Boilers Water Treatment Encyclopedia

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards
Boilers - Water Treating
Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramco’s employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.
Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

File Reference: MEX30204 M.Y. Naffa’a
Engineering Encyclopedia Vessels
Boilers-Water Treating
Contents Pages
INTRODUCTION................................................................................................................ 1
IMPURITIES IN WATER AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS ............................................... 2

Sources of Water....................................................................................................... 2
Uses of Water ........................................................................................................... 2
Boiler Feedwater ....................................................................................................... 3
Hydrostatic Testing Water......................................................................................... 3
Impurities in Water.................................................................................................... 3
Quality of Water........................................................................................................ 4
Scale.............................................................................................................. 4
Corrosion ...................................................................................................... 5
Solids ............................................................................................................ 9
Caustic .......................................................................................................... 9
Boiler Water Quality Limits......................................................................................10
BOILER WATER TREATMENT .......................................................................................11
Deaeration................................................................................................................13
Internal Chemical Treatment - Deaerator ..................................................................13
Internal Chemical Treatment - Boilers.......................................................................14
CALCULATING BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE ...............................................................15
Priming and Foaming................................................................................................16
Turbine and Superheater Fouling ..............................................................................16
Solids, Sludge, and Silica..........................................................................................16
Continuous Blowdown Rate.....................................................................................16
Blowdown Facilities .................................................................................................17
Work Aid 1 - Calculate Boiler Blowdown Rate.............................................19
GLOSSARY........................................................................................................................20
REFERENCE......................................................................................................................23

Table of Figures Pages
FIGURE 1 Common Impurities In A Water Supply ................................................... 4

FIGURE 2 Common Characteristics And Impurities In Water.................................... 7
FIGURE 3 Simplified Flow Plan - Water Treating Facilities At Uthmaniyah..............12
FIGURE 4 Typical Boiler Blowdown Facilities.........................................................18

INTRODUCTION
This module provides information on the sources and main uses of water by Saudi Aramco, and
the factors that determine water treating requirements. Information is also provided on the
quality requirements for boiler water, the methods used by Saudi Aramco for the internal chemical
treatment of boiler water, and the calculation of boiler blowdown rates. This information will
assist you in completing a typical task of monitoring a boiler blowdown system.
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

IMPURITIES IN WATER AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
Sources of Water
The usual sources of water are:
• Purchased or municipal water.

• Surface fresh water.
• Subsurface groundwater.
• Sea water.
The major concerns with purchased water are the cost, the reliability of supply, and the potential
quality variations. Water for Ju’aymah and Yanbu Gas Plants is purchased.
Surface fresh water can come from rivers, streams, lakes, or ponds. These waters usually contain
suspended matter, organic matter, dissolved solids, dissolved gases, and other man-made and
natural pollutants. Surface fresh water is rare in Saudi Arabia.
Subsurface groundwater can originate from springs and shallow or deep wells. These waters are
usually relatively free of suspended matter. They can have wide quality variations. Even normally
fresh water wells can have salt water intrusion or limited availability during dry periods. Wells are
a common source of water throughout Saudi Aramco.
Seawater is often used offshore or in arid regions such as Saudi Arabia. This water has a high
dissolved solids content, frequently over 45,000 ppm. Waste heat or low-level heat is used in
many cases to evaporate seawater as a first step in water treatment. Desalination plants are used
to produce high-quality water.
Uses of Water
Water has many uses both in municipalities and in plants. The main uses of water in Saudi
Aramco plants are:
• Once-through cooling water.

• Recirculating cooling makeup water.
• Domestic (sanitary) water.
• Boiler feedwater.
• Firefighting water.
• Crude desalting.
In addition to these main uses, water is used for engine cooling, chemical mixing, hydrostatic
testing, and other minor uses.

Boiler Feedwater
Boiler feedwater is one of the main uses of water by Saudi Aramco. Boiler feedwater consists of
returned condensate and makeup water.
Makeup water is frequently a low percentage of total feedwater, often less than 10%, because
most of the condensate is returned. Makeup water must be treated in nearly all cases. Returned
condensate can also require treatment, particularly to remove oil and control pH. The water
quality required depends on the use of the water. Higher pressure boilers require a better quality
of water.
Hydrostatic Testing Water
Fresh water is preferred for hydrostatic testing because it is less corrosive than brackish or salt
water. Almost any source of fresh water is acceptable. Protection from corrosion must be
considered.
If chemical additives are used for corrosion protection, disposal of the water must be planned and
environmental requirements considered.
Impurities in Water
Water supplies contain dissolved ions shown below. A water analysis must be performed in order
to determine if these impurities are within acceptable limits for the intended use. These impurities
consist of cations, which are positively charged ions in water, and anions, which are negatively
charged ions. Impurities are conventionally expressed in parts per million by weight (ppmw),
which is equivalent to milligrams per liter (mg/l).
The total hardness is equal to the sum of calcium plus magnesium. The total alkalinity is equal to
the sum of bicarbonate plus carbonate plus hydroxide.
Hardness and alkalinity are usually expressed in ppmw of calcium carbonate equivalent (CaCO3).
Factors to convert impurities to CaCO3 equivalent are listed in Figure 1.

Factor to Convert
Cation Impurities Chemical Symbol to CaCO3 Equivalent
Calcium Hardness in water Ca+2 2.5

Magnesium 
 Mg+2 4.1
Sodium Na 2.18
Anion Impurities
Bicarbonate  HCO3-1 0.8

Carbonate Alkalinity CO3-2 1.67
Hydroxide  OH-1 2.9
Chlorides Cl-1 1.4
Sulfates SO4-2 1.0
Nitrates NO3-1 0.8
Other Impurities
Carbon Dioxide CO2 1.14

Silica SiO2 0.83
FIGURE 1 Common Impurities In A Water Supply
Quality of Water
The following types of impurities found in water are a concern in steam generating systems. For a
summary of water impurities, difficulties, and treatment methods, see Figure 2.
• Scale-forming and deposit-forming insoluble solids.
• Soluble salts and dissolved gases that can enhance or cause corrosion.
• Dissolved solids, oil, and silica that can carry over into the steam from a boiler.
• Caustic (sodium hydroxide - NaOH), which can cause embrittlement.
Scale
Scale and deposits result when insoluble salts deposit on heat transfer surfaces. These deposits
reduce heat transfer, increase tube metal temperatures, and cause possible equipment failure.

Among the significant scale- and deposit-forming impurities are:
• Calcium.
• Magnesium.
• Silica.
• Phosphates.*
• Oil.
• Iron, copper.
• Other suspended solids and turbidity.
* NOTE: This impurity can be added unintentionally during internal chemical
treatment.
Corrosion
Corrosion affects distribution piping, feedwater piping and heaters, boiler internals, and
condensate piping. The main causes are oxygen, carbon dioxide, chlorine, and excess alkalinity.
Corrosives act in different ways. Oxygen causes pitting or formation of small pits in distribution
piping, feedwater systems, and boilers. It also aggravates corrosion in condensate systems.
Oxygen can be removed externally in a deaerator, or it can be scavenged internally by adding
sulfite or hydrazine.

Page 1 of 3
CHEMICAL DIFFICULTIES MEANS OF
CONSTITUENT FORMULA CAUSED TREATMENT
Turbidity None. Usually Imparts unsightly Coagulation, settling,
expressed in Jackson appearance to water; and filtration.
Turbidity Units deposits in water lines,
process equipment, boilers,
and so on; interferes with
most process uses.
Color None Decaying organic material Coagulation, filtration,
and metallic ions causing chlorination, adsorption
color may cause foaming in by activated carbon.
boilers; hinders
precipitation methods such
as iron removal, hot
phosphate softening; can
stain product in process
use.
Hardness Calcium, magnesium, Chief source of scale in Softening, distillation,
barium, and heat exchange equipment, internal boiler water
strontium salts boilers, pipe lines, and so treatment, surface active
expressed as CaCO3. on; forms curds with soap; agents, reverse osmosis,
interferes with dyeing and electrolytes.
so on.
Alkalinity Bicarbonate (CHO3- Foaming and carryover of Lime and lime-soda
1) carbonate, (CO3- solids with steam; softening, acid
2), and hydroxyl embrittlement of boiler treatment, hydrogen
(OH-1), expressed as steel; bicarbonate and zeolite softening,
CaCO3 carbonate produce CO3 in demineralization,
steam, a source of dealkalization by anion
corrosion. exchange, distillation,
degasifying.
Free Mineral Acid H2SO4, HCl, etc., Corrosion Neutralization with
expressed as CaCO3 alkalies.
titrated to methyl
orange end-point.
Carbon Dioxide CO2 Corrosion in water lines Aeration, deaeration,
and particularly steam and neutralization with
condensate lines. alkalines, liming, and
neutralizing amines.
pH Hydrogen ion pH varies according to pH can be increased by
concentration defined acidic or alkaline solids in alkalies and decreased
as: water; most natural waters by acids.
pH = log 1 have a pH of 6.0 - 8.0
(H +1 )
Sulfate (SO4)-2 Adds to solids content and Demineralization,
increases corrosive distillation, reverse
character of water. osmosis, electrodialysis.

Chloride Cl-1 Adds to solids content and Demineralization,

increases corrosive distillation, reverse
character of water. osmosis, electrodialysis.
FIGURE 2 Common Characteristics And Impurities In Water
Page 2 of 3
Nitrate (NO3)-1 Adds to solids content, but Demineralization,
is not usually significant distillation, reverse osmosis,
industrially; useful for electrodialysis.
control of boiler metal
embrittlement.
Fluoride F-1 Not usually significant Adsorption with magnesium
industrially. hydroxide, calcium
phosphate, or bone black;
Alum coagulation; reverse
osmosis, electrolytes.
Silica SiO2 Scale in boilers and Hot process removal with
cooling water systems: magnesium salts; adsorption
insoluble turbine blade by highly basic anion
deposits due to silica exchange resins, in
vaporization. conjunction with
demineralization;
distillation.
Iron Fe-2 (ferrous) Discolors water on Aeration, coagulation, and
Fe-3 (ferric) precipitation; source of filtration, lime softening,
deposits in water lines, cation exchange, contact
boilers, and so on; filtration, surface active
interferes with dyeing, agents for iron retention.
tanning, paper mfr., and
so on.
Manganese Mn+2 Same as Iron. Same as Iron.
Oil Expressed as oil or Scale, sludge, and Baffle separators, strainers,
chloroform foaming in boilers; coagulation, and filtration,
extractable matter, impedes heat exchange; diatomaceous earth
ppmw. undesirable in most filtration.
processes.
Oxygen O2 Corrosion of water lines, Deaeration, sodium sulfite,
heat exchange equipment, corrosion inhibitors,
boilers, return lines, etc. hydrazine or suitable
substitutes.
Hydrogen Sulfide H2S Cause of “rotten egg” Aeration, chlorination,
odor; corrosion. highly basic anion
exchange.

Ammonia NH2 Corrosion of copper and Carbon exchange with

zinc alloys by formation hydrogen zeolite,
of complex soluble ion. chlorination, deaeration,
mixed bed demineralization.
Conductivity Expressed as Conductivity is the result Any process which
micromhos, of ionizable solids in decreases dissolved soils
specific solution; high content will decrease
conductance. conductivity can increase conductivity; examples are
the corrosive demineralization, lime
characteristics of a water. softening.
FIGURE 2 (CONT'D)
Page 3 of 3
Dissolved Solids None “Dissolved Solids” is a Various softening
measure of total amount processes, such as lime
of dissolved matter, softening and cation
determined by exchange by hydrogen
evaporation; high zeolites, will reduce
concentrations of dissolved solids;
dissolved solids are demineralization;
objectionable because of distillation; reverse
process interference and osmosis, electrolytes.
as a cause of foaming in
boilers.
Suspended Solids None “Suspended Solids” is Subsidence, filtration,
the measure of usually preceded by
undissolved matter, coagulation and settling.
determined
gravimetrically;
suspended solids plug
lines, cause deposits in
heat exchange
equipment, boilers, etc.
Total Solids None “Total Solids” is the See “Dissolved Solids”
sum of dissolved and and “Suspended Solids.”
suspended solids,
determined
gravimetrically.
Source: GPSA Engineering Data Book
FIGURE 2 (CONT'D)

Corrosion (Cont’d)
Carbon dioxide also causes condensate system corrosion. It can be removed in a deaerator,
degasifier, or decarbonator.
Ammonia attacks copper alloys. Ammonia is sometimes added for pH control in feedwater or
condensate. It can also be formed by hydrazine decomposition. A deaerator will remove
ammonia.
Abnormal alkalinity produces film corrosion and turbine fouling.
Excessive chelates or dispersants can cause corrosion in steam piping and throughout the steam
system.
Impurities that enhance corrosion include:
• Oxygen.
• Carbon dioxide.
• Ammonia.*
• Alkalinity.*
• Chlorides.
• Sulfites.*
• Hydrazine.*
• Chelates.*
• Organics.
* NOTE: These impurities can be added unintentionally during internal chemical
treatment.
Solids
Carryover of solids from boiler water into the steam is caused by inadequate separation in a boiler
drum, by volatilizing of silica, and by foaming resulting from oil contamination of boiler water.
Solids carryover can result in superheater failure, steam turbine blade fouling, and process catalyst
fouling. The main causes of such problems are high total dissolved solids (TDS), alkalinity, oil,
and silica in the boiler drum.
Caustic
Caustic embrittlement is the cracking of metal along grain boundaries. It can result from too
much caustic in boiler water, particularly in poorly controlled caustic-pH programs where caustic
is added for pH control.

Boiler Water Quality Limits
Saudi Aramco has established boiler water quality limits for gas plant boilers operating in the
range of 400-650 psig. This covers most of Saudi Aramco's boilers. Quality limits for boiler
feedwater, steam drum water, condensate return, and steam are listed in
Work Aid 1.
These boiler feedwater and steam drum water qualities are based on the use of demineralized or
desalinated water. All limits are the same for the two sources, except that limits on the chloride
content are added when desalinated water is used.
Silica limits are well established, based on the maximum level to prevent vaporization and
carryover of silica, which can foul turbine blades.
The chloride limit is specified for desalinated makeup water to prevent internal corrosion.
The conductivity levels specified are typical operating levels, rather than absolute limits.
Conductivity is correlated to the maximum level of the limiting constituent in boiler water (for
example, silica or chloride). Because of the ease and reliability of measuring conductivity,
conductivity is the primary parameter for controlling boiler water blowdown.
Alkalinity should not be a limiting or controlling parameter. However, it should be monitored to

confirm that alkalinity levels, particularly hydroxyl alkalinity (B alkalinity), do not exceed 40 mg/l.
Excessive free hydroxyl alkalinity introduces the potential for caustic attack. High levels of total
alkalinity may cause carryover of boiler water salts into the steam system, leading to possible
fouling of superheater tubes or turbine blades.

BOILER WATER TREATMENT
The four main steps for treating boiler water and reducing impurities are the following:
• External treatment, upstream of the boiler and deaerator. This can reduce the hardness ions
of calcium and magnesium, silica, chlorides, oil, organics, suspended solids, and other
impurities.
• Deaeration. This can reduce the amount of oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ammonia in the
water.
• Internal chemical treatment in the boiler or deaerator. This can control scale and corrosion
that result from impurities not removed in external treatment.
• Blowdown. This can remove solids that accumulate and concentrate in the boiler because of
evaporation.
Boiler water treatment is illustrated in Figure 3, which is a simplified flow plan of the water
treatment facilities at Uthmaniyah. This shows the many treatment steps that can be required in a
single plant. The flow sequence includes the following steps:
• Wells as the water source.
• External water treatment.
- Sulfuric acid injection.
- Aeration in a tower.
- Iron removal filters.
- Cartridge filters.
- Electrodialysis.
- Demineralization.
+ Cation units.
+ Anion units.
- Preheating.
• Other external water treatment processes are used in other plants. These include the
following:
- Reverse osmosis.
- Sodium zeolite softening.
- Multistage flash evaporation.
• Deaeration.

FIGURE 3 Simplified Flow Plan - Water Treating Facilities At Uthmaniyah

• Internal chemical treatment.
- Nalco 356 injection.

- Sulfite injection.
- Nalco 7200 injection.
• Blowdown.
Deaeration
Gases dissolved in water, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, must be minimized. Both carbon
dioxide and oxygen can cause corrosion of carbon steel in steam generation facilities. Dissolved
oxygen is a major contributor to the pitting corrosion experienced in boilers, especially in
economizers and downcomer tubes. Corrosion frequently is more severe in the cooler portions of
boilers, because the oxygen is released there first. Carbon dioxide causes condensate line
corrosion, especially in combination with oxygen.
Deaerators are required to remove oxygen in the boiler feedwater before the water is fed to the
boilers. Boilers operating above 600 psig require deaerators capable of reducing oxygen to less
than 0.007 ppm.
In pressure-type deaerating heaters and deaerators, the oxygen removal (deaeration) level
achieved is a function of the temperature, pressure, and degree of stripping. Deaeration is based
on the fact that oxygen has an inverse solubility curve in water. A pressure deaerator uses steam
to heat the water to the saturation temperature, where the oxygen solubility is very low. Steam
stripping is provided to reduce the oxygen partial pressure in the vapor phase. Since the solubility
of oxygen is a function of the partial pressure, these two steps remove the maximum amount of
oxygen. If the deaerator is working properly, the temperature of the storage section of the
deaerator will be within 2 to 3°F of the steam saturation temperature at the operating pressure of
the deaerator. A positive steam plume is required at the vent on pressure units to assure effective
venting of the stripped gases. Typical steam pressures used in pressure-type deaerators vary from
2 to 60 psig.
There are two basic types of deaerators, tray and spray. In the tray type, the water is distributed
over trays, and steam is injected to strip the dissolved gases from the water as it cascades down
from tray to tray. The spray type uses spray nozzles to atomize the water into droplets. Some
deaerators combine both trays and sprays.
Internal Chemical Treatment - Deaerator
After deaeration, an oxygen scavenger is added to the boiler feedwater to destroy the residual free
oxygen in the water. Hydrazine and sodium sulfite are the most cost effective oxygen scavengers.

Catalyzed sodium sulfite is used in most Saudi Aramco plants. This removes the free, dissolved
oxygen, but adds dissolved salts to the boiler water. Sulfite reacts with oxygen to form sodium
sulfite salt. Sodium sulfite is added to the boiler feedwater to maintain a residual concentration of
20 to 30 ppm SO3 in the boiler blowdown. Some plants have replaced sodium sulfite injection
with diethyl hydroxylamine (DEHA).
Internal Chemical Treatment - Boilers
Many types of chemical treatments are available for use with boiler water to protect the boiler
from scale and corrosion. These chemicals generally react with the impurities in the water to form
compounds that will not deposit on the boiler tube surfaces and can be removed with the
blowdown. These compounds can be completely water soluble or can be free-flowing sludges.
The choice of chemicals used depends upon the type and amount of impurities in the water, which
are largely the result of the type of water treating system used. Improper use of boiler chemicals
can cause additional problems in the boiler, including corrosion or other types of deposits on the
boiler tubes.
Polymers are used in most Saudi Aramco boilers to control scale deposition on the boiler tube
surfaces. Nalco 7200 “Transport-Plus” is injected into the boiler feedwater at a rate of 2.5 ppm.
This chemical solubilizes the hardness ions in the feedwater. Particulate iron is also dispersed by
the action of the polymer. This chemical also helps prevent carryover by controlling foaming in
the steam drum.
The dosage rate is determined by the total hardness and total iron in the feedwater. Control
includes monitoring the total reacted and residual product in boiler feedwater. Testing for residual
product in the boiler water is also required. Determination of product effectiveness is by
measurement of % transport of Ca, Mg, Fe, and SiO2. Aim for 100% transport. This indicates
that the system is in balance.
boiler water concentration

% transport = x 100
(feedwater concentration x cycles )
where: cycles = ratio of feedwater rate to blowdown rate.

CALCULATING BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE
All dissolved and suspended solids entering a boiler with the feedwater remain in the drums and
tubes as steam is generated. The continual addition of feedwater produces higher and higher
concentration of solids in the boiler water. A point can be reached beyond which operation is
completely unsatisfactory. This situation may be caused by dissolved solids, silica content, or
alkalinity. Every boiler has a limit above which foaming and carryover occur. To keep boiler
water concentrations below this limit, remove some of the concentrated boiler water from the unit
as blowdown.
The intermittent or manual blowdown is taken from the bottom of the mud drum. This blowdown
is mainly intended to remove any sludge formed in the boiler water. With polymer treatment, both
suspended and dissolved solids are present in the water. These must be removed to prevent solids
from settling and caking on the heat transfer surfaces. The manual blowdown should be used
approximately once per day for a few seconds to remove suspended solids which may have settled
in the mud drum.
A continuous blowdown system helps to keep the boiler water within the concentration limits on a
relatively constant basis. Removing a small stream of water continuously saves water, chemicals,
and heat. The heat in the continuous blowdown water can be recovered in a heat exchange
system installed in the blowdown system. The continuous blowdown is usually located below the
normal water level in the steel drum.
Proper regulation of boiler blowdown is very important in boiler operation. Too little blowdown
allows the concentration of suspended and dissolved solids to become too great, resulting in scale
formation and carryover of impurities in the steam. Too much blowdown wastes fuel and
feedwater. Globe valves with position indicators allow for accurate control.
Boiler concentration limits applied to control corrosion and fouling in the boiler vary as a function
of the operating pressure. In some cases, the blowdown from a high pressure application is
suitable for makeup to a lower pressure steam generator.
Steam that is dirty and wet can cause deposits in superheaters, turbines, and control valves, and
process contamination can result. A good separation of water and steam must occur inside the
boiler to produce clean and dry steam. Most boilers have effective mechanical separators in the
boiler drum when the water boils smoothly. When boiler water primes or foams, however,
impurities are carried over in the steam. While water priming and foaming are partly controlled
through careful operation of the boiler drum level and chemical injections, respectively, they are
highly dependent on maintaining proper boiler blowdown.

Priming and Foaming
Priming is caused by too high a water level in the boiler drum, which decreases the surface area
for steam release, or by upsets in boiler water circulation because of sudden steam load increases,
erratic hot gas flow, or sudden increases in heat input. To prevent priming, the operator must
maintain the boiler water level in accordance with the manufacturer's instructions.
Foaming is caused by chemical conditions in the boiler water that result in excessive dissolved and
suspended solids. Some boiler waters will foam when a sudden change in their chemical
composition occurs. High amounts of dissolved and suspended solids, alkalinity, oil, and organic
contaminants that can act as surfactants in the boiler water promote foaming. Commercial
antifoams, blended into water treating formulations, have been successful and can be verified for
effectiveness by monitoring steam purity with a sodium analyzer.
Turbine and Superheater Fouling
The measure of steam carryover is the rate of turbine and superheater fouling. Superheater
fouling results in increased pressure drop and ultimately tube rupture because of high tube wall
temperatures. Turbine fouling can be measured by frequent monitoring of turbine steam flow and
corresponding steam chamber pressure and comparing the information to the clean condition.
The method can indicate a fouling condition over a period of three to four days. It is not useful,
however, for isolating a steam carryover problem where a number of boilers supply a common
steam header that then supplies a turbine.
Solids, Sludge, and Silica
Boiler blowdown is adjusted to maintain steam purity. Procedures for determining total dissolved
solids, sludge, and silica are as follows:
• Total dissolved solids (conductivity): The amount of dissolved solids can be calculated from
the sodium salts naturally present in the feedwater, soluble silica, and any soluble chemicals
added for treatment. The amount of dissolved solids in the boiler drum is measured with a
conductivity meter, which indicates the amount of dissolved salts by the electrical
conductivity of the water. Excessive amounts of dissolved salts cause foaming and
carryover of impurities in the steam. A continuous conductivity monitor/recorder on the
boiler blowdown is recommended.
Continuous Blowdown Rate
The blowdown rate depends on the boiler feedwater quality. Blowdown is usually calculated as a
percent of steam production. Because of the high quality of demineralized water, blowdown may
be about 1% with a system designed for a 5 to 10% blowdown rate. With zeolite-softened water,
blowdown may be 5 to 10%, with a system designed for 10% or more.

A 100
X = (100 ) = (Eqn. 1)
B - A C - 1
where: X = Blowdown rate, % of steam flow.
A = Concentration of impurity in boiler feedwater.
B = Target concentration of impurity in steam drum. Refer to Work Aid 2 for

target concentration limits.
C = Cycle of concentration.
= Ratio of feedwater rate to blowdown rate.
100
Y = (Eqn. 2)
C
where: Y = Blowdown rate, % of feedwater rate.
For example, assume that for a 600 psig boiler, the feedwater has 0.05 ppmw silica, and the target
concentration in the boiler water is 10 ppmw. The blowdown rate required to control silica
would be:
0. 05
(100 ) = 0.502% = 0. 5%
X = 10 - 0. 05
The cycle of concentration would be:
100
C = + 1 = 200
X
Blowdown Facilities
Blowdown facilities limit solids buildup in the boiler water caused by evaporation. The system
must safely dispose of the flashing steam and hot liquid.
Blowdown from high-pressure boilers may be flashed at several levels. For example,
600-psig blowdown may be flashed at 125 psig, at 15 psig, and at atmospheric pressure. Drums
are used as the flash vessels. Flashed steam is recovered except for that steam flashed at
atmospheric pressure. The liquid is flashed at a lower pressure or sent to the sewer or waste
disposal. Flashing in the sewer should be avoided because of the personnel hazard. Heat exchange
between the blowdown waste liquid and cold makeup water is common when energy costs are
high.

Figure 4 shows a typical blowdown system arrangement. It includes a medium-pressure and low-
pressure flash drum for continuous blowdown from a boiler steam drum and atmospheric flash
drum for intermittent blowdown from a boiler mud drum. Condensate from the continuous
blowdown low-pressure flash drum is routed through a heat exchanger to site drainage.
Condensate from the intermittent blowdown drum is sent directly to the sewer after an
atmospheric flash. The intermittent blowdown drum is piped so that it can spare the continuous
blowdown system for maintenance.
FIGURE 4 Typical Boiler Blowdown Facilities

Work Aid 1 - Calculate Boiler Blowdown Rate
Saudi Aramco Water Quality Control Limits
The following quality limits apply to demineralized or desalinated water.
Boiler Steam Drum Condensat

Feedwater Water Steam
Return
Conductivity at
25 °C, µS/cm <10 1000-1500 10 10
pH 8.2-9.5 10.0-11.5 8.2-9.2 8.2-9.2
Iron, mg/l <0.025 <0.05
Copper, mg/1 < 0.025
Silica, mg/l <0.05 0-15 <0.02
Sodium, mg/l <0.05
Chloride, mg/l <0.05* <50*
Dissolved Oxygen, mg/l <0.007
Residual Sulfite, mg/l 20-30
Total Alkalinity, mg/l 50-300
Hydroxyl Alkalinity <40
(B Alkalinity), mg/l
Suspended Solids, mg/l <50
N-7200, mg/l 2.5 x Cycles
* Monitored when desalinated water is used.
mg/l = ppm
Source: Saudi Aramco Report PD-4L/324/84

GLOSSARY
alkalinity The total carbonate, bicarbonate, and hydroxide ion

concentration in the water expressed as ppm calcium
carbonate equivalent. These ions react with acid.
anion exchanger A vessel containing insoluble resin that is capable of
exchanging one anion, usually hydroxide ions, for other
undesirable anions in the water, for example, sulfates,
chlorides, and nitrates.
anions Negatively charged ions in the water, for example,
sulfates, chlorides, nitrates, and bicarbonates.
attemperating Spraying water on steam coming out of a boiler to lower
the temperature of the steam.
biochemical oxygen A measure of the oxygen consumed in the oxidation of
demand (BOD) organic and oxidizable inorganic materials in wastewater
(expressed in ppm).
biocide A poisonous chemical substance that can kill living
organisms.
blowdown The removal of a portion of water from a system or
boiler drum to control the concentration of dissolved
and suspended impurities in the system or boiler water.
calcium and The concentration of calcium and magnesium ions in the
magnesium hardness water, expressed as ppm calcium carbonate equivalent.
cations Positively charged ions in the water, for example,
calcium, magnesium, and sodium.
caustic or caustic Sodium hydroxide (NaOH).
soda
caustic A type of boiler corrosion characterized by cracking of
embrittlement the metal along the grain boundaries. It may occur
when highly stressed metal is exposed to concentrated
boiler water. It is usually associated with high
concentrations of sodium hydroxide.
coagulation A process whereby suspended and colloidal particles,
which cause turbidity and color in water, are combined
by physical means into masses large enough to settle.

degasification/ The process of removing dissolved gases other than air

from water. Air from a blower comes into intimate,
decarbonation
countercurrent contact with the water droplets and
scrubs out the gases. Degasification in boiler water
treatment is usually used to remove carbon dioxide.
demineralization The removal of dissolved ionic matter from water.
desuperheating Spraying water on steam in the system to reduce the
temperature of the steam.
dissolved solids See Total Dissolved Solids.

dolomitic lime Lime containing 30-35wt% magnesium oxide.
filtration The process of passing water containing suspended
matter through a porous material to remove the
suspended matter. The suspended matter is normally
reduced to less than one NTU of turbidity.
hardness Same as calcium and magnesium hardness.
ion Electrically charged particle formed when a molecule
dissociates into positive and negative particles, for
example, salt into positive sodium and negative chloride
ions.
makeup water Water added to a system to make up for losses or
blowdown.
nephelometric A measurement of the turbidity of a sample of water,
determined by light reflection.
turbidity unit (NTU)
organics As used in this course, complex acids resulting from
decaying plants and other forms of pollution.
pH A measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of a system.
The reference temperature for pH is 25°C (77°F) and
the pH scale runs from 0 (highly acidic) to 14 (highly
basic), with pH=7.0 being neutral.
potable water Drinkable water.
raw water Water that has not yet been processed by a water
treating plant.
silica An impurity present in water sources, expressed as
reactive SiO2.

suspended solids Finely divided insoluble matter present in water. The

suspended solids are normally inorganic material, such
as clay, rock, silt, and so on.
total dissolved solids Impurities, normally salts, that are present in the water
(TDS) in solution, usually as ionic material.
total hardness Calcium plus magnesium hardness.
total solids The sum of the suspended and dissolved solids in water.
treated water Water that has been processed to reduce the suspended
and dissolved impurities.
turbidity Lack of clarity due to the presence of suspended or
colloidal matter, expressed in Nephelometric Turbidity
Units (NTU).

REFERENCE
Saudi Aramco Standards
AES-S-040 Aramco Water Systems
Saudi Aramco Design Practices
ADP-S-040 Aramco Water Systems
Exxon Basic Practices
BP11-5-1 Water Deaerators and Degasifiers (Decarbonators)
Saudi Aramco PEPD Courses
ChE 107 Water Treatment and Distribution

ChE 107.01 Sources, Uses and Impurities
ChE 107.02 Water Treatment Systems
Other Saudi Aramco References
Report PD-4L/324/84 Guidelines for the Application and Control of Boiler Water
Treatment Program Using Demin/Desal Make-Up Water and Polymer for
Internal Treatment.
Other References
GPSA Engineering Data Book

Boilers Water Treatment Encyclopedia

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Boilers Water Treatment Encyclopedia

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Engineering Encyclopedia

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Boilers - Water Treating

Chapter : Vessels For additional information on this subject, contact

IMPURITIES IN WATER AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS ............................................... 2

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Table of Figures Pages

FIGURE 1 Common Impurities In A Water Supply ................................................... 4

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 1

IMPURITIES IN WATER AND POTENTIAL PROBLEMS

The usual sources of water are:

• Purchased or municipal water.

• Once-through cooling water.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 2

Hydrostatic Testing Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3

Calcium Hardness in water Ca+2 2.5

Bicarbonate  HCO3-1 0.8

Carbon Dioxide CO2 1.14

FIGURE 1 Common Impurities In A Water Supply

• Scale-forming and deposit-forming insoluble solids.

• Caustic (sodium hydroxide - NaOH), which can cause embrittlement.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 4

Among the significant scale- and deposit-forming impurities are:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 5

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 6

Chloride Cl-1 Adds to solids content and Demineralization,

FIGURE 2 Common Characteristics And Impurities In Water

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 7

Ammonia NH2 Corrosion of copper and Carbon exchange with

Source: GPSA Engineering Data Book

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 8

Abnormal alkalinity produces film corrosion and turbine fouling.

Impurities that enhance corrosion include:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 9

Boiler Water Quality Limits

Alkalinity should not be a limiting or controlling parameter. However, it should be monitored to

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 10

BOILER WATER TREATMENT

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 11

FIGURE 3 Simplified Flow Plan - Water Treating Facilities At Uthmaniyah

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 12

• Internal chemical treatment.

- Nalco 356 injection.

Internal Chemical Treatment - Deaerator

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 13

Internal Chemical Treatment - Boilers

boiler water concentration

where: cycles = ratio of feedwater rate to blowdown rate.

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 14

CALCULATING BOILER BLOWDOWN RATE

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 15

Priming and Foaming

Turbine and Superheater Fouling

Solids, Sludge, and Silica

Continuous Blowdown Rate

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 16

where: X = Blowdown rate, % of steam flow.

A = Concentration of impurity in boiler feedwater.

B = Target concentration of impurity in steam drum. Refer to Work Aid 2 for

The cycle of concentration would be:

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 17