Republic of the Philippines

Philippine Normal University

MINDANAO
The National Center for Teacher Education

Submitted by:
ESSEL MAE A. PAGENTE

Submitted to: Prof.

JOVENAL JR. DELA CRUZ
 I. Introduction

The Mathematical Society of the Philippines was founded in March 1973. The idea of
founding such a society began to be actively discussed during 1972 and given considerable
impetus from the meeting of the Southeast Asian Mathematical Society which was held in
Singapore in July 1972. The Southeast Asian Mathematical Society came out of a tour of
Southeast Asia by Wong Yung Chow from the University of Hong Kong.

Mathematics is the science and study of quality, structure, space, and change.
Mathematicians seek out patterns, formulate new conjectures, and establish truth by
rigorous deduction from appropriately chosen axioms and definitions.
There is debate over whether mathematical objects such as numbers and points exist
naturally or are human creations. The mathematician Benjamin Peirce called
mathematics "the science that draws necessary conclusions". Albert Einstein, on the
other hand, stated that "as far as the laws of mathematics refer to reality, they are not
certain; and as far as they are certain, they do not refer to reality." Today, mathematics
is used throughout the world as an essential tool in many fields, including natural
science, engineering, medicine, and the social sciences. Applied mathematics,
the branch of mathematics concerned with application of mathematical knowledge to
other fields, inspires and makes use of new mathematical discoveries and sometimes
leads to the development of entirely new disciplines. Mathematicians also engage in
pure mathematics, or mathematics for its own sake, without having any application in
mind, although practical applications for what began as pure mathematics are often
discovered later.   Why do we need to study math because it's fun and can prepare you
for a variety of excellent careers! If you like solving puzzles and figuring things out, then
a mathematics major may interest you. In addition, applications of mathematics are
everywhere and a strong background in mathematics can help you in many different
careers. The sections n below provide information about careers in mathematics and
the opportunities available to our mathematics majors.

The history of mathematics is primarily an investigation of discoveries. The mathematical

sciences define numbers, their operations, interrelations, combinations, generalizations,
abstractions and spatial configurations. Today there are several branches of mathematics
including Algebra,Trigonometry, Geometry, Calculus and Statistics.
Math history begins with the earliest exchange of items between individuals or tribes. They
learned what items had value to others and used barter to agree on specific items. The
number of items exchanged was small and the frequency of meeting limited, possibly
seasonal or annual. They probably used fingers, hands and simple gesture until agreement
was reached for item exchange. There wasn’t another method to represent item quantity
without the presence of the physical items. As populations grew and were no longer
nomadic the number of different items exchanged increased. People began living in larger
groups and common market areas where they met became accepted locations. Using barter
they implemented methods of tally that placed exact value one item has to another item
based on quantity. They began to identify quantities by unique words and represent item
 quantities using rocks, shells or similar natural markers. The natural markers created
symbolic relationships to provide a quantitative value of one item relative to other items.
This system of quantification by count could be applied to many objects and items to
determine cost relationships of those goods.
Various demographic factors are known to be related to mathematics achievement.
Gender, socio-economic status, and parents’ educational level are factors that have been
analyzed in this study as predictors of math achievement.
Gender. Many variables have long been studied as predictors of mathematics achievement.
However, gender issues on math achievement are studied most frequently by researchers.
For instance, a study through a meta-analysis reveals that males tend to do better on
mathematics tests that involve problem-solving (Hyde, Fennema, and Lamon 1990).
Females tend to do better in computation, and there is no significant gender difference in
understanding math concepts. Another study shows that females tend to earn better
grades than males in mathematics (Kimball, 1989).

Some recent studies have revealed that gender differences in mathematics education seem
to be narrowing in many countries. However, studies indicate that as students reach higher
grades, gender differences favor increase in math achievement by males (Campbell, 1995;
Gray, 1996; Mullis, Martin, Fierros, Goldberg, & Stemler, 2000). For instance, the results
from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study showed that mathematics
achievement scores of each gender group were close to each other at the primary and
middle school years (Beaton et al., 1996; Mullis et al., 1997). However, in the final year of
secondary school, evidence was found for gender differences in mathematics achievement.
Another study, which was conducted to analyze factors that affect math achievement of
11th-graders in math classes with an identified gender gap, also showed that males scored
higher than females on 11th grade math achievement test, but this difference decreased
from 10th grade (Campbell & Beaudry, 1998). In addition, gender differences in attitudes
and perceptions of the usefulness of mathematics for middle school students were found
statistically important (Lockheed, Thorpe, Brooks-Gunn, Casserly, and McAloon 1985; Oakes
1990). For example, female students show less interest in mathematics and have negative
attitude toward mathematics. It is also reported that girls tend to learn mathematical
concepts by means of rules or cooperative activities, while boys have a tendency to be in a
competition to master mathematical concepts (Fennema & Peterson, 1985; Hopkins,
McGillicuddy-De Lisi, & De Lisi, 1997).
The literature on gender differences provides evidences that gender issues impact
achievement in mathematics. Hence, it is crucial for educators and researchers to pay
attention to gender differences in the design of mathematics instruction.
A number of studies showed that parents with higher socio-economic status are more
involved in their children’s education than parents of lower socio-economic status. This
greater involvement results in development of positive attitudes of children toward school,
classes, and enhancement of academic achievement (Epstein, 1987; Lareau, 1987;
Stevenson & Baker, 1987). It is believed that low socio-economic status negatively
influences academic achievement, in part, because it prevents students from accessing
various educational materials and resources, and creates a distressing atmosphere at home
(possible disruptions in parenting or an increased likelihood family conflicts) (Majoribank,
 1996; Jeynes, 2002). For these reasons, socio-economic status of a student is a common
factor that determines academic achievement
Parents’ Educational Level
Parents’ educational level has been shown to be a factor in academic achievement. Parents
serve as a role model and a guide in encouraging their children to pursue high educational
goals and desires by establishing the educational resources on hand in the home and
holding particular attitudes and values towards their children’s learning. In this case, the
educational attainment of parents serve as an indicator of attitudes and values which
parents use to create a home environment that can affect children’s learning and
achievement.

Spanish Occupation

Thousands of years ago, the first inhabitants traveled to the Philippines from neighboring
Asian areas. Over the centuries, the islands were ruled by various native kingdoms, and they
boasted of successful trading posts with the Chinese. In the 1300s, Malaysian and
Indonesian missionaries brought Islam to the islands. Right before the Spanish arrived, the
Philippines was a diverse nation with countries throughout Asia vying for trading positions
on its islands. The first Spanish travelers to reach the Philippines were not as successful as
they had hoped. On his trip around the world in 1521, Ferdinand Magellan landed in the
Philippines. He quickly gained favor with some of the locals, persuading many of them to
convert to Catholicism. However, he was swiftly killed by Filipinos in the crossfire of a battle
between two tribes. 

Spain continued to try to settle the resistant Philippines for 40 unsuccessful years until 1565
when Miguel López de Legazpi established the first permanent Spanish settlement in Cebu,
after which the entire country began to succumb to Spanish rule. From there, the Spanish
slowly took over the Islamic control that had been in place since the 1300s and replaced
their empire with a Catholic one. More Spanish arrived from Mexico, reaffirming the
beginning of the Spanish Philippines. While the conquistadores took land and overruled
local authorities, Catholic friars established churches, schools, and aid. This combination
assured a solid Spanish influence in the Philippines that lasted for centuries and still lingers
today. Even though the Spanish stopped ruling the Philippines hundreds of years ago, you
can still clearly see their effects on the Philippines today. Take, for example, the name
“Philippines.” It originates from one of the Spanish kings, Philip of Asturias. Additionally, the
original capital of the Spanish Philippines remains the capital to this day: Manila. 

In 1717 Philip V established the Military Academy of the Royal Guards of Madrid, mirroring
the French garde du corps du roi. Intended mainly for noblemen, it was an elitist institution
where all members held the rank of officers and benefitted from substantial
privileges. Towards the end of 1750, an Academy of Mathematics was created within the
Academy of the Royal Guards under the patronage of the Marquis of Ensenada. Chief
Minister at the time, Ensenada undertook several initiatives to improve and standardize the
level of scientific knowledge integrated into military training. Among other projects, the
Marquis of Ensenada encouraged the production of educational works in Spanish that would
raise the level of education in a more uniform manner across all military academies [Capel,
Sánchez et al. 1988, Despite being a rather small academy (with around fifteen students per
year, one headmaster and two assistants), the financial budget of the Academy of
Mathematics was much higher than that granted to other larger academies, a fact made
evident by its extensive library.  Closure of the Academy in 1760 was most likely due to
budget cuts. 

American Occupation/Commonwealth Time

Education became a very important issue for the United States colonial government, since it
allowed it to spread their cultural values, particularly the English language, to the Filipino
people. On March 10, 1901, with the Philippine-American war drawing to a
conclusion, Elwell S. Otis, as [[United States Military Government of the Philippine
Islands}Military Governor]], created the Department of Public Instruction. Instruction in
English language, and American history, Education was expected to lead to forming of a
national identity and Filipino nationalism. On January 20, 1901, Act No. 74 formalized the
creation of the department.
Every child from age 7 was required to register in schools located in their own town or
province. The students were given free school materials. There were three levels of
education during the American period. The "elementary" level consisted of four primary
years and 3 intermediate years. The "secondary" or high school level consisted of four years;
and the third was the "college" or tertiary level. Religion was not part of the curriculum of
the schools as it had been during the Spanish period.
In some cases those students who excelled academically were sent to the U.S. to continue
their studies and to become experts in their desired fields or professions. They were called
"scholars" and "pensionados" because the government covered all their expenses. In return,
they were to teach or work in government offices after they finished their studies. Some
examples of these successful Filipino scholars were Judge José Abad Santos, Francisco
Benitez, Dr. Honoria Acosta-Sison and Francisco Delgado.
Japanese occupation

Very little is known about Japanese mathematics before the 17th century. Beginning in the
7th century, at first only indirectly by way of Korea, there was a flow of Chinese science to
Japan. For example, the “Ten Classics of Mathematics” was introduced, along with counting
rods, probably by the 8th century. Yet no Japanese book dealing with mathematics survives
from before the end of the 16th century. At that time another phase of importation began:
the abacus and Cheng Dawei’s “Systematic Treatise on Mathematics” became known in
Japan, though they did not supplant the use of counting rods. Moreover, many books were
brought from Korea, and perhaps in that way two Chinese books, Yang Hui suanfa (1275;
“Yang Hui’s Methods of Mathematics”) and Zhu Shijie’s “Introduction to Mathematical
Science,” arrived in Japan. In those books, Japanese scholars could find algorithms for
solving systems of simultaneous linear equations and for searching for the root of
an equation according to methods used in China in the 13th century; they could also find
applications of the method of the celestial unknown (although these were not immediately
understood). In addition, books on calendrical computations, which also contained
mathematical knowledge, were imported. As a result of such infusions, Chinese
mathematics greatly influenced the development of Japanese mathematics (for example, its
algebraic orientation) and defined the context in which the Japanese tradition later opened
to European mathematics.

At the beginning of the Tokugawa period (1603–1867), contacts with foreigners were

limited to trade with Chinese and Dutch ships through the port of Nagasaki. Some Chinese
books, which by then may have contained Western knowledge, as well as Dutch books
entered Japan secretly, but it is difficult to state how much, or what kind of, mathematical
knowledge entered through that channel.

Although not the first mathematical book written in Japan, Jingoki (“Inalterable Treatise”),

published in 1627 by Yoshida Mitsuyoshi, seems to be the first book that played an
important role in the emerging Japanese tradition. Inspired by the Chinese text “Systematic
Treatise on Mathematics,” whose importance is stressed above, it described in Japanese the
use of the soroban, an improvement of the Chinese abacus, and introduced some Chinese
knowledge. Its many editions contributed to popularizing mathematics because most of the
works on mathematics in Japan were written in Chinese and could not be widely read. In its
enlarged edition of 1641, Jingoki introduced the method of performing computations with
counting rods, which by then were no longer used in China. Moreover, inspired by his
Chinese source, Yoshida added “difficult problems” that he left without solutions and
recommended be posed to mathematicians. This initiated a tradition of challenges,
reminiscent of those that took place in Europe during the Renaissance, that strongly
stimulated the development of mathematics in Japan. In this context, mathematicians in the
1650s, relying on counting-rod computations and looking for new methods of solution,
began to decipher the original methods of Chinese algebra—hinted at in the 1658 Japanese
reprint of “Introduction to Mathematical Science”—which enabled them to advance beyond
the classics. This contrasts with the situation in China, where the original methods could be
understood only after the introduction of Western algebra.

Various Japanese authors disseminated traditional Chinese methods for the solution of

problems. Sawaguchi Kazuyuki’s Kokon sanpoki (1671; “Ancient and Modern Mathematics”)
pointed out that “erroneous” problems could have more than one solution (in other words,
equations could have more than one root), but he left unanswered difficult problems
involving simultaneous equations of the nth degree. Equations for their solution were
published in 1674 by Seki Takakazu, now considered to be the founder of the Japanese
tradition of mathematics, or wasan. Seki founded what became the most important school
of mathematics in Japan. (At this time, mathematics was widely practiced in Japan as a
leisure activity.) As in other schools, disciples had to keep the school methods secret, and
only the best among them knew most of these methods. Only slowly did they publish their
secrets, which hindered the free circulation of ideas and which makes any attribution very
difficult.
After World War I to 1982
Mathematics is a universal subject that has been used through various applications and
industries. The Military is one such department that finds mathematics useful in carrying out
their duties. There are various ways mathematics has been used to solve problems in the
military for years now. Mathematics can be used in detecting how various elements in the
military system work. Thanks to mathematics, the army can know the specific weapons they
need and those they don’t need. In this article, we will be looking at math in the military and
how the knowledge of math can help soldiers.
World War II and mathematics
During the Second World War, mathematicians not only participated in the development of
weapons, but also actively helped to solve very specific problems. Sometimes
mathematicians and scientists, on the contrary, stumbled upon a misunderstanding
between military officials and state policy. Krylov developed tables of unsinkability,
according to which it was possible to calculate how the ship would be affected by the
flooding of certain compartments. Furthermore, the tables made it possible to obtain
information about which compartments needed to be flooded to eliminate the role of the
ship. And it’s not one example of when math helped in the military. 
Here is a quote from a famous person, and if you want to find his book or something else try
to use e-turabian citation, and you’ll find the needed information easily. So as J. Ellenberg
said: “As a rule, the winner is the one who shoots down 5% fewer aircraft, uses 5% less fuel,
or who provides infantry with 5% better nutrition at 95% of the cost. It is not customary to
talk about such things in war films, but wars themselves come down to them. And at every
stage of this path, there is mathematics.”

1983 (National Elementary School Curriculum)

THE PHILIPPINE BASIC EDUCATION CURRICULUM 1984 - 2002 - National Elementary School
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survey that is monitoring the transitions of a national sample of young people as theyВ . The
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2002 (Restructured Basic Education Curriculum)

The Department of Education is implementing this school opening the 2002 Basic Education
Curriculum (BEC). It is the product of 16 years of study conducted under the various DepEd
secretaries (Lourdes Quisumbing, Isidro Cariño, and Bro. Andrew Gonzalez). Starting 1995,
intensive consultations were held with various stakeholders – the schools, parents,
students, business, trade and industry, NGOs and the people in the Education Department
who administer the education system on ground level. Almost immediately after assuming
the post, the undersigned continued the consultations starting March 2001. The DepEd
people consulted included experts, public and private school teachers, the 16 regional
directors, 145 superintendents, at least 20,000 principals, and representative teachers of
the different subject areas in different and year levels. The Philippine Commission on
Educational Reforms (PCER), created on Dec. 7, 1998 through Executive Order No. 46,
recommended the adoption of the restructured BEC and its implementation starting 2002 .
The BEC focuses on the basics of reading, writing, arithmetic, science and patriotism. Values
is integral to all the subject areas. Students can then be ready for lifelong learning. It seeks
to cure the inability of students who cannot read with comprehension at grade 3 and worse,
at grade 6. The BEC decongests the overcrowded curriculum. Integrative and interactive
teaching-learning approaches are stressed. These are characterized by group learning and
sharing of knowledge and experiences between teachers, between teachers and students
and among students. For instance, under the old curriculum, English teachers prepared
lesson plans for English and values teachers prepared for values education. Under the BEC,
the English and Values Education teachers work together on their lesson plans. High school
math shifts from the spiral system which introduced all math subjects in every level to the
linear, sequential approach where only Elementary Algebra is taught in 1 st year,
Intermediate Algebra in the 2nd year and Geometry in 3rd year.  From only 1,418 participants
when the training started in March 2002, some 491,000 public and private school teachers
have been trained as of May 20. Another 1,500 teacher trainers were trained on HS math
and they led the school-based trainings of Math teachers. Textbooks for the revised
curriculum, worth some P1.4 billion, have been delivered, or are in the process of being
distributed, to the different schools nationwide. Although the budget allocated textbook
funds only for Grades 1 to IV and for 1st and 2nd year high school, the DepEd will be able to
provide textbooks for Grade 1 to IV and for 1 st to 3rd year high school. This resulted from the
substantial savings that DepEd was able to effect through its transparent approach in
procuring school supplies and equipment.  Many lesson plans to be used by the teachers
have been prepared and produced. From 3 to 15 of June, there were additional training and
preparation of lesson plans. Each H.S. math teacher will get lesson plans. All 16 regional
directors have submitted the names of teachers trained, the teachers feedback after each
training session, the training designs used by the regions, the training kit given to the
teachers  and the weekly monitoring reports on the number of teachers trained. The
adoption of the BEC is optional for private schools. Although more than 50% of private
schools have joined. No teachers were lose his/her job. In fact, DepEd has hired 15,000
more teachers. The NETRC, the BEE and BSE, with the assistance of NEAP, will conduct a
quarterly evaluation of the revised curriculum. School principals and supervisors were
continuously monitor its implementation in their respective schools and
divisions. Curriculum development is a dynamic process, and thus the restructured
curriculum will continue to develop. Through school year 2002-2003, the BEC
implementation will be monitored, improved and fine-tuned. Selected prototype lesson
plans will be distribute. The BEC has received broad-based support from top educators and
other authorities. Public school teachers, principals, superintendents and the regional
directors have manifested support for the BEC. The whole DepEd will help implement the
BEC, For information and compliance.

2011 (K to 12 Curriculum)

K to 12 (also K-12) is an education system under the Department of Education that aims to enhance
learners’ basic skills, produce more competent citizens, and prepare graduates for
lifelong xjobs.org/ learning and employment. “K” stands for Kindergarten and “12” refers to the
succeeding 12 years of basic education (6 years of elementary education, 4 years of junior high
school, and 2 years of senior high school).
At present, the Philippines is the last country in Asia and one of only three countries in the world
with a 10-year pre-university program.

The K-12 program offers a decongested 12-year program that gives students sufficient time to
master skills and absorb basic competencies.
Students of the new system will graduate at the age of 18 and will be ready for employment,
entrepreneurship, middle level skills development, and higher education upon graduation.
The K-12 program accelerates mutual recognition of Filipino graduates and professionals in other
countries.
Kindergarten is mandatory for five-year-old children, a pre-requisite for admission to Grade 1.
The new curriculum gives students the chance to choose among three tracks (i.e. Academic;
Technical-Vocational-Livelihood; and Sports and Arts) and undergo immersion, which provides
relevant exposure and actual experience in their chosen track. Students lack mastery of basic
competencies due to a congested ten-year basic education curriculum.
Graduates of the old curriculum are younger than 18 years old and are not legally ready to get a job
or start a business. Foreign countries perceive a ten-year curriculum as insufficient. They do not
automatically recognize Overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) as professionals abroad.
Kindergarten (a strong foundation for lifelong learning and total development) is optional and not a
pre-requisite for admission to Grade 1. Old education system offers a broad curriculum that does not
include enough practical applications.

In 2012 the Philippines launched its "K to 12" Program, a comprehensive reform of its basic
education. Through this reform, the Philippines is catching up with global standards in secondary
education and is attaching a high value to kindergarten. The structure, curricula, and philosophy of
the education system are undergoing reform and improvement. The key points of the new policy are
"preparation" for higher education, "eligibility" for entering domestic and overseas higher
educational institutions, and immediate "employability" on graduating, all leading toward a
"holistically developed Filipino". This policy appears admirable and timely, but it faces some
pedagogical and socioeconomic problems. The author wants to point out in particular that the policy
needs to address gender problems and should be combined with demand-side approaches in order
to promote poverty alleviation and human development in the Philippines.

The Department of Education (DepEd) is expected to release updates on the ongoing review
of the Kinder to Grade 12 (K-12) curriculum by January 30.
In a press statement, the DepEd said the K-12 updates will be among the contents of its
Basic Education Report (BER) 2023.
“The BER 2023 aims to present the state of basic education in the country, and the plans
and initiatives of the Department to fulfill its mandate,” the DepEd said.
It will also launch the education agenda and the new call to action for all Filipinos.
“The Department intends to provide a broad report about the basic education sector which
will include updates on the on-going review of the K to 12 curriculum,” it added.
DepEd issued this clarification after Malacañang Press Briefer Daphne Oseña-Paez said Vice
President and Department of Education (DepEd) Secretary will be presenting a revised K-12
curriculum before the month ends.
“The Department of Education, the Secretary VP [Vice President] Inday Sara Duterte
presented the plans for inclusive learning, support for teachers, improving the curriculum.
The DepEd will be presenting a revised K-12 curriculum for basic ed on January 30th,” she
said.

The current K-12 program in the Philippines, which was implemented in 2012, covers
kindergarten, six years of primary education, four years of junior high school, and two years
of senior high school to prepare graduates for tertiary education, middle-level skills
development, employment and entrepreneurship.
Marcos earlier asked Duterte to carefully review the K-12 program, citing the need to
“develop” and “refine” the great pool of Filipino talent.
He also wanted the country's literacy rate to improve under his administration.
In his first State of the Nation Address in July last year, Marcos said the Philippines should
do better in international rankings when it comes to Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM) subjects.
Also during the Cabinet meeting, Marcos asked the Department of Social Welfare and
Development to remain on heightened alert amid the inclement weather.
Likewise, Department of Justice (DOJ) Secretary Jesus Crispin Remulla presented
achievements in 2022 and plans for 2023. “He highlighted the justice department’s theme of
compassionate justice in keeping with the directive of the president who asked that he
check on legal representation of prisoners based on the President’s experience in Ilocos
Norte where he remembered that many prisoners didn’t have access to lawyers,” Oseña-
Paez said. Achievements in other agencies including the Departments of the Interior and
Local Government, Agriculture, Agrarian Reform, Energy, Labor and Employment, Health,
Migrant Workers, Environment and Natural Resources were also discussed. Oseña-Paez said
the President also reminded agencies to “know what each other is doing” and “maximize
the synergy in order to work together to achieve the 8-point socioeconomic agenda.”

Aims and scope

Mathematics is a fundamental part of human thought and logic, and integral to attempts at
understanding the world and ourselves. Mathematics provides an effective way of building
mental discipline and encourages logical reasoning and mental rigor. In addition,
mathematical knowledge plays a crucial role in understanding the contents of other school
subjects such as science, social studies, and even music and art.The purpose of this TSG is to
investigate the role of mathematics in the overall curriculum. Due to the wide range of
possible issues that could be addressed in this TSG, we plan to organize the papers and
accompanying discussions into three key strands.

Firstly, we ask the question: why does mathematics hold such an important and unique
place among other subjects? That is, what is the significance of mathematics in the overall
school curriculum? As a point of departure we offer a few thoughts on why mathematics
should be treated as an important subject in overall curriculum.

- Mathematics has a transversal nature. If we reflect on the history of curriculum in general,

then mathematics (geometry and algebra) were two of the seven liberal arts in Greek as
well as in medieval times. This historical role supports the notion that mathematics has
provided the mental discipline required for other disciplines.

- Mathematical literacy is a crucial attribute of individuals living more effective lives as

constructive, concerned and reflective citizens. Mathematical literacy is taken to include
basic computational skills, quantitative reasoning, spatial ability etc.

- Mathematics is applied in various fields and disciplines, i.e., mathematical concepts and
procedures are used to solve problems in science, engineering, economics. (For example,
the understanding of complex numbers is a prerequisite to learn many concepts in
electronics.) The complexity of those problems often requires relatively sophisticated
mathematical concepts and procedures when compared to the mathematical literacy
aforementioned.

- Mathematics is a part of our human cultural heritage, and we have a responsibility to

develop that heritage.

Secondly, since mathematics provides foundational knowledge and skills for other school
subjects, such as sciences, art, economy, etc., the issue of how mathematics is intertwined
with other school subjects deserved to be addressed. In some curricula, mathematics is
offered independently to support the study of other school subjects as an ‘instrumental
subject’, and in other curricula, integrated courses which combine mathematics and other
fields are offered.

Thirdly, we may wish to reflect on the number of hours (proportion of hours) and/or courses
allocated to mathematics when compared to the other school subject in the curriculum of
each country. In addition to this quantitative analysis, information about the qualitative
description of school mathematics in relation to other subjects also needs to be gathered.
Although this comparison won’t show us the whole picture of why different countries attach
the importance that they do to mathematics, the comparison may nonetheless provoke
further discussion.

Structure of the basic education?

The school system follows a 6+3+3 model. It consists of six years of primary education (elementary
school, age 6–12), three years of lower secondary education (middle school, age 12–15), and three
years of upper secondary education (high school, age 15–18). The first nine years of schooling
(elementary and lower secondary school) is compulsory. A school should meet the establishment
standards prescribed by Presidential Decree, such as facilities and equipment and obtain
authorization from the Superintendent of an Office of Education which belongs to a City, a Do, or a
Province.

Schools are classified into national schools, public schools, or private schools according to the
founding entities. The Minister of Education determines basic matters on standards and details of
the curricula, and the Superintendent of an Office of Education may determine the standards and
details thereof according to actual circumstances of a region within the scope of the curricula
determined by the Minister of Education.
Korea has four types of high schools: general high schools, special-purpose high schools, specialized
high schools, and autonomous high schools. Despite the different school types, all high school
graduates receive the same level qualification. In addition, a person who has not graduated high
school but has passed a high school equivalency examination is deemed to have an academic
background equivalent to that of a high school graduate in entering a school of higher grade.
Curriculum Diagram/Framework

Salient features of the curriculum

The term curriculum refers to the lessons and academic content taught in a school or in a specific
course or program. In dictionaries, curriculum is often defined as the courses offered by a school,
but it is rarely used in such a general sense in schools. Depending on how broadly educators define
or employ the term, curriculum typically refers to the knowledge and skills students are expected to
learn, which includes the learning standards or learning objectives they are expected to meet;
the units and lessons that teachers teach; the assignments and projects given to students; the books,
materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in a course; and the tests, assessments, and
other methods used to evaluate student learning. An individual teacher’s curriculum, for example,
would be the specific learning standards, lessons, assignments, and materials used to organize and
teach a particular course.

In many cases, teachers develop their own curricula, often refining and improving them over years,
although it is also common for teachers to adapt lessons and syllabi created by other teachers, use
curriculum templates and guides to structure their lessons and courses, or purchase prepackaged
curricula from individuals and companies. In some cases, schools purchase comprehensive,
multigrade curriculum packages—often in a particular subject area, such as mathematics—that
teachers are required to use or follow. Curriculum may also encompass a school’s academic
requirements for graduation, such as the courses students have to take and pass, the number of
credits students must complete, and other requirements, such as completing a capstone project or
a certain number of community-service hours. Generally speaking, curriculum takes many different
forms in schools—too many to comprehensively catalog here.

Core Competency

Department of Education  Most

Essential Learning Competencies
in Mathematics THIS IS
NOT FOR SALE
2
Guiding our Teachers: A
Briefer on Using The
Math MELCs
Identifying the learning
competencies in the
Mathematics K to 10
Curriculum that satisfy the
criterion endurance posits that
these most
essential learning
competencies necessitates the
realization of the twin goals of
Mathematics – problem
solving and critical thinking.
Laying the foundational
concepts and skills at each
grade level are pivotal in the
learning progression of each
child. This consequently
scaffold the learner’s
understanding and acquisition
of higher skills.
The identified most essential
learning competencies in Math
puts premium on the
development of numeracy
skills which are fundamental
to practical and real-life
problems, rather than Math
content-knowledge; and on the
development of higher-order
thinking skills which
goes beyond procedural
fluency. It followed the
content domains as articulated
in the curriculum – Numbers
and Number Sense,
Measurement, Geometry,
Patterns and Algebra, and
Statistics and Probability.
Similarly, the skills and
processes to be developed as
emphasized in the curriculum,
are maintained. These include
knowing and
understanding; estimating,
computing and solving;
visualizing and modelling,
representing and
communicating, conjecturing,
reasoning,
proving and decision-making;
and applying and connecting.
It is further aimed that the
values and attitudes –
accuracy, creativity,
objectivity, perseverance, and
productivity, be strongly
honed
among learners especially at
this crucial time of health
emergencies. The use of
various instructional resources,
especially calculators,
computers, smart ph
Department of Education  Most
Essential Learning Competencies
in Mathematics THIS IS
NOT FOR SALE
2
Guiding our Teachers: A
Briefer on Using The
Math MELCs
Identifying the learning
competencies in the
Mathematics K to 10
Curriculum that satisfy the
criterion endurance posits that
these most
essential learning
competencies necessitates the
realization of the twin goals of
Mathematics – problem
solving and critical thinking.
Laying the foundational
concepts and skills at each
grade level are pivotal in the
learning progression of each
child. This consequently
scaffold the learner’s
understanding and acquisition
of higher skills.
The identified most essential
learning competencies in Math
puts premium on the
development of numeracy
skills which are fundamental
to practical and real-life
problems, rather than Math
content-knowledge; and on the
development of higher-order
thinking skills which
goes beyond procedural
fluency. It followed the
content domains as articulated
in the curriculum – Numbers
and Number Sense,
Measurement, Geometry,
Patterns and Algebra, and
Statistics and Probability.
Similarly, the skills and
processes to be developed as
emphasized in the curriculum,
are maintained. These include
knowing and
understanding; estimating,
computing and solving;
visualizing and modelling,
representing and
communicating, conjecturing,
reasoning,
proving and decision-making;
and applying and connecting.
It is further aimed that the
values and attitudes –
accuracy, creativity,
objectivity, perseverance, and
productivity, be strongly
honed
among learners especially at
this crucial time of health
emergencies. The use of
various instructional resources,
especially calculators,
computers, smart pho

Department of Education  Most

Essential Learning Competencies
in Mathematics THIS IS
NOT FOR SALE
2
Guiding our Teachers: A
Briefer on Using The
Math MELCs
Identifying the learning
competencies in the
Mathematics K to 10
Curriculum that satisfy the
criterion endurance posits that
these most
essential learning
competencies necessitates the
realization of the twin goals of
Mathematics – problem
solving and critical thinking.
Laying the foundational
concepts and skills at each
grade level are pivotal in the
learning progression of each
child. This consequently
scaffold the learner’s
understanding and acquisition
of higher skills.
The identified most essential
learning competencies in Math
puts premium on the
development of numeracy
skills which are fundamental
to practical and real-life
problems, rather than Math
content-knowledge; and on the
development of higher-order
thinking skills which
goes beyond procedural
fluency. It followed the
content domains as articulated
in the curriculum – Numbers
and Number Sense,
Measurement, Geometry,
Patterns and Algebra, and
Statistics and Probability.
Similarly, the skills and
processes to be developed as
emphasized in the curriculum,
are maintained. These include
knowing and
understanding; estimating,
computing and solving;
visualizing and modelling,
representing and
communicating, conjecturing,
reasoning,
proving and decision-making;
and applying and connecting.
It is further aimed that the
values and attitudes –
accuracy, creativity,
objectivity, perseverance, and
productivity, be strongly
honed
among learners especially at
this crucial time of health
emergencies. The use of
various instructional resources,
especially calculators,
computers, smart pho
Number of Subjects

The main branches of mathematics are algebra, number theory, geometry and arithmetic. Based on
these branches,  other branches have been discovered. Before the advent of the modern age, the
study of mathematics was very limited. But over a period of time, mathematics has been developed
as a vast and diverse topic. Development in Maths continues making large contributions to the field
of technology. Hence, it is better termed as the Queen of Science.

From the early number system to the modern research areas of computational sciences
and probability, a number of new areas have evolved with the base of mathematics. With the
expansion of the scope and usage of the subject, there is a corresponding need to classify different
branches of mathematics.

Arithmetic: It is the oldest and the most elementary among other branches of mathematics. It deals
with numbers and the basic operations- addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, between
them.
Algebra: It is a kind of arithmetic where we use unknown quantities along with numbers. These
unknown quantities are represented by letters of the English alphabet such as X, Y, A, B, etc. or
symbols. The use of letters helps us to generalize the formulas and rules and also helps you find the
unknown missing values in the algebraic expressions and equations.
Geometry: It is the most practical branch of mathematics that deals with shapes and sizes of figures
and their properties. The basic elements of geometry are points, lines, angles, surfaces and solids
Trigonometry: Derived from two Greek terms, i.e., trigon (means a triangle) and metron (means
measurement), it is the study of relationships between angles and sides of triangles.
Analysis: It is the branch that deals with the study of the rate of change in different
quantities. Calculus forms the base of analysis.

Pure Mathematics:
Number Theory
Algebra
Geometry
Arithmetic
Combinatorics

Applied Mathematics
Calculus
Statistics and Probability
Set Theory
Trigonometry
The main branches of pure mathematics are:
Algebra
Geometry
Trigonometry
Calculus
Statistics and Probability

Time Allotment Per Subject

The time allotment for each subject is the minimum period for class
interaction. The learning time can be extended to include off-school learning
experiences at home or in the community for transfer of learning to real-life
situations as provided for in the curriculum. The outputs of such off-school
learning experiences are usually in the form of products and performances
which shall be monitored and credited accordingly.
 Mother Tongue is used as a Medium of Instruction (MOI) for Grades 1
and 2 in teaching Mathematics, Araling Panlipunan (AP), Music, Arts,
Physical Education and Health (MAPEH) and Edukasyon sa
Pagpapakatao (EsP);
Grading system (If there is any)
Number of students in a group.

We have restricted the number of students in a group class to 10, which we find to be an optimal
number. Tools such as breakout rooms provide the opportunity for pair work or small group work,
where all participants have more of an opportunity to practice speaking, the same in a physical
classroom. We are aware that students might need some time for adaptation to virtual classes if
they did only Face-to-Face classes before. We are confident that the group size is suitable for the
medium.

1.)  Random
Group students randomly by pulling sticks or using an app to pick. I frequently use this in the
classroom when I want groups of equal size and want students to branch out a little bit beyond their
peers. Sometimes they get lucky and end up with their best friend anyway. What can you do?
2.)  Homogeneous
Group students based on similar academic achievement levels. For instance, the same reading level
or math scores. Though some educators frown on this, it is still beneficial. I think the only time it’s
NOT beneficial is when you repeatedly do it every time you group students. I use this when I’m
creating groups for math (to meet with me) or for literature circles (all reading the same text and
level).
3.)  Heterogeneous
Group students based on differences. For instance, I try to look through my class list and decide who
are my leaders. Then I sort them out each “leading” their own group (they don’t know this, of
course, I privately do this. I would never sort them out in front of the class. Flashback to being picked
last in kickball.)  I continue to do this so it’s a balance of students who are independent and
dependent. I also take note who butts heads and who works well together.
4.)   Interest
Group students based on their similar interests. Students are typically more motivated when they
share common interests in a topic. I remember one year letting some boys of mine independently
study (as an enrichment activity) Egypt because they had an interest. It was one of the best
presentations ever.
5.) Learning Style
Group students based on their multiple intelligences. If they are linguistic, put them with other
linguistic learners. If they are kinesthetic, take an aspirin and then put them together. Like learn
from like.
6.)  Knowledge of a Topic
I  know this one sounds a lot like learning based on interests. To some degree it is- but sometimes
we have a lot of knowledge and understanding of something without really having an interest.
Students with likeness in knowledge can share information with one another which confirms their
understanding and builds self-confidence.
Almost there…
7.)  Skill or Strategy
When you are grouping students similar to their skill or strategy, you can fill in any gaps or enrich
students who need it most. (Yes, it really is similar to the second one.
8.)  Student Choice
We are back to the beginning of my post. Let the students group themselves. We have all heard that
choice leads to success. But maybe have a few rules… You need to have someone new in your group
this time, or something.

Other information

A simple strategy teachers can use to improve math skills is repetition. By repeating and reviewing
previous formulas, lessons, and information, students are better able to comprehend concepts at a
faster rate. According to Professor W. Stephen Wilson from Johns Hopkins University, the core
concepts of basic math must be mastered before students are able to move into a more advanced
study. Repetition is a simple tool that makes it easier for students to master the concepts without
wasting time. According to the University of Minnesota, daily re-looping or reviews will bring the
previous lesson back into the spotlight and allow teachers to build on those previous skills.
When teachers are moving beyond the simple concepts of numbers into addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, it is important to incorporate timed tests that review the previous class
or several classes. Taking a short test and then grading the test in class will help teachers assess
student understanding.

When the test shows that students are answering more questions correctly within the time period,
teachers are able to determine that students have mastered the basic skills.
Mathematics is not limited to learning from a textbook,lessons, or testing strategy. Students have
different learning styles and need to have lessons that help improve all styles of learning to get the
best results. Group work is a simple strategy that allows students to work and problem-solve with a
buddy. When a teacher has provided the basic instruction, it’s helpful to split the class into pairs or
groups to work on problems. Since the pairs are working as a team, the students can discuss the
problems and work together to solve the issues. The goal of pair work is to teach students critical
thinking skills that are necessary for future math problems and real life.

The use of blocks, fruits, balls, or other manipulation tools help students learn the basics of place
value, addition, subtraction, and other areas of basic math. According to Kate Nonesuch on the
National Adult Learning Database of Canada, manipulation tools help slow down the process of
problem solving so that students are able to fully understand the information.
Manipulation tools make it easier for students to learn and understand basic skills. These are ideal
when students learn best through hands-on experience and building, rather than traditional lessons
and repetition. Reinforcing the information learned in class is not always the easiest task for
teachers, but math games provide the opportunity to make the lesson interesting and encourage
students to remember the concepts. Depending on the class size, computer availability, and the
lesson being taught, games can vary. Teachers can use computer games for the particular skills or
can opt to use class games to make the lesson more fun. Teachers should be sure to incorporate a
strategy into games to help students learn the material.

I. Introduction
Science and technology in the Philippines have evolved over the course of the country's history, with
significant contributions from various civilizations, including indigenous peoples, Spanish colonizers,
and American occupiers. Pre-colonial period: Indigenous communities in the Philippines had a rich
tradition of scientific and technological knowledge, including agriculture, metallurgy, navigation, and
medicine. They also had a complex system of writing using syllabic scripts, such as the Baybayin.
Spanish colonization: The Spanish introduced formal education to the Philippines, including subjects
such as mathematics, astronomy, and medicine. The country's first university, the University of
Santo Tomas, was established in 1611 and offered courses in these subjects. American colonization:
The Americans introduced modern technologies to the Philippines, including telegraph and
telephone systems, as well as new forms of transportation such as trains and automobiles. They also
established modern schools and universities, including the University of the Philippines, which
became a leading center of scientific and technological research. Post-independence period: After
gaining independence from the US in 1946, the Philippines continued to develop its scientific and
technological capabilities, with a focus on fields such as agriculture, electronics, and engineering. In
recent decades, the country has become a major player in the global information technology
industry, with a thriving outsourcing sector.

Pre-Spanish Period. Even before the colonization by the Spaniards in the Philippine islands, the
natives of the archipelago already had practices linked to science and technology. Filipinos were
already aware of the medicinal and therapeutic properties of plants and the methods of extracting
medicine from herbs. They already had an alphabet, number system, a weighing and measuring
system and a calendar. Filipinos were already engaged in farming, shipbuilding, mining and weaving.
The Banaue Rice Terraces are among the sophisticated products of engineering by pre-Spanish era
Filipinos. Spanish Colonial Period
The colonization of the Philippines contributed to growth of science and technology in the
archipelago. The Spanish introduced formal education and founded scientific institution. During the
early years of Spanish rule in the Philippines. Parish schools were established where religion,
reading, writing, arithmetic and music was taught. Sanitation and more advanced methods of
agriculture was taught to the natives. Later the Spanish established colleges and universities in the
archipelago including the University of Santo Tomas.
The study of medicine in the Philippines was given priority in the Spanish era, especially in the later
years. The Spanish also contributed to the field of engineering in the islands by constructing
government buildings, churches, roads, bridges and forts. Biology is given focus. Contributors to
science in the archipelago during the 19th century were botanists, Fr. Ignacio Mercado., Dr. Trinidad
Pardo de Tavera and Dr. Leon Ma Guerrero, chemist Anaclento del Rosario, and medicine scholars
Dr. Manuel Guerrero, Dr, Jose Montes and Dr. Elrodario Mercado.
The Galleon Trade have accounted in the Philippine colonial economy. Trade was given more focus
by the Spaniard colonial authorities due to the prospects of big profits. Agriculture and industrial
development on the other hand were relatively neglected. The opening of the Suez Canal saw the
influx of European visitors to the Spanish colony and some Filipinos were able to study in Europe
who were probably influenced by the rapid development of scientific ideals brought by the Age of
Enlightenment.

Overall, the evolution of science and technology in the Philippines has been shaped by a complex
interplay of indigenous knowledge, colonial influence, and modernization efforts.
Despite the challenges it has faced, the Philippines has made significant contributions to the
advancement of science and technology and continues to play an important role in these fields
today.
Spanish Occupation

Spanish colonial motives were not, however, strictly commercial. The Spanish at first viewed the
Philippines as a stepping-stone to the riches of the East Indies (Spice Islands), but, even after the
Portuguese and Dutch had foreclosed that possibility, the Spanish still maintained their presence in
the archipelago.

The Portuguese navigator and explorer Ferdinand Magellan headed the first Spanish foray to the
Philippines when he made landfall on Cebu in March 1521; a short time later he met an untimely
death on the nearby island of Mactan. After King Philip II (for whom the islands are named) had
dispatched three further expeditions that ended in disaster, he sent out Miguel López de Legazpi,
who established the first permanent Spanish settlement, in Cebu, in 1565. The Spanish city
of Manila was founded in 1571, and by the end of the 16th century most of the coastal and lowland
areas from Luzon to northern Mindanao were under Spanish control. Friars marched with soldiers
and soon accomplished the nominal conversion to Roman Catholicism of all the local people under
Spanish administration. But the Muslims of Mindanao and Sulu, whom the Spanish called Moros,
were never completely subdued by Spain.

Spanish rule for the first 100 years was exercised in most areas through a type of tax farming
imported from the Americas and known as the encomienda. But abusive treatment of the local
tribute payers and neglect of religious instruction by encomenderos (collectors of the tribute), as
well as frequent withholding of revenues from the crown, caused the Spanish to abandon the
system by the end of the 17th century. The governor-general, himself appointed by the king, began
to appoint his own civil and military governors to rule directly.

Central government in Manila retained a medieval cast until the 19th century, and the governor-
general was so powerful that he was often likened to an independent monarch. He dominated
the Audiencia, or high court, was captain-general of the armed forces, and enjoyed the privilege of
engaging in commerce for private profit.

Manila dominated the islands not only as the political capital. The galleon trade with Acapulco, Mex.,
assured Manila’s commercial primacy as well. The exchange of Chinese silks for Mexican silver not
only kept in Manila those Spanish who were seeking quick profit, but it also attracted a
large Chinese community. The Chinese, despite being the victims of periodic massacres at the hands
of suspicious Spanish, persisted and soon established a dominance of commerce that survived
through the centuries.

Manila was also the ecclesiastical capital of the Philippines. The governor-general was civil head of
the church in the islands, but the archbishop vied with him for political supremacy. In the late 17th
and 18th centuries the archbishop, who also had the legal status of lieutenant governor, frequently
won. Augmenting their political power, religious orders, Roman Catholic hospitals and schools, and
bishops acquired great wealth, mostly in land. Royal grants and devises formed the core of their
holdings, but many arbitrary extensions were made beyond the boundaries of the original grants.
American Occupation/Commonwealth Time

The Commonwealth was the culmination of efforts to secure a definitive timetable for the
withdrawal of American sovereignty over the Philippines.
Early on, at the start of the American occupation, the United States had established local
governments with local elected town and provincial officials. Afterward came a gradual
expansion of national legislative representation, beginning with the Philippine Assembly (or
Lower House) in 1907.
It was not until the Jones Law of 1916 that the pledge of eventual independence—once
Filipinos were ready for self-governance—was made. The Jones Law led to the creation of
an all-Filipino legislature composed of the Philippine Senate and House of Representatives.
However, the position of Chief Executive—the Governor-General—and what was considered
the most important cabinet portfolio—Public Instruction (precursor to the Department of
Education)—were reserved for American officials appointed by the President of the United
States. Half of the Philippine Supreme Court was reserved for Americans as well.

Independence Missions from 1919 onwards were periodically sent to the U.S. Congress and
the White House to lobby for and negotiate independence. In 1931, the OsRox Mission
(which stands for “Osmeña and Roxas”) successfully lobbied for the enactment of the Hare-
Hawes-Cutting Act, which was passed over President Herbert Hoover’s veto in 1932. This
was, however, rejected by the Philippine Legislature. In 1934, a new mission (the QuAquAl
Mission, made up of Quezon, Benigno Aquino Sr., and Rafael Alunan) negotiated the
Tydings-McDuffie or the Philippine Independence Act, which set a ten-year transition period
to be known as the Commonwealth of the Philippines, followed by the recognition of the
independence of the Philippines by the United States. The Tydings-McDuffie Act established
the parameters for the preparatory period. Some powers of supervision were reserved to
the United States, as well as foreign diplomacy and currency. In all other respects, the
Philippines became self-governing.

Among the provisions was the election in 1934 of a Constitutional Convention to draft the
constitution of the incoming commonwealth government. Its was presided over by Claro M.
Recto with 202 elected Filipino delegates who decided that the constitution to be written
would cover not only the transitional Commonwealth, but would apply to the Republic as
well. The convention finished its work on February 8, 1935 and submitted it to the President
of the United States for certification that its provisions complied with the Philippine
Independence Act. It was certified on March 25, 1935 and it was subsequently ratified by
the Filipino people in a plebiscite on May 14, 1935.
Aside from the certification by the President of the United States of the draft constitution
for the Commonwealth of the Philippines, the United States government also reserved
certain powers: currency, coinage, imports, exports, and immigration laws would require
the approval of the President of the United States. The United States could also intervene in
the processes of the Commonwealth of the Philippines via Proclamation by President of the
United States. All decisions of the courts of the Philippines were also subject to review by
the Supreme Court of the United States. However, these powers were exercised rarely.
The Constitution of the Commonwealth of the Philippines provided for a presidential system
of government with a unicameral legislature. It had the power to enact laws for the
Philippines, known as Commonwealth Acts, through the National Assembly.
The Commonwealth was meant to lay down the foundations for an independent, fully-
functional state. Its priorities could be seen in the first laws enacted by the new National
Assembly: Commonwealth Act No. 1 established the Philippine Army and a national defense
policy; Commonwealth Act No. 2 established the National Economic Council;
Commonwealth Act No. 3 created the Court of Appeals.The 1935 Constitution was amended
in 1940 to permit the reelection of the president and the vice president, to restore the
Senate and thus shift the legislature back to the bicameral system, and to establish a
national electoral authority, the Commission on Elections. The proposed amendments were
ratified in a plebiscite held on June 18, 1940.

Japanese Occupation
Filipino war veterans would describe it life under the Japanese was anything but peaceful.
Thousands of them stood witness to oppression and suffering through the years of colonial
occupation under Japan. All their stories were spoken against a backdrop of violent
subjugations, each one bringing back old wounds and reliving some of their worst
nightmares. For most Filipinos, it was a harsh and fearsome reality filled with terror and
abuse. Never in the history of the Philippines had such brutality been committed against the
dignity of the human person. For this very reason, the Japanese Occupation is another
essential facet that must be examined through the lens of Human Rights. This was the fate
of the Prisoners of War that those who made it to their destination could only wish that
they had been left behind. Life in the camp was nothing better, as thousands more of them
died because of lack of poor living conditions. Water and food were either scarce or
contaminated which only led to disease and malnutrition. Other times, they were again
beaten up or died of torture. The infamous Bataan Death March is considered one of the
worst atrocities committed in World War II. As such, it was one of the most dreaded
memories of any Filipino or American Prisoner of War.

After World War I to 1982

World War II shapes how we think about science today more than does any other historical event of
the last century, except perhaps for the Moon landing. Hiroshima and Nagasaki in particular stand as
images — both awe-inspiring and horrific — of the raw power of scientific discovery. They have
come to illustrate the profound stakes of the partnership between science and technology, and the
partnership between science and government. With our growing scientific knowledge of nature,
what technologies should we focus on developing? And what is the role of government in deciding
this question — in regulating scientific research and directing it toward particular ends? There are no
clearer examples than the Manhattan Project, and its direct descendant, the Apollo Program, of
large-scale organized research, and of the government’s effectiveness in funding it and even steering
it toward technological application — a collection of practices that historians have come to call “Big
Science.”

Today, policymakers commonly call for “Manhattan projects” or “moonshots” to conquer major
societal and technological challenges, from cancer to climate change. It has become part of the
legacy of Big Science that the public image of scientists, as historian Clarence G. Lasby put it, “has
generally been that of ‘miracle workers,’” a “prestigious image [that] has been translated into
heightened political power and representation at the highest levels in government.” A number of
iconic technologies were invented during World War II — including not just the atomic bomb but
radar and the computer — in part owing to research sponsored and initiated by the government.
Thus, many now see the iconic inventions of the war as offering this lesson: To accomplish great
technological feats, we need government not only to fund research but also to direct research
programs toward practical goals. Furthermore, so the argument goes, we must not waste funds on
undirected, curiosity-driven science; its results are too often unpredictable, unusable, and even
unreliable.

As we shall see, this is flawed historical reasoning. The bomb, radar, and the computer — to focus on
only three of many examples — were made possible by a web of theoretical and technical
developments that not only predated the war by years or decades but that also originated for the
most part outside the scope of goal-directed research, whether government-sponsored or
otherwise. The scientific insights that enabled the technological breakthroughs associated with
World War II emerged not from practical goals but from curiosity-driven inquiry, in which serendipity
peculiar about uranium, the heaviest known element. What Fermi and his colleagues observed was
that when they bombarded the atomic nuclei of uranium with neutrons, it appeared to create a
new, heavier element — a “transuranic element.” In 1939, the German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz
Strassmann published a paper that sent shock waves through the physics community. Through
careful observations of neutron bombardment, they came to realize that the phenomenon Fermi
and his colleagues had observed was not, in fact, the creation of a heavier, transuranic element but
rather the splitting of the uranium nucleus into lighter, radioactive pieces. “We are reluctant to take
this step that contradicts all previous experiences of nuclear physics,” the chemists wrote.
means and was largely self-taught, would return to this question years later, spurred by a public
controversy between two logicians over a technical problem, the “quantification of the predicate.”
In 1847, Boole published a slim volume titled The Mathematical Analysis of Logic, in which he
outlined what he called a “Calculus of Logic” — a highly general and philosophically ambitious form
of algebra remembered today for laying the foundations of modern “two-valued” or binary logic.
When Boole wrote the book, he was not motivated by potential practical applications, taking himself
to be describing the “mathematics of the human intellect.” But in 1937, nearly a century after
Boole’s book, the American engineer Claude Shannon proved that Boole’s algebra could be applied
to electrical relays and switching circuits — the concept that lies at the heart
of blood in a human body — from 98 to 105 degrees Fahrenheit at a distance of one kilometer.
Arnold Wilkins quickly found that such a feat was not remotely possible with existing technology.
Wilkins, however, offered Watson-Watt another idea: that a powerful radio transmitter could be
used to bounce radio waves off aircraft vessels miles away, allowing one to determine their precise
location and track their movements. As Robert Buderi recounts the story in The Invention that
Changed the World (1996), this idea had come to Wilkins while he was visiting, of all places, the post
office, where he happened to hear postal workers complaining that their radio transmissions were
disturbed by passing aircraft.

The political fight over the creation of a new federal science agency continued for several years. In
1950, President Truman finally signed a bill creating the National Science Foundation. Despite using
Kilgore’s suggested name, the new agency reflected Bush’s vision in some important respects,
including his emphasis on basic research. But there were at least two significant caveats. The
director would be appointed by the president, as Kilgore demanded, in contrast to Bush’s plan to
have the director elected by the foundation’s members — Truman had vetoed an earlier bill that
excluded this provision. And the foundation would have power to set the overall research agenda,
rather than deferring entirely to the research institutions supported by
Winter 2020MilitaryHistory of ScienceInnovationHistory of Technology

1983 (National Elementary School Curriculum)

The “Science Framework for Philippine Basic Education” contains resources that will help
curriculum developers, teachers, school administrators and policy makers to design and
implement science curricula that empower students to “learn to learn” and cause them to
better understand and use science in their everyday life. The strategies consider only Grades
1-10, however, because of the progressive nature of the concepts, curriculum development
could easily be extended to cover K-12. It is hoped that this framework will be widely used
and applied by the various stakeholders, and that together we will work towards achieving
the vision of scientifically, technologically, environmentally literate and productive
individduals through quality science education. The Philippines' Grades 1-10 Science
Curriculum envisions the development of scientifically, technologically, and
environmentally literate and productive members of society. They must possess effective
communication and interpersonal and life long learning skills as well as scientific values and
attitudes. What is the curriculum in science?
The science curriculum aims to help children develop basic scientific ideas and
understanding about the biological and physical aspects of the world, and the processes
through which they develop this knowledge and understanding.

As early as elementary, students gain knowledge in areas such as Biology, Geometry, Earth
Science, Chemistry, and Algebra. This ensures a mastery of knowledge and skills after each
level. For example, currently in High School, Biology is taught in 2nd Year, Chemistry in 3rd
Year, and Physics in 4th Year.
 2002 (Restructured Basic Education Curriculum)

The Philippines' Department of Education undertook a curriculum reform for basic education with
the goal of improving student learning to meet the more complex demands of Philippine society
amidst globalization. The 2002 Basic Education Curriculum has three key reform themes: (a) the
articulation of more complex and higher-level learning goals, (b) the streamlining and integration of
learning areas in the curriculum, and (c) the use of creative and innovative teaching approaches to
improve student learning. These themes are discussed in the case of Makabayan — a new learning
area that integrates several subjects with the goal of helping each Filipino student to develop a
healthy personal and national identity. The problems in realizing the curriculum aims are discussed,
focusing on the difficulties in fully articulating the ideal curricular elements, constraints in the
implementation, and the weak conceptualization of the learning reform in the context of Philippine
education.

Three of Ateneo de Naga University’s ace faculty members in its College of Education, Dr.
Evelyn Autor, Veronica Jalores, and Jullie del Valle, walked me and my assistant, Vinci
Bueza, though the basics of the Revised Basic Education Curriculum (2002) this morning. It
is this RBEC which is now being “enhanced” as part of educational reform today. How it is to
be enhanced is the focus of much study and discussion among educators today, and shall
form part of the dialogue between the DepEd and stakeholders, the COCOPEA included.
Our teachers who have had experience in teaching the RBED are invited to reflect on their
experience with the curriculum, and contribute to the discussion on how it might be
“enhanced”. Envisioned is not an overhaul or “revision” of the RBEC, but insight in how we
can teach it better.

2011 (K to 12 Curriculum

Science became a formal focus of the curriculum in the late 19th century to address
changing societal contexts and subsequent concerns, such as communicable diseases in
densely populated areas and manufacturing changes spurred by the Industrial Revolution
(DeBoer, 1991). Ever since that time, the goals and focus of K–12 science education have
periodically shifted in response to changing societal context. Through these changes, the
laboratory has remained a constant feature of science education and has traditionally been
used to develop students’ inductive reasoning, provide experiences for conducting
observations of nature and quantitative laboratory work, and facilitate students’
understanding of the nature of scientific investigations and the generation of scientific
knowledge (DeBoer, 1991).

As we discuss in this chapter, recent developments in K–12 science education represent a

significant departure from previous reform efforts. These current efforts draw extensively
on research from the learning sciences, cognitive psychology, and education as they aim to
convey the nature of science and engineering about how scientists and engineers think and
work. Science investigation and engineering design as the central approach for teaching and
learning science and engineering in middle and high schools is compatible with both the
current reform efforts and what is known about how students learn. When investigations
are at the core of science instruction, all students engage in the three-dimensional learning
described in A Framework for K–12 Science Education (hereafter referred to as the
Framework; National Research Council, 2012) in which they engage with scientific and
engineering practices, crosscutting concepts, and disciplinary core ideas. Foregrounding
investigation and design is in keeping with the

II. Reflection
I was lucky enough to have some science and math teachers that really seemed to care about our
success, and made sure to make themselves accessible for help. The experiences that I have had that
were negative in school were typically in middle and high school with teachers that simply lectured,
and failed to guide us in any way. They did not create an environment that was positive or
interactive. Based on my positive experiences as a student, I have been able to take some of their
strategies with me in my own teaching such as being explicit and creating interactive activities.

It is important for young learners to establish a solid foundation in math and science. In addition to
the inherent pleasure students can find exploring these subjects and the self-confidence built by
mastery, this essential academic preparation opens doors to financial literacy, critical thinking and
healthy decision-making. Moreover, these skills correlate to the health of the nation’s economy, as it
relies on a workforce proficient in math and science.

Elementary students benefit from quality math and science education across a variety of measures,
and the impact of that enrichment is demonstrated both in terms of subject-specific and general
learning, immediately and over time. Math and science learning in early childhood correlates over
the long term with school readiness and academic achievement. It also brings the effects of wonder
and engagement with the world, such as marveling over the enormity of a dinosaur or learning to
comprehend the physics of flight.

Likewise, early science education equips students with fundamental skills to navigate the subject
throughout school and beyond. According to the U.S. Department of Education, it’s important for
the young to be “prepared to bring knowledge and skill to solve problems, make sense of
information, and know how to gather and evaluate evidence to make decisions.”

Skills in measurement and comparison not only contribute to science literacy, but they also build
capacity across the curriculum. Process skills like observing, investigating, describing, predicting and
experimenting aren’t just vital to scientific thinking, but contribute broadly to academic achievement
across the board. What students learn in the classroom has applications in the kitchen, the garden,
the garage and the rest of the physical world.

These subjects also lend themselves to new forms of investigation in the classroom. Project-based
learning gives students opportunities to solve problems, work cooperatively, experiment and
explore. Hands-on learning connects theory and practice while reinforcing practical applications.
These are skills elementary students will hone, refine and add to as they continue their education
and topics and methods become increasingly sophisticated. The curiosity and creativity they develop
will help sustain attention, grit and perseverance to attend to problems and work out solutions.

Teachers of elementary students help shape the attitudes those students will carry forward into
their math and science education, and those teachers can cultivate a love of these subjects while
pre-empting beliefs that math is hard or not everyone can do science.

The National Science Foundation’s Science and Engineering Indicators 2014 report finds, “Teacher
quality is one of the most important factors influencing student learning. Students’ achievement in
mathematics and science depends in part on their access to high-quality instruction in those
subjects.”

IV. References

Lehrer and Schauble (2006).

National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine. 2007
https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/11625/chapter/4#28
Henri Poincare, La Science et l’Hypothese
(1908)https://nap.nationalacademies.org/read/11625/chapter/4

https://online.mc.edu/degrees/education/med/elementary/math-science-elementary-students/
#:~:text=Math%20and%20science%20education%20provides,the%20things%20that%20surround
%20us.
https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Reflection-On-Science-And-Math-PCZ8CG3GR
Basañes, R.A. (2020)
http://gatrenterprise.com/GATRJournals/GJBSSR/pdf_files/GJBSSRVol8(2)2020/5.Runato%20A
%20Basanes.pdf
Arao, D. A. (2002, May). State of Education and the Pedagogy of Subjugation. Retrieved on July2005
from http://www.bulatlat.net/news/2–15/2–15-danny.html
Araya, A. A. (2002, June 26). DepEd's New Curriculum in for a Bumpy Ride. Retrieved on July2005
from http://www.cyberdyaryo.com/features/f2002_0626_01.htm.

Bernardo, A. B. I. & Garcia, J. A. S. (2006). School improvement in a centralized educational

system:The case of Philippine basic education. In J. C. Lee & M. Williams (Eds.), School
Improvement:International Perspectives (pp.227–224). Hauppauge, NY: Nova Science Publishers,
Inc.

Bernardo, A. B. I., Limjap, A. S., Prudente, M. S. & Roleda, L. S. (2005). Endline Study on Mathand
Science Teaching for the SBTP. Manila, Philippines: Lasallian Institute for Development and
Educational Research and Japan International Cooperation Agency

https://academic.oup.com/ssjj/article-abstract/2/2/267/1630165?redirectedFrom=PDF