arrive at
new understandings of the meaning of everyday classroom life. An example of this approach is given
in Appendix 1 in Chapter 9.
An example of an issue a teacher could focus on in exploratory practice is, “Why don’t
students talk more in my class?” Can you suggest other issues that could be the focus of
exploratory practice?
Lesson study
This is a form of collaborative inquiry in which a group of teachers co-plan a lesson that focuses on
a particular piece of content of a unit of study, as described in the example below from the Lesson
Study Project site (Cerbin and Kopp n.d.).
Lesson study is a form of classroom inquiry in which several teachers collaboratively plan,
teach, observe, revise and share the results of a single class lesson. Teachers work through the
steps listed below.
1. Form a Team: Teams are usually composed of 3–6 instructors.
2. Develop Learning Goals: Team members articulate what they would like students to know
and be able to do as a result of the lesson.
3. Design the Lesson: The team designs a lesson to achieve the learning goals.
4. Plan the Study: The team decides how to observe and collect evidence of student learning.
5. Teach and Observe: One team member teaches the lesson while others observe and collect
evidence of student learning.
6. Analyze and Revise: The team discusses the results and assesses student progress toward
learning goals.
7. Document and Disseminate: The team documents the lesson study and shares their work
with colleagues.
In a lesson study, teachers carefully explore how student learning, thinking and behav-
ior change as a result of the lesson. The practice of lesson study can lead to instructional
improvement as teachers become more knowledgeable about how their students learn and
think and how instruction affects student thinking.
As outlined above, throughout the planning process they draw on outside resources, including
textbooks, research, and teaching theories, and engage in extended conversations while focusing
VUZ[\KLU[SLHYUPUNHUK[OLKL]LSVWTLU[VMZWLJPÄJV\[JVTLZ6UJL[OLWSHUOHZILLUKL]LSVWLK
one member of the team volunteers to teach it, while the others observe. (Sometimes outsiders
HYL HSZV PU]P[LK [V VIZLY]L (M[LY [OL SLZZVU [OL NYV\W KPZJ\ZZLZ [OLPY ÄUKPUNZ PU H JVSSVX\P\T VY
panel discussion.
Conclusions
Two perspectives on evaluation have been examined in this chapter, one that is product and outcome
MVJ\ZLK HUK VUL [OH[ PZ WYVJLZZ MVJ\ZLK ;OL MVYTLY YLÅLJ[Z H [YHKP[PVUHS HWWYVHJO [V L]HS\H[PVU
PU ÔPJO WYVNYHT LќLJ[P]LULZZ PZ [OL WYPTHY` JVUJLYU -VYTH[P]L L]HS\H[PVU ZLLRZ [V HKKYLZZ
HU` WYVISLTZ [OH[ TPNO[ HYPZL K\YPUN H WYVNYHT [OH[ JV\SK PUÅ\LUJL [OL Z\JJLZZ VM P[Z V\[JVTLZ
Summative evaluation seeks to assess the extent to which the program’s goals and learning outcomes
OH]L ILLU HJOPL]LK 7YVJLK\YLZ MVY JVUK\J[PUN LќLJ[P]LULZZMVJ\ZLK L]HS\H[PVU PU]VS]L JVSSLJ[PUN
both quantitative and qualitative information and could address many aspects of a program, including
the curriculum design, the teaching, the teachers, the teaching resources, the administration of
the program, and the tests and assessment processes that are used. Process-focused evaluation
complements but does not replace product-focused evaluation. It is both descriptive and explanatory
and seeks to achieve a deeper understanding of how the curriculum works and how it is understood
by teachers and learners.
1. /V^ ^V\SK `V\ JOHYHJ[LYPaL [OL KPќLYLUJL IL[^LLU WYVK\J[MVJ\ZLK HUK WYVJLZZMVJ\ZLK
evaluation?
2. If you were involved in developing an evaluation of courses in your institution, what would the
goals of such an evaluation be?
3. Give examples of quantitative and qualitative information that you could make use of for the
activity in question 2 above.
4. /V^ ^V\SK `V\ JOHYHJ[LYPaL ¸LќLJ[P]LULZZ¹& >OH[ JYP[LYPH ^V\SK `V\ \ZL [V HZZLZZ [OL
LќLJ[P]LULZZVM[OLJV\YZLZ`V\[LHJO&
>OH[HYLZVTLVM[OLNVHSZVMKLZJYPW[P]LHUKYLÅLJ[P]LL]HS\H[PVU&
6. Review the best-practice framework in Appendix 1 in this chapter. How well would it work in your
teaching context? Would you need to make changes to it if you found it useful?
7. 9LHK*HZLZ[\K` I`.LVќYL`*YL^LZH[[OLLUKVM[OPZJOHW[LY
• >OH[JYP[LYPH^LYL\ZLK[VKL[LYTPUL[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVM[OLWYVNYHT&
• What were some of the distinctive features of the program?
• To what extent did the program incorporate both a product and a process perspective?
8. Read Case study 20 by Jonathan Newton.
• >OH[JYP[LYPH^LYL\ZLK[VKL[LYTPUL[OLLќLJ[P]LULZZVM[OLPUUV]H[PVU&
• What factors mitigated against the teachers’ uptake of the innovation?
• Review the quote from Kiely at the beginning of this chapter: “program evaluation is about
LќLJ[P]LULZZHUK[YHKP[PVUHSS`[OLHUZ^LYOHZILLUZV\NO[PU[LYTZVM[LZ[YLZ\S[ZH
SHUN\HNLSLHYUPUN[OLVY`VYHWHY[PJ\SHYZ`SSHI\Z¹/V^PZ[OPZYLÅLJ[LKPU*HZLZ[\K`&
9. Read Case study 21 by David Crabbe.

• What other questions could the teachers have investigated?
• Can you suggest other ways in which the teachers could have explored their own teaching?
• The teachers decided that the next step would be to evaluate more explicitly the impact
VMSLHYUPUNJVU]LYZH[PVUZVUHUV\[VMJSHZZSLHYUPUNHJ[P]P[`HUKVUHZWLJ[ZVMJVUÄKLUJL
HUKWYVÄJPLUJ`/V^JV\SK[OL`KV[OPZ&
APPENDIX 1 Best practice in English language teaching*

1. Institution
PHYSICAL FACILITIES
A quality language centre is characterised by:
• clean and safe premises;
• JSHZZYVVTZHUKVѝJLZÔPJOHYLUV[V]LYJYV^KLK"
• adequate ventilation, heating, cooling and lighting; and
• HKLX\H[LWYLJH\[PVUZPUJHZLVMÄYL
The physical facilities contribute to an atmosphere conducive to learning.
MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

A quality language centre:
• is under the direction of an appropriately-trained and experienced management and
administration team which is knowledgeable about the design, implementation and evaluation
of ELT programs;
• ZLLRZ[VH[[YHJ[HUKYL[HPUHZ[HќVM[YHPULKKLKPJH[LKWYVMLZZPVUHS,3;WYHJ[P[PVULYZ"
• YLJVNUPZLZ[OLPTWVY[HUJLVMHWWYVWYPH[LZHSHY`HUKILULÄ[ZHZ^LSSHZ[OLPTWVY[HUJLVMZ[Hќ
development. The centre has clearly stated policies concerning these issues;
• reviews its employment conditions and procedures periodically in light of generally accepted ELT
standards and local market conditions; and
• [HRLZHJJV\U[VMPUW\[MYVT[LHJOLYZZ\WWVY[Z[HќHUKZ[\KLU[ZPUTHRPUNKLJPZPVUZYLNHYKPUN
personnel practices, management of resources and program evaluation.
The management strives to engender a positive teaching and learning environment.
6WDσ
TEACHING STAFF
• LTWSV`Z [LHJOLYZ ÔV OH]L PU[LYUH[PVUHSS` YLJVNUPZLK X\HSPÄJH[PVUZ PUSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN"
• YLJVNUPZLZ[OH[[OLU\TILYVMJVU[HJ[OV\YZWYLWHYH[PVUOV\YZHUKVѝJLWYLZLUJLVM[LHJOLYZ
KPYLJ[S`PUÅ\LUJL[LHJOLYLќLJ[P]LULZZ"
• ensures equal opportunity regarding all aspects of employment, including the possibility of job
security of employment; and
• WYV]PKLZZ\WWVY[PU[OLMVYTVMHKTPUPZ[YH[P]LZ`Z[LTZVѝJLZWHJL[LSLWOVULZK\WSPJH[PUN
facilities (with clear guidelines about copyright laws), and space for professional development
seminars and workshops.
SUPPORT STAFF
(X\HSP[`SHUN\HNLJLU[YLYLJVNUPZLZ[OL]P[HSYVSL[OH[UVU[LHJOPUNZ[HќWSH`PUZ\WWVY[PUN[YHPUPUN
activities and contributing to the quality of the service provided to clients.
STAFF DEVELOPMENT
• HJ[P]LS`Z\WWVY[ZHUKLUNHNLZPUJVU[PU\PUNZ[HќKL]LSVWTLU[MVYHSSLTWSV`LLZ;OLYLPZ
continuous, ongoing in-service training, using a range of learning modes conducted by members
VMZ[HќHZ^LSSHZI`PU]P[LK[YHPULYZMYVTV\[ZPKL"
• RLLWZ[VHTPUPT\T[OLU\TILYVM\UKLY[YHPULK[LHJOPUNZ[HќHUKZ\WWVY[Z[Hќ;OLYLPZH
WSHUPUWSHJL[VLUZ\YL[OH[Z[HќKL]LSVWTLU[VWWVY[\UP[PLZHYLTHKLH]HPSHISLHZHWWYVWYPH[L"
• supports membership in professional organisations, attendance at workshops and conferences,
and participation in professional activities outside the workplace; and
• LUNHNLZPUHUKVYLUJV\YHNLZYLZLHYJOVU]HYPV\ZHZWLJ[ZVM,3;I`Z[Hќ
3. Program management
CURRICULUM
• designs and implements curricula that are informed by an analysis of learner needs and the
HZZLZZTLU[VM[OLSLHYULYZ»SL]LSZVMWYVÄJPLUJ`"
• documents curricula, and such documentation includes details of program goals and objectives,
expected learner outcomes, teaching materials, methodology, assessment criteria, and
evaluation procedures;
• assesses student progress on a regular basis. The instruments for assessment are selected
VYKL]LSVWLKHJJVYKPUN[VWYPUJPWSLZNLULYHSS`YLJVNUPZLKPU[OLÄLSKVM,3;HUKHYLJ\S[\YHSS`
appropriate. They relate directly to the stated goals and objectives of the training program.
Students are regularly informed of their progress;
• HJRUV^SLKNLZ[OH[MHJ[VYZZ\JOHZJSHZZZPaLJV\YZLSLUN[OHUKJV\YZLPU[LUZP[`HYLVM[LU
beyond the control of the training provider. However, curricula are developed with these
considerations in mind;
• engages in regular evaluation of its curriculum and courses in response to changing student
needs, new trends in ELT and the changing global context. Teachers and students are involved
in this evaluation which leads to program re-design, with the development of new approaches,
new components, and/or new courses; and
• seeks periodic external evaluation through consultation with experienced, recognised
WYVMLZZPVUHSZPUHWWYVWYPH[LÄLSKZZ\JOHZHWWSPLKSPUN\PZ[PJZHUK,3;THUHNLTLU[;OLZL
PUKP]PK\HSZ^VYR^P[OZ[Hќ[VZOHYLL_WLY[PZLHUK[VWYV]PKLVIQLJ[P]LHWWYHPZHSZVM[OLWYVNYHT»Z
LќLJ[P]LULZZ
4. Resources
• provides instructional materials to facilitate successful language learning. These resources are
up-to-date and accessible to all teachers and include print materials, video tape recorders and
cassettes, audio tape recorders and cassettes, as well as a range of realia;
• recognises the contribution that computerised language instruction and self-access resources
THRL[VLќLJ[P]LSHUN\HNLSLHYUPUNHUKÔLYL]LYWVZZPISLHPTZ[VWYV]PKLZ\JOYLZV\YJLZ"
• maintains a resource collection of relevant books, journals and other materials which is easily
accessible to teachers and students; and
• documents procedures for the selection, evaluation, purchase and upkeep of equipment and
materials and ensures that all concerned are actively involved in decision-making related to
these matters.
Document prepared by EL centers in Indonesia (IALF), Thailand (ELCA), Laos (VUC), and Cambodia
(ACE), for establishing quality standards for language training centers in Southeast Asia. Reprinted
with permission.
CASE STUDY 19 Evaluating an in-service program for English language teachers

.LVɈYL`*YL^LZ
What was the context for the evaluation?
The context for the evaluation is the trialing of an in-service program for English language (EL)
teachers in a developing country. The teachers are all under-trained and some untrained, most with
HSV^SL]LSVM,3WYVÄJPLUJ`;OL`[LHJO,UNSPZOH[Q\UPVYZLJVUKHY`SL]LSPUYLZV\YJLWVVYZJOVVSZ
in remote areas. The in-service program aimed to provide them with the opportunity to improve their
SL]LSVM,UNSPZOWYVÄJPLUJ`HZ^LSSHZ^P[OPUZ[Y\J[PVUHUKWYHJ[PJLPUSLHYULYJLU[LYLKTL[OVKVSVN`
[HRPUNPU[VHJJV\U[SHYNLJSHZZZPaLZ¶PUZVTLJHZLZV]LYZ[\KLU[ZWLYJSHZZ
The in-service program was funded by a bilateral aid program, and designed and delivered by an
experienced provider of EL Teacher Training. A feature of the design was to train local trainers to
produce training materials and deliver the training program, alongside international ELT specialists.
What was the goal of the evaluation?

The overall goal of the evaluation was to determine whether the model was successful in improving
the skills of teachers. Previous training activities had required teachers to be relieved of teaching
duties in their district schools and to attend training held in the capital city – this was a more intensive,
JLU[YHSPaLKHWWYVHJO[V[OL[YHPUPUNVM[LHJOLYZ;OLTVKLSMVY[OLUL^HWWYVHJO^HZMVY[LHJOLYZ
to remain teaching in their schools and undertake training at a district location for two-day sessions,
twice a month. Their school principals would be asked to give them one day free from teaching – Friday
– and this would be combined with a Saturday. Teachers would be paid travel and accommodation
costs to attend the training. In addition to the face-to-face component, teachers would be given
home-study activities to complete prior to the following training session. During school holidays,
more intensive one-week sessions were held. This model meant that schools retained their valued
English teachers while they were undertaking further training. If the model proved to be successful the
Ministry of Education would look at replicating it in other districts with a local provider.
Who was the audience for the evaluation?

The evaluation had several audiences – the international aid agency funding the initiative, the national
Ministry of Education as the partner stakeholder, the local schools where the teachers taught, and
the INSET provider who was responsible for designing and delivering the course for the local context.
How did you conduct the evaluation?

The training provider worked closely with the Ministry of Education, given that the aim of the activity
was for the Ministry to take over this initiative once the aid funding had ceased. The evaluation looked
at several components:
• The local trainers who were being mentored to deliver the program.
• The participants – under-trained school teachers, many of whom were not familiar with certain
aspects of the program, such as home-study modules.
• The local schools – how this in-service model impacted on the teaching of English in schools.
Was it successful? Was it sustainable?
What kind of information did you collect?

Information consisted of baseline data at the beginning of the program, mostly about the skills of
the teachers and their beliefs about teaching English. As the program progressed, it measured their
,3WYVÄJPLUJ`¶ÔPJO^HZHMVJ\ZVM[OLÄYZ[[^VJVTWVULU[Z¶HUK[OLU[OLPYJVTWL[LUJLHUK
JVUÄKLUJLPUTL[OVKVSVN`PU[OL[OPYKJVTWVULU[;OLTLJOHUPZTZ\ZLK^LYLSHUN\HNLWYVÄJPLUJ`
tests, questionnaires, focus groups, and longitudinal case studies of pre-selected individual teachers.
The trainers were also evaluated. The principal mechanism for this was observation of them delivering
training. Prior to the commencement of the INSET program, the teacher trainers, who were all TESOL
X\HSPÄLK\UKLY[VVRH;YHPU[OL;YHPULYZ program which provided opportunities for them to practice
training methodologies and to evaluate their progress as teacher trainers. The availability of local
Z\P[HIS`X\HSPÄLKHUKL_WLYPLUJLK[YHPULYZ[VJVUK\J[PUZLY]PJL[YHPUPUNILJHTLHUPZZ\LHZZVTL
of the trainers struggled with the role of teacher trainer; for this program to be replicated on a larger
scale across the country, there would be a need for a cadre of suitable trainers.
:KDWZHUH\RXUðQGLQJVDQGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV"
;OLÄUKPUNZ^LYL[OH[!
• The model of local delivery over an extended period of time worked well. It was well-received
by local school administrations and principals, as it meant they did not have to release teachers
MYVT[LHJOPUN[V\UKLY[HRLPUZLY]PJL[YHPUPUN;OPZPZZPNUPÄJHU[PUHJV\U[Y`ÔLYL[LHJOLYZHYL
in very short supply.
• ;OLWHY[PJPWHU[ZNLULYHSS`YLZWVUKLKWVZP[P]LS`[V[OLTVYLSVJHSPaLKHWWYVHJO7HY[PJPWH[PVU
YH[LZ^LYLNVVKHUKKPKUV[KLJSPULZPNUPÄJHU[S`HZ[OLWYVNYHTJVU[PU\LK3VJHSKLSP]LY`TLHU[
that the teachers did not need to spend extended periods of time in the capital city, away from
their families. This was particularly important for ensuring the ongoing participation of female
teachers – a key objective of the initiative. Also the training delivered locally appeared to be more
relevant, as participants could refer to the situation in their schools – many of which lacked the
resources of schools in the nation’s capital. There was a belief that the program and the trainers
had taken into account the local context.
• Some of the trainers struggled with the role of teacher trainer, despite holding TESOL
X\HSPÄJH[PVUZHUK\UKLY[HRPUNHJVTWYLOLUZP]L;YHPU[OL;YHPULY program. One trainer had to
ILYLWSHJLKK\YPUN[OLÄYZ[JVTWVULU[(ZV\YJLVMZ\P[HISLSVJHS[LHJOLY[YHPULYZ^PSSILH
challenge for the delivery of this program in the future.
• ;OLWYVNYLZZPU,3WYVÄJPLUJ`^HZMVYTHU`WHY[PJPWHU[ZZSV^(TVYLPU[LUZP]LHWWYVHJO
WHY[PJ\SHYS`H[[OLILNPUUPUNTHÒH]LZLLUTVYLYHWPKPTWYV]LTLU[PUWYVÄJPLUJ`;\P[PVU
for two days twice a month was a bit piecemeal for some, and they struggled to improve. A
WVZZPISLYL]PZPVU[V[OLKLZPNU^V\SKIL[OLPUJS\ZPVUVMHUPU[LUZP]LWLYPVKVM,3WYVÄJPLUJ`
training – perhaps during the school vacation – to “kick-start” the program and set up productive
study techniques and familiarity with self-study resources.
• The introduction of home-study materials had some initial challenges, but once participants got
\ZLK[VOV^[OLZLÄ[[LKPU^P[O[OLWYVNYHT[OL`YLZWVUKLK^LSSHUKJVTWSL[PVUYH[LZMVY
work done from home was high.
• ;OL05:,;WYVNYHTPZILPUNZ\ITP[[LKMVYHJJYLKP[H[PVU\UKLY[OL5H[PVUHS8\HSPÄJH[PVUZ
Framework. This was seen by participants and stakeholders as an important aspect of the
[YHPUPUNHZP[^PSSWYV]PKLZ\JJLZZM\SWHY[PJPWHU[Z^P[OHYLJVNUPaLKX\HSPÄJH[PVUVUÔPJO[V
develop their teaching careers.
.LVќYL`*YL^LZOHZILLUPU]VS]LK^P[O,3;HUKPU[LYUH[PVUHSLK\JH[PVUMVYV]LY`LHYZ/LOHZOLSK
,3;THUHNLTLU[WVZP[PVUZH[[OL5H[PVUHS<UP]LYZP[`VM:PUNHWVYL[OL)YP[PZO*V\UJPS0UKVULZPH[OL
0UKVULZPH(\Z[YHSPH3HUN\HNL-V\UKH[PVU0(3-HUK0+70,3;:(\Z[YHSPH/LPZJ\YYLU[S`HUPUKLWLUKLU[
JVUZ\S[HU[HUKOHZYLJLU[S`JVUK\J[LKJVUZ\S[HUJPLZPU0UKVULZPH=PL[UHT;PTVY3LZ[LY3HV7+9
*HTIVKPHHUK[OL<(,/LPZH[Y\Z[LLVM[OL3HUN\HNLHUK+L]LSVWTLU[JVUMLYLUJLZLYPLZ
CASE STUDY 20 Evaluating the content of an EAP program

1VUH[OHU5L^[VU
What was the context for the evaluation?
;OPZWYVNYHTL]HS\H[PVU^HZJHYYPLKV\[H[HSHYNL:V\[OLHZ[(ZPHU\UP]LYZP[`ÔPJOH[[YHJ[ZZPNUPÄJHU[
numbers of international students for whom English is a second language. English is the medium of
instruction at this university, and so all prospective students must obtain a passing grade on an
PUOV\ZL,UNSPZO7YVÄJPLUJ`;LZ[,7;PUVYKLY[VILHJJLW[LKVUTHPUZ[YLHTJV\YZLZ;V[OPZLUK
[OL,UNSPZO+LWHY[TLU[Y\UZHUPU[LUZP]L-V\UKH[PVU)YPKNPUN,UNSPZO7YVÄJPLUJ`7YVNYHT[VWYLWHYL
hundreds of students each year for the EPT and for their future academic study at the university.
Pass rates on the EPT were proving to be modest at best, and international students often struggled
with the English language demands of their mainstream study even when they had passed the test.
The program management team in the English Department responded by implementing a plan to
improve pass rates on the EPT and upgrade the English for Academic Purposes (EAP) content of
[OLPY WYVNYHT ([ P[Z JVYL [OPZ WSHU PU]VS]LK JOHUNPUN [OL WYVÄJPLUJ` WYVNYHT MYVT H [YHKP[PVUHS
grammar-based curriculum to a task-based approach focused on engaging students in academic
\ZLZVM,UNSPZO(JJVYKPUNS`ZLUPVYZ[HќYLKLZPNULK[OLJ\YYPJ\S\THUKWYVK\JLKPUOV\ZLUL^ZL[Z
of ostensibly task-based teaching materials. However, these changes were not entirely successful.
:VTL VM [OL [LHJOPUN Z[Hќ YLZPZ[LK [OL UL^ J\YYPJ\S\T VY ^LYL \UJSLHY HIV\[ ÔH[ ^HZ L_WLJ[LK
VM [OLT ;OL Z[Hќ ÔV OHK KLZPNULK [OL J\YYPJ\S\T HSZV SHJRLK JVUÄKLUJL PU [OL X\HSP[` VM [OLPY
work, having carried it all out in-house. Students were also reported to be resistant to this new
communicative orientation in their classes. At this point, the management team initiated an evaluation
of the program.
What was the goal of the evaluation?

The goal was to evaluate the extent to which these recent curriculum innovations aligned with
international standards for best practice in task-based teaching and to provide feedback and
guidance on improving the program. Three objectives were set:
1. To identify strengths and weaknesses in the new task-based curriculum.
2. To establish an agreed set of principles and action steps for enhancing the curriculum.
3. To put in place a plan for ongoing evaluation of the curriculum drawing on data from key
stakeholders including management, teachers, and students.
Who was the audience for the evaluation?

The evaluation had three main audiences – senior management in the English Department who were
YLZWVUZPISL MVY ZL[[PUN [OL J\YYPJ\S\T ZLUPVY [LHJOPUN Z[Hќ ÔV ^LYL YLZWVUZPISL MVY ^YP[PUN [HZR
based classroom materials, and teachers who implemented the curriculum.
What information was collected and how?

First, an analysis of curriculum documents was carried out focusing on course outlines, detailed
lesson plans, and sample units of classroom materials. The analysis examined four aspects of task-
based teaching:
1. The nature of the tasks themselves.
2. The nature of the activity cycles (teaching units and lessons) within which tasks are set.
3. The sequencing of tasks within and across courses.
4. Task-based assessment.
This evaluation was guided by a taxonomy of task features and a set of principles for task-based
teaching proposed by Ellis (2003, pp. 9–10 and 276–278). From this analysis I drew up a summary of
the main areas of alignment and misalignment between the program and current understandings of
good practice in task design and task-based language teaching (TBLT). It was clear from the analysis
that tasks in the new curriculum were not consistently designed on task-based principles and that
little attention had been given to the design of task-based activity cycles or to sequencing tasks so
as to provide progression across the program. In particular, the materials showed little awareness
of how to incorporate systematic coverage of grammar and vocabulary in a task-based curriculum.
:LJVUK HSS [LHJOPUN HUK THUHNLTLU[ Z[Hќ JVTWSL[LK HU VUSPUL Z\Y]L` KLZPNULK [V VI[HPU
information on their beliefs about language learning and teaching and perceptions of the recent shift
towards task-based teaching. The survey included Likert-scale items and short-answer questions
on topics such as preferred teaching approaches, issues and challenges faced in delivering the
new curriculum, and a series of questions on attitudes to and experience of task-based and
JVTT\UPJH[P]L SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN 0[ ^HZ L]PKLU[ MYVT [OL Z\Y]L` YLZ\S[Z [OH[ THU` Z[Hќ OHK SP[[SL
understanding of the principles of task-based teaching and were not convinced that a move away
MYVTWYPVYP[PaPUNNYHTTHY[LHJOPUNHUKSLHYUPUN^HZHNVVK[OPUN;OL`WLYJLP]LK[OH[[OLYL^HZH
mismatch between the new curriculum and the high-stakes EPT, and that coverage of grammar and
vocabulary was not systematic enough.
How did you use the information?

First, I drew on information from the evaluation to design and run a series of professional learning
ZLTPUHYZHUK^VYRZOVWZVU[HZRIHZLK[LHJOPUNMVY[LHJOPUNZ[HќVU[OLWYVNYHT0UJS\KLKPULHJO
^VYRZOVW^HZHMVY\TPUÔPJO[OLZ\Y]L`YLZ\S[Z^LYLYLWVY[LKIHJR[VZ[HќHUKLHJORL`PZZ\L
discussed. As an ancillary activity, a group of teachers observed me teaching a “model” task-based
lesson to students in the program, followed by a debrief session with the teachers.
:LJVUK0KL]LSVWLKHUKYHUHZLYPLZVMWYVMLZZPVUHSKL]LSVWTLU[ZLZZPVUZMVYZLUPVYZ[HќHUK[OVZL
responsible for designing materials. Work carried out during these sessions included giving materials
KLZPNU[LHTZZHTWSLZL[ZVMTH[LYPHSZ[VHUHSàLHUKYLKLZPNUHM[LYÔPJOLHJO[LHTWYLZLU[LK[OLPY
YLKLZPNULK\UP[ZPUWSLUHY`ZLZZPVUZ0U[OLÄUHSYV\UK[HISLZLZZPVU^P[O[OLTHUHNLTLU[[LHTHU
action plan was developed detailing the further steps to be taken to address issues highlighted in
the evaluation.
:KDWZHUH\RXUðQGLQJVDQGUHFRPPHQGDWLRQV"
;OLL]HS\H[PVUPKLU[PÄLKZ\IZ[HU[PHS^LHRULZZLZPU[OLWYVJLZZVMPTWSLTLU[PUN[OPZUL^[HZRIHZLK
J\YYPJ\S\T:WLJPÄJHSS`[OLPZZ\LZ^LYL!
1. PUZ\ѝJPLU[ L_WLY[PZL HUK HSSVJH[PVUJVVYKPUH[PVU VM YLZV\YJLZ SLHKPUN [V WVVY PUZ[HU[PH[PVU VM
TBLT in teaching materials and unit outlines;
2. lack of teacher professional learning through the induction period for the new curriculum, leading
to teacher confusion and resistance;
3. failure to “sell” this new approach to students or to provide learning training, leading to student
KPZHќLJ[PVU
An action plan was developed to address four priority areas: the structure of the curriculum, materials
KLZPNU[LHJOLYWYVMLZZPVUHSSLHYUPUNHUKSLHYULY[YHPUPUN-VYLHJOHYLHRL`^LHRULZZLZ^LYLÄYZ[
PKLU[PÄLKHUKKPZJ\ZZLK;OLUH[PTLIV\UKTLHZ\YLHISLVIQLJ[P]L^HZZL[-PUHSS`HZL[VMHJ[PVU
steps and responsibilities were agreed on. To underpin this action plan, we established a process of
VUNVPUNL]HS\H[PVUVM[OLWYVNYHTÔPJOLTWOHZPaLKNH[OLYPUNL]PKLUJLVM[OLPTWHJ[VMJ\YYPJ\S\T
innovation on student satisfaction and on learning outcomes over future iterations of the program.
Reference
Ellis, R. 2003. ;HZR)HZLK3HUN\HNL3LHYUPUNHUK;LHJOPUNOxford: Oxford University Press.
+Y 1VUH[OHU 5L^[VU PZ H ZLUPVY SLJ[\YLY H[=PJ[VYPH<UP]LYZP[`VM>LSSPUN[VU5LÂLHSHUK/LOHZ

^VYRLK PU SHUN\HNL [LHJOPUN HUK [LHJOLY LK\JH[PVU MVY `LHYZ /PZ YLZLHYJO PU[LYLZ[Z PUJS\KL
ZLJVUKSHUN\HNL]VJHI\SHY`HJX\PZP[PVUSLHYUPUN[OYV\NO[HZRZHUKPU[LYJ\S[\YHSSHUN\HNL[LHJOPUN
HUKSLHYUPUN/LOHZW\ISPZOLK^PKLS`PUJS\KPUN[^VJVH\[OVYLKIVVRZ Teaching ESL/EFL Listening
and Speaking and Workplace Talk in Action: An ESOL Resource .
CASE STUDY 21,]HS\H[PUNHU,UNSPZOJV\YZLMVY[LY[PHY`SL]LSSLHYULYZ

+H]PK*YHIIL
What is the context and general purpose of the evaluation?
The teaching team at a tertiary college in a large Asian city, where English is a foreign language, is
HNYV\WVMÄ]L[LHJOLYZ,HJOVM[OLTOHZH[SLHZ[MV\Y`LHYZ»JSHZZYVVTL_WLYPLUJL;OLPY,UNSPZO
classes are for students who are majoring in a range of professional subjects ranging from commerce
to engineering. The programme is largely task-based, designed around a common-core approach in
which all students are exposed to the use of English in professional rather than technical contexts as
HWYLWHYH[PVUMVYM\[\YL^VYRWSHJLJVTT\UPJH[PVU(SS[OL[LHJOLYZHYLJVUÄKLU[[OH[[OLPYJSHZZLZ
are going well, in the sense that the students participate in class activity and appear to be engaged.
Test scores show the usual range of performance.
The teachers recently decided that they will meet regularly to explore their teaching in more depth.
;OPZ^HZWYVTW[LKWHY[SÌ`[OLMHJ[[OH[[^VVM[OLTHYLLUYVSSLKPUHUVUSPULTHZ[LY»ZX\HSPÄJH[PVU
which expects a critical approach to learning and teaching, searching for evidence of the process and
outcome of learning beyond the anecdotal.
How did the teachers make sure that their evaluation was designed in a way that was
going to be useful?
0U[OLÄYZ[[LHTKPZJ\ZZPVU[OL`ZWLU[ZVTL[PTLKPZJ\ZZPUNL_HJ[S`ÔH[ they wanted to evaluate
in their course. They came up with an initial list of three questions:
• Are the materials that are being used (a mix of published materials and teacher-made materials)
having a positive or negative impact on learning?
• What learning is taking place from the classroom communicative tasks that form the main focus
of the course?
• What language learning do the learners do outside the classroom?
At a subsequent meeting, these questions were critically evaluated. Were they the right questions?
Can they be answered, and if so how useful would the answers be for guiding classroom practice?
;OL [LHT LUKLK \W YLQLJ[PUN [OL ÄYZ[ X\LZ[PVU ILJH\ZL P[ Z\NNLZ[Z [OH[ [OL TH[LYPHSZ ^LYL HU
instrument that have a direct impact on learning, whereas the team was more interested in learning
WYVJLZZLZHUKV\[JVTLZÔPJOTPNO[ILWHY[PHSS`PUÅ\LUJLKI`[OLTH[LYPHSZI\[Z\JOHUPUÅ\LUJL
^V\SKILKPѝJ\S[[VLZ[HISPZO
The second question was considered to be more important, but again, the team had similar
reservations. A task is not so much an instrument as a bundled set of learning opportunities, and
each implementation of a task has a life of its own. On that view, anything they found out about a
task might not be so valid for the next use of that task.
The third question remained important to the team. They knew that they had to know about all the
learning going on in the background if they were to understand what the impact of the classroom
activity was.
When it came to discussion of the purpose of the evaluation, there was an even bigger issue with
these questions. The answers would only capture the value of the status quo from a teacher’s
perspective. What would the impact be if the learners themselves were engaged in the evaluation?
Would that process of engaging the learners themselves in evaluating their learning prompt changes
in learning behaviour and learning outcomes? Their approach had shifted from a focus on the
correlation between instrumental means and learning ends to a focus on the stakeholders as agents
and the impact of focusing on that agency.
This was an interesting new direction. Just through discussion amongst themselves, the team had
shifted their own perspective on what they wanted to do. They had moved from evaluating the status
quo to evaluating a change in the status quo. On the basis of this shift in thinking, the team came up
with just one evaluation question:
• What is the impact on a learning activity when learners are asked to keep track of and evaluate
their own learning over the period of the course?
The team liked the dynamic nature of this evaluation. By asking this question, they would get
evaluative data from students on the learning experiences of the course but at the same time be
evaluating a shift in the responsibilities of learners and teachers.
What information was collected and how?

Having settled the purpose and focus of the evaluation, the team worked on how they would get the
learners to keep track of and evaluate their learning. Firstly, they discussed with the learners what
they were intending to do, suggesting that talking about their learning might well enhance the learning
process. They then collected information from the following activities:
• They asked the learners to share what their learning goals were from day to day on a web-based
discussion group and to comment on their individual progress against those goals. This gave
the teachers good information on what learning the learners thought was necessary and what
success they felt they had had.
• They set up a learning conversation in each lesson. The conversation ran like a thin thread
through the lessons, reminding the learners of the learning goals and opportunities and checking
on what they felt they could and could not do at times during the lesson and at the end. The
teachers were interested in the quality of the thinking about learning that appeared in the
conversations. They noted down the issues that were raised and what strategies emerged.
• 0U[OLÄUHSJV\YZLL]HS\H[PVUX\LZ[PVUUHPYL[^VVM[OLX\LZ[PVUZHZRLK[OLSLHYULYZ[VYH[L[V
ÔH[L_[LU[[OLÒHKILULÄ[LKMYVT[OLSLHYUPUNJVU]LYZH[PVUHUK[OLKPZJ\ZZPVUNYV\W
At the end of this process, the teachers had information about goals and progress, challenges and
strategies, and learner perceptions of the value of thinking and talking about learning.
What was learned from the evaluation?

There were several lessons that the teachers took from the evaluation:
• ;OLÄYZ[NVHSZ[OLZ[\KLU[ZZL[^LYL\UYLHSPZ[PJLN¸0^HU[[VILHISL[V\UKLYZ[HUK,UNSPZO
movies”) and inevitably not achieved over the course. Later goals, with the help of the classroom
JVU]LYZH[PVUZILJHTLTVYLZWLJPÄJHUKZOVY[[LYT¸0^HU[[VPTWYV]LT`Å\LUJ`PUTHRPUN
simple statements”; “I want to be able to improve my pronunciation”; “My vocabulary needs
building up”). The students recorded progress against them.
• The contributions to classroom conversations about learning were more detailed when they took
place immediately after a shared learning activity rather than before an activity.
• The learners themselves had a good range of suggestions for strategies on how to achieve their
learning goals.
• ;OL\ZLVM[OLÄYZ[SHUN\HNLPU[OLVUSPULJVU]LYZH[PVUZLUHISLKTVYLJVTWSL_Z[H[LTLU[Z
HIV\[SLHYUPUN[VILTHKLHUK[O\ZKPKUV[WYL]LU[[OVZL^P[OSV^LYWYVÄJPLUJ`MYVT
contributing. (Two of the teachers were native speakers of the students’ L1.)
• Not all learners participated fully in all the evaluation activities. For whatever reason, not all
SLHYULYZ^PSSLUNHNL^P[OL]LY`[OPUN[OH[H[LHJOLYVYNHUPaLZ
How useful was the learning gained from the evaluation?

The teachers found the expression of personal learning goals was productive in prompting learning
activity. While the course had objectives, these did not always relate to an individual student’s
immediate learning needs. The teachers made sure that personal goal setting was a feature of their
course.
While it was not possible to demonstrate that learner engagement in monitoring their learning actually
led to better learning outcomes, the students evaluated the activity reasonably highly and reported
it as useful. Because of this, the teachers continued with it, and the next step would be to evaluate
more explicitly the impact of learning conversations on out-of-class learning activity and on aspects
VMJVUÄKLUJLHUKWYVÄJPLUJ`
+H]PK*YHIILPZJ\YYLU[S`[OL+LHUVM,K\JH[PVUH[=PJ[VYPH<UP]LYZP[`VM>LSSPUN[VU/LOHZL_[LUZP]L
WYHJ[PJHS HUK HJHKLTPJ L_WLYPLUJL PU [OL ÄLSK VM ,3; HUK W\ISPZOLZ VU J\YYPJ\S\T THUHNLTLU[
JSHZZYVVTWYHJ[PJLHUKSLHYULYH\[VUVT`/LOHZSP]LKHUK[H\NO[PU,\YVWL(MYPJH:V\[OLHZ[(ZPH
HUK5LÂLHSHUK
References
ACTFL. 2012.
308
References •
310 • References
.
References • 311
312 • References
References • 313
.
• References
References •
• References
.
References •
3.
318 • References
.
References •
.
320 • References

Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Curriculum Development in Language Teaching, Second Edition

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CURRICULUM

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

Thanks and acknowledgments v

1 The nature of curriculum 3

2 Syllabus design: a brief history 35

3 New directions in syllabus and curriculum design 56

5 Context and the curriculum 110

6 Curriculum aims and outcomes 140

Description of performance levels; writing (adapted by Paltridge from the

8 Course planning (2) 201

9 Curriculum as process 227

10 Textbooks, technology, and the curriculum 244

Changes in the second edition

3PRL[OLÄYZ[LKP[PVUVMCurriculum Development in Language Teaching, this book examines key stages

• 0U[LYUHSHUKL_[LYUHSPUÅ\LUJLZ • Curriculum and the teacher

Case study 1+L]LSVWPUNHJV\YZLPUJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVUDino Mahoney

1.1 Internal and external influences on curriculum

Internal influences on curriculum change

External influences on curriculum change

1.2 The nature of curriculum

Curriculum and syllabus

A national or state curriculum

A general competency-based curriculum for adult leaners

1.3 Curriculum and the teacher

The teacher’s curriculum or course outline

The enacted curriculum

The emergent curriculum

1.4 Curriculum as product and process

A new approach to syllabus design was central to this enterprise.

content syllabus method outcomes assessment

needs outcomes syllabus method assessment

Choice of forward or backward design

The role of contextual factors is the focus of Chapter 5.

[The curriculum] is not designed on a pre-specification of behavioural objectives. Of course

With a process understanding of curriculum, priority is attributed to learning processes, classroom

Emphases for design and implementation

APPENDIX 2 The Austrian education system

APPENDIX 3 Extract from an institutional curriculum (Lone Star College System

• Reading for everyday needs, entertainment, and information

APPENDIX 4 Extract from a general curriculum (Council of Europe 2001)

APPENDIX 5 Extract from a teacher’s curriculum

3. Intended learning outcomes

CASE STUDY 1+L]LSVWPUNHJV\YZLPUJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVU

What are the goals of the course?

What planning was involved in developing the course?

How is the course organized?

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

What is the role of materials and other resources?

What role does assessment play in the course?

CASE STUDY 2 An institutional curriculum for a pre-service English teacher-

What are the goals of the curriculum?

What planning was involved in developing the curriculum?

COURSE CONTENT KNOWLEDGE AREAS

Curriculum, Syllabus & Material Design for TEAL

Language Testing & Assessment for TEAL

Psychology of Language Learning for Adult Learners

How is the course organized?

What teaching and learning methods do you use?

What is the role of materials and other resources?

What role does assessment play in the curriculum?

• The nature of syllabus design • Vocabulary selection

Case study 3 A course in English for baristas Kyle Smith

2.1 The nature of syllabus design

content SYLLABUS method outcomes assessment

Case study 1+L]LSVWPUNHJV\YZLPUJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVUDino Mahoney

CASE STUDY 1+L]LSVWPUNHJV\YZLPUJYLH[P]LUVUÄJ[PVU

– We ate the fruit. :\IQLJ[=LYI6IQLJ[

3LHYULYZ»ULLKZHYLPKLU[PÄLKL_JS\ZP]LS`PU[LYTZVMSHUN\HNLULLKZNo matter who the learners are