Chemistry +2hhslive

CHAPTER 2 SOLUTIONS
PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K,GHSS VARAVOOR(8040) , THRISSUR(DT)

9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
1. What is a solution?
Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more substances.
Solutions having only two components are called binary solutions. E.g. Salt water
The component which is in larger amount is called solvent.
The component which is in smaller amount is called solute.
Solute + Solvent → Solu on
Salt + Water → Salt water
2. Which are three types of solutions based on appearance?
(I) Gaseous solutions :- Their appearance is gas. E.g. Air
(II) Liquid solutions :- Their appearance is liquid . E.g. Salt water
(III) Solid solutions:- Their appearance is solid. E.g. Alloys
3. What is concentration of a solution?
The amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution is called concentration.
4. Which are the different modes of expressing concentration of a solution?
Mass percentage, Volume percentage, Parts per million, Molarity , Molality , Mole fraction
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 = 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎

𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
𝐌𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝐏𝐚𝐫𝐭𝐬 𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐦𝐢𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 = 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟔
𝐓𝐨𝐭𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧
5. Define mole fraction and give its equations.
Mole fraction is the ratio of number of moles of one component to the total number of moles of the solution.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝒏
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆(𝑿𝑩 ) = = 𝑩
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒏𝑨+𝒏𝑩
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒏𝑨
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒆 𝒇𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕(𝑿𝑨 ) = 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒏𝑨+𝒏𝑩
Total mole fraction is always one . 𝑿𝑨 + 𝑿𝑩 = 𝟏
6. Differentiate molarity and molality .
Molarity Molality
Molarity is defined as the number of moles of Molality is defined as the number of moles of solute in
solute in one litre of the solution. one kilogram of the solvent.
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆
𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 = = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚 =
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒓𝒆
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒌𝒊𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎
𝑾𝑩×𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑩×𝑽 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒍) =
𝑴𝑩 × 𝑾𝑨( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
Molarity depends on temperature because Molality is independent on temperature because mass

volume changes with temperature does not change with temperature.
7. Mole fraction, mass percentage and molality are temperature independent.
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8. What are the factors affecting the solubility of a solid in liquid?
(I) Nature of solute and solvent:- Like dissolves like. Polar substance soluble in polar solvents (NaCl in
water) and non polar substance soluble in non polar solvents (naphthalene in benzene)
(II) Effect of temperature:- The solubility of most of the solutes in water is endothermic and solubility
increases with increase of temperature. Some are exothermic. In such cases solubility decreases with
increases of temperature.
(III) Effect of pressure:- Pressure has no effect because solids and liquids are incompressible.
9. What are the factors affecting the solubility of a gas in liquid?
(I) Nature of gas and solvent:- Easily liquefiable gas is more soluble than permanent gas.
Eg. CO2 is more soluble in water than H2
(II) Effect of temperature:- Since the solubility of most of the gases in water is exothermic and
solubility decreases with increase of temperature.
E.g. Fish and other aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water.
(III) Effect of pressure :- As pressure increases solubility increases.
10. Fish and other aquatic species are more comfortable in cold water than in warm water. Why?
In cold water dissolved oxygen is high. When temperature increases, solubility of oxygen in water decreases.
11. State Henry’s law and give its applications.
Henry’s law states that at constant temperature, the solubility of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to
the pressure of the gas. 𝒎 ∝𝑷 OR
Henry’s law states that partial pressure of the gas in vapour phase is proportional to the mole fraction of the
gas in the solution. 𝒑∝ 𝑿 OR 𝒑 = 𝑲𝑯𝑿 where KH= Henry’s constant
Applications:
(I) To increase the solubility of carbon dioxide in soft drinks and soda water, the bottle is sealed under
high pressure.
(II) To avoid the toxic effects (bends) of high concentration of nitrogen in blood, the tanks used by scuba
divers are filled with air diluted with helium.
(III) At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is low and partial pressure of oxygen is less. This leads to low
concentration of oxygen in blood and in tissues. Low blood oxygen results in physical weakness
(anoxia) and is unable to think clearly.
12. What is vapour pressure? What happens to vapour pressure when a non volatile solute is added ?
The pressure exerted by the vapours over the surface of the liquid at equilibrium is called vapour pressure.
In a binary solution, if both components are volatile, total vapour pressure is the sum of the partial pressures
of each component.
When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent, vapour pressure is lowered due to decrease in the
number of solvent molecules at surface. It is due to the presence of non volatile solute at the surface.
13. State Raoult’s law for solution having volatile liquids. Give its equations. Draw its graph.
Raoult’s law states that for volatile solutions, the

partial vapour pressure of each component at a given
temperature is directly proportional to its mole
fraction in solution.
𝑷𝑨 ∝ 𝑿𝑨 , OR 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨𝑿𝑨
𝑷𝑩 ∝ 𝑿𝑩 , OR 𝑷𝑩 = 𝑷𝟎𝑩𝑿𝑩
PA = Partial pressure of solvent in solution ,
PB = Partial pressure of solute in solution
𝑷𝑨𝟎 = Partial pressure of solvent in pure state ,
𝑷𝑩𝟎 = Partial pressure of solute in pure state
XA = Mole fraction of solvent ,

XB = Mole fraction of solute

According to Dalton’s law of partial pressure, Ptotal = PA + PB = 𝑷𝟎 𝑿𝑨 + 𝑷𝟎 𝑿𝑩
𝑨 𝑩
For a solution having non volatile ssolute, total vapour pressure is the vapour pressure of the solvent only.
∴ 𝑷 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨𝑿𝑨
14. What are ideal solutions?
Solutions which obey Raoult’s law.∆V mixing = 0 ∆H mixing = 0
A-B interaction = A-A interaction or B-B interaction
Examples : n-hexane and n-heptane , Chloroethane and bromoethane, Benzene and toluene
15. What are non ideal solutions?
Solutions which do not obey Raoult’s law at all temperatures and concentrations.
∆V mixing ≠ 0 ∆H mixing≠ 0 A-B interaction ≠ A-A interaction or B-B interaction
Non ideal solutions are two types.
(i) Non ideal solutions having positive deviation
(ii) Non ideal solutions having negative deviation
Non ideal solutions having positive Non ideal solutions having negative
deviation deviation
In this case, the partial vapour pressure of any In this case, the partial vapour pressure of any
component of a solution and total vapour pressure component of a solution and total vapour pressure will
will be greater than that expected on the basis of be less than that expected on the basis of Raoultz law
Raoultz law
𝑷𝑨 > 𝑷𝑨𝟎𝑿𝑨 , 𝑷𝑩 > 𝑷𝟎𝑩𝑿𝑩 𝑷𝑨 < 𝑷𝑨𝟎𝑿𝑨 , 𝑷𝑩 < 𝑷𝟎𝑩𝑿𝑩
∆V mixing> 0 ∆V mixing <0
∆H mixing> 0 ∆H mixing< 0
A-B interaction < A-A interaction or A-B interaction > A-A interaction or B-B interaction
B-B interaction
Examples: Alcohol and acetone , Acetone and Examples: Chloroform and acetone , Water and nitric
carbon di sulphide acid
16. What are azeotropes or azeotropic mixture? Explain each.

Liquid mixtures which boil at constant temperature and can be distilled without change in composition are
called azeotropes.
It cannot be separated by fractional distillation.

These are two types . (1) Maximum boiling azeotropes and ( 2) Minimum boiling azeotropes
Maximum boiling azeotropes Minimum boiling azeotropes
These are mixture of two liquids whose boiling points These are mixture of two liquids whose boiling points
are more than either of two pure components. are less than either of two pure components.
These are formed by non ideal solutions showing These are formed by non ideal solutions showing
negative deviation. positive deviation.
e.g. HNO3 (68 %) and water (32%) mixture boils at e.g. Ethanol(95.6 %) and water (4.4%) mixture boils at
393.5 K 351.15 K
17. What are colligative properties?
Properties that depend only on the number of particles of solute present in solution and not on the nature of
particles are colligative properties.
Colligative properties are used to find out the molecular mass of solute.
18. Which are four colligative properties?
(a) Relative lowering of vapour pressure
(b) Elevation of boiling point
(c) Depression of freezing point
(d) Osmotic pressure
19. Relative lowering of vapour pressure:- When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent, vapour
pressure is lowered. This is called lowering of vapour pressure.
Total vapour pressure of the solution is due to solvent only. Total vapour pressure = 𝑷𝑨 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨𝑿𝑨
The lowering of vapour pressure of solvent, ∆𝑷 = 𝑷 𝟎 − 𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 − 𝑷𝟎𝑿 = 𝑷𝟎(𝟏 − 𝑿 )
𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨 𝑨
But total mole fraction is always one 𝑿𝑨 + 𝑿𝑩 = 𝟏
∴ 𝟏 − 𝑿𝑨 = 𝑿𝑩
Substituting ∆𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎𝑨𝑿𝑩 𝑶𝑹
∆𝑷
= 𝑿𝑩 𝑶𝑹
𝑷𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝑨𝟎 − 𝑷𝑨
= 𝑿𝑩
𝑷𝟎𝑨
𝑷𝑨𝟎 –𝑷𝑨
𝟎 = The relative lowering of vapour pressure .
𝑷𝑨
XB = mole fraction of solute
This shows that the relative lowering of vapour pressure of a solution containing a non-volatile solute is equal
to the mole fraction of the solute in the solution.
20. From the relative lowering of vapour pressure , derive the equation to find out the molecular mass of solute.
𝑷𝟎–𝑷𝑨
𝑨
𝑷𝑨
𝟎 = 𝑿𝑩 ,
𝟎
𝑷 –𝑷𝑨 𝒏𝑩 𝒏𝑩
𝑨
= = ∵ In dilute solution nB <<<<nA and so we can neglect nB in comparison with nA
𝑷𝑨𝟎 𝒏𝑨
𝒏𝑨+𝒏𝑩
𝑷𝟎–𝑷𝑨 𝑾𝑩/𝑴𝑩 𝑷𝟎 –𝑷 𝑾 𝑴
𝑨
𝟎
𝑷𝑨
= 𝑾 𝑨/𝑴𝑨 , 𝑨 𝟎 𝑨
𝑷𝑨
= 𝑩
𝑴𝑩 𝑾𝑨
𝑨
𝑾𝑩𝑴𝑨𝑷𝟎𝑨
∴ 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒆 (𝑴𝑩) =
𝑾𝑨(𝑷𝑨𝟎–𝑷𝑨)

21. With the help of graph explain elevation in boiling point.
When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent,

vapour pressure is decreased and so boiling point of the
solution is increased. The increase in boiling point is
called elevation of boiling point.
∆Tb = Tb – Tb0
∆Tb = elevation in boiling point,
Tb = boiling point of solution ,
Tb0 = boiling point of pure solvent.
22. Egg boils faster in salt solution. This is due to the elevation of boiling point.
23. By using elevation in boiling point, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute.
∆𝑻𝒃 ∝ 𝒎 , 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃𝒎 = 𝑲𝒃
𝑴𝑩 × 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
𝑲𝒃𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑩 =
∆𝑻𝒃 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
24. With the help of graph explain depression in freezing point.
When a non volatile solute is added to solvent,

freezing point is decreased. The decrease in freezing
point is called depression of freezing point.
∆Tf = Tf0 - Tf
∆Tf = depression in freezing point
Tf 0 = freezing point of pure solvent.
Tf = freezing point of solution
25. During winter season salt is spreading on the road to lower the freezing point.
26. By using depression in freezing point, derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute.
∆𝑻𝒇 ∝ 𝒎 , 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒚
𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇𝒎 = 𝑲𝒇
𝑴𝑩 × 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
𝑲𝒇𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝑴𝑩 =
∆𝑻𝒇 𝑾𝑨 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)

27. Define osmosis and give its applications
The spontaneous flow of solvent from pure solvent to the solution or from a solution of lower concentration
to higher concentration, when they are separated by a semi permeable membrane is called osmosis.
Applications:
(I) Raw mangoes shrivel when pickled in salt water.
(II) Wilted flowers and vegetables revive when placed in fresh water.
(III) Blood cells collapse when suspended in saline water.
(IV) Movement of water from soil in to plant roots and upper portion.
28. What is osmotic pressure and give its equations.
Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure to be applied on the solution side to prevent osmosis.
𝒏𝑹𝑻
Osmotic pressure, 𝝅 = 𝑪𝑹𝑻 = C = concentration , n= number of moles
𝑽
29. For determining molecular mass of solute, osmotic pressure method is preferred. Why?
(I) The measurement is carried out at room temperature.
(II) Magnitude of osmotic pressure is large even for very dilute solution.
30. By using osmotic pressure (π), derive the expression to calculate molecular mass of solute(MB)
𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑾𝑩𝑹𝑻
𝝅= =
𝑽 𝑴𝑩𝑽
𝑾𝑩𝑹𝑻
𝑴𝑩 = 𝝅𝑽
31. What are Isotonic solutions, Hypotonic solutions and Hypertonic solutions?
Isotonic solutions: Solutions which have same osmotic pressure.
Eg. 0.9 % NaCl solution is isotonic with human blood. So it is used for intravenous injections.
Hypotonic solution: Solution which have less osmotic pressure than the other.
Hypertonic solution: Solution which have more osmotic pressure than the other.
32. What is reverse osmosis and give its application.
The direction of osmosis is reversed if a pressure higher than the osmotic pressure is applied to the solution
side. Then the pure solvent from the solution flows out through the semi permeable membrane. This
phenomenon is called reverse osmosis.
It is used in the desalination of sea water to produce drinking water.
33. What are Abnormal molecular masses?
These are wrong molecular mass obtained from colligative properties.
Abnormal molecular mass is due to association or dissociation of solute particles in solutions.
Abnormality is explained by van’t Hoff factor (i).
𝐎𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲
𝐯𝐚𝐧’𝐭 𝐇𝐨𝐟𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐢) =
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐬𝐚𝐦𝐞 𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐠𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐭𝐲
OR
𝐍𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐥 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
𝐯𝐚𝐧’𝐭 𝐇𝐨𝐟𝐟 𝐟𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫 (𝐢) =
𝐎𝐛𝐬𝐞𝐫𝐯𝐞𝐝 𝐦𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞
Solute Van’t Hoff factor (i) Splitting
NaCl 2 Na+ + Cl-
KCl 2 K+ + Cl-
K2SO4 3 2K+ +SO4 2-
Ethanoic acid in benzene 0.5
Al(NO3)3 4 Al3+ + 3NO3 -
Al2(SO4)3 5 2Al3+ + 3 SO4 2-
CaCl2 3 Ca2+ + 2 Cl -

34. The value of van’t Hoff factor (i) for aqueous KCl solution is close to 2, while that for ethanoic acid in benzene
is 0.5. Why?
This is caused by the dissociation in the case of KCl and association in the case of acetic acid.
KCl in aqueous solution undergo dissociation and the number of particles becomes double and hence Van’t
hoff factor close to 2 and molecular mass become half.
In the case of ethanoic acid(acetic acid) , association(dimerisation) occurs in benzene through intermolecular
hydrogen bonding. Thus number of particles becomes half and hence Van’t hoff factor becomes half and
molecular mass become double.
35.
Colligative Properties Equations Molecular mass of solute
(i) Relative lowering of vapour 𝑷𝟎 − 𝑷 𝑾𝑩𝑴𝑨𝑷𝟎
𝑨
𝑨 𝑨 (𝑴𝑩) =
pressure = 𝑿𝑩 𝑾𝑨(𝑷𝟎 − 𝑷𝑨)
𝑷𝟎𝑨 𝑨
(ii) Elevation of boiling point ∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃𝒎 = 𝑲𝒃 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑩 = 𝑲𝒃𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑴 × 𝑾 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎) ∆𝑻 𝑾 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
𝑩 𝑨 𝒃 𝑨
(iii ) Depression of freezing ∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇𝒎 = 𝑲𝒇 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑲𝒇𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

𝑴𝑩 =
point 𝑴 × 𝑾 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎) ∆𝑻 𝑾 ( 𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒎)
𝑩 𝑨 𝒇 𝑨
𝑾𝑩𝑹𝑻
(iv)Osmotic pressure 𝝅=
𝒏𝑹𝑻
=
𝑾𝑩𝑹𝑻
𝑴𝑩 =
𝑽 𝑴𝑩𝑽 𝝅𝑽
36. Complete the table. (By using colligative properties molecular mass calculations)
Solute Solvent Theoretical molecular mass Experimental molecular mass

NaCl Water A A/2
Benzoic acid Benzene B 2B
Urea Water C C
Acetic acid Benzene D 2D
CaCl2 Water E E/3
Glucose Water F F
Al2( SO4)3 Water G G/5
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( ഈ NOTES ന്െ◌ട വീഡിേ◌യാ ‫◌ױ‬ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ‫ ؗ‬YOUTUBE ചാനൽ കാണുക. SUBSCRIBE
െ◌ച‫ു◌إ‬ക )
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR (8040), THRISSUR (DT)

=============================================================================

CHAPTER 3 ELECTROCHEMISTRY
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR(8040),THRISSUR (DT)

============================================================================
1. What is electrochemistry?
Electrochemistry is the branch of chemistry which deals with the inter relationship between electrical energy
and chemical changes.
2. What is Electrochemical cell (galvanic cell) ?
A device that converts chemical energy to electrical energy is called electrochemical cell (galvanic cell).
e.g., Daniel cell.
3. With the help of diagram and equations explain Daniel cell (electrochemical cell)
Anode→ Zinc rod dipped in ZnSO4

Cathode→ Copper rod dipped in CuSO4
Anode and cathode are connected by wire and volt meter externally and by salt bridge internally.
At anode (oxidation) Zn→ Zn2+ + 2e-
At cathode (reduction) Cu2+ + 2e-→ Cu
Overall reaction Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu
Voltage is 1.1 V
Representation of Daniell cell is Zn | Zn2+ || Cu2+ | Cu
4. Explain electrode potential and standard electrode potential
The tendency of an electrode to lose electron is called oxidation potential.
The tendency of an electrode to gain electron is called reduction potential.
The tendency of an electrode to lose or gain electron is called electrode potential. OR
Electrode potential is the potential difference developed in a half cell between an electrode and its
electrolyte.
According to IUPAC system, reduction potential is taken as electrode potential.

The electrode potential under standard conditions ( 298 K temperature, 1 atm pressure and 1 molar
concentration) is called standard electrode potential.
5. What is Cell potential or EMF or Electro motive force of a cell?
It is the potential difference between the two electrodes in a galvanic cell.
EMF=Higher reduction potential − Lower reduction potential
= E cathode − E anode = E right − E left
6. With the help of diagram explain Standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) OR normal hydrogen electrode (NHE).
It consists of a platinum wire sealed in to a glass tube

carrying a platinum foil at one end.
The electrode is placed in 1 molar acid solution.
Pure hydrogen gas at 1 bar pressure is bubbled through
the solution at 298 K.
The electrode potential of SHE is taken as zero.
It can act as both anode and cathode.
If SHE acts as anode ½ H2 → H+ + e−
If SHE acts as cathode H+ + e− → ½ H2
SHE is used to calculate the potential of an electrode.
An electrode is coupled with SHE and the EMF of the cell
is measured by voltmeter.
Since the potential of SHE is zero, the measured EMF will be numerically equal to the potential of the electrode.
When SHE is used as cathode , it is represented as, H+ |H2,Pt
EMF= E cathode - E anode = 0 - E anode = -E anode
When SHE is used as anode, it is represented as, Pt, H2 | H+
EMF= E cathode - E anode = E cathode - 0 = E cathode
7. How will you measure standard electrode potential of copper electrode?
Cell representation is Pt, H2| H+ ||Cu2+ | Cu

The electrode potential of a half cell cannot be
directly measured. The copper electrode is
connected to a standard hydrogen electrode
(reference electrode).
The EMF of the resulting cell is determined using
voltmeter.
The voltmeter reading is 0.34 V
0.34 V = E0 right − E0 left = E0 Cu2+ /Cu − E0 SHE = E0 Cu2+ /Cu − 0

E0 Cu2+ /Cu = 0.34 V
According to IUPAC convention, the electrode potential is given a positive sign if the electrode reaction involves
reduction when it is connected to SHE.

8. How will you measure standard electrode potential of zinc electrode?
Cell representation is Zn | Zn2+ || H+|H2,Pt
The electrode potential of a half cell cannot be directly measured. The Zinc electrode is connected to a standard
hydrogen electrode (reference electrode). The EMF of the resulting cell is determined using voltmeter. The
voltmeter reading is 0.76 V
0.76 V = E0 right − E0 left = E0 SHE − E0 Zn2+ /Zn = 0 − E0 Zn2+ /Zn = − E0 Zn2+ /Zn
E0 Zn2+ /Zn = − 0.76 V
According to IUPAC convention, the electrode potential is given a negative sign if the electrode reaction involves
oxidation when it is connected to SHE.
9. What are electrochemical series and give their applications.
The arrangement of elements in the order of standard reduction potential is called electrochemical series or
activity series.
Applications:
(i) Metals having lower reduction potential ( -ve value) than hydrogen in the series are more reactive and
can displace hydrogen from acid.
(ii) A metal can displace metal ions from the salt solutions of a metal which lies below in the electro
chemical series. Example: If copper foil is added to silver nitrate solution, silver is replaced from the
solution (Because Cu lies above Ag and it undergo oxidation).
(iii) It is used to compare the relative oxidizing and reducing abilities.
In the electrochemical series F2 has highest reduction potential and so F2 is the strongest oxidizing agent.
In the electrochemical series Li has highest oxidation potential and so Li is the strongest reducing agent.
(iv) It is used to calculate EMF of the cell.
10. Write the Nernst equation for the single electrode potential.
Nernst equation gives a relationship between the electrode potential and ionic concentration of the electrolyte
solution.
For the electrode Mn+| M , the reaction is Mn+ + n e− → M
𝑹𝑻 [𝑴]
𝑰𝒕𝒔 𝐍𝐞𝐫𝐧𝐬𝐭 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐢𝐬 , 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 − 𝒍𝒏
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝒏𝑭 [𝑴𝒏+]
Converting to common logarithm
𝟐. [𝑴]
𝑬
𝟑𝟎𝟑𝑹𝑻 = 𝑬𝟎 — 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆
𝒏𝑭 [𝑴𝒏+]
OR
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑𝑹𝑻 [𝑴𝒏+]
𝟎
𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒏𝑭 [𝑴]
0
E = standard electrode potential , R = universal gas constant =8.314 JK mol-1
electrode
-1
F = Faraday (96500 coulomb) , n= number of electrons in the electrode , T = temperature

For solids [M] = 1
Substituting the value of R, F and temperature 298 K , we get
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑴𝒏+]
𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 = 𝑬𝒆𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒆 +
𝒏
𝟎 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗 𝒏+
𝑬𝑴𝒏+/𝑴 = 𝑬𝑴𝒏+/𝑴 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑴 ]
𝒏

11. With the help of Daniell cell, derive Nernst equation for cell potential.
Consider Daniell cell, Zn / Zn2+ // Cu2+ / Cu
Cell reaction is, Zn + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cu 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐙𝐢𝐧𝐜 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐞 , 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝒁𝒏𝟐+]
𝒁𝒏𝟐+/𝒁𝒏 𝒁𝒏𝟐+/𝒁𝒏 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 𝒏
𝐅𝐨𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐩𝐩𝐞𝐫 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐫𝐨𝐝𝐞, 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑪𝒖𝟐+]
𝑪𝒖𝟐+/𝑪𝒖 𝑪𝒖𝟐+/𝑪𝒖 𝒏
Ecell = Ecathode _ Eanode = E Cu2+ /Cu _ E Zn2+ /Zn

𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝟎 𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑪𝒖𝟐+]) − (𝑬𝟎 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝒁𝒏𝟐+])
=(𝑬𝑪𝒖𝟐+/𝑪𝒖 + 𝟐+
𝒁𝒏 /𝒁𝒏
𝒏 𝒏
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗
= (𝑬𝟎 − 𝑬𝟎 )+ ( 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑪𝒖𝟐+] − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝒁𝒏𝟐+])
𝑪𝒖𝟐+/𝑪𝒖 𝒁𝒏𝟐+/𝒁𝒏 𝒏
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 [𝑪𝒖𝟐+]
𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 + 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒏 [𝒁𝒏𝟐+]
Here n=2
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 [𝑪𝒖𝟐+]
𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 + 𝟐
𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝒁𝒏𝟐+]
OR
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗 [𝒁𝒏𝟐+]
𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝟐 [𝑪𝒖𝟐+]
12. Write anode reaction, cathode reaction, overall reaction and Nernst equation of Cu-Ag cell.
At anode (oxidation) Cu→ Cu2+ + 2e-
At cathode (reduction) 2 Ag+ + 2e-→2 Ag
Overall reaction Cu + 2 Ag+ → Cu2+ + 2 Ag
Cell representation, Cu / Cu2+ // Ag+ / Ag
Nernst equation is 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 −
𝟎.𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑪𝒖𝟐+] 𝐚𝐭 𝟐𝟗𝟖 𝐊
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝟐 [𝑨𝒈+]𝟐
13. Derive the relation connecting E0 cell and equilibrium constant (Kc)
For a general electrochemical reaction , a A + b B → c C + d D
The Nernst equation is 𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 −
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑪]𝒄[𝑫]𝒅
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒏𝑭 [𝑨]𝒂[𝑩]𝒃
For a cell reaction in equilibrium , Ecell = 0
[𝑪]𝒄[𝑫]𝒅
𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒊𝒃𝒓𝒊𝒖𝒎 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 , 𝑲𝒄 =
[𝑨]𝒂[𝑩]𝒃
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
∴ 𝑬 =𝟎=𝑬 𝟎 − 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍
𝒏𝑭 𝒄
𝟎 𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
𝑬𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲 𝒄
𝒏𝑭
𝟎. 𝟎𝟓𝟗
𝑬𝟎 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒄
𝒏
14. The relation connecting E0 cell and Gibbs energy (∆G 0 ) is ∆G0 = − nF E0 cell

15. Relation connecting standard free energy change and equilibrium const ant , ∆G0 = −2.303 RT log Kc
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
∆𝑮𝟎 = −𝒏𝑭𝑬𝟎 = −𝒏𝑭 𝑿 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲 = −𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑲
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒄 𝒄
𝒏𝑭
16. What is Resistance(R)?
It is the obstruction to the flow of electricity.
Its unit is ohm (Ω )
17. What is Conductance?
Reciprocal of resistance (G =1/R).
Its unit is ohm-1 OR Ω−1 OR mho OR Seimen
18. What is specific resistance or resistivity?
𝒍 𝒍
𝑹 ∝ OR 𝑹 = 𝝆
𝑨 𝑨
Where ρ = specific resistance or resistivity.
Resistivity is the resistance offered by a conductor of unit length and unit area of cross section.
19. What is specific conductance or conductivity?
The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is known as specific conductance or conductivity(κ,kappa).
OR
Specific conductance or conductivity of an electrolyte is the conductance of a column of solution of length 1
cm and area of cross section 1 cm2
𝟏 𝟏 𝒍
𝛋 = 𝛒 = ( ) 𝒐𝒉𝒎–𝟏𝒄𝒎–𝟏 𝑶𝒓 𝑺𝒄𝒎–𝟏
𝑹 𝑨
𝒄𝒆𝒍𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒇𝒊𝒄 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 , 𝛋 =
𝑴𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
20. What are the difference between metallic conductors and electrolytic conductors?
Metallic conductors Electrolytic conductors
Conduction is due to the movement of electrons Conduction is due to the movement of ions
No chemical change takes place chemical decomposition takes place
Electrical conduction decreases with increase of Electrical conduction increases with increase of
temperature temperature
Conductivity of metal is generally high Conductivity of electrolyte is generally low
21. What are the factors affecting conductivity of electrolytic solutions?
(I) Strong electrolytes ionize completely and conduct electricity to a large extent.
(II) Smaller ions moves faster and conduct electricity to a larger extent.
(III) Higher the viscosity of solvents, lower the conductivity.
(IV) Conductivity of electrolytic solutions increases with temperature.
(V) When concentration increases, molar conductivity decreases.
22. What is molar conductivity and give the relation connecting specific conductance (κ) and molar conductance
(Ʌm) ?
Molar conductivity is the conductance of the solution containing one mole of the electrolyte kept between
two electrodes at a distance of unit length.
𝐊 𝑲 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲, Ʌ𝐦 = =
𝐂 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚
23. Explain the variation of specific conductance (conductivity ) on dilution.
Specific conductance (conductivity ) of an electrolyte solution decreases with dilution (decrease in concentration)
due to decrease in number of ions per unit volume of the solution .

24. With the help of graph, explain the variation of molar conductance of strong electrolytes and weak electrolyte
on dilution.
Strong electrolytes ionize completely in aqueous solution. On

dilution inter ionic forces decreases. As a result molar
conductance increases slightly.
Weak electrolytes are slightly ionized. On dilution, the degree
of dissociation of weak electrolytes increases and molar
conductance increases sharply.
25. State Kohlrausch’s law and give their applications.

Kohlrausch’s law states that the limitin
ng molar conductivity of an electrolyte is the sum of the limiting molar
conductivities of cations and anions of the electrolyte present in the solution.
Ʌ0m = ν+ λ+ + ν− λ −
ν+ = number of cations , λ+ =limiting molar conductivity of cations
ν− = number of anions , λ− =limiting molar conductivity of anions
Example: Ʌ0m (Al2(SO4)3 = 2 λ0(Al3+) + 3 λ0(SO4 2- )
Applications:
(i) It is used to calculate the limiting molar conductivity of weak electrolytes.
Example: (1) CH3COOH is a weak electrolyte and limiting molar conductivity is calculated using strong
electrolytes CH3COONa, HCl and NaCl
Ʌ0(CH3COOH) = Ʌ0(CH3COONa) + Ʌ0(HCl) - Ʌ0(NaCl)
Explanation :
Ʌ0(CH3COONa) = λ0CH3COO− + λ0Na+ .............. (1)
Ʌ0(HCl) = λ0H+ + λ0Cl− .............. (2)
Ʌ0(NaCl) = λ0Na+ + λ0Cl− .............. (3)
Equation (1) + (2) – (3) gives
Ʌ0(CH3COONa) + Ʌ0(HCl) - Ʌ0(NaCl) = λ0CH3COO− + λ0Na+ + λ0H+ + λ0Cl-− − λ0Na+ − λ0Cl-
= λ0CH3COO- + λ0H+ = Ʌ0(CH3COOH)
(2) NH4OH is a weak electrolyte(base)
Ʌ0(NH4OH) = Ʌ0(NH4Cl) + Ʌ0(KOH) - Ʌ0(KCl)
Explanation :
Ʌ0(NH4Cl) = λ0NH4+ + λ0Cl− ………….(1)
Ʌ0(KOH) = λ0K+ + λ0OH−............... (2)
Ʌ0(KCl) = λ0 K+ + λ0Cl− .............. (3)
Equation (1) + (2) – (3) gives
Ʌ0(NH4Cl) + Ʌ0(KOH) - Ʌ0(KCl) = λ0NH4+ + λ0Cl− + λ0K+ + λ0OH− − ( λ0 K+ + λ0Cl- )
= λ0NH4+ + λ0OH- = Ʌ0(NH4OH)

(3) H2CO3 is a weak electrolyte (acid)
Ʌ0(H2CO3) = Ʌ0( H2SO4) + Ʌ0(Na2CO3) - Ʌ0(Na2SO4)
(4) H2O is a weak electrolyte
Ʌ0(H2O) = Ʌ0(NaOH) + Ʌ0(HCl) - Ʌ0(NaCl)
𝒄
Ʌ𝒎
(ii) It is used to calculate degree of dissociation of weak electrolytes. 𝛂 =
Ʌ𝟎𝒎
c
Ʌ m = molar conductance at any concentration
Ʌ0m = molar conductance at infinite dilution (limiting molar conductivity)
26. State Faraday’s laws of electrolysis.
(I) Faraday’s first law :-The mass of substance liberated (or deposited) at the electrode is directly proportional to
the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte solution.
i.e. , w α Q But Q= It
w α It or w= ZIt
w= mass of the substance formed I = current, t = time, Z= electrochemical equivalent
(II) Faraday’s second law :-When the same quantity of electricity is passed through different electrolytes , the
masses of substances formed at the electrodes are proportional to their respective chemical equivalent masses.
When the same quantity of electricity is passed through CuSO4 and AgNO3 soluions connected in series,
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒑𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝟑𝟏. 𝟕
=
𝑴𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒊𝒍𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝟏𝟎𝟖
31.7 = equivalent mass of Cu , 108 = equivalent mass of Ag.
27. What is Faraday?
Charge of one mole electron is called Faraday. 1 F = 96500 C
Charge of one electron = 1.6 X 10-19 C
Charge of one mole electrons = 6.02 X 1023 X 1.6 X 10-19 = 96487 C ~ 96500 C
For the reduction of 1 mol Na+ , 1 F ( 96500 C ) electricity is required.
For the reduction of 1 mol Cu2+ , 2F ( 2 X 96500 C ) electricity is required.
For the reduction of 1 mol Al3+ , 3F ( 3 X 96500 C ) electricity is required.
28. What are the products obtained when aqueous NaCl and molten NaCl is electrolysed.
When aqueous solution of NaCl is electrolysed, hydrogen gas is liberated at cathode , chlorine gas is liberated at
anode and sodium hydroxide is deposited in the cell.
2 NaCl + 2 H2O → 2 NaOH + H2 + Cl2
When molten NaCl is electrolysed, sodium is deposited at the cathode and chlorine gas is liberated at anode .
2 NaCl → 2 Na + Cl2
29. Give some applications of electrolysis
(i) Production of metals like Sodium , Potassium, Aluminium etc.
(ii) Production of nonmetals like oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine etc.
(iii) Production of compounds like sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide etc.
(iv) Electrolytic refining of copper
(v) Electroplating
30. Differentiate primary cells and secondary cells with examples.
Primary cell Secondary cell
The electrode reactions are not reversible The electrode reactions are reversible
These are not rechargeable These are rechargeable
Eg. Dry cell , mercury cell Eg. Lead storage cell, Nickel Cadmium cell

31. Explain (a) Dry cell (b) Mercury cell (c) Lead storage battery (d) Nickel Cadmium cell
(a) Dry cell
Anode→ Zinc container
Cathode→ graphite rod surrounded by MnO2 and carbon powder
Electrolyte→ paste of ammonium chloride and zinc chloride
At anode Zn → Zn2+ + 2 e−
At cathode MnO2 + NH4+ + e − → MnO(OH) + NH3
Voltage is 1.5 V.
It is used in transistors and clocks etc.
(b) Mercury cell
Anode→ zinc mercury amalgum
Cathode→ Paste of HgO and carbon
Electrolyte→ Paste of KOH and ZnO
At anode Zn(Hg) + 2 OH− → ZnO+ H2O + 2 e−
At cathode HgO + H2O +2 e− → Hg + 2 OH−
Overall reaction: Zn(Hg) + HgO → ZnO + Hg
Cell potential (voltage) = 1.35 V.
Use: It is used in watches
In mercury cell, cell potential 1.35 remain constant during its life as the overall reaction does not involve any ion
in solution .
(c) Lead storage battery

Anode→ Lead
Cathode→ Grid of lead packed with lead dioxide
Electrolyte→ 38 % sulphuric acid
At anode Pb + SO42− → PbSO4 + 2 e−
At cathode PbO2 + SO42−+4 H++ 2 e− → PbSO4+ 2H2O
Overall reaction: Pb + PbO2 +2 H2 SO4 → 2 PbSO4 + 2H2O
Use: It is used in automobiles and invertors
Cell potential (voltage) depends on the concentration of sulphuric acid
On charging the battery, the reaction is reversed and PbSO4 on anode and cathode is converted in to Pb and PbO2
respectively.
(d) Nickel Cadmium cell

Overall reaction: Cd + 2 Ni(OH)3 → CdO +2 Ni(OH)2 + H2O
Uses: It is used in electronic watches, calculators etc.
32. What are fuel cells? Give examples for fuel cells.
Fuel cells are devices which convert the energy produced by the combustion of fuel directly in to
electrical energy.
Examples :
(i) hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell (ii) methane oxygen fuel cell (iii) methanol –oxygen fuel cell

33. With the help of diagram explain hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell. Give its reactions also.
It consists of porous carbon electrodes containing

suitable catalysts (platinum or palladium).
H2 and O2 gases are bubbled through the porous
electrodes in to aqueous NaOH or KOH solution.
The reactions takes place at the electrodes are
At anode 2 H2 + 4 OH−→ 4 H2O + 4 e−
At cathode O2 + 2 H2O +4 e−→ 4 OH−
Overall reaction 2 H2 + O2→ 2H2O
H2- O2 fuel cell works continuously as long as the
gaseous fuels are supplied. Voltage is 0.9 V.
It was used for providing electric power in Apollo Space Programme.

34. What are the advantages of fuel cells?
(i) Fuel cells have long life.
(ii) They are highly efficient.
(iii) They are pollution free.
35. Explain electro chemical theory of corrosion (Rusting of iron).
Rust is Fe2O3 .x H2O ( Hydrated ferric oxide )
In rusting of iron,
Anode→ pure iron
Cathode→ impure iron
Electrolyte→ CO2 dissolved in H2O forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) .It gives H+ ion
At anode 2 (Fe → Fe2+ + 2 e− )
At cathode O2 + 4 H+ +4 e−→ 2 H2O
Adding these equations
2 Fe + O2 + 4 H+ → 2 Fe2+ + 2 H2O
The ferrous ions are further oxidized by atmospheric oxygen to form rust, Fe2O3 .x H2O
36. What are the methods used to prevent corrosion.
(I) Covering the surface with paint or by some chemicals (e.g. bisphenol)
(II) Cover the surface of metal with other metals (Sn ,Zn etc.) that are inert or react to save the object.
(III) Provide a sacrificial electrode of another metal (like Mg, Zn etc.) which corrodes itself but saves the
objects.
37. Some important equations :
𝑪𝜶𝟐
(I) Dissociation constant , Ka = 𝟏–𝜶
𝒄
Ʌ
(II) Degree of dissociation , α = 𝒎 𝟎
Ʌ𝒎
𝑲 𝑿 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎
(III) 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐜𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 , Ʌ𝐦 = 𝑴𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚
=============================================================================

CHAPTER 4 CHEMICAL KINETICS
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
==================================================================
1. Chemical kinetics is the branch of chemistry which deals with the rate of chemical reactions and the factors
influencing it.
2. What is Average rate and Instantaneous rate? Why is Instantaneous rate preferred over average?
Average rate is defined as the change in concentration of any one of the reactants or products per unit time.
𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 –∆[𝑹]
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = =
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏 ∆𝒕
𝑰𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 ∆[𝑷]
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 =
= ∆𝒕
𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕𝒂𝒌𝒆𝒏
For a general reaction , a A + b B → cC+ dD
–𝟏 ∆[𝑨] –𝟏 ∆[𝑩] 𝟏 ∆[𝑪] 𝟏 ∆[𝑫]
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = = = =
𝒂 ∆𝒕 𝒃 ∆𝒕 𝒄 ∆𝒕 𝒅 ∆𝒕
Instantaneous rate is defined as the change in concentration of any one of the reactants or products at a
particular time. For a general reaction reaction, a A + b B → c C + d D
–𝟏 𝒅[𝑨] –𝟏 𝒅[𝑩] 𝟏 𝒅[𝑪] 𝟏 𝒅[𝑫]
𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒆𝒐𝒖𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 = = = =
𝒂 𝒅𝒕 𝒃 𝒅𝒕 𝒄 𝒅𝒕 𝒅 𝒅𝒕
Instantaneous rate preferred over average, since the concentration of reactants decreases continuously as the
reaction proceeds, the rate of the reaction will be different at different instances.
3. How will you calculate average and instantaneous rate of reaction?
The average rate of a reaction is determined by plotting graph between concentration of reactants or products
against time. Concentrations of reactants or products at different time is noted .
–∆[𝐑] –{[𝐑𝟐]–[𝐑𝟏]
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = = OR
∆𝐭 (𝐭𝟐–𝐭𝟏)
∆[𝐏] {[𝐏𝟐]–[𝐏𝟏]
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = =
∆𝐭 (𝐭𝟐–𝐭𝟏)

For determining instantaneous rate, a tangent is drawn to the curve at the time t. The slope of the tangent gives
the instantaneous rate.
–𝐝[𝐑]
𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = = −𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞 OR
𝐝𝐭
𝐝[𝐏]
𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 = = 𝐬𝐥𝐨𝐩𝐞
𝐝𝐭
The unit of rate is mol L-1 s -1
4. Which are the factors affecting the rate of a reaction?
(i) Concentration of reactants(ii)Temperature(iii)Nature of the reactants(iv)Exposure to light (Radiation)
(v)Presence of catalyst
5. Define rate law or rate expression.
For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , k = rate constant
Rate law is the experimentally determined relationship between the rate of a reaction and the concentration of
reactants.
6. The general formula to find the unit of rate constant is mol 1-n Ln-1 s -1
For zero order → mol L-1 s-1 , For first order → s -1 , For second order → mol -1 L s-1
7. What are the differences between order and molecularity?
For a reaction aA + bB → Products , r =k[A]x[B]y , Order= x +y , Molecularity = a +b
Order Molecularity
Order is the sum of the power of the Molecuarity is the number of reacting species
concentration terms in the rate equation undergoing simultaneous collision in the reaction
Order is determined experimentally Molecularity is theoretical concept
Order may be zero, fractional and integral Molecularity is always integral number
numbers
Order gives some idea about reaction Molecularity does not give any idea about reaction
mechanism mechanism.
Order is applicable to elementary and complex Molecularity is applicable only to elementary reactions.
reactions
8. What are elementary reaction and complex reaction?
If all the reactants in the balanced chemical equation take part simultaneously in the collision,
the reaction will takes place in single step, is called elementary reaction.
E.g H2+I2 → 2 HI
A reaction which takes place in several steps is called complex reaction
A complex reaction contains several elementary reactions.
The overall reaction depends on slowest step and so slowest step is the rate determined step
𝑰– ,𝒂𝒍𝒌𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒎𝒆𝒅𝒊𝒖𝒎
2 H2O2 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2 H2O + O2 ,
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 =
–𝐝[𝐇𝟐𝐎𝟐] = k [H O ] [I−]
2 2
𝐝𝐭
This reaction is first order with respect to both H2O2 and I- . This reaction takes place in two steps.
Step 1 : H2O2 + I− → H2O + IO− Slow step, rate determining step
− −
Step 2: H2O2 + IO → H2O + O2 + I Fast step
9. What is zero order reaction and give examples
A reaction is said to be zero order if the rate is independent of the concentration of the reactants
Examples for zero order reactions are
(i) Decomposition of ammonia on platinum surface at high pressure
𝟏𝟏𝟑𝟎 𝑲,𝑷𝒕 𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒚𝒔𝒕
𝟐 𝑵𝑯𝟑 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑵𝟐 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐 , Rate = k[NH3]0
(ii) Thermal decomposition of HI on gold surface , rate = k[HI]0

10. Derive the integrated rate equation of zero order reaction.
Consider a zero order reaction R → P
–𝐝[𝐑]
𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞, 𝐫 = According to rate law, rate , r = k [R]0
𝐝𝐭
–𝐝[𝐑]
By equating both equations , we get Differential rate equation = 𝐤 [𝐑]𝟎
𝐝𝐭
–𝐝[𝐑] =𝐤 ∵ [R]0 = 1
𝐝𝐭
On rearranging , −d[R] = k dt
On integrating , − ∫ 𝒅[𝑹] = 𝒌 ∫ 𝒅𝒕
- [R] = kt + I ∵ ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙
I is the integration constant and its value is obtained by applying initial condition, at t=0, [R] = [R]0
Substitute these in the above equation we get, − [R]0 = k x 0 + I
Therefore, I =− [R]0
Substitute the value of I in the above equation , - [R] = kt + [R]0
OR [R]0 − [R] = kt
[𝐑𝟎] − [𝐑]
∴ 𝐓𝐡𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐝 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐪𝐮𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧, 𝐤 =
𝐭
[R0] = initial concentration of reactant, [R] = concentration of reactant at time t.
11. Draw graph of zero order reaction
Straight line plot between [R] vs time
- [R] = kt - [R]0
Multiply through out by minus (-)
[R] = -kt + [R]0
y = mx + c
12. What is first order reaction and give examples

If the rate of the reaction is proportional to the first power of the concentration of the reactant is called first order
reaction.
Examples for first order reaction.
(i) Hydrogenation of ethene . C2H4(g) + H2 (g) → C2H6(g) Rate = k [C2H4]
(ii) All natural and artificial radioactive decay
(iii) Decomposition of N2O5
(iv) Decomposition of N2O
13. Derive the integrated rate equation of first order reaction.
Consider a first order reaction R → P
−𝐝[𝐑]
𝐈𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐞𝐨𝐮𝐬 𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞, 𝐫 =
𝐝𝐭
According to rate law, rate , r = k [R]
–𝐝[𝐑]
By equating both equations, we get Differential rate equation 𝐝𝐭
= 𝐤 [𝐑]

–𝐝[𝐑]
On re arranging, [𝐑]
= 𝐤 𝐝𝐭
𝟏
On integrating , − ∫ 𝒅[𝑹] = 𝒌 ∫ 𝒅𝒕
[𝑹]
𝟏
= − ln [R] = kt + I ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒏 𝒙 ∵ ∫ 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙
𝒙
I is the integration constant and its value is obtained by applying initial condition , t =0, [R] = [R]0
Substitute these in the above equation we get, −ln [R]0 = k x 0 + I
Therefore, I = − ln [R]0
Substitute the value of I in the above equation , - ln [R] = kt - ln [R]0
OR ln [R]0 − ln [R] = kt
[𝑹 ]
OR 𝒍𝒏 𝟎 = 𝒌𝒕 ∵ ln a – ln b = ln a/b
[𝑹]
𝟏 [𝑹𝟎]
𝒌 = 𝒍𝒏
𝒕 [𝑹]
To Convert natural log to common log multiply with 2.303
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑹𝟎]
The integrated rate equation of first order reaction, 𝒌= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒕 [𝑹]
[R0] = initial concentration of reactant,
[R] = concentration of reactant at time t.
14. Draw the graphs of first order reaction.
GRAPH 1
- ln [R] = kt − ln [R]0
Multiply by − , then ln [R] = −kt + ln [R]0
y = mx +c
Straight line plot between ln [R] vs time
GRAPH 2
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑹𝟎]
𝒌= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒕 [𝑹]
[𝑹𝟎] 𝒌𝒕
𝒍𝒐𝒈 [𝑹] =
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑
y = mx +c
If we plot log[R]0/[R] against t, we get a straight line with slope k/2.303

15. What is Half life period of a reaction ?
The time required to reduce the concentration of a reactant to half of its initial value is called half life period.
16. Half life period of a zero order reaction is directly proportional to the initial concentration of the reactant.
Prove.
[𝐑𝟎]–[𝐑]
The integrated rate equation for zero order reaction, 𝐤 =
𝐭
[𝐑𝟎] − [𝐑]
∴𝐭=
𝐤
At t = t1/2 , [R] = [R0]/2
[𝐑 ]
[𝐑 ] – 𝟎
𝟎 𝟐 𝟐[𝑹𝟎]–[𝑹𝟎] [𝑹𝟎]
𝐭𝟏/𝟐 = 𝐤
= =
𝟐𝒌 𝟐𝒌
[𝑹𝟎]
Therefore half life period for zero order reaction is 𝐭𝟏/𝟐 = 𝟐𝒌
Half life period of a zero order reaction is directly proportional to the initial concentration of the reactant.
17. Half life period of a first order reaction is independent of the initial concentration of the reactant. Prove.
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑹𝟎]
The integrated rate equation of first order reaction, 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒕 [𝑹]
𝟐. 𝟑𝟎𝟑 [𝑹𝟎]
∴𝒕= 𝒍𝒐𝒈
𝒌 [𝑹]
At t = t1/2 , [R] = [R0]/2
∴ 𝐭 =
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑
𝒍𝒐𝒈
[𝑹𝟎]
=
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑
𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟐 =
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑿 𝟎.𝟑𝟎𝟏𝟎
=
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
𝟏/𝟐 𝒌 𝑹 𝒌 𝒌 𝒌
[ 𝟐𝟎 ]
𝟎.𝟔𝟗𝟑
Therefore half life period for first order reaction is 𝐭𝟏/𝟐 = 𝒌
No concentration terms in half life period equation, and so half life period of a first order reaction is independent
of the initial concentration of the reactants.
18. What are Pseudo first order reactions and give examples?
Reactions which appear to be of higher order but actually follow first order kinetics are called pseudo first
order reactions.
Examples:
(I) The hydrolysis of ethyl acetate in the presence of dilute acids
𝑯+
CH3COOC2H5 + H2 O –→ CH3COOH + C2H5OH
Here molecularity is 2. But here the concentration of water does not affect the reaction rate because it is
present in large extent. Only the concentration of ethyl acetate will affect the rate of the reaction. So order is one.
Rate = k [CH3COOC2H5] order =1
(II) Inversion of cane sugar in the presence of dilute acid.
𝑯+
C12H22O11 + H2 O –→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 Rate = k [C12H22O11] order =1

19. What is the effect of temperature on reaction rate?
Most of the reactions are increased by increase in
temperature. When the temperature is increased by
10 0C, the rate of the reaction and rate constant are
doubled. The ratio of the rate constants of a reaction
at two temperatures differing by 10 0C is called
temperature coefficient.
According to Arrhenius, a chemical reaction can take
place by the collision of reactant molecules. When
molecules collide, an unstable activated complex is
formed, which decomposes to form product.
The energy required for the reactants to form activated complex is called activation energy.
When temperature increases, molecules having activation energy increases, effective collision increases and
the rate of the reaction increases.
20. Write Arrhenius equation and explain each term.
𝑬
– 𝒂
It is the relationship between rate constant and temperature. 𝒌 = 𝑨 𝒆 𝑹𝑻
k= rate constant, Ea = activation energy, R = universal gas constant, T = temperature
A = Arrhenius factor (frequency factor) . It is the number of binary collisions per second per litre.
𝑬 𝑬
Its logarithmic form is 𝒍𝒏 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒏 𝑨 − 𝑹𝑻𝒂 OR 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑨 − 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑𝒂 𝑹𝑻
21. What is activation energy? How will you calculate activation energy?
The excess energy which must be supplied to the reactant molecules to undergo chemical reaction is called
activation energy.
(I) Graphically we can calculate activation energy.
𝑬𝒂
𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝒌 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈 𝑨 −
𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹𝑻
Graph is plotted between log k and 1/T. straight line graph is obtained.
Slope = - Ea/ 2.303R.
From this Ea can be calculated.
Ea = slope x 2.303 R
(II) Activation energy can be calculated by measuring the values of rate constants at different temperatures.
𝒌𝟐 𝑬𝒂 𝑻𝟐–𝑻𝟏
𝒌𝟏 𝟐.𝟑𝟎𝟑 𝑹 𝑻𝟏𝑻𝟐

22. What is a catalyst? Give example for it .
A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of a reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical
change.
For example, MnO2 catalyses the decomposition of potassium chlorate.
𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟐
𝟐𝑲𝑪𝒍𝑶𝟑 –⎯⎯→ 𝟐𝑲𝑪𝒍 + 𝟑𝑶𝟐
23. What are the characteristics of a catalyst?
(I) A small amount of catalyst can catalyse a large amount of reactants
(II) A catalyst does not alter Gibbs energy (∆G) of a reaction .
(III) A catalyst catalyses the spontaneous reactions but does not catalyse non-spontaneous reactions.
(IV) A catalyst does not change the equilibrium constant of a reaction. But it helps n attaining the
equilibrium faster.
24. With the help of graph, explain the effect of catalyst on rate of a reaction.
A catalyst provides an alternate path for the reaction with lower activation energy. Hence the rate of the reaction
increases.
25. Explain collision theory of chemical reactions.
According to collision theory, a reaction takes place when the reactant molecules collide with one another.
However, all collisions not effective.
For effective collisions, (i) the colliding molecule should possess sufficient energy to break the chemical bonds in
the reactants (ii) the molecule must collide with proper orientation.
The minimum energy which the colliding molecule must possess to make the collisions between them effective is
called threshold energy.
Threshold energy= Activation energy + Energy possessed by the reactant molecules
−Ea/RT
Rate = PZ e AB
P = proper orientation,
ZAB = the collision frequency

UNIT 8 THE d AND f BLOCK ELEMENTS
The groups 3 to 12 are d-block elements. They are called transition elements.There are 4 transition series. 3d series, 4d
series , 5d series and 6d series.
1. 3d series and their electronic configurations
3d series Symbol Atomic Electronic configuration.
elements number
(Z)
Scandium Sc 21 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d1 4s2
Titanium Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2
Vanadium V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2
Chromium Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1
Manganese Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2
Iron Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2
Cobalt Co 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2
Nickel Ni 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2
Copper Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1
Zinc Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2
2. What are Transition elements? Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury of group 12 are not Transition elements. Why?
Transition elements are elements having incompletely filled d –orbitals in their free state or in any one of
their oxidation states.

Zinc, Cadmium and Mercury of group 12 have completely filled d –orbitals in their free state (d10) and in their
common oxidation states. So they are not transition elements.
3. Copper, Silver and gold atoms have completely filled d orbitals (d10). But they are transition elements. Why?
Because they have incompletely filled d configuration in any one of its oxidation state.
4. What are the properties of transition elements?
(I) All are metals with high melting and boiling points.
(II) They show variable oxidation states.
(III) Most of them are paramagnetic.
(IV) Most of them form coloured compounds.
(V) Transition metals form complex compounds.
(VI) Many of the transition metals and their compounds act as catalyst.
(VII) They can form interstitial compounds and alloys.
5. Explain the variation of atomic and ionic radii of transition elements.
Atomic and ionic radii of transition elements decrease from left to right in a period due to increase in nuclear
charge. But in the middle decrease in very small due to screening effect of inner d electrons.
At the end of the series, atomic radii increase slightly due to inter electronic repulsion.
The elements of 4d series and 5d series have similar size due to lanthanoid contraction.
6. Explain melting and boiling point of transition elements.
Transition elements have very high melting and boiling point due to the presence of strong metallic bonding
in them.
Greater the number of unpaired electrons, stronger the bonding and higher the melting point and enthalpy of
atomisation.
Tungsten has highest melting point among the d –block elements
7. Explain the variation of ionization energy of transition elements.
Along a transition series ionization enthalpy increases due to increase in nuclear charge. But it is not regular.
The elements of 5 d series have high ionization energy than 3d and 4 d series. This is due to lanthanoid
contraction and poor shielding effect of inner 4f electrons.
The second ionization energy of chromium and copper are unusually high due to stable electronic
configuration of 3d5 and3d10 respectively.
8. Why transition elements show variable oxidation states?
Due to the participation of both ns and (n-1) d electrons for compound formation due to small difference in
energies of ns and (n-1) d orbitals .
Manganese ,Mn ( 3d5 4s2) shows largest number of oxidation states among 3d series from +2 to +7.
It is due to the participation of two 4s electrons and five 3d electrons for bond formation.
The common oxidation states of first transition series is +2 (except for scandium +3).
Scandium does not exhibit variable oxidation state. Only +3.
Transition elements show zero oxidation state in metal carbonyls.
9. Copper has positive standard reduction potential among 3d series. Why?
It is due to the high energy to transform Cu to Cu2+ is not balanced by its hydration enthalpy.
10. Cr2+ is reducing and Mn3+ is oxidizing when both have d4 configuration. Why?
Cr2+ is reducing agent as its configuration changes from d4 to d3 (half filled t2g is stable).
Mn3+ is oxidizing agent because it changes from Mn3+ to Mn2+ results in the half filled d5 configuration
which has high stability.
11. Explain magnetic property of transition elements.
Most of the transition elements are paramagnetic due to the presence of unpaired electrons

Greater the number of unpaired electrons, greater the paramagnetism.
Magnetic moment , µ = √𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐) where n= no. of unpaired electrons
Ions Outer configuration No. of unpaired electrons Magnetic moment
Sc3+ d0 0 0
V3+ d2 2 2.83
Ti3+ d1 1 1.73
Cr3+ d3 3 3.87
Mn2+ d5 5 5.92
u2+ d9 1 1.73
Zn2+ d10 0 0
• Scandium ,Sc : [Ar] 3d1 4s2 Sc3+ 3 d0 No. of unpaired electrons = 0
• Titanium , Ti: [Ar] 3d2 4s2 Ti3+ 3 d1
No. of unpaired electrons = 1
• Vanadium , V: [Ar] 3d3 4s2 V3+ 3 d2
• Chromium , Cr : [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Cr3+ 3 d3
• Manganese, Mn: [Ar] 3d5 4s2 Mn2+ 3 d5
• Copper, Cu : [Ar] 3d10 4s1 Cu2+ 3 d9
•
• Zinc, Zn : [Ar] 3d10 4s2 Zn2+ 3 d10

• No. of unpaired electrons = 0
12. The transition element compounds show colour. Give reason.

The colour of transition metal compounds are due to the presence of unpaired ‘d’ electrons. (d-d transition)
Eg:- Sc3+ colourless ( d0 since no unpaired electron.)
Cu2+ coloured (d9 due to unpaired electron, d-d transition is possible).
Zn2+ colourless ( d10 completely filled , no unpaired electron)
13. Why transition elements form complex compounds?

(I) The cations of these metals are small in size and have high effective nuclear charge. Thus they accept lone
pair of electrons from other molecules or ions.
(II) The transition elements have vacant d orbitals which can accept lone pair of electrons from ligands.
14. Why transition elements show catalytic properties?
It is due to the ability to show variable oxidation states and to form complexes.
15. Transition elements form interstitial compounds. Explain.
The transition metal atoms and their crystal structures has interstitial voids and can accommodate small
atoms like hydrogen, boron and nitrogen etc. These are non stoichiometric compounds.
Eg:- Nitrides, Carbides, Borides, Hydrides.
Interstitial compounds: (i) Have high melting point than pure metals.(ii) Are very hard (iii) Retain metallic
conductivity (iv) Are chemically inert.
16. Why transition elements form alloys?
The transition metals are quite similar in size and, therefore, the atoms of one metal can easily replaced by
other atoms of the other metal in its crystal lattice.
Examples for alloys are brass (Cu + Zn) , bronze (Cu + Sn), stainless steel (Fe + Cr + Ni + C).
17. Describe the method of preparation of potassium dichromate from chromite ore.
Chromite ore (FeCr2O4) + Sodium carbonate + Air → Sodium chromate.
4 FeCr2O4 + 8 Na2 CO3 + 7 O2 → 8 Na2 CrO4 + 2Fe2O3 + 8 CO2
Sodium chromate + sulphuric acid → Sodium dichromate
2 Na2 CrO4 + H2 SO4 → Na2 Cr2O7 + Na2 SO4 + H2O
Sodium dichromate + Potassium chloride → Potassium dichromate (orange crystal).
Na2 Cr2O7 + 2 KCl → K2 Cr2O7 + 2 NaCl
18. The dichromate and chromate ions are inter convertible depending on the PH of the solution. Explain.
Chromate ion + Acid → Dichromate ion (Orange crystal )
Dichromate ion + Alkalie → Chromate ion (Yellow crystal )
2CrO4 2− + 2 H+ → Cr2O72− + H2O
(yellow) (orange)
Cr2O7 + 2 OH → 2CrO4 2− + H2O

2- −

19. Draw structures of chromate and dichromate ions.
Chromate ion has tetrahedral geometry.

In dichromate ion, two tetrahedrals are connected by oxygen atom.
20. Potassium dichromate is powerful oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Give examples.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 e- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O
(I) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes H2S to S.
Cr2O72- + 8 H+ + 3 H2S → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 S
(II) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes ferrous salt to ferric salt.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 Fe2+ → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 6 Fe3+
(III) Acidified potassium dichromate oxidizes iodide to iodine.
Cr2O72- + 14 H+ + 6 I- → 2 Cr3+ + 7 H2O + 3 I2
21. Give some uses of potassium dichromate( K2 Cr2O7)
It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis. It is used as oxidizing agent.
22. Describe the method of preparation of potassium permanganate from pyrolusite ore.
Potassium permanganate is prepared from pyrolusite ore (MnO2)
Pyrolusite ore is fused with potassium hydroxide in the presence of air, potassium manganate is formed.
2 MnO2 + 4 KOH + O2 → 2 K2 MnO4 + 2H2O
Potasium manganate is then oxidized by electrolysis to potassium permanganate.
2- 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒐𝒙𝒊𝒅𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
-
MnO4 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ MnO4
Manganate permanganate
23. Give some uses of potassium permanganate
(i) It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis
(ii) It is used as oxidizing agent.
24. Draw structures of manganate and permanganate ions.

25. Potassium permanganate is powerful oxidizing agent in acidic medium. Give examples.
When Potassium permanganate act as oxidizing agent in acidic medium, it gets reduced to Mn2+ salt.
(I) Acidified K MnO4 oxidises ferrous salt to ferric salt.
MnO4- + 8 H+ + 5 Fe2+ → Mn2+ + 4 H2O + 5 Fe3+
(II) Acidified K MnO4 oxidises iodide to iodine.
2 MnO4- + 16 H+ + 10 I- → 2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 5 I2
(III) Acidified K MnO4 oxidises oxalic acid or oxalate ion to carbon dioxide.
2 MnO4- + 16 H+ + 5 C2O42- → 2 Mn2+ + 8 H2O + 10 CO2
26. Potassium permanganate is oxidizing agent in neutral medium and faintly alkaline medium. Give example.
Here Potassium permanganate gets reduced to MnO2 .
Iodide is oxidized to iodate by K MnO4 in neutral or alkaline medium.
2 MnO4- + H2O + I- → 2 MnO2 + 2 OH-+ IO3-
27. What happens when potassium permanganate is heated?
When heated potassium permanganate decomposes at 513 K to form potassium manganate , manganese
dioxide and oxygen.
2 K MnO4 → K2 MnO4 + MnO2 + O2
THE INNER TRANSITION ELEMENTS ( f – BLOCK)

Two series (i) Lanthanoids (4f series)and (ii) Actinoids (5f series)
Lanthanoids Symbol Z Electronic configuration
Lanthanum La 57 [Xe] 4f0 5d1 6s2
Cerium Ce 58 [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2
Praseodymium Pr 59 [Xe] 4f3 5d0 6s2
Neodymium Nd 60 [Xe] 4f4 5d0 6s2
Promethium Pm 61 [Xe] 4f5 5d0 6s2
Samarium Sm 62 [Xe] 4f6 5d0 6s2
Europium Eu 63 [Xe] 4f7 5d0 6s2
Gadolinium Gd 64 [Xe] 4f7 5d1 6s2
Terbium Tb 65 [Xe] 4f9 5d0 6s2
Dysprosium Dy 66 [Xe] 4f10 5d0 6s2
Holmium Ho 67 [Xe] 4f11 5d0 6s2
Erbium Er 68 [Xe] 4f12 5d0 6s2
Thulium Tm 69 [Xe] 4f13 5d0 6s2
Ytterbium Yb 70 [Xe] 4f14 5d0 6s2
Lutetium Lu 71 [Xe] 4f14 5d1 6s2
28. What are Lanthanoids?
The fourteen elements after lanthanum (from cerium to lutetium) in which last electron enter in 4f orbitals
are called lanthanoids.
29. What is Lanthanoid contraction? Give the reason for it . What are its consequences?
The steady decrease in the size of atoms or ions of the lanthanoids with increase in atomic number is called
lanthanoid contraction.

The reason lanthanoid contraction :-Along the lanthanoid series the nuclear charge increases by one unit and
the new electron is added to the same inner shell (4 f) . The electrons in 4 f orbitals cannot effectively screen
the nucleus from the outermost electron . Hence the increased nuclear charge attracts the electron cloud
more and there will be a steady contraction in size.
Consequences of lanthanoid contraction :-The atomic radii of elements of 4 d series and 5 d series of same
group are similar due to lanthanoid contraction. Eg. Zirconium(Zr) and hafnium(Hf) has similar size. Hence
their properties are similar, they exist together and difficult to separate.
30. Oxidation states of lanthanoids :-The most common oxidation state of lanthanoids is +3. But some of them
exhibit +2 and +4. Cerium exhibit +4 oxidation state because Ce4+ has the electronic configuration of noble gas
Xenon.
Ce: [Xe] 4f1 5d1 6s2 Ce4+ : [Xe]
Tb : [Xe] 4f9 6s2 Tb4+ : [Xe] 4f7 (half filled orbitals have stability)
Eu: [Xe] 4f7 6s2 Eu2+ : [Xe] 4f7
Yb : [Xe] 4f14 6s2 Yb2+ : [Xe] 4f14 (completely filled orbitals have more
stability)
31. Colour of lanthanoids is due to f-f transition.
32. Misch metal :- Misch metal is an alloy of 95 % lanthanoids and 5 % iron and traces of S, C, Ca and Al.
It is used mainly for bullets, shell and lighter flint.
33. What are Actinoids?
The fourteen elements after actinium (from Thorium to Lawrencium) in which last electron enter in
5f orbitals are called actinoids.
34. Oxidation states of actinoids :-Actinoids show a greater range of oxidation states than lanthanoids.
This due to the fact that 5f, 6d and 7s levels are of comparable energies. However +3 oxidation state
is most common among all lanthanoids (except Thorium). Thorium shows +4 oxidation state. Th4+ :
[Rn]
The maximum oxidation state shown by actinoids increases from Th (+4) to Np and Pu (+7) and then
decreases as the atomic number increases.
35. What are the similarities of lanthanoids and actinoids?
(I) Both the series are formed by progressive filling of f orbitals and both show +3 oxidation
state predominantly.
(II) The elements of both the series are electropositive and highly reactive.
(III) Lanthanoid contraction and actinoid contraction are due to the poor shielding of 4f and 5f
electrons respectively.
(IV) Most of their ions are paramagnetic and form complexes.
36. What are the differences between lanthanoids and actinoids?
Lanthanides Actinides
Besides common oxidation state of +3, Besides common oxidation state of +3,
lanthanides show +2 and +4 states. actinides show +4, +5,+6 and +7 states.
The tendency to form complex is less. The tendency to form complex is greater.
Except promethium, all elements are All elements are radioactive.
non-radioactive.
Lanthanide compounds are less basic. Actinide compounds are more basic.

37. Give some applications of d-block elements
(I) Some of the transition metals and their compounds act as catalyst in chemical industries. Examples:
Iron( Fe) in Haber process for manufacture of ammonia. Vanadium pentoxide(V2O5) in contact process
for manufacture of sulphuric acid
(II) Iron and steels are most important construction materials
(III) In batteries zinc, Nickel etc are used
(IV) KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 are used as primary standards in volumetric analysis
38. Give some applications of f-block elements
(I) Misch metal is an alloy of 95 % lanthanoids and 5 % iron and traces of S, C, Ca and Al. It is used mainly
for bullets, shell and lighter flint.
(II) Uranium , Thorium are used as fuels in nuclear reactors
SOME PREVIOUS QUESTIONS
1. MnO4 - and ................ are formed by the disproportionation of MnO4 2- in acidic medium.
Ans: MnO2
2. What is the magnetic moment of an atom having d10 configuration?
Ans:
No unpaired electrons. So magnetic moment is zero

3. Zr and Hf are having similar chemical properties. This is due to ……………..
Ans: Lanthanoid contraction.
4. Calculatemagnetic moments of two transition metal ions are given below. Ion Sc3+ : 0 , T i3+ : 1.73 . Justify
these observations on the basis of spin only formula.
Ans: 21Sc 3d1 4s2 Sc3+ 3d0
No d electrons. So magnetic moment is zero
22Ti 3d2 4s2
Ti3+ 3d1 Here one unpaired electron is present .
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = √𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐) = √𝟏(𝟏 + 𝟐) = √𝟑 = 𝟏. 𝟕𝟑
5. Name a transition metal compound and write one use of it.

Potassium permanganate
(i) It is used as primary standard in volumetric analysis (ii) It is used as oxidizing agent.
6. Which is more paramagnetic, Fe2+ or Fe3+? Why?
6 2
26Fe 3d 4s
Fe2+ 3d6 Here 4 unpaired electrons
Fe3+ 3d5 Here 5 unpaired electrons . So it is more paramagnetic
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( ഈ NOTES ന്െ◌ട വീഡിേ◌യാ ‫◌ױ‬ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ‫ ؗ‬YOUTUBE ചാനൽ കാണുക. SUBSCRIBE െ◌ച‫ു◌إ‬ക )
PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175 , YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM
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CHAPTER 9 COORDINATION COMPOUNDS

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1. What are Coordination compounds?

Co-ordination compounds are compounds which contain central metal ion surrounded by neutral molecules or
ions.
K [Fe(CN) ] 𝒂𝒒 4 K+ + [Fe(CN) ]4-
4 6 ↔ 6
2. What are ligands ? What is the condition to be ligand ?

The neutral molecules or ions which su urround the central metal atoms are called ligands.
Every ligand should contain at least one electron pair.
3. What are the difference between double salt and coordination compounds?
Both are formed by the combination of two or more stable compounds. But double salts ionize completely when
dissolved in water .e.g. Mohr’s salt FesO4.(NH4)2SO4.6H2O
Complex ions will not dissociate in to its ions.
4. How will you classify ligands depending on the number of electron pairs donated by atoms? Explain each.
(I) Mono dentate ligands provide one electron pair per molecule or ion.
e.g. NH3 , H2O , CO , Cl- , F- , OH- , NO 2- , SCN-
(II) Di dentate ligands(bidentate ligand) provide two electron pair per molecule or ion.
e.g. Oxalate ion (ox),
Ethylene diamine (en) or ethane-1,2 –diamine
(III) Poly dentate ligands provide several pair of electrons per molecule or ion.
e.g. EDTA ion
5. What are Ambidentate ligands and Chelating ligands?

Ambidentate ligands :-Certain mono dentate ligands are capable of ligating through two different atoms present
in it. They are called ambidentate ligands. E.g. NO2− , SCN-−

Chelating ligands:- When a didentate ligand or polydentate ligand is attached by two or more atoms to the
central metal ion and forms a ring structure, the ligand is called chelating ligand. The resulting complex is called
chelates
6. What are Homoleptic complexes and Heteroleptic complexes ?

Homoleptic complexes:- Complexes in which the metal atom is linked only to one type of ligands are called
homoleptic complexes. E.g [Co(NH3)6]3+
Heteroleptic complexes :- Complexes in which the metal atom is linked only to more than one type of ligands are
called heteroleptic complexes. E.g [Co(NH3)4 Cl2]+
7. What is Coordination number?
The total number of ligand donor atoms to which the metal is directly bonded.
[Co(NH3)5 (SO4)]Br → Its coordination number is 6
[CoCl2(en)2]+ → Its coordination number is 6
8. Nomenclature of coordination compounds
(I) First positive part, then negative part
(II) In coordination part, first ligands in the alphabetical order, then central metal atom
(III) Number of ligands are indicated by bi, tri, tetra etc.
For ligands having numbers in their names bis , tris , tetrakis etc and their name in bracket.
(IV) The name of negative ligands end in ‘o’ e.g. Cl- → chlorido , OH- →hydroxido , CN-→ cyano
(V) Neutral ligands are named as such. (Exceptions: H2O →aqua , NH3→ ammine, CO →carbonyl )
(VI) If the complex is positive, the name of the metal as such.
(VII) If the complex is negative, the name of the metal end in ‘ate’ . e.g Fe →Ferrate , Zn → Zincate , Co→
Cobaltate , Pt→ Platinate , Ag→ Argentate , Au→ Aurate
(VIII) The oxidation number is indicated in parenthesis after the name of the central metal atom.
9. Write the IUPAC names of the following coordination compounds
(I) [Co(NH3)6]Cl3 → Hexaamminecobalt(III) chloride
(II) [Co(NH3)5Cl]Cl2 → Pentaamminechloridocobalt(III) chloride
(III) K3[Fe(CN)6] → Potassium hexacyanidoferrate(III)
(IV) K2[PdCl4] → Potassium tetrachloridopalladate(II)
(V) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NH2CH3)]Cl → Diamminechlorido(methylamine)platinum(II) chloride
(VI) [Cr(NH3)3(H2O)3]Cl3 →Triamminetriaquachromium(III) chloride
(VII) [Pt(NH3)2Cl(NO2)] → Diamminechloridonitrito-N-platinum(II)
(VIII) K3[Cr(C2O4)3] →Potassium trioxalatochromate(III)
(IX) [CoCl2(en)2]Cl → Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) chloride
(X) [Co(NH3)5(CO3)]Cl → Pentaamminecarbonatocobalt(III) chloride
(XI) Hg[Co(SCN)4] → Mercury tetrathiocyanatocobaltate(III)
(XII) [Ag(NH3)2][Ag(CN)2] →Diamminesilver(I) dicyanoargentate(I)
(XIII) [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3]2(SO4)3 →Tris(ethane-1,2–diammine)cobalt(III) sulphate
10. Write the formulas for the following coordination compounds
(I) Tetraamineaquachloridocobalt(III) chloride → [ Co(NH3) 4 (H2O)Cl]Cl2
(II) Potassium tetrahydroxozincate(II) → K2[Zn(OH)4]
(III) Potassium trioxalatoaluminate(III) → K3[Al(C2O4) 3]

(IV) Dichloridobis(ethane-1,2-diamine)cobalt(III) → [ CoCl2(en)2] +
(V) Tetracarbonylnickel(0) → [Ni(CO)4 ]
(VI) Tetraamminediaquacobalt(III) chloride → [Co(NH3) 4 (H2O)2]Cl3
(VII) Potassium tetracyanonickelate(II) → K2[Ni(CN)4]
(VIII) Tris(ethane–1,2–diamine) chromium(III) chloride → [Cr(H2NCH2CH2NH2)3] Cl3
(IX) Amminebromidochloridonitrito-N-platinate(II) → [Pt(NH3)BrCl(NO2)] −
(X) Dichloridobis(ethane–1,2–diamine)platinum(IV) nitrate →[Pt Cl2(H2NCH2CH2NH2)2](NO3)2
(XI) Iron(III) hexacyanoferrate(II) → Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3
11. Classification of Isomerism
Structural isomerism Sterio isomerism
(a) Ionization isomerism (a) Geometrical isomerism
(b) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) (b) Optical isomerism
(c) Linkage isomerism
(d) Coordination isomerism
12. Explain each type of structural isomerism with examples.
(I) Ionization isomerism:- Isomers having same molecular formula but different ions in solution.
Eg. [Co(NH3)5 Br]SO4 , [Co(NH3)5 (SO4)]Br
First complex give the test of sulphate ion and second give the test of bromide ion.
(II) Solvate isomerism ( Hydrate isomerism) :- Isomers having same molecular formula but different number
of water molecules inside and outside the coordination sphere.
Eg. [Cr(H2O)6]Cl3 [Cr(H2O)5 Cl]Cl2 . H2O [Cr(H2O)4Cl2]Cl .2 H2O
(III) Linkage isomerism :- Linkage isoomerism is shown by complexes containing ambidentate ligands. Here the
linkage of ambidentate ligand to the central metal atom is different.
Eg. NO 2- can link through nitrogen atom or oxygen atom.
[Co(NH3)5 NO2]Cl2 , [Co(NH3)5 (ONO)]Cl2
(IV) Coordination isomerism :- Coordination isomerism occurs in compounds containing both cationic and
anionic coordination spheres. This isomerism arises due to interchange of ligands between cationic and
anionic coordination spheres.
Eg. [Co(NH3)6] [Cr(CN)6 ] , [Cr(NH3)6] [Co(CN)6 ]
13. Explain Geometrical isomerism. Draw the Geometrical isomers of [Pt (NH3)2Cl2]
Geometrical isomerism arises when ligands occupy different positions around the central metal ion.
If two identical ligands on same side, it is called cis isomer.
If two identical ligands on opposite side, it is called trans isomer.
It is common in square planar complexes and in octahedral complexes.
Eg. diammine dichloro platinum (II) shows cis and trans form
14. Draw the cis and trans form of tetra ammine dichloridocobalt (III)ion and [CoCl2(en)2]+
,

15. Explain fac and mer isomer with example.
In Ma3b3 type octahedral complexes, if identical ligands
occupy adjacent positions at the corners of an octahedral
face, the isomer is called facial (fac) isomer.
When the positions of similar ligands are around the
meridian of the octahedron, the isomer is called meridional
(mer) isomer.
16. Why is geometrical isomerism not possible in tetrahedral complexes?

It is because the relative positions of the ligands attached to the central metal atom are same with respect to
each other.
17. Explain Optical isomerism? What is the condition for Optical isomerism?
Optical isomers differ in their action towards plane polarized light.
The isomer which rotates the plane polarized light to the right is called dextro rotatory (d or +).
The isomer which rotates the plane polarized light to the left is called laevo rotatory(l or -).
The d and l isomers are non super imposable mirror images.
18. Draw optical isomers of (a) tris(ethylene diamine)cobalt(III)ion.(b) [CoCl2(en)2]+
Trans form is optically inactiv .

19. What are the postulates of Werner’s theory
(I) In coordination compounds, metal atom exhibit two types of valancies, primary valency and secondary
valancy.
(II) The primary valency is ionisable and secondary valency is non ionisable.
(III) The primary valancies are satisfied by negative ions and secondary valancies are satisfied by negative ion or
neutral molecules (ligands).
(IV) Every metal atom or ion has a fixed number of secondary valancies equal to its co ordination number.
(V) The primary valancies are non directional. The secondary valancies are directional and directed towards
fixed corners of a regular geometry and give shape to the molecule.
20. What are the important features of valence bond theory.

(I) The central metal atom provides a number of empty orbitals ,which is equal to the co ordination number of
the central metal ion.
(II) The appropriate empty atomic orbitals of the metal hybridise to form a set of equivalent hybridized
orbitals with definite geometry.

Coordination number Hybridisation Geometry
4 sp3 tetrahedral
2
4 dsp Square planar
6 sp3d2 or d2sp3 octahedral
(III) The empty hybridized orbitals of the central metal atom overlap with the filled orbitals of the ligand to
form metal – ligand coordinate bonds.
21. With the help of valence bond theory, explain the geometry and magnetism of [Co(NH3)6]3+.
Co is in +3 oxidation state , 3 d6 configuration
In the presence of ligands ( ammonia) pairing will takes place.
d2sp3 hybridisation, Octahedral complex .
Inner d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is inner orbital complex .

No unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic .
22. With the help of valence bond theory, explain the magnetic property, inner orbital complex and geometry of
[Fe(CN)6]3- .
Fe is in +3 oxidation state , 3 d5 configuration
In the presence of ligands( cyanide ions) pairing will takes place.
d2sp3 hybridisation, Octahedral complex .

Inner d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is Inner orbital complex.
Unpaired electron is present, so it is paramagnetic.
3-
23. [FeF6] is an outer orbital complex or high spin complex. Prove.
Fe is in +3 oxidation state , 3 d5 configuration.
In the presence of ligands ( fluoride ions), pairing will not takes place.
Sp3 d2 hybridisation , Octahedral complex.
Outer d orbitals are used for hybridization, so it is Outer orbital complex
Large number of unpaired electrons, So high spin complex. It is paramagnetic
24. With the help of VBT, explain [Ni(CN)4]2-is square planar complex and [NiCl4] 2- is tetrahedral.
[Ni(CN)4]2- Here Ni is in +2 oxidation state, 3 d8 configuration.
In the presence of ligands (cyanide ions), pairing will takes place.

dsp2 hybridisation .Square planar geometry.
No unpaired electron, it is diamagnetic.
[NiCl4] 2- Here Ni is in +2 oxidation state, 3 d8 configuration.
In the presence of ligands (chloride ions), pairing will not takes place.
sp3 hybridisation , Tetrahedral geometry.
Unpaired electrons are present , it is paramagnetic.
25. With the help of valence bond theory, explain [Ni(CO)4]is is tetrahedral and diamagnetic.
Ni is in 0 oxidation state, , 3 d8 4 s2 configuration.
In the presence of ligands ( carbon monoxide),

pairing will takes place.sp3 hybridisation,
tetrahedral geometry. No unpaired electron, it is
diamagnetic.
26. What are the limitations of valence bond theory?

(I) It does not explain the colour exhibited by coordination compounds.
(II) In certain cases, the experimentally observed values of magnetic moment do not fully agree with the
values calculated from valence bond theory.
27. Explain the crystal field theory of complexes using octahedral complexes
CFT assumes the ligands to be point charges and the interaction between ligands and central metal ion is purely
electrostatic. There are five degenerate d orbitals. When ligands approach, the energy of five d orbitals increase,
the degeneracy will loss and split in to two sets. This is called crystal field splitting.
In octahedral complexes, ligands approach through the axis and the orbitals lie in the axis (eg → dx2-y2 and dz2 )
gets repelled more and its energy is more increased.
The other d orbitals which lie in between the axes are lowered in energy ( t2g →dxy , dxz , dyz ).
The energy difference between the two sets of orbitals (t2g and eg) are called crystal field splitting energy (∆o).

28. What are Spectro chemical series ?
The ligands can be arranged according to the magnitude of crystal field splitting (∆o) and is called spectro chemical
series.
The ligands lying above H2O are called strong field ligands and those below H2O are called weak field ligands.
I- < Br- < Cl- < F- < OH- < H2O < NH3 < en < CN- < CO
29. With the help of crystal field theory, explain colour of [Ti(H2O)6]3+
1 0
Ti (3d2 4s2) , Here Ti3+ (3d1) → t 2g e g
For the excitation of electron from t2g orbital to eg orbital, green and yellow light are absorbed.
The complimentary colour is purple.
30. Write electronic configuration of d4 system using crystal field theory in low spin complexes and high spin
complexes.
In low spin complexes t42g e0g , In high spin complexes t32g e1g
31. The hexa aqua manganese (II) ion contain five unpaired electrons, while the hexa cyanido manganese (II) ion
contain only one unpaired electron. Explain using crystal field theory.
In hexa aqua manganese (II) ion, manganese is in +2 oxidation state. 3d5 configuration.
Here ligand is water, weak field ligand and the crystal field splitting is low.
So the electronic configuration is t32g e2 So five unpaired electrons.
g
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = √𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐= √𝟓(𝟓 + 𝟐) = √𝟑𝟓 = 5.92
In hexa cyanido manganese (II) ion, manganese is in +2 oxidation state. 3d5 configuration.
Here ligand is cyanide, strong field ligand and the crystal field splitting is high.
So the electronic configuration is t52g e0 So only one unpaired electron.
g
𝑴𝒂𝒈𝒏𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒄 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = √𝒏(𝒏 + 𝟐= √𝟏(𝟏 + 𝟐) = √𝟑 = 1.73
32. Explain the crystal field splitting in tetrahedral complexes.
In tetrahedral complexes, ligands approach the metal ion through a position in between the axes and the t2g orbitals
get repelled more and its energy is increased than eg orbitals.
The magnitude of tetrahedral splitting will be less than octahedral splitting. ∆t =(4/9) ∆o . So in tetrahedral
complexes high spin complexes are formed.
33. What are the merits of cystal field theory?

(I) It can explain colour of the coordination compounds
(II) It can explain magnetic properties.

34. What are the limitations of crystal field theory?
(I) Since ligands are considered as point charges in crystal field theory, anionic ligands are supposed to exert
greater splitting effect. But many of the anionic ligands are weak field ligands.
(II) It considers metal-ligand bond as ionic and does not take in to account the covalent nature of the bond
35. What are Metal carbonyls?
Complexes containing carbon monoxides as ligands are called metal carbonyls
Ni(CO)4 → Tetracarbonyl nickel(0) → Tetrahedral

Fe(CO)5 → Pentacarbonyl iron(0) → Trigonalbipyramidal
Cr(CO)6 → Hexacarbonyl chromium(0) →Octahedral.
Mn2(CO)10 → Decacarbonyl dimanganese(0) →It is made up of two square pyramidal Mn(CO)5 units joined by a
Mn – Mn bond.
Co2(CO)8 → Octacarbonyl dicobalt(0) →It has a Co – Co bond bridged by two CO groups
36. Discuss the nature of bonding in metal carbonyls.
The M-C bond in metal carbonyl has sigma( σ ) as well as pi ( π ) character.

The metal carbon sigma bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons on the carbonyl
carbon in to a vacant orbital of metal.
The metal carbon pi bond is formed by the donation of lone pair of electrons from a filled d-
orbital of the metal in to thee anti bonding pi molecular orbital of carbon monoxide.
The metal to ligand bonding creates a synergic effect which strengthens the bond between CO
and the metal.

37. What are the factors which govern the stability of complexes?
(I) Greater the charge on the central metal ion , greater the stability of the complexes.
K3[Fe(CN)6] is more stable than K4[Fe(CN)6]
(II) Greater the strength of the ligand, greater the stability of the complexes.
K4[Fe(CN)6] is more stable than K4[FeCl6]
(III) Chelation increases the stability of complexes.
38. Give some applications of coordination compounds.

(I) Biological systems :-
Chlorophyll is coordination compound of Magnesium.
Haemoglobin is a coordination compound of Iron.
Vitamin B 12 (cyano cobalamine) is a coordination compound of cobalt
(II) Medicinal chemistry :-
The complex cis[Pt Cl2 (NH3)2] is called cisplatin and is used for the treatment of tumours(cancer)
(III) Analytical chemistry :-
Hardness of water is detected by using EDTA.
The presence of Cu2+ is confirmed by adding ammonia .
(IV) Metallurgy :-
In the purification of nickel by monds process [Ni(CO)4] vapours are formed and is decomposed.
39. Draw the structures of geometrical isomers of [Fe(NH3)2(CN)4] –
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PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR (8040) , 9947444175

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CHAPTER:10 HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES

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1. Classification of haloalkanes and haloarenes:
(I) Compounds containing sp3 C-X bond:
(i) Alkyl halides or Haloalkanes ( R - X) :
(a) Primary alkyl halide ( 10) :- Here halogen attached carbon is connected to one carbon atom or no carbon
atom
(b) Secondary alkyl halide ( 20) :- Here halogen attached carbon is connected to two carbon atoms
(c) Tertiary alkyl halide ( 30) :- Here halogen attached carbon is connected to three carbon atom
(ii) Allylic halides :- Here halogen attached carbon is connected to double bonded carbon atoms
(iii) Benzylic halides:- Here halogen attached carbon is connected to benzene ring
(II) Compounds containing sp2 C-X bond

(i) Vinylic halide :- Here halogen is directly connected to double bonded carbon atoms
(ii) Aryl halides :- Here halogen is directly connected to benzene ring
2. Nature of C-X bond :-

Halogen is more electronegative than ca bon. So carbon –halogen
bond is polarized. Carbon attains partial positive charge and
halogen attains partial negative charge.

3. Give methods for the preparation of alkyl chloride.
(i) Alcohol is treated with hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride
𝑨𝒏𝒉.𝒁𝒏𝑪𝒍𝟐
CH3 CH2OH + HCl –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH2Cl + H2O
(ii) Alcohol is treated with phosphorus trichloride or phosphorus pentachloride.
3 CH3 CH2OH + PCl3 → 3 CH3 CH2Cl + H3 PO3
CH3 CH2OH + PCl5 → CH3 CH2Cl + POCl3 + HCl
(iii) Alcohol is treated with thionyl chloride.
CH3 CH2OH + SOCl2→ CH3 CH2Cl+ HCl + SO2
For the preparation of pure alkyl halide, reaction of alcohol with thionyl chloride is the best method because
by products are gases and easily escape out.
4. Alkyl iodide is prepared by Finkelstein reaction. Write the reaction.
Alkyl chloride or bromide is treated with sodium iodide in acetone solvent, alkyl iodide is formed. This
reaction is called Finkelstein reaction.
CH3 CH2Cl + NaI → CH3 CH2I + NaCl
5. Alkyl fluoride is prepared by Swartz reaction. Write the reaction.
Alkyl chloride or bromide is heated with metallic fluorides such as AgF , Hg2F2 ,etc. alkyl fluoride is formed.
This reaction is called Swartz reaction.
CH3 CH2Cl + AgF → CH3 CH2F + AgCl
6. Give any method for the preparation of chloro benzene(Haloarene).
7. Explain Sandmeyer’s reaction.
When aniline is treated with sodium nitrite and

dilute HCl (or Nitrous acid), benzene diazonium
chloride is formed (This is called diazatisation) .
When benzene diazonium chloride is treated
with Cu2Cl2, chlorobenzene is formed.
When benzene diazonium chloride is treated
with Cu2Br2, bromobenzene is formed.
This reaction is called Sandmeyer’s reaction.
8. Give a method for the preparation of iodo benzene.
When benzene diazonium chloride is boiled with

potassium iodide, iodo benzene is formed.

9. Melting and boiling point of alkyl halides and aryl halides:
Higher than corresponding hydrocarbons.
As length increases boiling point increases.
As branching increases boiling point decreases.
The boiling point order is RF <RCl <RBr <RI
For dihalobenzenes para isomer has higher melting point than ortho and meta. It is due to the symmetry of
para isomer that fit in the crystal lattice better.
10. What are nucleophilic substitution reactions. Give examples.
Halogen of the alkyl halide is replaced by a nucleophile is called nucleophilic substitution reactions
R –X + KOH → ROH + KX ( Alcohol formation)
R –X + KCN → RCN + KX ( Alkane nitrile or alkyl cyanide formation )
R –X + AgCN → RNC + AgX ( alkyl isocyanide or carbyl amine formation)
The stronger nucleophiles ( OH-, CN- , NH -2 , OH-) displaces a weaker nucleophile X-
Nucleophilic substitution reactions are two types. SN1 reactions and SN2 reactions .
11. Reactivity order of alkyl halides : RF <RCl <RBr <RI
Here iodide is better leaving group because it is bigger halogen.
12. What are Ambident nucleophiles ?
Nucleophiles possessing two nucleophilic centres. Eg. CN− , NO2−
13. Haloalkanes react with KCN , form alkyl cyanide as major product while with AgCN form isocyanides as major
product. Explain.
KCN ( K+CN−)is ionic and forms cyanide ion in solution. Both carbon and nitrogen are free to bond with positively
charged carbon of haloalkanes. But C-C bond is more stable. So alkyl cyanide is the main product.
But AgCN ( Ag-CN ) is covalent and so only nitrogen is free to bond with carbon of haloalkanes and isocyanide is
the main product.
14. Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution bimolecular reactions.
It occurs in one step and the reaction is second order.

Rate depend on the concentration of alkyl halide and nucleophile and so it is second order .
Rate = k [alkyl halide] [Nucleophile]
In this mechanism, the nucleophile attacks the partially positive charged carbon atom of the C-X bond of the
substrate from the back side of the C-X bond and the leaving group X- departs simultaneously.
The tertiary halides are less reactive towards SN2 reaction because bulky groups hinder the attack of
nucleophile.
Reactivity order : Primary alkyl halide > Secondary alkyl halide > Tertiary alkyl halide.
CH3Br > CH3 CH2Br > (CH3 )2CHBr > (CH3 )3CBr

15. Explain the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution unimolecular reactions.
It occurs in two steps and the reaction is
first order.
Rate depends on the concentration of alkyl
halide only.
Rate = k [alkyl halide]
Step 1: Alkyl halide(C-X bond) undergo heterolysis and carbocation is formed (slow step)
Step 2 : The carbo cation react with nucleophile to complete substitution reaction (Fast step)
The tertiary alkyl halides are more reactive towards SN1 reaction because tertiary carbocation is more stable.
Reactivity order : Tertiary alkyl haalide > Secondary alkyl halide > Primary alkyl halide
(CH3 )3CBr >(CH3 )2CHBr >CH3 CH2Br > CH3Br
16. Allylic and benzylic halides show high reactivity towards SN1 reaction. Why?
This is because allyl carbocation and benzyl carbocation are resonance stabilized.
Allyl carbocation
Benzyl carbocation
17. What is Optical activity? What is the condition for optical activity?
When plane polarized light is passed through certain substances, they can rotate the plane polarized light
either to left or right. Such substances are called optically active substances and this property is called optical
activity.
The rotation towards left is called laevo rotatory (l or -) .
The rotation towards right is called dextro rotatory (d or +) .
For optical activity, the molecule must be dissymmetric or chiral.
A molecule is said to be dissymmetric or chiral if it is not super imposable on its mirror image.
An organic compound is chiral, if its four valancies are different.
18. What are enantiomers?
Enantiomers are non super imposable mirror images which rotate the
plane polarized light in equal amount but in opposite direction.
Enantiomers have same physical properties, but their behavior
towards plane polarized light is different.
19. What is Racemic mixture ? Racemic mixture is optically inactive. Why?

An equimolar mixture of enantiomers are called racemic mixture (dl or ±) .
Racemic mixture is optically inactive. It is due to rotation due to one enantiomer is cancelled by the rotation
due to the other enantiomer.

20. What are the differences between SN1 reaction and SN2 reaction?
SN1 reaction SN2 reaction
Rate depend on the concentration of alkyl Rate depend on the concentration of both
halide only alkyl halide and nucleophile
Takes place in two steps and carbocation is Takes place in one step and carbocation is
the intermediate not the intermediate
Reactivity order is Reactivity order is
tertiary alkyl halide> secondary alkyl halide> tertiary alkyl halide<secondary alkyl halide<
primary alkyl halide primary alkyl halide
Racemic mixture is formed Inversion of configuration takesplace
(Both retention and inversion)
21. Give example for dehydrohalogenation reaction ( elimination reaction).
Alkyl halide undergo dehydrohalogenation (elimination of HX) reaction when heated with alcoholic potassium
hydroxide to form alkene. Alcoholic potassium hydroxide is a dehydrohalogenating agent.
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
CH3 CH2Br –⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH2 = CH2
22. State and explain Zaitsev’s rule.
According to Saytzeff’s rule, when two alkenes can be formed by dehydrohalogenation, the major product is
more alkyl group substituted alkene.
When 2-bromo butane is treated with alcoholic KOH , But-2-ene (2- butane) is the major product
𝑨𝒍𝒄.𝑲𝑶𝑯
CH3 CH2CH (Br) CH3 –⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH2 CH= CH2 + CH3 CH= CH CH3
2-bromo butane But-1-ene But-2-ene (major)
23. What is Grignard reagent ? How is it prepared?
Alkyl halides react with magnesium in dry ether to form alkyl magnesium halide is called Grignard reagent.
𝒅𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
R X + Mg –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R MgX
Grignard reagent
CH3 CH2 Br + Mg –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH2 MgBr
24. Grignard reagent should be kept away from moisture. Why?
Because it is highly reactive and react with moisture to form the hydrocarbons.
RMgX + H2O → RH + Mg(OH)Br
25. What is Wurts reaction?
Alkyl halides react with sodium in dry ether to form higher alkanes is called Wurts reaction.
𝐑 − 𝐗 + 𝟐 𝐍𝐚 + 𝐗 − 𝐑 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝐑 − 𝐑 + 𝟐 𝐍𝐚𝐗
𝑫𝒓𝒚 𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 + 𝑪𝒍 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍
26. Aryl halides are less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution. Give reasons.
(I) Resonance effect:.
In chlorobenzene, due to resonance , the C-Cl bond acquires a

partial double bond character and the cleavage bond is very
difficult.
(II) Hybridisation: The Cl atom in chlorobenzene is bonded to sp2 hybridised carbon. It has more ‘s’ character
, more electronegativity and hence held the electron pair of the bond more tightly. Therefore the the C-Cl
bond become shorter and stronger and difficult to break.

27. How will you convert chlorobenzene in to phenol (Nucleophilic substitution reaction of aryl halides).
When chlorobenzene is heated with aqueous NaOH under high pressure of 300atm and high temperature of
623 K, phenol is
formed.
28. Give examples for the electrophilic substitution reactions of chlorobenzene.
The halo group in benzene is ortho para directing

due to more electron density at ortho and para
position.
(i) Nitration: When chlorobenzene is treated with a mixture of a mixture of concentrated nitric acid and
concentrated sulphuric acid (nitrating mixture) , ortho and para nitro chlorobenzene is formed.
(ii) Sulphonation: When chlorobenzene is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, ortho and para chloro
benzene sulphonic acid is formed.
(iii) Halogenation:
When chlobenzene is treated with Cl2 in the

presence of AlCl3 or FeCl3, ortho and para
dichlorobenzene is formed.
(iv) Friedel Craft reaction :
When chlobenzene is treated with CH3Cl in the

presence of anhydrous AlCl3, a mixture of ortho and
para chloro toluene is formed.(Friedel craft alkylation)

When chlobenzene is treated with CH3COCl in the
presence of anhydrous AlCl3, a mixture of ortho and
para chloro acetophenone is formed.(Friedel craft
acylation)
29. Explain Wurts-Fittig reaction with example.

When aryl halide and alkyl halide react with sodium in dry ether , alkyl benzene is formed. This reaction is
called Wurts Fittig reaction.
30. Explain fittig reaction with example
Aryl halides react with sodium in dry ether diphenyl is

formed. This reaction is called Fittig reaction.
31. What are Polyhalogen compounds? Give examples.

Compounds containing more than one halogen are Polyhalogen compounds.
(i) CH2Cl2 → dichloromethane (methylene chloride)
(ii) CHCl3 → trichloromethane (chloroform)
(iii) CCl4 → tetra chloromethane (carbon tetra chloride)
(iv) CF2Cl2 → dichlorodiﬂuoromethane (Freon)
(v) CHI3 → tri iodomethane (idoform)
(vi) DDT → Dichloro Diphenyyl Trichloro ethane . DDT is the first chlorinated insecticide.
32. Why chloroform is kept in dark coloured bottles?

Chloroform is slowly oxidized by air in the presence of sun light to a poisonous gas phosgene(carbonyl
chloride).
𝒍𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕
2 CHCl3 + O2 –⎯⎯→ 2 COCl2 + 2 HCl
33. What are Freons? How is it prepared ?
Freons are chloro fluoro carbon compounds of methane and ethane.
Freon -1,2 (dichloro difluoro methane) is prepared by the swarts reaction of carbon tetra chloride.

CHAPTER 11 ALCOHOLS,PHENOLS AND ETHERS

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1. Classification:
(I) Compounds containing sp3 C-OH bond
(a) Primary alcohol, secondary alcohol, tertiary alcohol
(b) Allylic alcohol : CH2=CH– CH2–OH

(c) Benzylic alcohols :
(II) Compounds containing sp2 C-OH bond

(i) Vinylic alcohols : CH2=CH–OH ,
(ii) Phenols :
2. Structure of functional group in alcohol, phenol and ether :

The C-O-H bond in alcohol is slightly less than tetrahedral angle due to lone pair- lone pair repulsion.
The carbon-oxygen bond length in phenol is slightly less than that in methanol due to partial double bond
character due to resonance.
In ether, C-O-C bond angle is greater than tetrahedral angle due to repulsion from bulkier alkyl groups.
3. How will you prepare primary alcohol and secondary alcohol from aldehyde and ketone?
Aldehydes on reduction with reducing agents such as H2/Ni , LiAlH4 etc gives primary alcohols.
Ketones on reduction give secondary alcohols.
𝑷𝒅
RCHO + H2 – RCH2OH

4. How will you prepare primary alcohol and secondary alcohol from aldehydes and ketones using Grignard reagent?
Formaldehyde (Methanal) on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give primary alcohol.
𝑯𝟐𝑶
H–CHO + R MgX → R–CH2–OMgX –⎯→ R–CH2–OH + Mg(OH)X
0
Formaldehyde Adduct 1 alcohol
Other aldehydes on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give secondary alcohol.
𝑯𝟐𝑶
R–CHO + R MgX → R2–CH–OMgX –⎯→ R2–CH–OH + Mg(OH)X
Aldehyde Adduct 20 alcohol
Ketones on reaction with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis give tertiary alcohol.
𝑯𝟐𝑶
R2–CO + R MgX → R3–C–OMgX –⎯→ R3–C –OH + Mg(OH)X
Ketone Adduct 30 alcohol
5. How will you convert the following.
(a) Propene to Propan-2-ol : Propene on hydration in the presence of sulphuric acid. (addition of water according to
markownikof’s rule)
OH
𝑯+
CH3 CH=CH2 + H2O › CH3 CH–CH3
(b) Propene to Propan-1-ol : Propene on hydration in the presence of diborane and hydrogen peroxide. (addition of
water against markownikof’s rule). This reaction is called hydroboration oxidation.
𝑩𝟐𝑯𝟔 ,𝑯𝟐𝑶𝟐
CH3 CH=CH2 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH2 CH2OH
(c) Propanoic acid to Propanol: Propanoic acid on reduction with LiAlH4 gives propanol.
𝑳𝒊𝑨𝒍𝑯𝟒/𝑯𝟐𝑶
CH3CH2 COOH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH2 CH2OH
6. How will you prepare phenol?
(i) Phenol from chlorobenzene
When chlorobenzene is heated with aqueous NaOH under
high pressure of 300atm and high temperature of 623 K,
phenol is formed.
(ii) Phenol from benzene sulphonic acid

When benzene is treated with oleum , benzene sulphonic acid is formed . When benzene sulphonic acid is
treated with NaOH , sodium benzene sulphonate is formed. It is fused with NaOH , sodium phenoxide is
formed. It is acidified with any acid, gives phenol.

(iii) Phenol from benzene diazonium chloride.
On warming benzene diazonium salt with water,

phenol is formed.
7. How will you prepare phenol industrially?

Industrially phenol is prepared from cumene.
Cumene is iso propyl benzene.
Cumene is converted to cumene hydroperoxide by air oxidation. This on reaction with aqueous acid give
phenol and acetone.
8. Boiling point of alcohols and phenols are higher than haloakanes, hydrocarbons etc. Why?
Due to inter molecular hydrogen bonding
9. Compare Boiling point of alcohols

(I) As length of alcohols increases, boiling point increases, due to increase in Vander walls force of attraction.
Example: Methanol < Ethanol < propanol < Butanol
(II) As branch of alcohols increases, boiling point decreases, due to decrease in Vander walls force of
attraction. Example: Butan-2-ol < Butan-1-ol
10. Lower alcohols are soluble in water. Why?
Lower alcohols form hydrogen bond with water molecules.
11. Explain the oxidation of alcohols.
(I) Primary alcohol on oxidation gives aldehyde, which on further oxidation gives acid with same number of
carbon atoms.
𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒/𝑯+ 𝑲𝑴𝒏𝑶𝟒/𝑯+
R– CH2–OH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R– CHO –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R–COOH
When CrO3 or PCC (pyridinium chlorochromate) is used Primary alcohol is oxidized to aldehyde.
𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟑
R– CH2–OH –⎯⎯→ R– CHO
𝑷𝑪𝑪
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐𝑶𝑯 –⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶

(II) Secondary alcohol on oxidation gives ketone.
(III) Tertiary alcohols do not undergo oxidation under normal conditions.

12. Explain the reaction of alcohols with copper at 573 K.
𝑪𝒖/𝟓𝟕𝟑 𝑲
R– CH2–OH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R– CHO
Primary alcohol on dehydrogenation with Cu at 573 K give aldehyde.

Secondary alcohol on dehydrogenation with Cu at 573 K give ketone.
Tertiary alcohol undergo dehydration with Cu at 573 K give alkene.
13. Explain Dehydration alcohols.

Alcohol is dehydrated in the presence of concentrated sulphuric acid to alkene.
Reactivity order is Tertiary alcohol> Secondary alcohol> Primary alcohol
𝑯𝟐𝑺𝑶𝟒/𝟒𝟒𝟑𝑲
CH3CH2OH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH2= CH2
14. What is esterification. Give example.
Alcohol or phenol reacts with acids, acid chlorides or acid anhydrides gives ester is called esterification
𝑯+
R–OH + R’ –COOH › R–O CO R’ + H2O
𝑷𝒚𝒓𝒊𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒆
R–OH + R’ –COCl –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R–O CO R’ + HCl
15. Explain the acidity of alcohols
The acidity of alcohols is due to the polar nature of O-H bond.
An electron releasing alkyl groups increases electron density on oxygen tending to decrease the polarity of
O-H bond. This will reduce the acid strength.
Acidity decreases in the order
Alcohols react with active metals give hydrogen gas and alkoxide. This reaction shows that alcohol is acidic.
𝟐 𝑹𝑶𝑯 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂 → 𝟐𝑹𝑶𝑵𝒂 + 𝑯𝟐
16. Alcohols are weaker acids than water. Explain
It is explained by the reaction of water with alkoxide.
R-O- + H-O-H → R-O-H + OH-
Base Acid
This reaction shows that water is a better proton donor (i.e. Water is stronger acid than alcohols)
17. Phenol is weakly acidic. Explain with example.
Phenol react with active metals like Na gives hydrogen.
Phenol react with alkali like NaOH gives salt and water.
Both these reaction shows that phenol is acidic.
Reaction with alkali shows that phenol is more acidic than alcohols.

,
18. Why phenol is more acidic than alcohols?
(I) In phenol, due to resonance develop a partial positive charge on oxygen and it tries to attract the electron
pair of O-H bond. This makes the O-H bond weak and the hydrogen atom can be easily released as proton
(II) Phenoxide ion is also resonance stabilized and so release of proton is easy.
19. Compare the acidity of phenols
Electron releasing group decreases acidity of phenol.
Electron withdrawing group increases acidity of phenol.
As the number of electron withdrawing group increases acidity of phenols also increases.
e.g. 4-methyl phenol < phenol<3-nitrophenol< 3,5- dinitrophenol < 2,4,6-trinitrophenol
20. Acidity order : Alcohols < water < Phenols
21. What happens when zinc is added to phenol?
Phenol + Zinc → Benzene
22. Electrophic substitution reactions of phenol.

In phenol –OH group is ortho para directing group
(i) Bromination:-
On bromination with bromine in CCl4 or CS2, phenol gives

ortho and para bromophenol.
On bromination with bromine water, phenol gives 2,4,6-

tribromophenol
(ii) Nitration : On nitration with dilute nitric acid, phenol give ortho and para nitro phenol.
These are separated by steam distillation. Ortho nitro phenol is

steam volatile due to intra molecular hydrogen bonding. Para nitro
phenol is not steam volatile due to inter molecular hydrogen
bonding.

With nitrating mixture ( Mixture of concentrated nitric acid and
concentrated sulphuric acid) , phenol gives 2,4,6- tri nitro
phenol. (picric acid)
23. Phenol + Con. HNO3 →Picric acid (2,4,6- tri nitro phenol)
24. Explain the following name reactions .
𝑪𝑶𝟐
(a) Kolbe’s reaction :- Phenol + NaOH → Sodium phenoxide –⎯→ Salicylic acid
When sodium phenoxide is treated with carbon dioxide under temperature 413 K and pressure 4-7
atmospere, sodium salt of salicylic acid is formed. This salt on acidification give salicylic acid(2-hydroxy
benzoic acid
(b) Reimer –Tiemann reaction:-When phenol is heated with chloroform and alkali, salicylaldehyde(2-
hydroxyl benzaldehyde) is formed..
Phenol + Chloroform+ aqueous NaOH → Salicylaldehyde

25. What is aspirin. How is it prepared?
Acetyl salicylic acid is known as aspirin.

It is used as analgesic.
It is prepared by the acetylation of salicylic acid
with acetic anhydride.
26. Oxidation of phenol:

Phenol on oxidation with chromic acid gives benzequinone
27. How will you distinguish alcohol and phenols?

(i) Phenol reacts with alkali. Alcohol does not.
(ii) Phenol gives violet color with neutral ferric chloride. Alcohol does not.

28. How will you manufacture ethanol?
Molasses is diluted to 10% sugar solution . Yeast is added and at a temperature of about 305 K.
Yeast supplies enzymes invertase and zymase which brings about the fermentation.
6-10 % ethanol called wash is formed.
𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒕𝒂𝒔𝒆
C12H22O11 + H2O –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Fructose
𝒛𝒚𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒆
C6H12O6 –⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO2
Uses of ethanol : (i) Alcoholic beverage (ii) industrial solvent (iii) preservative for biological specimens.
29. What is denatured spirit?
The commercial alcohol is made unfit for drinking by mixing in it some copper sulphate(to give colour) ,
pyridine( to give foul smell)and methanol (to make poisonous) is called denaturation of alcohol.
30. Methanol is known as wood spirit. How is it manufactured?
Methanol is manufactured by passing a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen through a catalytic mixture of
ZnO and Cr2O3 at a pressure of 200 atm to 300atm and temperature of 573 K to673 K
Use of methanol: (i) solvent for paints or varnishes,(ii) in the manufacture of formaldehyde, (iii)for
denaturation of ethanol
31. How will you distinguish 10, 20 and 30 alcohol using Lucas test?
𝑨𝒏𝒉𝒚𝒅 𝒁𝒏𝑪𝒍𝟐
R–OH + HX –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R –X + H2O
Lucas reagent is a mixture of concentrated HCl and anhydrous zinc chloride.
Reactivity order is ,Tertiary alcohol> Secondary alcohol> Primary alcohol
Alcohol is water soluble, but alkyl halide is does not and give turbid solution.
Tertiary alcohol gives immediate turbidity.
Secondary alcohol gives turbidity after five minutes.
Primary alcohol gives turbidity only on heating.
32. Classification of ether:
(I) Simple or symmetric ether :- If the alkyl or aryl groups attached to the oxygen are same.
E.g. diethyl ether ( C2H5 –O -C2H5)
(II) Mixed or un symmetric ether :- If the alkyl or aryl groups attached to the oxygen are different.
E.g. anisole ( C6H5 –O- CH3)
33. Explain Williamson’s ether synthesis.
When alkyl halide is heated with sodium alkoxide , ether is formed is called Williamson’s ether synthesis.
CH3ONa + BrCH2 CH3 → CH3O CH2 CH3 + NaBr
By this method both symmetric and unsymmetric ethers can be prepared.
For the preparation of alkyl aryl ether, alkyl halide and

sodium phenoxide must be heated.
Reason: Halogen attached to benzene ring is not reactive.
C6H5ONa + BrCH2 CH3 → C6H5O CH2 CH3 + NaBr

For the preparation of ether having tertiary alkyl group, tertiary alkoxide must be used. Otherwise alkene is
the product.
Reason: Sodium alkoxide is not only nucleophile, but also base and so it accept acid from tertiary alkyl halide
and form alkene.
34. Explain the reaction of ethers with Hydrogen halides.
R–O–R + HX → RX + R –OH
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑯𝑩𝒓 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑶𝑯
Phenyl oxygen bond will not break due to partial double bond character.
Tertiary carbocation is more stable and bond breaks in such manner.

35. Anisole + HI→ phenol + methyl iodide
C6H5O CH3 + HI → C6H5O H + CH3I
36. Explain electrophilic substitution in anisole.

-OR group in aromatic ether is ortho and para directing.
It is due to more electron density at ortho and para positions
(I) Halogenation

(II) Nitration
(III) Friedel craft alkylation
(IV) Friedel craft acylation
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(ഈ NOTES ന്െ◌ട വീഡിേ◌യാ ‫◌ױ‬ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ‫ؗ‬

YOUTUBE ചാനൽ കാണുക. SUBSCRIBE െ◌ച‫ു◌إ‬ക )
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CHAPTER 12 ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

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1. Structure of carbonyl groups
In carbonyl group carbon-oxygen double bond contain one sigma(σ)
bond and one pi (π)bond. The carbon atom of the carbonyl group is sp2
hybridised and is trigonal planar.The carbon oxygen bond is polarized
due to higher electronegativity of oxygen relative to carbon.
2. How will you prepare aldehydes and ketones ?

(i) By the oxidation of alcohols :
𝑪𝒓𝑶𝟑
R– CH2–OH –⎯⎯→ R– CHO ,
Primary alcohol on oxidation with CrO3 or PCC (Pyridinium chlorochromate) gives aldehyde.
Secondary alcohol on oxidation gives ketone.
(ii) By the catalytic dehydrogenation of alcohols using Cu at 573 K.
𝑪𝒖/𝟓𝟕𝟑 𝑲
R– CH2–OH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R– CHO
Primary alcohol on dehydrogenation gives aldehye.

Secondary alcohol on dehydrogenation gives ketone.
(iii) Alkene on ozonolysis gives aldehydes and ketones.
(iv) From alkynes : Alkynes on treatment with dilute sulhuric acid and mercuric sulphate gives aldehydes
and ketones.
𝑯𝒈𝟐+/𝑯+/𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝑯 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯 − 𝑶𝑯 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟐 = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑𝑪𝑯𝑶
𝑯𝒈𝟐+/𝑯+/𝟑𝟑𝟑𝑲 𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪 ≡ 𝑪𝑯 + 𝑯 − 𝑶𝑯 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪(𝑶𝑯) = 𝑪𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑𝑪𝑶 𝑪𝑯𝟑

3. How will you prepare aldehydes?
(i) Rosenmund’s reduction : Aldehydes are obtained by the reduction of acid chloride in the
presence of palladium and barium sulphate is called Rosenmund’s reduction.
𝑷𝒅–𝑩𝒂𝑺𝑶𝟒
𝑹𝑪𝑶𝑪𝒍 + 𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ RCHO
e.g. Conversion of benzoyl chloride to benzaldehyde
(ii) Stephen reaction: Nitriles are reduced to corresponding imines with stannous chloride and HCl
which on hydrolysis gives aldehyde.
𝑯𝟐 𝑶
RCN + SnCl2 + HCl → R CH= NH –⎯→ R CHO
(iii) Etard’s reaction : Toluene is oxidized to benzaldehyde using chromyl chlorides is called Etard’s
reaction.
(iv) Gattermann-Koch reaction :
When benzene is treated with carbon monoxide and hydrogen chloride in the presence of anhydrous
aluminium chloride or CuCl, benzaldehyde is formed .This reaction is called Gattermann-Koch
reaction
(v) By the side chain chlorination followed by hydrolysis.
4. How will you prepare Ketones?

(i) Acid chloride on treatment with dialkyl cadmium, ketone is formed.
(ii) By the treatment of nitriles with Grignard reagent followed by hydrolysis, ketones are formed.

(iii) By friedel craft acylation of benzene.
5. Aldehydes and ketones undergo nucleophilic addition reactions. Give reason.
In aldehydes and ketones CO group is present. Here pi bond is

shifted to oxygen atom and so carbon attains partial positive
charge and so it undergo nucleophilic addition reaction.
Example
(i) Addition of hydrogen cyanide
(ii) Addition of alcohols:
(iii) Addition of Grignard reagent :
(iv) Addition of sodium hydrogen sulphite: Aldehydes and ketones form crystalline addition product with
sodium bi sulphite. It is separated and regenerated using dilute acid or alkali. So this reaction is used
for separation and purification of aldehydes and ketones.

6. Aldehydes are more reactive than ketones towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Give reasons.
(i) Inductive effect : The presence of two electron releasing alkyl groups(+ I effect) decrease the positive
charge on carbonyl carbon and so ketones are less reactive.
(ii) Sterric effect : As the number of alkyl group increases , the attack of nucleophile is difficult and so
ketones are less reactive.
7. Aromatic aldehydes and ketones are less reactive towards nucleophilic addition reactions. Give reason.
Due to resonance effect the positive charge of carbonyl carbon decreases.
8. Give example for addition of ammonia derivatives to aldehydes and ketones
( Nucleophilic addition followed by elimination of water molecule)
(i) Addition of hydrazine to aldehydes or ketones gives hydrazone

𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑶 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟐 → 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑵𝑯𝑵𝑯𝟐
(ii) Addition of phenyl hydrazine to aldehydes or ketones gives phenyl hydrazone
𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑶 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐𝑵𝑯𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 → 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑵𝑯𝑵𝑯𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓
9. How will you identify aldehydes and ketones?
Aldehydes and ketones react with 2,4- dinitro phenyl hydrazine( Borsche’s reagent) gives orange red
precipitate of 2,4 dinitro phenyl hydrazones.
10. Explain oxidation of aldehydes and ketones.

Aldehydes undergo easy oxidation even with mild oxidizing agents to corresponding acids. Mild oxidants are
Tollens reagent and Fehlin’s solution.
[𝑶]
R–CHO –→ RCOOH
Ketones are not readily oxidized. But undergo oxidation with strong oxidizing agents gives a mixture of acids
with lesser number of carbon atoms.
[𝑶]
𝑪𝑯𝟑𝑪𝑶𝑪𝑯𝟑 –→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯 + 𝑯𝑪𝑶𝑶𝑯

11. How will you distinguish aldehydes and ketones?
(i) Tollens test(Silver mirror test) : Tollens reagent is ammoniacal silver nitrate solution .
Aldehydes give silver mirro
or with tollens reagent. Ketones does not.
RCHO + 2 [Ag(NH3)2]+ + 3 OH- → RCOO- + 2Ag + 2 H2O + 4 NH3
(ii) Fehling’s test: Fehlin’s solution is alkaline solution of copper sulphate containing some sodium
potassium tartrate. Aliphatic aldehyde give red brown precipitate with fehling solution . Aromatic
aldehydes and ketones do not give this test.
RCHO + 2 Cu2+ + 5 OH- → RCOO- + Cu2O + 3 H2O
Red brown precipitate
12. Explain Haloform( iodoform) reactions.
Aldehydes and ketones containing CH3CO- group when treated with iodine and alkal ( sodium hypo iodite )
give the corresponding iodoform (yellow precipitate) . This reaction is called iodoform reaction .
It is an example of haloform reaction. It is used to distinguish methyl ketones from other ketones.
Only methyl ketones gives yellow precipitate of iodoform
13. Explain the following name reactions:

(a) Clemmenson’s reduction : Reduction of aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding
hydrocarbons in the presence of zinc amalgam and concentrated HCl is called clemmenson reduction.
𝒁𝒏–𝑯𝒈 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
𝒁𝒏–𝑯𝒈 /𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
(b) Wolf –Kishner reduction: Reduction of aldehydes and ketones to the corresponding hydrocarbon
by treating with hydrazine followed by heating with KOH in ethylene glycol solvent.
𝑲𝑶𝑯 /𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒍

𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
𝑲𝑶𝑯 /𝑬𝒕𝒉𝒚𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒆 𝒈𝒍𝒚𝒄𝒐𝒍
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑 + 𝑵𝑯𝟐 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝟑
(c) Aldol condensation :- Aldehydes and ketones having alpha hydrogen when treated with dilute alkali
give beta hydroxyl aldehyde or beta hydroxyl ketone. This on heating give alpha beta unsaturated
aldehyde or ketone. This reaction is called aldol condensation. Acetaldehyde ( ethanal) has α- hydrogen
and so it give aldol condensation
𝒅𝒊𝒍.𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 + 𝑯𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯(𝑶𝑯) − 𝑪𝑯𝟐 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶
∆
→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑯 = 𝑪𝑯 − 𝑪𝑯𝑶

(d) Cannizaro reaction: Aldehydes which do not contain α- hydrogen when treated with concentrated
alkali, one aldehyde is oxidized to acid and the other is reduced to alcohol . Formaldehyde( Methanal )
and benzaldehyde give this test because they have no α- hydrogen, acetaldehyde does not give this test.
H-CHO + H-CHO + Conc. KOH → CH3OH + HCOOK
Formaldehyde Methanol Potassium formate
14. How will you distinguish methanal (formaldehyde ) and ethanal (acetaldehyde)?
(i) By aldol condensation :- Acetaldehyde ( ethanal) has α- hydrogen and so give aldol condensation. Fomaldhyde
and benzaldehyde do not have alpha hydrogen and does not give aldol condensation.
(ii) By Cannizaro reaction:- Formaldehyde( Methanal ) give this test because they have no α- hydrogen.
Acetaldehyde does not give this test.
15. Electrophilic substitution of benzaldehyde. (Nitration of benzaldehyde)
16. How will you prepare carboxylic acids?

(i) By the oxidation of alcohols and aldehydes gives acid.
(ii) By the hydrolysis of nitriles and amides.
(iii) By the addition of Grignard reagent to carbon dioxide.

𝑯𝟐𝑶/𝑯+
CH3CH2MgBr + O=C=O → CH3CH2 COOMgBr –⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3CH2COOH + Mg(OH)Br
(iv) By the hydrolysis of esters, anhydrides and acid chlorides.
(v) By side chain oxidation of alkyl benzene with alkaline potassium permanganate.
e.g. conversion of toluene to benzoic acid by adding alkaline potassium permanganate
17. Carboxylic acids have higher boiling point. Why?
This is due to greater degree of intermolecular hydrogen

bonding in carboxylic acids leading to the formation of dimmers
18. Carboxylic acid is acidic. Give reactions.

Carboxylic acids are acidic because they readily lose proton and the carboxylate ion formed is resonance
stabilized.
Like acids, carboxylic acids react with metals give hydrogen gas.
Carboxylic acids react with alkali gives salt and water.
Carboxylic acid react with sodium bi carbonate gives brisk effervescence due to the evolution of carbon
dioxide gas.
2 RCOOH + 2 Na → 2 RCOONa + H2
RCOOH + NaOH → RCOONa + H2O
RCOOH + NaHCO3 → RCOONa + H2O + CO2
19. Why is carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenol?
In phenoxide ion, negative charge is localized over one oxygen atom. But in carboxylate ion, negative charge is
delocalized over two electronegative oxygen atoms and so it is more stabilized than phenoxide ion.
20. With the help of an example, explain carboxylic acid is more acidic than phenol.
( How will you distinguish phenol and carboxylic acid?)
Phenol does not react with sodium bi carbonate.
Carboxylic acids react with sodium bi carbonate gives brisk effervescence due to the evolution of carbon
dioxide gas.
RCOOH + NaHCO3 → RCOONa + H2O + CO2

21. Explain the effects of substituents on acidity of carboxylic acid.
Electron withdrawing groups increases acidity of carboxylic acids. This is because the electron withdrawing
groups decrease the negative charge on the carboxylate ion and stabilize it. The loss of proton becomes
relatively easy.
E.g. mono chloro acetic acid is stronger acid than acetic acid.
As the number of electron withdrawing groups increases acidity of carboxylic acids increases
e.g. trichloroacetic acid > dichloroacetic acid >acetic acid.
Cl3CCOOH > Cl2CHCOOH > CI CH2COOH > CH3COOH
As the electronegativity of halogen increases, acidity increases.
F CH2COOH > CI CH2COOH > BrCH2COOH > I CH2COOH
Electron releasing groups decrease the acidic strength . Electron releasing group increase the negative charge
on carboxylate ion , destabilize it and held proton tightly and so acidity decreases.
CH3COOH is weaker acid than HCOOH
22. Why is benzoic acid is more acidic than acetic acid.
In benzoic acid, -COOH group is connected to sp2 hybridised carbon atom and it is more electronegative than
sp3 hybridised carbon atom in acetic acid.
In substituted benoic acids, electron releasing groups decreases acidity ,while electron withdrawing groups
increases acidity.
23. Reduction of carboxylic acid
Carboxylic acid on reduction with LiAlH4 gives alcohol
R-COOH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ R-CH2OH
CH3CH2 COOH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH2 CH2OH
24. Give reactions of formation of acid derivatives

(i) Acid chloride
RCOOH + PCl5 → RCOCl + POCl3 + HCl
3 RCOOH + PCl3 → 3 RCOCl + H3PO3
RCOOH + SOCl2 → RCOCl + SO2 + HCl
(ii) Acid anhydride

(iii) Esters :
Acid + Alcohol → Ester
𝑯+
RCOOH + R’OH › RCOOR’ + H2O
(iv) Acid amides :
Acid + Ammonia → Acid amides
25. Explain Hell-Volhard –Zelinsky reaction.

When carboxylic acids having alpha hydrogen are treated with chlorine or bromine in the presence of red
phosphorus, alpha halo acids are produced. This reaction is called HVZ reaction.
𝑩𝒓𝟐,𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒖𝒔
CH3 - COOH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ Br-CH2 - COOH
Ethanoic acid 2-bromo ethanoic acid
𝑪𝒍𝟐,𝑹𝒆𝒅 𝑷𝒉𝒐𝒔𝒑𝒉𝒐𝒓𝒖𝒔
CH3 CH2 COOH –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ CH3 CH(Cl) COOH
Propanoic acid 2-chloropropanoic acid
26. Explain electrophilic substitution of benzoic acid.
(i) Benzoic acid to meta nitro benzoic acid
(ii) Benzoic acid to meta bromo benzoic acid

CHAPTER 13 AMINES

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1. Amines are alkyl or aryl derivatives of ammonia.
2. Give any two methods for the preparation of primary amine.

(i) By the reduction of nitro compounds
𝑷𝒅/𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒐𝒍
𝑹 − 𝑵𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐
(ii) By Ammonolysis of alkyl halide

𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝑵𝑯𝟑 → 𝑹𝑵𝑯𝟐+ HX
𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝑹𝑵𝑯𝟐 → 𝑹𝟐𝑵𝑯 + HX
𝑹 − 𝑿 + 𝑹𝟐𝑵𝑯 → 𝑹𝟑𝑵 + HX
𝑹𝟑𝑵 + 𝑹𝑿 → 𝑹𝟒𝑵+𝑿– + HX
(iii) By the reduction of nitriles or amides.
𝑹 − 𝑪𝑵 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟐
𝑹 − 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑯𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑹 − 𝑪𝑯𝟐𝑵𝑯𝟐
(iv) By Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction:- Acid amides on reduction with bromine
in the presence of alkali give primary amines having one carbon atom less than the parent amide. This
reaction is called Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction.
𝑹 − 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑪𝑶𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑩𝒓𝟐 + 𝟒 𝑵𝒂𝑶𝑯 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑵𝒂𝟐𝑪𝑶𝟑 + 𝟐 𝑵𝒂𝑩𝒓 + 𝟐 𝑯𝟐𝑶
(v) By Gabriel ohthalimide synthesis (By this method pure primary amine is produced).
Phthalimide is first treated with

KOH to form potassium
phthalimide. It is then treated
with alkyl halide followed by
hydrolysis give pure primary
amine.

3. Lower amines are water soluble. Why?
Due to hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
4. Boiling point of amines are higher. Why?
Due to inter molecular hydrogen bonding. But it is lower than alcohol and acid due to weak hydrogen
bonding.
5. Amines are basic. Why?
Due to the presence of lone pair of electrons
𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑿 → 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐+𝑿–
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍 → 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐+𝑪𝒍–
6. Explain basic strength of amines.
Alkyl amines are stronger bases than ammonia due to the presence electron releasing alkyl groups (+I effect).
In gas phase only +I effect and so basic order, Tertiary amine> Secondary amine > Primary amine.
In aqueous solutions, sterric effect and hydration effect also to be considered. The cation formed by primary
amine can be more hydrated due to the presence of three hydrogen atom and is more basic. So according to
hydration effect 10 > 20 >30
Bulkier alkyl groups reduces basic strength (Sterric effect).
Resultant of these effects (+I effect, sterric effect and hydration effect) determine the basic strength.
(C2H5)2NH >(C2H5)3N >C2H5NH2 > NH3
20 30 10
(CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > NH3
20 10 30
7. Aryl amines are less basic than ammonia. Why?

Due to delocalization of electron pair, it is less available for protonation.
8. What is Carbylamines reaction? What is its importance?

Aliphatic or aromatic primary amines on heated with chloroform and alcoholic KOH , produce foul smell
isocynide or carbylamines. This is a test for primary amine.
Secondary and tertiary amines do not give this test.
So Carbylamines reaction is used to distinguish primary amines from other amines.
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑶𝑯 –⎯→ 𝑹 − 𝑵𝑪 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑪𝒍 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑶𝑯 –⎯→ 𝑪𝑯𝟑 − 𝑵𝑪 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑪𝒍 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐𝑶
Methanamine methyl carbylamine
𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑪𝑯𝑪𝒍𝟑 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑶𝑯 –⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝑪 + 𝟑 𝑲𝑪𝒍 + 𝟑 𝑯𝟐𝑶
Aniline Phenyl carbylamines

9. How will you distinguish primary, secondary and tertiary amines using Hindsberg reagent?
Hindsberg’s reagent is benzene sulphonyl chloride (C6H5SO2Cl)
(i) Primary amine react with benzene sulphonyl chloride((Hindsberg’s reagent) gives
N-alkyl benzene suphonamide which is soluble in alkali
RNH2 + C6H5SO2Cl → C6H5SO2NHR
(ii) Secondary amine react with benzene sulphonyl chloride (Hindsberg’s reagent ) gives N,N-dialkyl
benzene suphonamide which is insoluble in alkali.
R2NH + C6H5SO2Cl → C6H5SO2NR2
(iii) Tertiary amine do not react with benzene sulphonyl chloride (Hindsberg’s reagent)
10. Explain the reaction of amines with nitrous acid.
Aliphatic primary amines reacts wwith nitrous acid unstable diazonium salt and is converted to alcohol
𝑹 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑯𝑵𝑶𝟐 → 𝑹 − 𝑶𝑯 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑯𝟐𝑶
Aromatic primary amines reacts with nitrous acid in cold condition benzene diazonium salt is formed. This is
called diazotization.
𝟐𝟕𝟑–𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝑲 + –
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝑯𝟐 + 𝑵𝒂𝑵𝑶𝟐 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶
Aniline Benzene diazonium chloide
11. Explain electrophilic substitution of aniline.
(i) Halogenation: With bromine water, aniline gives 2,4,6-tribromoaniline.
For the preparation ortho and para bromo aniline, amino group should be deactivated by doing acetylation.
Aniline Acetanilide Para bromo acetanilide Para bromo aniline
(ii) Nitration: Direct nitration of aniline using HNO3 gives about 47% meta nitro aniline. This is because
aniline gets protonated to anilinium ion 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓𝑵𝑯+𝟑which is meta directing.
For the preparation of ortho and para nitro aniline –NH2 group is first deactivated using acetic
anhydride and then nitrating mixture is added.

(iii) Sulphonation: When aniline is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid, para amino benzene
suphonic acid (Sulphanilic acid) is formed. It forms a zwitter ion.
Aniline Sulphanilic acid Zwitter ion
12. Aniline does not undergo Friedel-Crafts reaction. Why?

Aniline forms salt with AlCl3 . Due to this , nitrogen of aniline acquires partial positive charge and hence act as
a strong deactivating group for further reaction.
13. What is zwitter ion.
Sulphanilic acid contain both acidic group ( SO3H ) and basic group(NH2). Acidic group donate proton to basic
group and dipolar ion is formed. This dipolar ion is called zwitter ion.
14. How will you prepare benzene diazonium chloride?
When aniline is treated with nitrous acid (sodium nitrite and HCl) in ice cold condition, benzene diazonium
chloride is formed.
𝑪 𝑯 − 𝑵𝑯 + 𝑵𝒂𝑵𝑶 + 𝟐 𝑯𝑪𝒍 𝟐𝟕𝟑–𝟐𝟕𝟖 𝑲 + –
𝟔 𝟓 𝟐 𝟐 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝒂𝑪𝒍 + 𝟐𝑯𝟐𝑶
Aniline Benzene diazonium chloide
15. Substitution reactions of benzene diazonium chloride

(i) Sandmeyer reaction (For the preparation of chloro benzene, bromo benzene or cyano benzene)
𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍/𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐+𝑪𝒍– –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝟐
𝑪𝒖𝑩𝒓/𝑯𝑩𝒓
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐+𝑪𝒍– –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝑵𝟐
+ – 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝑵/𝑯𝑪𝑵
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐 𝑪𝒍 –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑪𝑵 + 𝑵𝟐
(ii) Gatterman reaction (For the preparation of chlorobenzene, bromobenzene)
– 𝑪𝒖/𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵+𝟐𝑪𝒍 –⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑪𝒍 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍
𝑪𝒖/𝑯𝑩𝒓
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵+𝟐𝑪𝒍 – –⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑩𝒓 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑪𝒖𝑪𝒍
(iii) Preparation of benzene from benzene diazonium chloride

𝑯𝟑𝑷𝑶𝟐+ 𝑯𝟐𝑶
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐+𝑪𝒍– –⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟔 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑯𝟑𝑷𝑶𝟑 + 𝑯𝑪𝒍

(iv) Preparation of Fluoro benzene from benzene diazonium chloride
𝑯𝑩𝑭𝟒
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐+𝑪𝒍– –⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 𝑭 + 𝑵𝟐 + 𝑩𝑭𝟑
(v) Preparation of iodo benzene from benzene diazonium chloride

𝑲𝑰
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐+𝑪𝒍– – 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 𝑰 + 𝑵𝟐 +𝑲𝑪𝒍
(vi) Preparation of phenol from benzene diazonium chloride

𝒘𝒂𝒓𝒎
𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓 − 𝑵𝟐+𝑪𝒍– + 𝑯𝟐𝑶 –⎯⎯→ 𝑪𝟔𝑯𝟓𝑶𝑯 + 𝑵𝟐 +𝑯𝑪𝒍
(vii) Preparation of nitro benzene from benzene diazonium chloride
16. Explain coupling reaction of benzene diazonium salt with examples

Benzene diazonium chloide +Phenol or Aniline (or their derivatives) → Azo dye
(I) Benzene diazonium chloide react with phenol gives para hydroxy azo benzene
Benzene diazonium chloide + Phenol → Para hydroxy azobenzene
(II) Benzene diazonium chloide react with anilinegives para amino azo benzene
Benzene diazonium chloide + Aniline → Para amino azobenzene
==============================================================

( ഈ NOTES ന്െ◌ട വീഡിേ◌യാ ‫◌ױ‬ാസുകൾ കാണാൻ CHEM DSM എ‫ ؗ‬YOUTUBE ചാനൽ കാണുക.
SUBSCRIBE െ◌ച‫ു◌إ‬ക )
===============================================================

CHAPTER 14 BIOMOLECULES

==================================================================
1. What are Biomolecules ? Give examples

Biomolecules are the complex organic compounds which build up living organisms and are required for their
growth and maintenance.
Examples:- carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids , vitamins etc
2. What are Carbohydrates ?
Hydrates of carbon. Cx(H2O)y
Exception:- Rhamnose (C6H12O5) , Rhamnohexose (C7H14O6).
But all compounds which obey this formula are not carbohydrates. e.g. acetic acid (C2H4O2)
Carbohydrates are optically active poly hydroxy aldehydes or poly hydroxy ketones or compounds which
give these on hydrolysis.
3. How will you classify carbohydrates depending on their behavior towards hydrolysis.
(I) Monosaccharides:- These carbohydrates cannot be hydrolysed in to smaller molecules.
E.g. Glucose( C6H12O6) , Fructose( C6H12O6)
(II) Oligosaccharides:- These are carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give two to ten monosaccharide units.
E.g. Sucrose, maltose , lactose (disaccharides).
(III) Poly saccharides :- These are carbohydrates which on hydrolysis give large number of monosaccharide units.
E.g. starch, cellulose.
4. What are reducing sugar and non reducing sugar?
(I) Reducing sugar :- Carbohydrates which reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
E.g., All monosaccharides, maltose, lactose.
(II) Non-reducing sugars :-Carbohydrates which cannot reduce Tollen’s reagent and Fehling’s solution.
E.g., sucrose , starch, cellulose
5. How glucose is prepared?
(I) When sucrose is boiled with dilute acids, glucose and fructose are formed.
𝑯+
C12H22O11 + H2O –→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
glucose fructose
(II) When starch is boiled with dilute sulphuric acid at 393 K and under pressure (2-3 bar), glucose is formed.
𝑯+
(C6H10O5)n + n H2O –→ n C6H12O6
glucose
6. Explain the structure of glucose.
(I) Glucose has molecular formula C6H12O6
(II) On prolonged heating with hydrogen iodide, it forms n-hexane indicate the presence of six carbon atoms
linked in a straight chain.
(III) Glucose reacts with hydroxylamine to form glucose oxime.

Glucose react with hydrogen cyanide to form cyanohydrin.
Both these reactions confirm the presence of carbonyl group in glucose.
(IV) Glucose is oxidized to gluconic acid on reaction with mild oxidizing agent bromine water. This indicates the
carbonyl group is aldehyde.
(V) On oxidation with nitric acid, both glucose and gluconic acid forms saccharic acid. This indicates the
presence of primary alcoholic group in glucose(-CH2OH)
(VI) Glucose react with acetic anhydride give glucose penta acetate. It indicates the presence of five –OH group
in glucose.
The open structure of glucose is
Glcose is an aldohexose.
7. Glucose is water soluble . Why?

Due to the formation of hydrogen bond with –OH groups.
8. What are the limitations of open structure of glucose?

(i) D-glucose does not undergo certain reactions of aldehydes. For example, it does not give the Schiff’s test,
2,4- dinitro phenyl hydrazine test and it does not react with NaHSO3.
(ii) Glucose penta acetate does not react with hydroxylamine indicating the absence of free –CHO group.
(iii) Glucose exist in two crystalline forms alpha D(+) glucose and Beta D (+) glucose.
It cannot be explained by open structure.
9. Draw the cyclic structure of glucose.

10. What are Anomers ? Give example for it.
A pair of stereo isomeric ring forms of a sugar which differ in configuration at C-1 (anomeric carbon) are called
anomers. Thus alpha D(+) glucose and Beta D (+) glucose are anomers
11. Structure of fructose.
Fructose has molecular formula C6H12O6 .Fructose is Ketohexose. It is laevorotatory and belong to D-series
12. What is glycosidic linkage?

The linkage between two monosaccharide units through oxygen atom is called glycosidic linkage.
Disaccharides Reducing/non red

ducing sugar On hydrolysis Glycosidic linkage
Sucrose (cane Non reducing sugar D(+) glucose and C-1 of α-D glucose and C-2 of
sugar) D(-) fructose β-D fructose.
Maltose(malt sugar) Reducing sugar α-D glucose C-1 of α-D glucose and C-4 of
other α -D glucose.
Lactose (milk sugar) Reducing sugar D- glucose and C-1 of β-D galactose and C-4
D- galactose of β-D glucose.
13. Explain inversion of cane sugar.(hydrolysis of cane sugar)
𝑯+
C12H22O11 + H2O –→ C6H12O6 + C6H12O6
Glucose Fructose
Aqueous solution of sucrose is dextrorotatory. When hydrolysed by dilute acid, sucrose gives an
equimolar mixture of D(+) glucose and D(-) fructose. Since the laevorotation of fructose ( -92.40) is more
than the dextro rotation of glucose (+52.50), the mixture will be laevorotatory. Thus the hydrolysis of
sucrose brings about a change in the sign of rotation from dextro to laevo. Hence this reaction is called
inversion of cane sugar and the product mixture is called invert sugar.

14. Explain different type polysaccharides.
Polysaccharides Components Uses

Starch Amylose and amylo pectin Polymer of α- D glucose Energy storage of plants
(α- D glucose)
Cellulose β-D glucose Linear polymer of β-D Structural material of the
glucose cell wall of plant cells
glycogen α- D glucose Similar to amylo pectin Animal starch.
15. Explain the two components of starch : Amylose and Amylo pectin.
Amylose Amylopectin
It is the linear polymer of α- D glucose It is the branched polymer of α- D glucose
Water soluble Water insoluble
15-20 % of starch 80-85 % of starch
Glucose units are joined by C 1-C4 Glucose units are joined by C1,C4 α glycosidic
α- glycosidic linkage linkage and branch by C1-C6 glycosidic linkages
16. What are Proteins ?
Proteins are complex nitrogeneous organic compounds of high molecular mass found in living systems.
Chemically all proteins are polymer of alpha aminoacids.
Proteins are polypeptides having molecular mass more than 10000.
17. What are amino acids?
Aminoacids are compounds containing both amino and carboxyl groups.
Aminoacids are formed by the hydrolysis of proteins.
18. Classify amino acids in to neutral, acidic and basic.

Aminoacids containing one amino group and one –COOH group are neutral aminoacids
E.g. glycine and alanine
Aminoacids containing one amino group and two –COOH group are acidic aminoacid.
E.g. aspartic acid and glutamic acid
Aminoacids containing two amino group and one –COOH group are basic aminoacid.
E.g. lysine argynine and histidine.
19. Which is an optically inactive amino acid found in proteins.
Glycine
20. What are essential and non essential amino acids?
There are 20 aminoacids required for the synthesis of proteins.
Aminoacids which the human body cannot synthesise are called essential aminoacids. These must be supplied
through diet. E.g., Lysine, valine etc.
Aminoacids which the human body can synthesise are called non essential aminoacids. These are not essential in
the diet. E.g. glycine, alanine etc.
21. What are zwitter ion?
Since amino acids contain both basic and acidic groups ,

they neutralize each other forming a dipolar ion called
zwitter ion.

22. The melting point and solubility in water of amino acids are higher than halo acids. Explain.
The amino acids exist as zwitter ion. Due to this polar structure, the molecules have strong dipole- dipole
interaction. So they have higher melting point. Due to polar structure, they strongly interact with water
molecules and so water soluble.
23. What is peptide linkage?
Peptides are amides formed by the reaction of amino group of one amino acid molecule with the carboxyl
group of another amino acid with the elimination of water molecules.
The –CO-NH- bond connecting the amino acids is called peptide linkage or peptide bond.
24. Differentiate between globular and fibrous proteins.
Fibrous proteins Globular proteins
Here poly peptide chains lie side by side to form fibre Here poly peptide chains coil around or folded
like structures. to give a spherical shape
They are insoluble in water They are soluble in water
e.g. Keratin ( present in hair , wool) e.g. insulin (hormone),
myosine (present in muscles) albumin (in egg white)
25. Explain the structure of protein.
Primary structure It explains which aminoacids are present and sequence of amino acids
Secondary stucture Folding of poly peptide chain results to α-helix and β-pleated structure
Tertiary structure Three dimensional folding results fibrous and globular shape.
Quarternary Spatial arrangement of poly peptide sub units
structure
26. What is denaturation of protein?
The phenomenon in which proteins undergo changes in physical and biological properties without affecting its
chemical composition under the effect of heat or chemical reagents is called denaturation of protein.
During denaturation secondary and tertiary structure will change. .Primary structure will not change.
E.g. Coagulation of egg white on boiling, curding of milk.
27. Where does the water present in the egg go after boiling the egg?
When egg is boiled, the proteins present in it undergo denaturation and finally coagulation. The water
present in the egg is absorbed by the coagulated protein and is held on it by hydrogen bonding.
28. What are Enzymes ?
Enzymes are biological catalyst produced by living cells to accelerate biological reactions in living
organisms. Almost all enzymes are globular proteins.
Enzymes are highly specific. The enzyme maltase can catalyse maltose in to glucose
29. What are Vitamins ? Which is the vitamin synthesized in the body?
Vitamins are organic compounds required in the diet in small amounts to perform specific biological functions for
maintenance of normal growth and health.
Vitamin-D is syntesised in the body.

30. How will you classify vitamins?
(i) Water soluble vitamins . e.g. vitamin B ,C
(ii) Fat soluble vitamins . e.g. Vitamin A, D. E, K
31. Vitamins and deficiency deseases
Vitamins Deficiency deseases
Vitamin A (Retinol) Night blindness,Xerophthalmia
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) Beri-beri
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) Cheilosis
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) Convulsions
Vitamin B12 (Cyano cobalamine) Pernicious anaemia
Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) Scurvy
Vitamin D (sunshine vitamin) Rickets
Vitamin E (Antisterility vitamin) Sterility, muscular weakness
Vitamin K Increased blood clotting time
32. Vitamin C cannot be stored in our body. Why?
Because it is soluble in water and readily excreted through urine.
33. What are nucleic acids?
Nucleic acids are polymer of nucleotides. So they are called poly nucleotides.
Nucleic acids are two types (i) Deoxyribo nucleic acid(DNA) (ii) Ribo nucleic acid(RNA)
34. What are nucleoside and nucleotide?
Nucleoside :- Pentose sugar + nitrogeneous base
Nucleotide :- Pentose sugar + nitrogeneous base + Phosphate ester linkage
35. Explain the structure of nucleic acid.
Primary structure gives the information regarding the sequence of various nucleotides in the chain of nucleic acid.
The secondary structure of DNA is double stranded α-helix structure.
The two chains of double helix are held by hydrogen bonds between specific bases.
Adenine in one helix is paired with thymine by two hydrogen bonds.
Cytosine in one helix is paired with guanine with three hydrogen bonds.
RNA has single stranded α-helix structure.
36. What are the difference between DNA and RNA?

Deoxy ribo nucleic acid (DNA) Ribo nucleic acid (RNA)
Pentose sugar is β-D-2- deoxy ribose Pentose sugar is β-D -ribose
Bases are adenine, thymine, cytosine and guanine Bases are adenine , uracil, cytosine and guanine
DNA has double stranded α-helix structure. RNA has single stranded α-helix structure.
DNA controls the heredity(Genetic information is stored RNA controls the synthesis of proteins
in DNA)
DNA undergo replication RNA does not undergo replication
37. What products would be formed when a nucleotide from DNA containing thymine is hydrolysed?
Thymine, 2- deoxy D(-) ribose and phosphoric acid
38. Three types of RNA are (i) Ribosomal RNA (ii) Messenger RNA (iii)Transfer RNA
39. Important Biopolymers, their monomers and their linkage
Biopolymers monomer linkage
Starch α-D -glucose Glycosidic linkage
Protein α-amino acid Peptide linkage
Nucleic acid nucleotide Phosphor diester linkage

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CHAPTER 2 SOLUTIONS

PREPARED BY : YOOSAFALI T K,GHSS VARAVOOR(8040) , THRISSUR(DT)

𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 = 𝐕𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐦𝐞 𝐨𝐟 𝐬𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐞 𝐗 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Molarity depends on temperature because Molality is independent on temperature because mass

Raoult’s law states that for volatile solutions, the

XA = Mole fraction of solvent ,

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16. What are azeotropes or azeotropic mixture? Explain each.

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When a non volatile solute is added to pure solvent,

When a non volatile solute is added to solvent,

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(ii) Elevation of boiling point ∆𝑻𝒃 = 𝑲𝒃𝒎 = 𝑲𝒃 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑴𝑩 = 𝑲𝒃𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

(iii ) Depression of freezing ∆𝑻𝒇 = 𝑲𝒇𝒎 = 𝑲𝒇 𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎 𝑲𝒇𝑾𝑩 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎

Solute Solvent Theoretical molecular mass Experimental molecular mass

PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR (8040), THRISSUR (DT)

9947444175 YOUTUBE CHANNEL: CHEM DSM

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PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR(8040),THRISSUR (DT)

Anode→ Zinc rod dipped in ZnSO4

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It consists of a platinum wire sealed in to a glass tube

7. How will you measure standard electrode potential of copper electrode?

Cell representation is Pt, H2| H+ ||Cu2+ | Cu

0.34 V = E0 right − E0 left = E0 Cu2+ /Cu − E0 SHE = E0 Cu2+ /Cu − 0

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F = Faraday (96500 coulomb) , n= number of electrons in the electrode , T = temperature

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Ecell = Ecathode _ Eanode = E Cu2+ /Cu _ E Zn2+ /Zn

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Strong electrolytes ionize completely in aqueous solution. On

25. State Kohlrausch’s law and give their applications.

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(c) Lead storage battery

(d) Nickel Cadmium cell

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It consists of porous carbon electrodes containing

It was used for providing electric power in Apollo Space Programme.

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PREPARED BY: YOOSAFALI T K , GHSS VARAVOOR , 9947444175

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12. What is first order reaction and give examples

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Straight line plot between ln [R] vs time

If we plot log[R]0/[R] against t, we get a straight line with slope k/2.303

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Titanium Ti 22 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d2 4s2

Vanadium V 23 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d3 4s2

Chromium Cr 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s1

Manganese Mn 25 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d5 4s2

Iron Fe 26 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d6 4s2

Cobalt Co 27 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d7 4s2

Nickel Ni 28 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d8 4s2

Copper Cu 29 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s1

Zinc Zn 30 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 3d10 4s2

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