Reading and Writing
aspects of a central idea, which could be a concept,
Reading – it is the process of looking at a series of
written symbols and getting meaning from them.
- it is a cognitive process of decoding symbols in order
to construct or derive meaning.
FOUR STEPS IN READING
Perception – recognizing printed symbols in the text.
Comprehension – processing and understanding the
text read with the help of schema or previous
knowledge.
Reaction – assessing and evaluating of text that you
have read.
Assimilation – connecting the new ideas learned to the
previous ideas or experiences.
Connected Speech or Connected Discourse- a spoken
language in a continuous sequence, as in normal
conversation.
- speech syllables are clipped, phrases are run together,
and words are stressed differently than they would be in
writing.
Deletion of Sounds in Connected Speech
Example:
“want to” become “wanna”
“going to” can become “gonna”
TECHNIQUES IN SELECTING AND
ORGANIZING INFORMATION
Brainstorming – one of the most popular methods in
discovering your writing topic.
Two Methods of Brainstorming:
Idea Listing – it involves writing the main topics and
listing down related ideas.
Idea Map – it is a visual representation of ideas and
their connection with one another.
Graphic Organizer – it is a visual display that
demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts, or
ideas.
TYPES OF GRAPHIC ORGANIZERS
Venn Diagram – compare and contrast ideas and events.
Network Tree – represent hierarchy, classification, and
branching.
Spider Web – used to investigate and enumerate various
topic, or theme.
Timeline – it is used to show how events occurred
chronologically labeled with date and specific events.
Plot Diagram – it is used to map events in the story.
Fishbone Map – its is used to better understand the
cause-and-effect relationship of a complex phenomenon.
Outline – a summary that gives the essential feature of a
text.
KINDS OF OUTLINE ACCORDING TO
STRUCTURE
Topic Outline – arrange ideas hierarchically in the
sequence you want, and shows what you will talk about.
Sentence Outline – it uses complete sentence as its
entries.
PATTERNS OF DEVELOPMENT
Narration – it describes how, when, and where the
event or occurrence actually happened.
- it has to have a vivid description of details, consistent
point of view, and a well-defined point of significance.
- it has to show what happened in the order that it
happened.
Description – it emphasizes a reader’s ability to paint
vivid pictures using words on a reader’s mind; it appeals
to a reader’s senses.
Definition – explains a concept, term, or subject; its
main purpose is to tell what something is.
Classification – divides things into groups, classes, or
categories. It organizes ideas into divisions based on the
criteria or standards.
Exemplification – “the giving of an example”; it
provides examples and illustrations in order to further
clarify or explain the concept or subject matter.
Comparison and Contrast – tells how things are
similar and different.
Point-by-Point-Arrangement – discussing each point
for both subjects before giving on the next point.
Block method – presenting all of the facts and
supporting details about one topic.
Cause-and-Effect – a paragraph developed by a casual
analysis must not only raise the question why, but also
give answers to the satisfaction of the reader.
Problem-Solution – it is method for analyzing and
writing about a topic by identifying a problem and
proposing one or more solutions.
Persuasion – seek to urge readers to take a particular
action.
- the main goal of persuasive essay is to convince the
reader to agree to the writer’s opinion or at the very
least, take it into serious consideration.
PROPERTIES OF A WELL-WRITTEN TEXT
I. ORGANIZATION
Organization – it refers to a clear statement of purpose,
position, facts, examples, specific details, definitions,
explanation, justifications, or opposing viewpoints.
WAYS OF ORDERING IDEAS
Sequential Order – the details are arranged in the order
in which they happened. (first, second, third, initially,
primarily, following, preceding, etc.)
Spatial Order – the sentences of a paragraph are
arranged according to geographical location, such as
left-to-right, up-to-down. (above, below, under, behind,
beside, beyond, alongside, etc.)
Complexity Order – logical order from simple to
complex, inductive to deductive, cause and effect, and
problem and solution to help the writers explain their
ideas.
Listing Order – the ordering of ideas follows the
alphabet.
II. COHERENCE AND COHESION
Coherence – the ideas are arranged in a logical manner,
making it easily understood by the readers.
Cohesion – the connection ideas at a sentence level It
refers to the “grammatical” aspects of writing.
WAYS TO ACHIEVE COHERENCE AND
COHESION
Transition Words – words that connect one idea to
another in order for the ideas to flow smoothly.
Pronouns – these are words that connect readers to the
original words that the pronouns replace.
Repetition – third method to achieve coherence. It could
be a word, phrase, or a full sentence, or a poetical line
repeated to emphasize its significance in the entire text.
Example: If you think you can do it, you can do it.
Synonym – to achieve coherence the use of similar
words in meaning to important words or phrases prevent
tedious repetitions.
III. LANGUAGE USE
Language Use – one of the clearest indicators of a well-
written text. It enables the writer to effectively
communicate ideas without confusing the reader.
Register or Style – have three dimensions: field, tenor,
and mode.
Field – business/technical; refers to jargons of
specific disciplines like scientific terms and special
expressions.
Tenor – standard/academic; these are widely accepted
words and phrases found in dictionaries, books, etc.
Mode – medium of communication whether it’s
spoken or written.
Denotative – words that normally have literal meaning
or definition from the dictionary.
Denotation: A rose is a beautiful and fragrant flower
with thorns.
Connotative – words that have deeper meaning when
used in text.
Connotation: A red rose means passion and true love.
IV. MECHANICS
Mechanics – technical aspects of writing should not be
overlooked when writing. These are set of conventions
on how to spell, abbreviate, punctuate, and capitalize a
composition.
Assertion - its purpose is to express ideas or feelings
directly.
- it is a stylistic approach or technique involving a strong
declaration, a forceful or confident and positive
statement regarding a belief or a fact.
- it is an honest and appropriate expression of one’s
feelings, opinions, and needs.
- a way to convince a critical reader to accept the
writer’s claim is to formulate assertions.
FOUR COMMON TYPES OF ASSERTION
Statement of Fact - this is a statement that can be
proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies,
verified observations or result from studies.
Example: The sampaguita’s roots are used for medical
purpose, such as an anesthetic and a sedative.
Statement of Convention - depends on historical
precedent, laws, rules, usage, and customs.
Example: The rose belongs to the genius Rose of the
family Rosaceae.
Statement of Opinion - is is based on facts, but is
difficult to objectively verify because of the uncertainty
of producing satisfactory proofs.
Example: The export of cut rose can easily become one
of the most lucrative business in the Philippines.
Statement of Preference - it is based on personal
choice; therefore, it’s subjective and cannot be
objectively proven or logically attacked.
Example: Roses are more beautiful, smell sweeter and
are easier to grow than any other flower.
Critical Reader - should determine the author’s
purpose\, author’s viewpoint/tone, and the presence or
absence of logical fallacies.
THE PROCESS OF CRITICAL READING
 Studying the structure of the text.
 The language used by the author.
 Making meaning of the various aspects of the text.
Academic Writing - is a type of writing produced by
students in an academic setting.
- it is impersonal (usually uses the third person point-of-
view and does not have a direct reference to person and
feelings) and formal (strictly adheres to formal English
and avoids word contractions).
Thesis Statement - it is a statement that summarizes
your topic and declares your position on it.
- it explain to a reader the main idea of the essay, and the
writer’s opinion on that idea.
Position Paper - is a type of academic writing that
presents one’s stand or viewpoint on a particular issue.
- its main objective is to take part in a larger debate by
stating your arguments and proposed course of action.
Professional Writing - is any type of written
communication done specifically in a professional
context.
Business Letter - serves several purposes: for sale
efforts, for complaints, for information dissemination,
for relationship building, for problem-solving, and etc.
PARTS OF BUSINESS LETTER
Letterhead - identifies the writer, her/his address, and
contact number.
Date - it is placed between the letterhead and the inside
address.
Inside Address - identifies the reader’s name, position
and company, and address; and is placed immediate
below the date.
Salutation - refers to the writer’s greeting to the reader.
Body - contains the message of the letter. Paragraphs are
single-spaced internally but double-spaced to separate
paragraphs. If the letter is too short, the body can be
double-spaced and triple-spaced from separate
paragraphs.
Complimentary Close - refers to the expression used to
end a letter.
Signature Block - includes the signature and the typed
name of the sender. The typed name can be in all caps or
CLC format.
Identification Initials - indicates the typist’s initials if
the sender is not the one who personally typed the
document.
Enclosure notation - are the attachments to the letter.
Copy Notation - indicates the name of the secondary
recipients of the letter. It is indicated by cc: which means
carbon copy or courtesy copies.
Memorandum or Memo - comes from the Latin word
memorare which means “to remember”.
- it is meant to inform as well as to pursuade people
within an organization.
- it follows an inverted pyramid structure which means
that the most important information comes first.
FIVE TYPES OF MEMORANDUM
Instruction Memo - provides the information needed by
the readers to accurately perform directions.
Request Memo - asks readers to provide certain
information or take certain actions.
Announcement Memo - provides information about an
event, person, or thing.
Transmittal Memo - serves as a cover for a more
formal or lengthy document. An example is when the
sender is transmitting an annual report to BOD.
Authorization Memo - gives permission. An example
of this memo is when an employee is allowed to have a
different schedule so she may study on Saturdays.