1D Simulation and Experimental Analysis of a Turbocharger Compressor for Automotive

Engines under Unsteady Flow Conditions

Author(s): Fabio Bozza, Vincenzo De Bellis, Silvia Marelli and Massimo Capobianco
Source: SAE International Journal of Engines , Vol. 4, No. 1 (2011), pp. 1365-1384
Published by: SAE International
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26278228

REFERENCES
Linked references are available on JSTOR for this article:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/26278228?seq=1&cid=pdf-
reference#references_tab_contents
You may need to log in to JSTOR to access the linked references.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

SAE International is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to SAE
International Journal of Engines

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 1D Simulation and Experimental Analysis of a
Turbocharger Compressor for Automotive Engines
under Unsteady Flow Conditions
Fabio Bozza and Vincenzo De Bellis
Universita' di Napoli
Silvia Marelli and Massimo Capobianco
Universita' di Genova
ABSTRACT
Turbocharging technique will play a fundamental role in the
near future not only to improve automotive engine
performance, but also to reduce fuel consumption and
exhaust emissions both in Spark Ignition and diesel
automotive applications. To achieve excellent engine
performance for road application, it is necessary to overcome
some typical turbocharging drawbacks i.e., low end torque
level and transient response. Experimental studies, developed
on dedicated test facilities, can supply a lot of information to
optimize the engine-turbocharger matching, especially if tests
can be extended to the typical engine operating conditions
(unsteady flow). Different numerical procedures have been
developed at the University of Naples to predict automotive
turbocharger compressor performance both under steady and
unsteady flow conditions. A classical 1D approach, based on
the employment of compressor characteristic maps, was
firstly followed. A different and more refined procedure has
been recently proposed. The new approach is based on the
solution of the 1D unsteady flow within the stationary and
rotating channels constituting the compressor device, starting
from a reduced set of geometrical data. The refined
methodology can be utilized to directly compute the
stationary map of the compressor but also to reproduce the
unsteady flow behavior of the device.
A specialized components test rig (particularly suited to study
automotive turbochargers) has been operating since several
years at the University of Genoa. The test facility also allows
to develop studies under unsteady flow conditions both on
SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
2011-01-1147
Published
04/12/2011
Copyright © 2011 SAE International
doi:10.4271/2011-01-1147
single components and subassemblies of engine intake and
exhaust circuit.
In the paper the results of a preliminary experimental study
developed on a turbocharger compressor for gasoline engine
application under unsteady flow conditions are presented.
Instantaneous inlet and outlet static pressure and mass flow
rate are compared with the corresponding numerical data
supplied by simulation codes. The numerical results showed a
good agreement with experimental data. In addition, the
comparison between the classical and the refined procedure
results highlighted the potential of the performed unsteady
1D calculation, especially in specific compressor operating
conditions.
The integration of the experimental activity with the
numerical analysis represents a methodology that can be
helpfully employed during the design process of internal
combustion engine intake systems.
INTRODUCTION
Engine downsizing is becoming a successful way of
improving fuel consumption in automotive applications. As
regards spark ignition (SI) engines, this technique, associated
with charge boosting and other state-of-the art technologies
(such as gasoline direct injection and fully flexible intake
valves control), can help to substantially reduce CO2
emissions, thus making this propulsion system competitive
with the diesel engine in terms of fuel consumption, while
keeping exhaust pollutant emissions very low by using the
three-way catalyst [1, 2].
1365
Therefore, engine turbocharging, today used in all diesel
applications, will be extensively applied also to SI
automotive units as a way to reach the required performance
level while downsizing the engine [3]. However, an effective
management of the turbocharging system to achieve a
suitable engine torque curve and an excellent vehicle
driveability is a very difficult task [4], especially in the case
of small SI engines fitted with a reduced number of cylinders
(often lower than four in recent units). This is due to the wide
load and speed range experienced in road applications and to
the magnitude of unsteady flow effects in the intake and
exhaust circuit.
One-dimensional (1D) models are usually employed to
compute the engine and turbocharger matching conditions.
However, 1D modelling of an automotive turbocharged
engine requires the availability of several information about
the turbine and compressor behavior. A first item is related to
available performance maps, that are usually limited to a
reduced range of rotational speed, pressure ratio and mass
flow rate: this involves extrapolation of performance curves
introducing inaccuracies in the calculation procedure.
Besides, performance maps are generally derived on steady-
state test benches, while the turbocharger, when coupled to an
automotive internal combustion engine, typically operates
under unsteady flow conditions.
It is therefore apparent that the integration of experimental
activity with numerical procedures able to take into account
the unsteady behavior of the turbocharger, represents a
methodology that can be helpfully employed in the design
process of the intake and exhaust systems of turbocharged
automotive engines.
As above mentioned, the extension of turbocharger turbine
and compressor maps to a broad operating range and the
provision of turbocharger behavior when operating under
severe unsteady flow conditions are currently fundamental
requirements for improving the accuracy of turbocharged
engine calculations. To this end, the availability of highly
flexible test rigs can allow all these aspects to be investigated
without the limits imposed by the engine, thus providing
more general and transferable information concerning
turbocharger operation. Since several years, a specialized
components test facility (particularly suited to study
automotive turbochargers) has been operating at the
University of Genoa [5]. The test rig is fitted with specific
devices which allow investigations to be performed under
unsteady flow operation both on single components and
subassemblies of engine intake and exhaust circuit. Several
experimental studies on automotive turbocharger turbines,
also fitted with different regulating devices (waste-gate valve
and variable geometry systems), have been performed using
this facility [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
1366 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Different numerical procedures have been developed in order
to predict automotive turbocharged engine performance both
under steady and unsteady flow conditions. A classical quasi-
steady approach, based on the employment of compressor
and turbine characteristic maps (provided by the
manufacturers or directly measured) is usually followed [11,
12]. Anyway, in many cases, a limited operating domain of
the turbocharger device is available, and extrapolation of
maps is commonly required [12, 13]. In addition, due to
various phenomena, the actual turbocharger behavior may
differ from that expressed by the characteristic maps. First of
all, performance data refer to a steady operation of the device,
while the turbocharger, due to the pressure pulsations caused
by the engine, always operates under unsteady conditions [5,
10]. A first attempt to better take into account the effects of
the pulsating flow, is the discretization of the compressor or
turbine in terms of equivalent lengths and volumes, together
with their steady flow characteristics [14]. However, other
inaccuracies related to the employment of steady maps can be
due to the variation of the flow direction at the compressor or
turbine inlet, depending on the actual packaging of the engine
intake and exhaust circuits [27]. Moreover, heat transfer
through the casing and heat radiated by the turbine and the
engine may considerably affect the map-based values of the
adiabatic efficiency. In addition, in a turbocharged engine
with a long-route Exhaust Gas Recirculation device [15], the
compressor operates with a variable mixture of air and
recycled burned gases, while gas composition effects are
usually neglected in a map-based approach.
Due to the above considerations, an improvement of the
classical map-based quasi-steady matching calculation is
required [16]. Concerning a small turbocharger compressor, a
different and more refined procedure has been recently
proposed [17] to characterize its behavior both under steady
and unsteady flow conditions. The new approach is based on
the solution of the 1D unsteady flow within the stationary and
rotating channels constituting the compressor device, starting
from a reduced set of geometrical data. A direct modeling of
main phenomena and losses is performed, also referring to
correlations from the literature. A tuning procedure allows a
better definition of the compressor steady flow map by
calibrating the constants included in the various loss
correlations. Due to the calculation approach, the procedure
allows to reproduce both steady and unsteady flow behavior
of the compressor. In the paper the results of a preliminary
experimental study developed at the University of Genoa on a
turbocharger compressor for gasoline engine application
under steady and unsteady flow conditions are presented.
Measured performance are compared with the corresponding
numerical data supplied by the simulation procedure
developed at the University of Naples.
In a first step the model was applied to calculate the
compressor steady flow map, referring both to the standard
value of the friction and slip correlation multipliers and to a
tuning of the same constants. The theoretical procedure was
then used to predict instantaneous levels of inlet and outlet
static pressure and mass flow rate, following both a classical
approach, based on the employment of the tuned steady flow
compressor map, and a more refined procedure, based on the
direct time integration of model equations.
The numerical results showed a good agreement with
experimental data. In addition, the comparison between the
classical and the refined procedure results highlighted the
advantages of the performed unsteady 1D calculation,
especially in specific engine operating conditions.
EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS
The experimental investigation is carried out on the
University of Genoa (UNIGE) test facility (Fig. 1), fully
described in previous papers [8, 10]. Three electrical screw
compressors provide a total mass flow rate of about 0.6 kg/s
at a maximum pressure of 8 bar. To prevent water from
condensing and freezing, a 54 kW electrical heater can
increase air temperature up to 400 K. Two independent
feeding lines allow to supply turbocharger turbine and
compressor with air at controlled pressure thus allowing to
measure steady flow maps over an extended range.
Figure 1. Schematic layout of UNIGE turbocharger test
facility.
SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
The main feature of the test rig is the availability of two
different systems to generate the unsteady flow typically
occurring in the intake and exhaust automotive engine circuit.
In a first configuration, diametral slot rotating valves are
adopted in order to perform parametric studies by properly
controlling the main characteristics of generated pressure
pulses (i.e. mean value, amplitude, shape and pulse
frequency). The second layout, including a Variable Valve
Actuation cylinder head (Fiat Multiair system) makes it
possible to analyze the interactions between the engine circuit
and both turbocharger turbine and compressor.
Measurement of different parameters under steady and
unsteady flow conditions is performed by an automatic data
acquisition system using dedicated procedures developed in
Lab VIEW® environment.
The experimental investigation was performed on a small
automotive turbocharger (IHI RHF3) matched to a small-size
spark ignition engine. Initially, the reference compressor
steady flow maps, expressed in terms of both total-to-total
pressure ratio and total-to-total efficiency versus corrected
mass flow rate, were measured at different corrected
rotational speed levels. Secondly, the compressor
performance was evaluated under unsteady flow conditions
by integrating the turbocharger in a current production
automotive engine intake circuit (Fig. 2). Results reported in
the paper are referred to a constant level of corrected
compressor rotational speed (about 100000 rpm), taking into
account three different mass flow operating conditions (near
the chocking area, in an intermediate zone and near the surge
line, respectively referred later as CASES A, B and C). The
unsteady flow pulse frequency considered corresponds to an
equivalent engine rotational speed of 1500 rpm (camshaft
speed of 750 rpm).
The average and instantaneous levels of several parameters
were recorded in different measuring section located along
the intake circuit (i.e. at the inlet and outlet section of both
compressor and intercooler, downstream the throttle valve,
etc., see Fig.2). Average and instantaneous static pressure
were measured through strain gauge transducers
characterized by a high frequency response (about 25kHz)
and an accuracy of 0.14% of the full scale. Platinum
resistance thermometers with an uncertainly of ±0.3 °C were
used to measure the average temperature values. The
instantaneous temperature levels were evaluated referring to
an adiabatic process of an ideal gas, starting from measured
mean inlet pressure and temperature and instantaneous static
pressure. Instantaneous mass flow rate was estimated by
using a hot wire fiber film probe, mounted upstream of the
compressor. The sensor was calibrated against a thermal mass
flow meter (with an accuracy of ±0.3% of measured level) in
steady state over the entire operating range experienced under
unsteady flow conditions. The turbocharger rotational speed
1367
 Figure 2. Intake engine circuit and related measuring sections

was evaluated by using an eddy current probe (with a
precision of 0.009% of the full scale) mounted close to the
compressor wheel. Two high speed synchronized data
acquisition cards were used to record instantaneous signals. A
Hall sensor mounted on the driving cam shaft of the cylinder
head provided a trigger signal, corresponding to 40 crank
angle degrees after TDC related to cylinder no. 1 overlap.
All measured signals reported in the paper are an ensemble
average of several complete cycles.
1D COMPRESSOR MODEL
In the following, the 1D compressor model is recalled,
including a brief description of its geometrical
schematization, of the 1D flow equations holding in
stationary and rotating ducts, and of the boundary conditions
and flow losses. A more detailed model discussion can be
found in [17].
GEOMETRICAL MODEL
The compressor is schematized as follows (Fig. 3):
• a short inlet pipe (from section 0 to 1); the end section of
the inlet pipe is characterized by a sudden area contraction,
taking into account the impeller eye obstruction. This will
cause some inlet losses, as explained in the following;
• the impeller (from section 1 to 2), consisting of Z rotating
pipes, Z being the number of blades. The profile of the blade-
to-blade duct is assigned in terms of the local blade angle,
equivalent and hydraulic diameters and radius. The latter are
estimated perpendicularly to the meanline profile. Since
upstream and downstream conditions are the same, the flow
rate within a single impeller duct is really computed and then
multiplied by the number of blades. A numerical procedure
has been developed to reproduce the 3D impeller geometry
basing on a reduced set of data (inlet and outlet flow angles,
diameters, number of blades, etc.), which can be measured
easily on the impeller wheel. The comparison between the
actual impeller geometry and the CAD reproduced
reconstruction is reported in Figure 4. The equivalent 1D
profile of blade-to-blade duct, to be employed in 1D flow
equations, is then easily derived from the 3D CAD model;
• the vaneless diffuser (from section 2 to 3). It is considered
as a diverging pipe of constant width in the radial direction;

• the volute (from section 3 to 4), schematized as a constant

equivalent area duct, collecting the flow coming from the
diffuser. An equivalent length is considered as half the
circumference at the radius r3. The volute ends with an outlet
cone of assigned dimensions.

Figure 3. Main compressor stations

1368 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Figure 4. Actual impeller geometry (IHI RHF3 compressor) and related 3D reconstruction

UNSTEADY FLOW MODEL

The unsteady 1D flow in the stationary ducts is described by
the following equations:

(1)

The terms ρ, c, p, EC=cvT+c2/2, HC=cpT0= cpT+c2/2 in the (2)

system (1) respectively represent density, absolute velocity,
static pressure, total energy and enthalpy per unit mass. The
source term, SC, accounts for the duct area variation, α = 1/Ω
dΩ/dx, the friction coefficient, f, and the rate of heat
exchange, q.
Impeller Flow Model
The system (1) is solved for the inlet pipe, the volute and the
outlet duct, while, within the impeller, the following balance
equations apply [18]:
In the above equations, w is the relative velocity, u=ωr is the
tangential velocity (blade speed) and EW=cvT+w2/2,
HW=cpT0w=cpT+w2/2 are the total energy and enthalpy in the
relative motion. The source term SW includes additional
contributions arising as a consequence of pipe rotation. They
are related to the centrifugal forces acting on the fluid particle
and are computed as a function of the radius variation along a
streamline: δ = 1/r dr/ds.
Friction forces are subdivided in two contributions, the first
related to flow interaction with the impeller surface and the
second concerning friction with the case inner surface. Also
heat exchange is subdivided in two terms, the first depending
on impeller/flow interaction and the second arising from heat
exchange on the case.

Diffuser Flow Model

Along a flow streamline in the vaneless diffuser, a variation
of both the radial, cr, and the tangential velocity components,

SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1 1369

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
cu, occurs, determining a quasi-1D flow. The system of
equations solved for the vaneless diffuser is hence:
(3)
being ED=cvT+cr2/2 and HD=cpT0=cpT+cr2/2. With this
definition of ED and HD, the energy balance equation shows
an additional term deriving from tangential component of
friction force. In this case, along the radial direction: δ = 1/r.
The numerical solution of the partial derivative systems (1),
(2), (3) is realized through a 2nd order accurate upwind
scheme with a TVD (Total Variation Diminishing) flux
correction technique [19]. Temporal integration follows a
Runge-Kutta 4th order method.
STEADY FLOW MODEL
In the steady procedure, temporal derivatives in eqs. (1), (2)
and (3) are obviously neglected. Computation starts with a
fixed value of mass flow rate at compressor inlet duct. Flow
equations are discretized in finite differences and numerically
integrated with an iterative procedure.
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The boundary conditions in the nodes of adjacent ducts are
specified by applying a classical quasi-steady pipe-to-pipe
junction problem. Mass and energy equations at the junction
are solved. In the unsteady procedure, in order to preserve the
characteristics of wave propagation phenomena, the latter are
coupled to the compatibility relations, properly modified to
include the additional source terms. The momentum equation
is indeed substituted by a total pressure loss relation between
adjacent sections of the connected pipes. Formally, the total
pressure loss can be specified as a function of a Mach number
expressing the total head loss.
(4)
1370 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Loss related Mach number is opportunely specified according
to the junction and the considered loss mechanism. Exactly
the same pressure loss correlations are introduced in the
steady and unsteady procedures.
SLIP EFFECT
Even under ideal (inviscid) conditions, the flow leaving the
impeller is said to ‘slip’. Secondary flows (relative eddies)
determine an increase of the exit flow angle, respect to the
blade angle. As a consequence, the tangential component
(c2u‘) varies with respect to the ideal value c2u, determining a
decrease of the energy transfer, quantified by the slip factor,
σ:
(5)
The evaluation of the slip coefficient was performed through
the correlation proposed in [20]:
(6)
csl, s2, Φ2, b2, F, being, respectively, a tuning multiplier, span
at impeller exit, flow coefficient, meridional blade to blade
duct height and shape factor. F is defined as:
(7)
FRICTION LOSSES
Friction losses are due to the presence of viscous forces in the
boundary layer and are directly taken into account in the flow
equations through the definition of a friction coefficient,
depending on the local absolute or relative velocity based on
Reynolds Number. The well known Poiseuille, Blasius or
Nikuradse expressions are employed in both inlet, volute and
outlet pipe. Concerning impeller, drag coefficient is evaluated
separately for rotating surfaces and fixed ones and it is
corrected according to [21]. As regards the diffuser, the
approach proposed in [22] is followed:
(8)
xfat being a tuning constant. The same multiplier is applied to
Poiseuille, Blasius or Nikuradse expressions.
HEAT TRANSFER
The knowledge of the friction coefficient also allows to
estimate the heat transfer coefficient. A few analogies are
reported in the literature and the one here employed has been
derived by Gnielinski [23]. In this way, the heat transfer from
the compressed gas is easily modeled once the wall
temperature has been assigned. The latter is specified as a
weighted mean between the gas temperature and the external
ambient temperature. An additional constant multiplier, xhw,
is included in the expression of the heat transfer coefficient.
INLET AND INCIDENCE LOSSES
First of all, the absolute velocity c1 is computed in the end
section of the inlet pipe. The flow is assumed to non-
isentropically expand up to the impeller eye section. Part of
the produced kinetic energy is assumed to be dissipated at
constant pressure, as a consequence of the impeller eye
obstruction. The absolute and peripheral velocities at the
impeller inlet so define the flow angle characterizing the
direction of the approaching flow. When the flow angle φ1
differs from the blade angle φ1c, it is assumed that the kinetic
energy associated with the flow component normal to the
blade direction w1n (Fig. 5) is completely dissipated at a
constant pressure (NASA shock model) [24].
Fig. 5. Velocity triangles in off-design condition, for
incidence losses calculation
Looking at the Fig. 5, the velocity component w1n can be
easily determined as:
(9)
SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
(10)
Under this hypothesis, and following the formal relationship
(4), the relation between the total pressure at the exit section
of the inlet pipe p0w1 and the one at the inducer throat, p0w1t,
can be written as:
(11)
cinc being the tuning constant affecting the total incidence
loss.
RECIRCULATION FLOW
A recirculating flow from the impeller outlet occurs near the
case tip clearance because of pressure difference. It alters the
total temperature at the inlet and the related work exchange.
The recirculating flow is computed as a function of the
instantaneous pressure difference downstream and upstream
the impeller.
ADDITIONAL IMPELLER LOSSES
Secondary loss mechanisms are considered in the model, too.
The first concerns the flow separation deriving from a high
blade loading level. Leakage losses due to blades tip
clearance are taken into account. Moreover, losses due to
local sonic flow on the blade surface are evaluated. More
details are reported in [17, 24].
VOLUTE LOSSES
The kinetic energy associated with the radial velocity
component at volute inlet is assumed to be completely
dissipated. The one associated to the tangential velocity
component is indeed assumed to be partly lost at low flow
rate according to [25].
MODEL TUNING AND
COMPUTATION OF THE STEADY
MAP
The described steady and unsteady numerical procedures are
completely defined once the whole set of geometrical data
has been specified. However, due to some lack of generality,
each loss correlation also includes a proper multiplier, acting
as a model constant. In [17], a refined tuning methodology
was realized with reference to three different compressors,
through the employment of an optimization code. The main
findings in [17] were that, apart from the slip coefficient
parameters, optimal values of the tuning constants didn't
1371
 Figure 6. Experimental and numerical Pressure Ratio (a) and Efficiency (b) maps

greatly differ from the ‘default’ unity or literature advised

levels. In addition, differences among the tuned values for the
three compressor were often reduced. Basing on the above
study, in the present case the standard value of each tuning
multiplier is firstly considered. The computed iso-speeds
(solid lines in Fig. 6a,b), are in this case somewhat
overestimated with respect to the steady experimental data
(solid lines with circles), in terms of both pressure ratio and
efficiency. The 1D compressor model is in any case able to
give a good approximation of the actual steady map without
any tuning, and simply basing on the knowledge of few
geometrical data of the device. Moreover, the model accuracy
can be greatly improved through a simple tuning of few loss
multipliers. Just a slight modification of the standard unit
values for the friction and slip correlation multipliers (1.9 and
1.4, respectively) was in fact enough to realize a good
agreement (dashed lines) on the whole pressure ratio (Fig. 6a)
and efficiency (Fig. 6b) maps.
The direct calculation of the steady map also means that the
model, once tuned, can be used to rapidly quantify the effect
on the compressor performance of ‘small’ changes in its main
geometrical parameters. In addition, the steady procedure
may be employed to compute extended operating maps, with
a different upstream pressure, temperature, and composition
(Fig. 7). It is well-known in fact that a map is generally
applicable only if fluid similarity holds (identity of Mach,
Reynolds, Prandlt Numbers and specific heat ratio) [26].
However, it is impossible, in practice, to completely satisfy
similarity constraints and different generalized expressions
are used to correct the mass flow rate and the rotational
speed, like as an example [26]:
(12)
Nevertheless, a reduced loss of similarity may still be present,
exerting a non negligible influence especially on the
efficiency (Fig.7b). For this reason the possibility to
recompute the map for the specified working fluid can be of
interest in particular applications. This may be the case in
two-stage turbocharging systems, with long-route EGR
devices, where the compressor operates with a variable
mixture of air and recycled burned gases. Moreover, a
different heat transfer through the device may arise in the
high pressure compressor, which can be taken into account in
the recomputed steady map. Figure 7a also highlights that the
model can be applied to compute further iso-speed lines, in
order to avoid the need of un-physical maps' extrapolation
techniques, usually included in engine-turbocharger matching
calculations.
As a last consideration, due to packaging constraints in the
engine bay, the pipe layout upstream the compressor inlet can
induce a pre-whirl flow which may substantially modify the
compressor performance reported in the manufacturer map

1372 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Figure 7. Effect of varied inlet conditions and gas composition on the performance maps. Corrected parameters as defined in
(12)

Figure 8. Effect of varied inlet flow angle, due to an upstream swirling flow, on the performance maps.

[27, 28]. Experimental data on the pre-whirl flow can be
obtained introducing a swirl meter in the upstream pipe. This
information can be utilized in the 1D model to estimate the
actual inlet flow angle and, correspondingly predict the new
operating conditions. Figure 8 shows an example of the
influence of the inlet flow angle on the performance maps. A
negative pre-whirl (defined as pre-whirl in the same sense of
the compressor rotation) determines lower inlet flow angles
and relative velocities at the impeller eye. Consequently, it
reduces the mass flow rate range and the adiabatic efficiency,
as well, whilst displacing the surge margin to the left. These
results qualitatively agree with the experimental findings in
[27] and [28].
In the present case, the experimental maps in Fig. 6 were
directly measured coupled to the complete intake system. For
this reason, they reflect the actual compressor behavior on the
considered engine. In addition, due to the presence of a
straight pipe of about 7 diameters length upstream to the
compressor, no swirl flow was assumed in the computed data.

SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1 1373

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Table 1. Operating conditions for the tested CASES A, B and C
UNSTEADY OPERATION RESULTS
The results in Fig. 6 authorize to conclude that a good
reproduction of the steady operating condition has been
obtained in the tested compressor operating range and the
model can be hence employed to analyze its unsteady
operation, too. To this aim, a 1D representation of the
upstream and downstream compressor circuit is realized, as
shown in Fig. 9.
Figure 9. 1D representation of the compressor test
bench, for its unsteady analysis
Three different operating conditions (CASES A, B and C) are
analyzed. They are characterized by different values of the
pressure in the downstream plenum, realizing different values
of the average mass flow rate. Apart from the whole
geometrical details of the external circuit, the sole input data
to the model are:
• The compressor rotational speed: the experimental analysis
highlighted a negligible variation of this parameter; for this
reason the latter is kept constant in the model.
• The engine crankshaft rotational speed: this parameter
defines the opening and closing frequency of the intake
valves and controls the pressure pulsation in the external
circuit.
• Ambient pressure and temperature: these values are
imposed as boundary condition in the first section of the inlet
pipe, A1.
1374 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
• Discharge pressure in the downstream plenum: this value is
imposed as boundary condition for the outlet flow through
the valves.
• Throttle opening: both tests and numerical analyses are
carried out at WOT conditions. The small losses introduced
by the fully opened throttle are however considered in the
model.
• Valve lift profile and discharge coefficients: actual values of
the valve lift are employed in the calculations. Experimental
values of the discharge coefficient were provided by the
engine manufacturer.
Table 1 summarizes the operating conditions for the three
analyzed cases. Only the discharge pressure is subjected to
the major variation, which induces average compressor
operating points located on a single characteristic line at
about 100200 rpm corrected speed. In particular, point A is
located in a low pressure ratio and efficiency zone, point B
close to the maximum efficiency for the selected iso-speed
and point C is indeed located very close to the compressor
surging. In Fig. 6a the average measured levels in the above
test conditions are plotted on the steady compressor map.
In order to verify the capabilities of the model in capturing
the unsteady compressor behavior, two different numerical
procedures are utilized: a classical approach, based on the
employment of the tuned steady map in Fig. 6, and the more
refined unsteady procedure, based on the direct time
integration of systems (1), (2) and (3). In the following
figures, the above approaches are referred as ‘Steady Map
Model’ and ‘Unsteady Model’, respectively.
Concerning the operating point A, Fig. 10 reports the
comparisons between numerical and experimental pressure
fluctuations in five different measuring stations located along
the external circuit (see Fig. 2), namely: the static pressure
signal downstream the throttle valve (a), the intercooler inlet
(c) and outlet (b), and the total pressure profiles upstream (e)
and downstream (d) the compressor. As expected, a similar
pressure wave is repeated every 180° crank angles, since the
pulse shape is related to the valve opening frequency [10],
which was kept constant during the investigation. The
pressure wave highlights a shape change due to both the
superimposed variation in the pipe geometry, to wave
reflection phenomena, and to the concentrated or distributed
losses along the propagation path up to the compressor inlet
section.
Both map-based and unsteady compressor models accurately
reproduce the above mentioned pressure shapes, thanks to a
refined description of both the 1D pipe network, the friction
and junction losses. In this way, the pressure wave
propagation is correctly computed by the model up to the
compressor outlet section (Fig. 10d) in terms of both average
level and overall form. Major differences between map-based
model and unsteady approach can be appreciated as regards
the total compressor inlet pressures (Fig. 10e). In this case, in
fact, a slight angular shift, , between the two numerical
methods is clearly evident. The latter is due to the time
required by the pressure wave to travel at the speed of sound,
a, along the compressor device, characterized by an overall
meanline length ΔL, at an engine speed of n rpm. In the
present case, the angular shift is in particular:
(12)
Many authors try to take into account the above effect by
introducing virtual small length pipes or volumes in the map-
based procedure [14]. However, this correction still requires
the knowledge of compressor geometrical data. In the
proposed unsteady compressor model the above shift is
automatically captured, as shown in Fig. 10e, so realizing a
better phase agreement with the experimental data. The
overall matching has however worsened in this case, due to
the difficulties related to the 1D modeling of the upstream
circuit, including a complex 3D shaped air filter box.
Similar considerations can be drawn looking at results
obtained as regards the CASE B (Fig. 11). A slight
improvement of pressure wave reproduction can be obtained
with the unsteady compressor model, especially in terms of
phase agreement at the compressor outlet section. Regarding
the CASE C, where a close-to-surge operation is analyzed,
differences between the results of the map-based and
unsteady compressor models are more significant (Fig. 12).
The overall agreement between the experimental data and the
simulation findings seems to be lower than that verified in
previous cases. Unsteady model realizes once again a better
phase agreement, even if the amplitude of pressure
fluctuations are overestimated in some measuring stations.
Fig. 13 reports the comparison on computed and
experimental mass flow rates at compressor inlet, for the
three analyzed cases. Experimental data are a result of an
ensemble average of several complete engine cycles in order
to cut off not physical oscillations due to external
disturbances and vibrations.
SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Despite the ensemble averaging, however, the experimental
mass flow rate data doesn't always exhibit the same 180°
periodic behavior previously detected in the experimental
pressure profiles. This is probably due to the sensor location
at the inlet section. In a further step of the investigation, the
measurement of mass flow rate will be also performed
downstream the compressor, where the periodic behavior is
better detectable, also increasing the number of acquired
cycles. Nevertheless, the agreement is confirmed to be
acceptable since the main fluctuations are well reproduced by
the model, especially at the lowest mass flow rate level (Fig.
13c). In this case, moreover, a clear 180° periodic behavior is
established in the experimental data, too.
Similarly to compressor inlet pressures, in each operating
condition a small phase shift between the mass flow rate
profiles computed by the two numerical approaches is
detected. As above mentioned, it depends on the wave
propagation phenomena within the device, only included in
the unsteady compressor model.
Summarizing, the results presented in the paper demonstrate
that both the employed numerical procedures are able to
satisfactory reproduce the unsteady compressor behavior in
the considered operating conditions. The discrepancies
highlighted are limited to the presence of a slight phase shift
in some stations and in particular as regards the inlet pressure
and mass flow rate. However, even if these differences are
very bounded, they should increase at high engine speed, as
stated by eq. (12). In this case the employment of the
proposed more refined procedure, or the introduction of a
virtual pipe for a time-delay correction, is mandatory.
To the aim of verifying the above consideration, an additional
analysis is carried out modifying CASE B specifications with
an engine speed of 4500 rpm and a turbocharger speed of
140000 rpm. Experimental data were unfortunately
unavailable in these conditions. In Fig. 14, the results of a
corrected map-based approach are reported, too. A small
length pipe is now added downstream the compressor, with
proper length and diameter furnished by the same 1D
geometrical schematization of the compressor. The length
exactly equals the wave propagation path from the inlet to the
outlet section (Eq. 12), while the diameter is computed in
order to realize the same overall device volume. Heat transfer
and friction losses are deleted in the virtual pipe. As
expected, the standard map-based approach and the unsteady
model now give quite different results in terms of both
compressor inlet and outlet pressures (Fig. 14c,b) and mass
flow rate (Fig. 14a). Not surprisingly, once the proper
correction has been included, results of the map-based model
with time delay are quite close to the unsteady model ones.
Some differences are nevertheless still observable, especially
on the mass flow rate.
1375
 Figure 10. Experimental and numerical pressure waves in different stations - CASE A

1376 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Figure 11. Experimental and numerical pressure waves in different stations - CASE B

SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1 1377

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Figure 12. Experimental and numerical pressure waves in different stations - CASE C

1378 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Figure 13. Experimental and numerical mass flow rate comparison

In order to further underline the consideration here discussed,
it should be remembered that, in a two-stage boosting system,
the employment of a classical map-based approach, without
any correction, may determine substantial errors at the inlet
section of the high pressure compressor, which reflect in a
different low pressure compressor behavior and overall
pressure ratio. In a two-stage boosting system, moreover,
when packaging the 2 turbochargers as closely as is necessary
to fit in the car, secondary interstage flow structures (swirling
flows) may affect overall efficiency and pressure ratio [29].
The latter, as already pointed out, can indeed be introduced in
the 1D model in terms of modified inlet flow angles.
Finally, in Fig. 15, with reference to CASE C, the
instantaneous inlet mass flow rate is plotted as a function of
the instantaneous compressor outlet pressure. On the same
graph, both the stable and the unstable branches of the 1D
computed characteristic lines are drawn, too. A typical
unsteady pressure loop occurs in counterclockwise direction.
It consists of a ‘Main Loop’, directly related to the pressure
wave traveling upstream as a consequence of valve opening,
and a ‘Secondary Loop’, due to the wave reflections in the
external circuit. The unsteady model is able to reproduce the
experimental main loop, while pressure fluctuations are
slightly overestimated in the secondary one, as also shown in
Fig. 12d. The map-based model (dashed loop) only partly
describes the above fluctuations. In addition, a further slight
increase in the downstream plenum pressure (from 1.303 bar
in CASE C to 1.312 bar), induces a reduction of the mass
flow rate, beyond the minimum stable value reported in the
map (∼58 kg/h) at the considered speed. In this case, the lack
of experimental data in the unstable zone absolutely requires
a map extrapolation. On the contrary, the unsteady model
allows to describe the operation in the unstable zone, too
(dashed loop with circles). At the lowest mass flow rate, a
pressure decrease can now be detected, indicating a close-to-
surge operation. Any additional pressure increase in the
downstream tank will induce a reverse flow through the
compressor and the beginning of surging loops. Although still
not ready to handle reverse flow situations, the unsteady
model shows the potential to account for local surging
operation, too.

SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1 1379

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 Figure 14. Numerical analysis at an increased engine speed of 4500 rpm

Figure 15. Close-to-Surge compressor operation

CONCLUSION
In the present paper a detailed experimental analysis and an
advanced modeling approach to characterize both the steady
and the unsteady behavior of a turbocharger compressor have
been described. The experimental analysis allowed to
measure the steady compressor map and the instantaneous
pressure and mass flow rate fluctuations occurring when the
compressor is coupled to the intake circuit of a small-size
spark-ignition engine. The above data were then employed to
validate a recently proposed 1D compressor model based on
the direct modeling of the work exchange and main losses
occurring inside the device.

1380 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
The results presented allowed to draw the following main
conclusions:
• The 1D compressor model, if operated in steady conditions,
is able to provide a satisfactory approximation of the
measured steady map without any tuning, and simply basing
on the knowledge of few geometrical data of the device. The
model accuracy can be further improved through some simple
tuning of friction and slip correlation multipliers. That means
that a reasonable description of the main flow losses has been
realized.
• The steady model can be used to rapidly quantify the effects
on the map due to small changes in main geometrical
compressor parameters, or to compute additional iso-speed
lines in order to avoid the need of maps' extrapolation
techniques. Moreover, changes in working fluid composition,
in the heat transfer and in the inlet flow distribution, can be
directly taken into account in the computed steady map.
• Under unsteady conditions the 1D compressor model
realized a good prediction of pressure fluctuations in different
stations along the intake system and a satisfactory description
of major mass flow rate variations at the compressor inlet.
• If compared to a classical quasi-steady map-based modeling
approach, the proposed model allowed to slightly improve the
accuracy of the predictions in the tested operating conditions.
However, while the map-based model usually employs
experimental data which ‘exactly’ characterize the
compressor performance, the 1D model gives the possibility
to predict its behavior, without any accuracy loss.
• The introduction of a small length virtual pipe, accounting
for the time delay due to the wave propagation inside the
device can give results quite comparable with the proposed
1D compressor model. The correct specification of the pipe
length and diameter however requires roughly the same 1D
geometrical schematization of the device. The above time
delay is indeed automatically captured in the 1D model and is
particularly important at high engine/turbocharger speeds,
and in a two-stage turbocharging system.
• Finally, the proposed model seems to have the potential in
describing surging operation, too: in these conditions, the
absence of steady map data simply implies the unfeasibility
of map-based simulations.
The integration of the experimental activity with the
numerical analysis presented in the paper represents a
methodology that can be helpful employed during the design
process for intake systems of internal combustion engines.
The good accuracy of the presented numerical results of
course implies that experimental work can be minimized and
cost saved in the end.
In the future, the introduction of proper loss correlation
holding for reverse flow conditions, will allow to employ the
presented model to describe local surging operation, too.
SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1
This content downloaded from
202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
REFERENCES
1. Stokes, J., Lake, T. and Osborne, R., “A Gasoline Engine
Concept for Improved Fuel Economy - The Lean Boost
System,” SAE Technical Paper 2000-01-2902, 2000, doi:
10.4271/2000-01-2902.
2. Leduc, P., Dubar, B., Ranini, A., and Monnier, G.,
“Downsizing of Gasoline Engines: an Efficient Way to
Reduce CO2 Emissions”, Oil and Gas Science and
technology - Rev. IFP, Vol. 58 (2003), No. 1, pp. 115-127.
3. Bandel, W., Fraidl, G., Kapus, P., Sikinger, H., “The
Turbocharged GDI Engine: Boosted Synergies for High Fuel
Economy Plus Ultra-low Emission,” SAE Technical Paper
2006-01-1266, 2006, doi:10.4271/2006-01-1266.
4. Petitjean, D., Bernardini, L., Middlemass, C., Shahed, S.,
“Advanced Gasoline Engine Turbocharging Technology for
Fuel Economy Improvements,” SAE Technical Paper
2004-01-0988, 2004, doi:10.4271/2004-01-0988.
5. Capobianco, M., Marelli, S., “Turbocharger Turbine
Performance Under Steady and Unsteady Flow: Test Bed
Analysis and Correlation Criteria”, 8th International
Conference on Turbochargers and Turbocharging, Instn.
Mech. Engrs., London, 2006.
6. Capobianco, M., Gambarotta, A. - “Variable geometry and
waste-gated automotive turbochargers: measurements and
comparison of turbine performance”, ASME Transactions,
Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and Power, vol. 114,
553-560, 1992.
7. Capobianco, M., Gambarotta, A., “Performance of a twin-
entry automotive turbocharger turbine”, ASME Energy-
Sources Technology Conference and Exhibition, paper 93-
ICE-2, Houston, 1993.
8. Capobianco, M., Marelli, S., “Waste-Gate Turbocharging
Control in Automotive SI Engines: Effect on Steady and
Unsteady Turbine Performance,” SAE Technical Paper
2007-01-3543, 2007, doi:10.4271/2007-01-3543.
9. Capobianco, M., Polidori, F., “Experimental Investigation
on Open Waste-Gate Behaviour of Automotive
Turbochargers,” SAE Technical Paper 2008-36-0052, doi:
10.4271/2008-36-0052.
10. Capobianco, M., Marelli, S., “Experimental Investigation
into the Pulsating Flow Performance of a Turbocharger
Turbine in the Closed and Open Waste-Gate Region”, 9th
International Conference on Turbochargers and
Turbocharging, London, 2010.
11. Bozza, F., Gimelli, A., Strazzullo, L., Torella, E.,
Cascone, C., “Steady-State and Transient Operation
Simulation of a ‘Downsized’ Turbocharged SI Engine,” SAE
Technical Paper 2007-01-0381, 2007, doi:
10.4271/2007-01-0381.
12. Martin, G., Talon, V., Higelin, P., Charlet, A., Caillol,
C., “Implementing Turbomachinery Physics into Data Map-
1381
Based Turbocharger Models,” SAE Technical Paper
2009-01-0310, 2009, doi:10.4271/2009-01-0310.
13. GT-Power, User's Manual and Tutorial, GT-SUITE™
Version 6.0, 2003, Gamma Techn.
14. Piscaglia, F., Onorati, A., Marelli, S., Capobianco, M.,
“Unsteady Behavior in Turbocharger Turbines: Experimental
Analysis and Numerical Simulation,” SAE Technical Paper
2007-24-0081, 2007, doi:10.4271/2007-24-0081.
15. Winkler, N., Angstrom, H-E., “Simulations and
Measurements of a Two-Stage Turbocharged Heavy-Duty
Diesel Engine including EGR in Transient Operation,” SAE
Technical Paper 2008-01-0539, 2008, doi:
10.4271/2008-01-0539.
16. Macek, J., Vitek, O., “Simulation of Pulsating Flow
Unsteady Operation of a Turbocharger Radial Turbine,” SAE
Technical Paper 2008-01-0295, 2008, doi:
10.4271/2008-01-0295.
17. Bozza, F., De Bellis, V., “Steady and Unsteady Modeling
of Turbocharger Compressors for Automotive Engines,” SAE
Technical Paper 2010-01-1536, doi:10.4271/2010-01-1536.
18. Leonard, O., Adam, O., “A Quasi-One Dimensional CFD
Model for Multistage Turbomachines”, Journal of Thermal
Science, vol. 17, No.1 (2008). Springer.
19. Harten, A., “On a Class of High Resolution Total
Variation Stable Finite Difference Schemes”, Journal of
Computational Physics, Vol. 21, 21-23, 1984.
20. Qiu, Xuwen, Mallikarachchi, Chanaka, and Anderson,
Mark “A New Slip Factor Model for Axial and Radial
Impellers”, ASME Paper GT2007-27064, 2007.
21. Traupel, W., “Die Theorie der Stroömung durch
Radialmaschinen”, Braun, Karlsruhe, 1962.
27. Capon, G., Morris, T., “The Effect of Air Inlet System
Features on Automotive Turbocharger Compressor
Performance”, 9th International Conference on
Turbochargers and Turbocharging, IMechE, May 2010,
London.
28. Yammine, A., Vidal, F., Chesse, P., Chalet, D., Perret,
L., Mohtar, H., “Etude de l'écoulement en amont d'un
turbocompresseur par mesures ADL”, Congrès Francophone
de Techniques Laser, CFTL 2008, Futuroscope, 16 - 19
septembre 2008.
29. Westin, F., Burenius, R., “Measurement of interstage
losses of a two-stage turbocharger system in a turbocharger
test rig”, SAE Paper 2010-01-1221, SAE 2010 World
Congress & Exhibition, April 2010.
AKNOWLEDGEMENTS
To AVL List Gmbh - Graz, Austria, for the financial support
given in the course of a cooperation with the DIME -
University of Naples.
NOMENCLATURE
a
Speed of sound
b
Vaneless diffuser thickness
C
Vector of the conservative variables for stationary
ducts

22. Dubitsky, O., Japikse, D., “Vaneless Diffuser Advanced

Model”, ASME Transaction, Journal of Turbomachinery, c
011020, Vol. 130, 2008. Absolute velocity

23. Gnielinski, V. “New equations for heat and mass transfer

in turbulent pipe and channel”, Int. Chemical engineering, D
1976. Vector of the conservative variables for vaneless
diffuser
24. Japikse, D., “Turbomachinery Performance Modeling,
Cliff Garrett Turbomachinery and Applications Engineering
Award,” SAE Technical Paper 2009-01-0307, 2009, doi: d
10.4271/2009-01-0307. Equivalent diameter
25. Japikse, D., “Advanced diffusion levels in turbocharger
compressors and component matching”. In IMechE E
Conference on Turbocharging and Turbochargers, 1982, Total energy per unit mass
paper C45/82, p. 143 (Mechanical Engineering Publications,
London).
F
26. AGARD-AR-332, “Recommended Practices for the Flux terms vector
Assessment of the Effects of Atmospheric Water Ingestion on
the Performance and Operability of Gas Turbines Engines”,
September 1995, ISBN 92-836-1022-9.

1382 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
f x
Friction coefficient Stationary duct abscissa

H Z
Total enthalpy per unit mass Number of impeller blades

k Greeks
Specific heat ratio α
Duct area variation term
L
meanline Length γ
Specific heats ratio
M
Mach number δ
Radius variation term along the meanline of the
n impeller duct
Engine Speed
ρ
p Density
Pressure, pressure difference
σ
q Slip factor
Rate of heat exchange

R Crank angle
Gas constant
Ω
r Area of a duct section
Radius
Subscripts
S 0
Vector of the source terms Total conditions, Compressor inlet

s 1
Impeller curvilinear abscissa Intake duct outlet, Inducer inlet

T 2
Temperature Impeller outlet, Diffuser inlet

u 3
Tangential blade velocity Diffuser outlet, Volute inlet

w 4
Relative velocity Volute outlet

W C
Vector of the conservative variables for rotating ducts Referred to stationary ducts

SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1 1383

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
D w
Referred to the vaneless diffuser Referred to the relative motion

ex Superscripts
Outlet ’
Effective flow condition (after slip)
in
Inlet
CONTACT
i Fabio Bozza (Full Professor), Vincenzo De Bellis (PhD
Impeller Student)
(DIME). Università di Napoli “Federico II”.
Via Claudio 21, 80125 Napoli (Italy).
loss
Tel. +39 081 7683274 - 3264
Referred to a generic loss mechanism
Fax: +39 081 2394165
fabio.bozza@unina.it
r vincenzo.debellis@unina.it
Radial velocity component, spatial derivative for
vaneless diffuser Massimo Capobianco (Full Professor), Silvia Marelli
(Research Assistant)
(DIMSET). Università di Genova.
ref
Via Montallegro 1, 16145 Genova (Italy).
Reference conditions
Tel. +39 010 3532466 - 2454
Fax: +39 010 3532566
s massimo.capobianco@unige.it
Spatial derivative for rotating ducts, Case silvia.marelli@unige.it

t
Temporal derivative

u
Tangential velocity component

x
Spatial derivative for stationary ducts

W
Referred to rotating ducts

1384 SAE Int. J. Engines | Volume 4 | Issue 1

This content downloaded from

202.3.77.169 on Thu, 26 Nov 2020 09:17:40 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms